Nurture Young Talent

Nurture YoungTalent

Nurture Young Talent

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Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia

CONTENT

Chapter 1

Analysis of Steel Slag as the Replacement of Natural Aggregates

on the Road Base Siti Nur Hidayah Mohd Dollah, Muhamad Razuhanafi Mat Yazid &

Ahmad Yusri Mohamad

1

Chapter 2

Entry Location Strategy: Development of Entry Location Model

(ELAC) for Malaysian Construction Firms in International

Markets

Norizzati Ibrahim, Che Maznah Mat Isa, Christopher Nigel Preece, Nur

Kamaliah Mustaffa & Nur Izzati Abd Rani

8

Chapter 3

Modelling Urban Crime Pattern, Factors and Evaluate

Effectiveness Policing Policy using GIS

Hasranizam Hashim, Wan Mohd Naim Wan Mohd, Eran Sadek Said Md

Sadek & Khoiri Mohd Dimyati

17

Chapter 4

Elliptic Net Scalar Multiplication upon Koblitz and Twisted

Edward Curves

Norliana Muslim & Mohamad Rushdan Md Said

23

Chapter 5

Integrative Approach of Waqf Properties Development for a

Sustainable Socio-Economic Performance

Siti Sara Binti Ibrahim, Abd Halim Mohd Noor & Shafinar Ismail

31

Chapter 6

Acute Effects of High-Intensity Exercise on Energy Intake and

Appetite Suppression in Obese Males

Fatin S. Zaini, Safwanudin A. Nordin, Alif N. Jumat & S.M.P. Sharifah

Maimunah

37

Chapter 7

Millennials and Z Generations Talent at the Workplace Interest

Rogis Baker, Hasimi Sallehuddin, Hasan Al-Banna Mohamed, Hazril

Izwar Ibrahim, Ahmad Azan Ridzuan & Norlaila Mazura Mohaiyadin

40

Chapter 8

Beliefs and Subjective Values in Nurturing Young Ten-Pin

Bowlers

Ting Pei Yi, Chin Ngien Siong & Garry Kuan

48

Chapter 9

Elements of Military Minds Towards Nurturing Young Soldiers’

Patriotism Ahmad Azan Ridzuan, Jessica Ong Hai Liaw, Norlaila Mazura

Mohaiyadin, Noor Azmi Mohd Zainol & Rogis Baker

57

Chapter 10

Gender, Personality and Learning Styles of Selected Primary

School Students in Puchong

Nur Fadhlina Zainal Abedin, Tuan Sarifah Aini Syed Ahmad & Siti Sara

Ibrahim

66


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Chapter 1

Analysis of Steel Slag as the Replacement of

Natural Aggregates on the Road Base

Siti Nur Hidayah Mohd Dollah, Muhamad Razuhanafi Mat Yazid

& Ahmad Yusri Mohamad

Civil Engineering Programme, Faculty of Engineering Built and Environment,

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

[email protected]

ABSTRACT Recyclable materials have been widely used as substitutes or additives in the pavement and the construction of the road base layers. In this study, recycled materials used are steel slag. The main objective of this study is to analyze the use of steel slag as the replacement of natural aggregates for the road base which this study focusing on identifying the physical and mechanical properties of steel slag. Steel slag is used as course aggregate with percentage of aggregate materials used are 30%, 40%, 50%, 70% and 100%. Some laboratory tests are carried out such as specific gravity and water absorption test, sand equivalent test, magnesium sulphate soundness test, and Los Angeles (LA) abrasion test, and aggregate crushing value (ACV) test. Based on the results of the experimental, it was found that the percentage of steel slag as the replacement of natural aggregates for the road base that meet all the requirement of AASHTO, ASTM and JKR/SPJ/2005 is 70% where it mix with 30% of natural aggregates. As conclusion, the use of steel slag for the road base could preserve the natural resources and thus save the environment. Key Words: road base, aggregate, cathode ray tube glass, steel slag.

1. INTRODUCTION The quantity of disposing waste material is increasing in road construction and thus, effective implementation and management are needed for recycle waste materials or recycling as a substance that provides good value (Hainin et al. 2014). Factors such as environment, economic, technical and deficiency of proper construction material have diverted the attention of experts towards the industrial waste materials (Aziz et al. 2014; Hainin et al. 2015). The use of alternative or recyclable materials could preserve the natural resources, save the environment and ecological systems from being disturbed (Hainin et al. 2012). Using recycled material is a high priority in pavement industry not only for reducing the construction cost but also for minimizing the environmental of road construction (Moon, Falchetto, Marasteanu, & Turos, 2013). In this study, the recycled materials used are steel slag.

Steel slag is a byproduct obtained from steel industry which is generated as a residue during the production of steel (Hainin et al. 2012, 2014, 2015; Aziz et al. 2014). Most of the

mailto:[email protected]


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developed countries have successfully incorporating steel slag as an aggregate in hot mix asphalt, road base, sub-base and soil stabilization in road works (Hainin et al. 2012). In 1998, up to 97% of the total generated steel slag has been used in different ways for the construction of high trafficked roads by Germany (Motz & Geiseler, 2001), while China in 2010 has recorded the annual output of steel and steel slag which is reached to 626.7 million tons and 90 million tons respectively (Yi et al. 2012).

Successful studies have revealed that the physical and mechanical properties of steel slag are equal or better than the conventional aggregates (Moon et al. 2013). Based on high frictional and abrasion resistance, steel slag is used widely in industrial roads, intersections and parking areas where high wear resistance is required. Steel slag has been widely used in road construction because it has high density and hardness (Hainin et al. 2014), and it was selected due to its characteristics which are almost similar to those of conventional aggregates (Hainin et al. 2012).

2. METHODOLOGY Steel slag aggregates were obtained from Lion Titco Resources Sdn. Bhd, which is located at Banting, Selangor. The particles sizes are from 0 mm to 20.0 mm. The natural aggregate which is the gravel were obtained from the laboratory itself. Figure 1 shows the steel slag aggregate with particle size retained at 12.5 mm. Steel slag has rough surface texture which is same as the gravel.

Figure 1: Steel slag

The experimental work involved testing both steel-slag aggregates with

conventional aggregates. All the parameters were obtained from tests performed at the Transportation Laboratory and Concrete Laboratory, Civil Engineering Programme, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. All the specifications were referred to the Malaysian Standard (JKR/SPJ/2005), and the procedures of the experiments follow American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and British Standard (BS). Table 1 shows the list of experimental and specifications used in this study. The physical and mechanical properties of steel aggregates are then compared with the Malaysian Standard which is JKR/SPJ/2005. There are 25 samples that were prepared for the overall laboratory test. The percentage of steel slag aggregates used for the replacement of the natural aggregates are shown in the Table 2. Control sample is prepared for the purpose of comparison and analysis.


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Table 1 List of Experimental and Specifications

Testing Procedures Specification JKR/SPJ/2005

Physical Properties

Specific gravity ASTM C 127-88 -

Absorption ASTM C 127-88 < 2 %

Sand equivalent ASTM D 2419 > 45 %

Mechanical properties

Soundness ASTM C 88 < 18 %

Aggregate crushing value BS 812:110 < 30 %

Los Angeles abrasion value ASTM C 131 < 25 %

Table 2 Percentage Mass for Sample Preparation

Sample Percentage of aggregates (%)

Natural Aggregates Steel Slag

A1 (Control) 100 - A2 70 30 A3 60 40 A4 50 50 A5 30 70 A6 - 100

Steel slag has been successfully used for the replacement of natural aggregates with

the 70% steel slag is used as the substitution aggregates. A comparison of the result has shown that the steel slag can be used in bases and structural fills where very high stabilities are obtained. The physical and mechanical properties of steel slag in this study productively meet the requirements of a high class material. As compare to natural aggregate, it provides ideal durability, stability, resistance against abrasion and soundness. Some of the physical properties such as the specific weight, absorption, and sand equivalent for all aggregate types used in this study are shown in Table 3.

Specific gravity and water absorption is measured using ASTM C 127-88. The particle density of steel slag aggregate compared to natural aggregate (gravel) is denser and heavier material by approximately 20%. This may be an economic disadvantage, but it is not considered as it provides more advantages like high strength and durability. Its heavy weight also provides a high resistance to lateral movement on curves and washout protection in area subjects to flooding. Steel slag typically has higher water absorption than gravel. High values of absorption indicate of non-durable aggregates (Hainin et al. 2014, 2015).

The sand equivalent test is measured using ASTM D 2419. This test separates out a fine aggregate sample’s sand and plastic fines and dust portion to determine the content of the latter. Lower sand equivalent values indicate higher plastic fines and dust content.

In the soundness test, it is measured using ASTM C 88. Steel slag is highly resistant to change by wetting and drying, freezing and thawing, extreme changes in temperature and chemical attract (Hainin et al. 2014). Slag weathering in atmospheric conditions is considered to be the one of the most appropriate methods of eliminating this adverse property. The weathering period varies depending on the application method and the type of slag itself. Therefore, it sometimes takes only several months of weathering in atmospheric conditions or occasional sprinkling with water (Barišić, Dimter, & Netinger, 2010).


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The toughness results of steel slag were obtained from the LA abrasion test which is measured by ASTM C 131. High abrasion resistance can results the steel slag to be used not only in surface layers of the pavement but also in unbound bases and subbases, especially in asphaltic surface layers (Yi et al. 2012). Lower numbers of LA abrasion indicates greater toughness and abrasion resistance.

On the other hand, the aggregate crushing value (ACV) test is measured by BS 812:110. This test were performed to determine the crushing value of the coarse aggregate and to assess suitability of coarse aggregates for use in different types of road. The ACV results were all within JKR specifications. These indicated that the material possess sufficient strength for utilization as road construction aggregates (Teoh, 2008).

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Engineering properties influence the level of performance and suitability of the material being used for road construction (Ling, Nor, & Hainin, 2009). Road are subjected to static and dynamic forces, including the harsh environment like rain, temperature, freezing and thawing (Hainin et al. 2015). The properties of steel slag is shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Properties of Steel Slag Used in This Study

Property

Results

Natural Aggregates Steel Slag

Specific Gravity (ASTM C 127-88) 2.68 2.95

Absorption (ASTM C 127-88), % 0.49 1.80 Sand equivalent (ASTM D 2419), % 68.9 61.3 Magnesium Sulphate Soundness (ASTM C 88), % 0.08 0.02

3.1. Specific Gravity Steel slag contains sufficient amount of iron oxide, therefore it has greater value of specific gravity as compare to the natural aggregates. It is found that the specific gravity for steel slag in this study is higher than the gravel which is 2.95 and 2.68 respectively. Researchers have evaluated the specific gravity of other construction materials and that of steel slag has fall within the range of 3 to 4 (Cooley, Prowell, & Hainin, 2009). Steel slag is about 20% heavier than the lime stone and granite. This may be an economic disadvantage, but is not considered as it provides more advantages like high strength and durability (Hainin et al. 2014). The high specific gravity and the proper interlocking due to angularity of steel slag result better stability and resistance against rutting as well (Hainin et al. 2015).

3.2. Water Absorption Absorption is a measure of the amount of water that an aggregate can absorb into its pore structure. Pores that absorb water are also referred to as “water permeable voids”. The absorption of steel slag is also much higher than the gravel. Average absorption for natural aggregate and steel slag are 0.49% and 1.80%, respectively. High values of absorption indicate of non-durable aggregates.

3.3. Sand Equivalent Sand equivalent quantifies the relative abundance of sand versus clay in soil. This test method provides a rapid field method for determining changes in the quality of aggregates during production or placement. A minimum sand equivalent value may be specified to limit the permissible quantity of claylike or clay size fines in an aggregate. It is reported that the sand equivalent for gravel and steel slag are 69% and 61% respectively. All samples had


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high percentage value, which were above the minimum threshold specified by JKR/SPJ/2005 specifications’ requirements. 3.4. Soundness The soundness test determines the aggregate’s resistance to disintegration under the action of repeated wetting and drying using a saturated solution of magnesium sulphate. Table 3 indicates that steel slag had the lowest soundness value of 0.02%, while gravel aggregates had the highest one of 0.08%. 3.5. Los Angeles Abrasion Value Test Los Angeles (LA) Abrasion Value is a measure of degradation of mineral aggregates of standard gradings resulting from a combination of actions including abrasion or attrition, impact, and grinding in a rotating steel drum containing a specifies number of steel spheres. This test will determine the quality of the aggregate. Some aggregates such as steel slag tend to have high LA abrasion loss but perform adequately in the field. In this study, two grades of aggregates are used: Grade B (passing = 12.5 mm ; retained = 9.5 mm) and Grade C (passing = 9.5 mm ; retained = 4.75 mm). Figure 2 shows the results of LA abrasion value. For sample with 100% natural aggregates (Sample Code: A1), it does not meet the specifications of less than 25% where the LA abrasion for A1 for Grade B and Grade C are 40.7% and 37.56%, respectively. For 100% of steel slag used (Sample Code: A6), the LA abrasion for Grade B and Grade C are 23.25% and 21.1%, respectively. For the replacement of natural aggregates with steel slag, it was found that the sample with 30% of gravel and 70% of steel slag (Sample Code: A5) has meet the specifications needed where LA abrasion value for Grade B and Grade C are 24.9% and 22.12%, respectively. These results are acceptable. Lower the LA abrasion value, the resistant of the aggregate becomes stronger.

Figure 2: Result of LA Abrasion Value

3.6. Aggregate Crushing Value Aggregate crushing value (ACV) are carried out to determine the crushing value of the coarse aggregate and to assess suitability of coarse aggregates for use in different types of road. The ratio of weight of fines formed to the weight of total sample in each test shall be expressed as a percentage. Results have shown that the A5 sample has the highest ACV which is 8.15% compared to the other samples: A1, A6 and the other mixes of gravel and steel slag (A2, A3 and A4). Even though A5 has the highest ACV, it still met the requirements of JKR/SPJ/2005 which is below than 30%. The higher the ACV, the greater the crushability of the aggregates.


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Figure 3: Aggregate Crushing Value

4. CONCLUSION

The main objective of this study was to identify the physical and mechanical properties of steel slag as the replacement of the natural aggregates for the road base. From the test results, the following conclusions are drawn: i. In terms of specific gravity, the steel slag has higher value than the conventional

aggregates which results the better stability and resistance against rutting as well. ii. For absorption, steel slag has much higher value than the natural aggregates where it

indicates of non-durable aggregates. iii. Less crushing value and good LA abrasion are obtained from using steel slag in

flexible pavement. iv. Economically, the steel slag may be cheaper if utilized in road construction due to the

transportation charges. The results of this study suggest that the replacement of natural aggregates with 70%

of steel slag and 30% of granite in road base can preserve the natural resources, save the environment and ecological systems from being disturbed. It also can reduce the amount of granite application in road construction. There must be a guideline or specification for steel slag to be followed, for the different proportions of steel slag blended with natural aggregates to obtain and adequate mix design. Literature showed that steel slag has enough potential and can be utilized in road base. However, very little research has been performed in this area. With its excellent results in terms of the high resistance abrasion and weathering, good crushing value, it is recommended that steel slag be used as an aggregate replacement for sustainable development in road construction.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The support provided by Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) under Research University (RU) Grant KRA-2018-059 for this study is very much appreciated.


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REFERENCES Aziz, M. M. A., Hainin, M. R., Yaacob, H., Ali, Z., Chang, F.-L., & Adnan, A. M.

(2014). Characterisation and utilisation of steel slag for the construction of roads and highways. Materials Research Innovations, 18(6), 255-259. doi:10.1179/1432891714z.00000000096

Barišić, I., Dimter, S. & Netinger, I. (2010). Possibilities of application of slag in road construction. Tehnički vijesnik-Technical Gazette, 17. 523.

Cooley, J. L., Prowell, B., & Hainin, M. R. (2003). Comparison of the saturated surface-dry and vacuum scaling methods for determining the bulk specific gravity of compacted HMA. Asphalt Paving Technology: Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists-Proceedings of the Technical Sessions, 72: 56–96.

Hainin, M. R., A. Aziz, M. M., Ali, Z., Putra Jaya, R., El-Sergany, M. M., & Yaacob, H. (2015). Steel Slag as A Road Construction Material. Jurnal Teknologi, 73(4).doi:10.11113/jt.v73.4282

Hainin, M. R., Aziz, M. M. A., Shokri, M., Jaya, R. P., Hassan, N. A., & Ahsan, A. (2014). Performance of steel slag in highway surface course. Jurnal Teknologi 71(3): 99-102

Hainin, M. R., Yusoff, N. I. M., Mohammad Sabri, M. F., Aziz, M. M. A., Hameed, M. A. S., & Reshi, F. W. (2012). Steel slag as an aggregate replacement in Malaysian hot mix asphalt. ISRN Civil Engineering, 1–5.doi:10.5402/2012/459016

Ling, T.-C., Nor, H. M., & Hainin, M. R. (2009). Properties of Crumb Rubber Concrete Paving Blocks with SBR Latex. Road Materials and Pavement Design, 10(1), 213–222.

doi:10.1080/14680629.2009.9690188 Moon, K. H., Falchetto, A. C., Marasteanu, M., & Turos, M. (2013). Using recycled asphalt materials

as an alternative material source in asphalt pavements. KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, 18(1), 149–159.doi:10.1007/s12205-014-0211-1

Motz, H., & Geiseler, J. (2001). Products of steel slags an opportunity to save natural resources. Waste Management, 21(3), 285–293. doi:10.1016/s0956-053x(00)00102-1

Teoh, C. Y. (2008). Performance Evaluation Of Steel Slag As Natural Aggregates Replacement In Asphaltic Concrete [TA445.5. T314 2008 f rb].

Yi, H., Xu, G., Cheng, H., Wang, J., Wan, Y., & Chen, H. (2012). An Overview of Utilization of Steel Slag. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 16, 791–801.doi:10.1016/j.proenv.2012.10.108


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Chapter 2

Entry Location Strategy: Development of Entry

Location Model (ELAC) for Malaysian Construction Firms in International Markets

Norizzati Ibrahim1, Che Maznah Mat Isa1, Christopher Nigel Preece2,

Nur Kamaliah Mustaffa1 & Nur Izzati Abd Rani1

1Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA Pasir Gudang 2College of Engineering and Computer Science, Abu Dhabi University

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The construction industry plays a major and important role in transforming the Malaysian construction industry to the international level apart from the domestic level. The construction industry in Malaysia consists of over 8,000 companies registered under Grade 7 with CIDB but, only a few numbers of firms which is about 59 firms (0.74%) have been involved in international market. In reality, entry location decision involves complex factors that are needed to be considered by these firms prior to their international operations. Hence, this paper focuses on a preliminary study to develop an entry location strategies namely Entry Location Assessment Criteria (ELAC) based on Malaysian construction firms sustained in international markets. Based on a secondary data provided by Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB, 2019) Malaysia, presently there are twelve (12) firms that are currently operating in international markets. In this study, a set of dimensions of ELAC were identified and established using a Five-point Likert scale. Hence, based on the ELAC scores, three (3) firms were ranked as the top construction firms that have sustained in their international operations in various locations. The findings indicate that the top three (3) firms which scored more 50% are: (1) Sapura Energy Berhad (66%), (2) Gamuda Berhad (53%) and Sime Darby Berhad (50%). The results found that the top 3 higher ranking firms run their project in both Asean and non-Asean countries. These firms have made entry location decisions to developing countries, least developed countries, newly industrialised countries, developed countries and highly developed countries. This study benefits the Government’s intention to enhance “Capacity Building' of construction players on their level of preparedness due to the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPPA). This assessment model is also useful especially for construction firms who are just beginning to explore foreign business opportunities or for global players who are expanding geographically to new markets. Key Words: assessment criteria, construction firms, entry location, international markets



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1. BACKGROUND OF STUDY Over the years, Malaysia has attracted a good deal of well-known worldwide companies from oversea like from Korea, Japan, United States, Australia and others (Aishah, Hamdan and Adnan,2008). According to Schwab (2015), Malaysia among the world’s top 20 most competitive economies and is ranked the highest among developing countries in Asia. However, in construction industry situation reveal that moves towards international marketplace face a higher risk than the local markets. Furthermore, according to Bris (2018), Malaysia’s performance shows a recovery sign in 2018, at 22nd position among other countries after experiencing 3 years of consecutive declines (year 2017, 2016 and 2015). Therefore, understanding the foreign market entry strategy is critical to achieve sustainable business growth in foreign country.

International construction is generally defined as where a firm, resident in one country, executes construction work in another country, and has traditionally implied companies from least developed countries and advanced industrialised company. However, globalisation defined as an ongoing process, which generates new ideas, practices, competition, values, identities and movement (Gunnarson, 2011). According to Mat Isa, Mustaffa, Mohd Saman, Mohd Nasir and Che Ibrahim (2012), globalization has provided an enormous opportunities and demand of development worldwide such as the charting the strategic and future planning of the Malaysian construction industry; and Construction Industry Transformation Programme (CITP 2016-2020). However, this efforts made by the industry to increase the involvement of local contractors to foreign market have been futile. In the primary stage of the current study, according to CIDB (2019), Malaysia statistical record indicates that out of 8023, Grade 7 construction firms, only 59 (0.74%) firms have been involved in international market. That amount was reducing about 1.5% compare to data recorded in 2013 (Mat Isa, 2016). Therefore, the purpose of this research is to identify the market selection and entry-location strategies by firms in international markets. This paper is organized by four sections. The first section presents a conceptual framework and discussion of market selection and market entry literature. The second section reports the method used. The third section discusses the general findings of the market selection based on ELAC assessment. The final section provides a general discussion of the research findings and limitations.

Figure 1.0: Total of International Construction Project by Malaysian Contractor (CIDB,2019)


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2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 International Market Entry Decision The issue of international market entry decisions by construction firms is of on-going concern in construction industry as a response to the political, environment, financial, and economic concerns (Preece, Mat Isa, Mohd Saman, & Che Ibrahim (2016); Abdul Rashid, Awil, and Yi (2006); Mat Isa, Adnan & Endut (2006); Loo & Abdul Rahman (2012); Low, Abdul-Rahman, & Zakaria (2015) although this issue has been attracting the attention of practitioners and researchers since the 1990s (Abdul-Aziz, 1993; Agarwal & Ramaswami, 1992). As this study only focus on entry-location decision strategy, several questions of interest to both researchers and practitioners will be increasingly asked including: “What are the factors that influence the firm’s decision in choosing the location?’’ and “Where the markets with potential are?”

2.2 Country Classification This study is different from previous study, where the studied conducted through descriptive analysis by Chen (2005) and Lim, Oo and Ling (2010) by categorising the firms’ countries choices into ASEAN region, non-ASEAN region and both regions and Tiong & Yeo (1993) classify the ASEAN countries into rapidly developing countries. However, the data obtained in this study by classifying the firms’ decision factor in international business locations according to developing countries, least developed country, newly industrialised countries, developed countries and highly developed countries as tabulated in Table 1.

Table 1: Country classification

Country classification Type of Scale

Developing country, least developed country,

newly industrialized country, developed country

and highly developed country

Categorical:

1=Developing Country (Wn)

2= Least Developed Country (Wl)

3= Newly Industrialized country (Wy)

4= Developed Country (Wd)

5= Highly Developed Country (Wh)

2.2.1 Developing Country Developing countries are often classified as those with a low living standard, an under-

developed industrial base, and a low Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other

countries with more advanced economies (Kuepper, 2018). A developing country is

generally based on that country’s annual per capita income (Brambila et.al., 2017).

According to the World Bank (2019), for the current 2019 fiscal year, the developing

country’s annual per capita income can range from low-income economies as those with a

GNI per capita, calculated using the World Bank Atlas method, of US$995 or less in 2017;

lower middle-income economies are those with a GNI per capita between US$996 and

US$3,895; upper middle-income economies are those with a GNI per capita between

US$3,896 and US$12,055; high-income economies are those with a GNI per capita of

$12,056 or more. List of developing countries are Afghanistan, Benin, Burkina Faso,

Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, Dem. Rep Eritrea, Ethiopia,

Gambia, The Guinea, Guinea-Bisau, Haiti, Korea, Dem Rep. Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi,

Mali, Mozambique, Nepal, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan,

Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Angola, Armenia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Bolivia, Cabo

Verde, Cambodia, Cameroon, Congo, Rep.Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt, Arab Rep.,El

Salvador, Yemen, Rep. Zambia, Vanuatu, Vietnam, Uzbekistan, Georgia, Ghana,

https://www.thebalance.com/what-is-a-developing-country-1978982

https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/378832-what-is-the-world-bank-atlas-method


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Guatemala, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Kiribati, Kosovo, Kyrgyz Republic, Lao

PDR, Lesotho, Mauritania, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New, Ukraine, Sudan, Swaziland,

Syrian Arab Republic, Tajikistan, Timor-Leste, Tunisia, Micronesia, Fed. Sts., Moldova,

Mongolia, Morocco, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Guinea, Philippines, São Tomé and Principe ,

Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, West Bank and Gaza (Materials Research Society, 2019).

2.2.2 Least Developed Country

According to Department of Social Economic and Social Affairs (2019), least developed countries (LDCs) define as a low-income countries confronting severe structural impediments to sustainable development. There are currently 47 countries on the list of LDCs including Afghanistan, Angola, Mauritania, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Niger, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Timor-Leste, Malawi, Bangladesh, Benin, Bhutan, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Chad, Togo, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Republic of Tanzania, Vanuatu5, Yemen, Zambia, Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Kiribati, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Lesotho, Liberia and Madagascar which is reviewed every three years by the Committee for Development (CDP). 2.2.3 Newly Industrialised Countries

Newly industrialized countries(NICs) is an economic classification that can define this group of countries, which are still developing but are closer to achieving the goal to be stronger developed market country. This includes technology enterprises, manufacturing, and other industries that bolster the economic activity of the region. The countries falling under this categorization are characterized by rapid export-driven economic growth and a secular migration of workers from rural to urban areas. Countries that are classified as NICs have rapid export-driven economic growth and a migration of workers from rural areas to urbanized regions. There are a several nations that are currently categorized as NICs such as Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, Philippines, South Africa, Thailand and Turkey (World Population Review, 2019). According to Kuepper (2018), newly industrialized countries or NICs are important markets for international investors. 2.2.4 Developed Countries According to Cheprasov (2019), Developed countries are characterized by comparatively high standards of living as their economies tend to be more stable and prosperous than developing nations, which, in comparison, have less industrialization, higher population growth, and higher unemployment. Many developed nations are also known for a lot of technological innovation. Investopedia (2016) stated that even the country exceeding the $12,000 GDP does not automatically qualify a country as being developed. There are seven (7) countries classified under developed country such as Brazil, Chile, Greece, The Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and Taiwan. 2.2.5 Highly Developed Countries In this study, highly developed countries (HDC) define as the world's leading industrialized nations. HDC consists of the seven biggest developed economies in the world including Canada, Japan, France, Germany, Italy, United Kingdom and United States (DPAD 2014). France is a developed country and has one of the world's largest economies (Investopedia, 2016). While at US$39,678, its GDP per capita is a bit lower than other European nations such as Germany and Switzerland. Italy is a developed nation with extensive infrastructure,

https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/least-developed-country-category/ldcs-at-a-glance.html

https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/publication/ldc_list.pdf

https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/wp-content/uploads/sites/45/publication/ldc_list.pdf

https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/about-us/secretariat-of-the-committee-for-development-policy.html


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a rich cultural history and control over several exports. Italy has the eighth-highest nominal gross domestic product (GDP) in the world at US$1.16 trillion; its per capital GDP stands at US$35,896. Italy's manufacturing industry is very well-developed, and it is ranked sixth in the world. 2.3 Development of Entry Location Assessment Criteria Model Entry location decision integration involves choosing the right location to enter international markets. There is a need for an effective entry location decision practice over the lifecycle of construction firm strategic planning to enhance the continuity of the entry location decision towards organizational performance. However, only a few studies focused on developing a systematic framework to measure entry location decision. In response to this need, an assessment model for measuring entry location decision integration will be developed. In addition, past efforts have only focused on subjective assessment with little empirical evidence of assessing entry location decision integration. The dimension used in this study is types of country. Five (5) different measures have been identified from previous models, based on types of country namely: developing country (Wn), least developed country (Wl), newly industrialized country (Wy), developed country (Wd) and highly developed country (Wh). As a result, Entry Location Assessment Criteria (ELAC) has been developed based on identified measurement.

3. METHODOLOGY Previous study shows there have been many articles published on international entry decision strategies, which makes reviewing all of the empirical studies very difficult work. Owing to this, this study focused on the sampling frame based on (CIDB, 2019) which recorded that 59 firms registered as International players. The target population is from Malaysian construction firms who are undertaken and completed projects in international market in various fields including buildings; power transmission and plant; oil and gas and also mechanical and electrical basic. However, out of 59 firms, only 12 firms were found still actively operating construction projects in international market in 2019. After classifying the secondary data derived from CIDB record, assessment of the level of ELAC from all finalized 12 active firms were generated. The value of the decisional framework will be measured based on “decision location quality‟. Decision quality is a function of the independent variable decision tools for each company and then calculated by using the 5 point scale as separated into different type of location category. 4. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 International Experience of Malaysian Contractors For this preliminary study, a review of the number of international experience of the 12 contractors identified some potential dimensions for measuring the level of contractors’ sustained international by entry location assessment criteria (ELAC) such as UEM Sunrise Berhad (Firm A), Sapura Energy Berhad (Firm B), Sime Darby Berhad (Firm C), MRCB Berhad (Firm D), Gamuda Berhad (Firm E), Bina Puri Holdings Bhd (Firm F), IJM Construction Sdn. Bhd (Firm G), Zelan Construction SDN BHD (Firm H), WCT Construction Sdn Bhd (Firm I), Nakano Construction SdnBhd (Firm J), Jetson Construction Sdn Bhd (Firm K) and Chase Perdana Sdn Bhd (Firm L)


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4.2 Development of Entry Location Assessment Criteria (ELAC) The ELAC score for each company is calculated by using the 5 point scale as separated into different type of location category as mentioned in Table 2. The formula adopted to determine the ELAC score is as follows:

ELAC = 2Wn+3Wl+4Wy+5Wd+6Wh

The preliminary analysis based on secondary data provided by CIDB has identified five (5) dimension of strategic location namely; (1) developing country; (2) least developed country; (3) newly industrialized countries; (4) developed country ; and (5) very developed country as shown in Table 1.

The score for each dimension are based on five-point likert scale, as shown in Table 2. The construction firms were then ranked based on weightage score given by five dimensions namely; developing country (Wn); least developed country (Wl); newly industrialized countries (Wy); developed country (Wd); and very developed country (Wh). Other descriptive statistical analysis techniques such as the mean values are also calculated based on the level of scale for each dimension.

Table 2: Location Assessment and Scale for each Dimension

Dimension 3(Country Types)

Developing Country

(Wn)

Least Developed

Country (Wl)

Newly Industrialized country

(Wy)

Developed Country

(Wd)

Highly Developed

Country (Wh)

Scale 1 2 3 4 5 Wn 0 1-2 3-4 5-6 >6 Wl 0 1-2 3-4 5-6 >6 Wy 0 1-2 3-4 5-6 >6

Wd 0 1-2 3-4 5-6 >6 Wh 0 1-2 3-4 5-6 >6

The ELAC score as shown in Table 3 is the summation of the weighted dimensions;

where the coefficient is the individual weighting calculated based on data provided by the selected firms. An example of the ELAC score for Firm A (UEM Sunrise Berhad) is as follows:

ELAC (Firm A)= 2Wn+3Wl+4Wy+5Wd+6Wh

=2(1)+3(1)+4(2)+5(2)+6(2)=35

ELAC scores formula generates ranking for 12 firms based on weightage scale. Result also shows the descriptive statistics presented by the mean values for each indicator contributing ELAC scores through identifying the key player of international Malaysian contractors as to increase number of involvement for other company in international level. Hence, top firm’s position can be determined based on the set assessment criteria in order to improve and increase performance in foreign projects.


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Table 3: ELAC score for year 2019 (N=12) with mean assessment criteria

Weightage for each location assessment ELAC

Score (%)

Ranking

EL

Decision

2Wn 3Wl 4Wy 5Wd 6Wh

Firm A 1 1 2 2 2 35 2 Firm B 2 1 5 3 4 66 1 2 Firm C 3 3 2 3 2 50 3 2 Firm D 1 1 1 1 2 26 1 Firm E 2 3 3 2 3 53 2 2 Firm F 2 2 3 2 2 44 2 Firm G 2 1 3 2 3 47 2 Firm H 1 1 2 1 3 36 2 Firm I 1 1 2 1 3 36 1 Firm J 1 1 1 1 2 26 1 Firm K 1 2 1 1 1 23 0 Firm L 2 1 1 2 2 33 2 Mean 1.58 1.50 2.17 1.75 2.42 39.58

Table 3 shows only three (3) firms have scored more than 50% which are Sapura

Energy Berhad (66%), Gamuda Berhad (53%) and Sime Darby Berhad (50%) which means the company is heavily involved in projects in highly developed company. The findings also show the lack of firms’ involvement in project located in highly developed country. However, results found that the top 3 higher ranking firms run their project in both region countries. In addition, the findings in Table 4 found the readings are below three (3) out of five (5) based on Likert Scale which it meant the poor involvement of Malaysian firms in international project.

Table 4: Mean Score for each dimension based on ELAC Scores for year 2019

Dimension Coefficient

(corresponding

weighting)

Weighted Mean

Score

Mean for each

dimension

Wn 2 31.6 1.58

Wl 3 30 1.50

Wy 4 43.4 2.17

Wd 5 35 1.75

Wh 6 48.4 2.42

5. CONCLUSIONS This study has established a few dimensions related to location using measurement scales to assess the contractor success in international market by conducting analysis based on secondary data provided by CIDB Malaysia. The assessment criteria have enabled the identification and ranking of the most experienced and sustained international contractor in Malaysia. Hence, the development of the assessment scales will help local contractors and CIDB to assess the level of contractors’ sustained in international level as well as to improve performance in international markets. The outstanding achievements by world-class firms winning project contracts globally will show a good value to local Malaysian construction firms in the construction industry.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors would like to thank the Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia for providing technical support needed and also Ministry of Higher Education for the financial support (FRGS/1/2018/SSI11/UITM/02/11) for this research. REFERENCES Abdul-Aziz, A.-R. (1993). The Trend Towards Contractors Globalization in Developing Countries. in

Business: Lessons for Habitat International, 17(3), 115–124.https://doi.org/10.1016/0197- 3975(93)90020-D

Ab Rani, N. I., Mat Isa, C. M., & Preece, C. N. (2015). Development of Foreign Competitor Identification Index ( FCII ) in Malaysia F. Information Management and Business Review, 7(1), 12–22.

Abdul Rashid, A., Awil, A.-U., & Yi, H. S. (2006). Export Capabilities of Malaysian Housing Developers in the Context of Globalisation and Liberalisation. In Second NAPREC Conference, INSPENS.

Adnan, H. (2008). An Assessment of Risk Management in Joint Venture Projects (JV) in Malaysia. Journal of Asian Social Science, 4(6), 99-106.

Agarwal, S., & Ramaswami, S. N. (1992). Choice of Foreign Market Entry Mode: Impact of Ownership, Location and Internalization Factors. Journal of International Business Studies,(1), 1–27.

Asgari, M., & Ahmad, S.Z. (2010). Internationalization of Malaysian Service Firms:Business Strategy and Choice of Foreign Market Entry Mode. In International Conference on Business, Economics and Tourism Management (CBETM 2010) (Vol. 1, pp. 1-6).

Brambila, G., Gonzalez, R., Veloso. and Angon., P. (2016). The Scientific Impact of Developing Nations. PLOS ONE. 11(3).doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0151328

Bris, A.(2018). Malaysia in the IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook 2018. The Institute for Management Development (IMD). Lausanne, Switzerland.

Cheprasov, A. (2019).Developed Countries: Definition & Examples. Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/developed-countries-definition-examples.html

Chen, C. (2005) Entry strategies for international construction markets. Pennsylvania State University. Unpublished PhD thesis.

Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia Report (2019). Construction Industry Development Board Malaysia Record, available at http://international.cidb.gov.my/international/ (accessed January 2019).

Encyclopedia Britannica (2019). Countries of Asia. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic-browse/Countries-of-the-World/Countries-of-Asia.

Ellis, P. D. (2007). Paths to foreign markets: Does distance to market affect firm internationalisation? International Business Review, 16(5), 573–593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2007.06.001 Fialho, D. and Bergeijk, P.A. (2017). The Proliferation of Developing Country Classifications. The

Journal of Development Studies. Vol. 53 ( 1), Page 99–115, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2016.1178383

Gunnarson, A. (2011). The Selection of Entry Modes when Penetrating a Foreign Market. Linnaeus University. Published Master Thesis

Gunhan, S., & Arditi, D. (2005). International Expansion Decision for Construction Companies. Journal of Engineering Management, 131(8), 928-937

International Monetary Fund (2018). Regional Economic Outlook: Asia and Pacific. Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/apd-reo-full-report%20(2).PDF

Investopedia (2016). Top 25 Developed and Developing Countries. Retrieved from https://www.investopedia.com/updates/top-developing-countries/

Kuepper, J. (2018). Newly Industrialised Countries. International Investing. Retrieved from https://www.thebalance.com/what-are-newly-industrialized-countries-nics-1978978

Lim, B. T. H., Oo, B. L., & Ling, F. (2010). The survival strategies of Singapore contractors in prolonged recession. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, 17(4), 387–403.

Loo, S. C., & Abdul-rahman, H. (2012). Malaysian Contractors in Gulf Construction : A Preliminary Study on Financial and Economic Risks. IACSIT International Journal of Engineering and

https://study.com/academy/lesson/developed-countries-definition-examples.html

https://www.britannica.com/topic-browse/Countries-of-the-World/Countries-of-Asia

https://www.britannica.com/topic-browse/Countries-of-the-World/Countries-of-Asia

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2016.1178383

../../User/Downloads/apd-reo-full-report%20(2).PDF

https://www.investopedia.com/updates/top-developing-countries/

https://www.thebalance.com/what-are-newly-industrialized-countries-nics-1978978


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Technology, 4(4), 437–441. Low, W. W., Abdul-Rahman, H., & Zakaria, N. (2015). The impact of organizational culture on

international bidding decisions: Malaysia context. International Journal of Project Management, 33(4), 917–931. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2014.10.010

Mat Isa, C. M., Ab Rani, N. I., Preece, N. C., & Mohd aman, H. (2014). Identification of Malaysian Contractors with Sustained International Operations ( CSIO ). In Chapter 25 - InCIEC2014 (pp. 287–299).

Mat Isa, C. M., Adnan, H., & Endut, I. R. (2006). Malaysian Contractors’ Opinions Towards International Market Expansion. In International Conference in the Built Environment in the 21st Century (ICiBE2006) (Vol. 1, pp. 287–298).

Mat Isa, C. M., Mohd, H., Rashidah, S., Nasirs, M., Jaapar, A., Mat Isa, C. M., … Jaapar, A. (2013). Motives for International Market Expansion by Malaysian Construction Firms using Correlation Analysis. In International Conference in Research Methodology for Built Environment and Engineering (ICRMBEE2013) (pp. 17–18).

Mat Isa, C. M., Mustaffa, N. K., Mohd Saman, H., Mohd Nasir, S. R., & Che Ibrahim, Che Khairilngineering, C. (2012). Factor Influencing Malaysian Construction Firms in Venturing into International Markets. In International Conference on Innovation, Management and Technology Research (ICIMTR2012) (pp. 168–173). IEEE explore.

Mat Isa, C. M. (2016). An Integrated Model for Intenational Market Entry Location,Entry Timing and Entry Modes (ELETEM) Decisions of Malaysian Construction Firms. Universiti Teknologi Mara. PHD Thesis.

Mat Isa, C. M., Adnan, H., & Endut, I. R. (2006). Malaysian Contractors‟ Opinions Towards International Market Expansion. In International Conference in the Built Environment in the 21st Century (ICiBE2006) (Vol. 1, pp. 287–298).

Materials Research Society (2019). World Bank Classifications for Developing Countries. Materials Research Society, Washington, D.C

National Geographic (2019). United States. Retrieved from https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/explore/countries/united-states/#united-states-golden-gate-bridge.jpg

Preece, C. N., Mat Isa, C. M., Mohd Saman, H., & Che Ibrahim, C. K. I. (2016). Development of entry location , entry timing and entry mode decision model for construction firms in international markets. Construction Management and Economics, 34(4–6), 236–257. https://doi.org/10.1080/01446193.2015.1084429

Schwab, K. (2015).The Global Competitiveness Report 2015–2016. World Economy Forum,Geneva. The United Nations Statistics Division (2019). Countries in Africa. Retrieved from

https://unstats.un.org/unsd/databases.htm Tiong, R., & Yeo, K. T. (1993). Project financing as a competitive strategy in winning overseas jobs.

International Journal of Project Management, 11(2), 79–86. Wijeratne, D. (2018). The Future of ASEAN – Time to Act. PwC Growth Markets Centre. Retrieved

from https://www.pwc.com/vn/en/publications/2018/pwc-gmc-the-future-of-asean-time-to-act.pdf World Bank (2019).International Monetary Fund World Economic Outlook. Retrieved from

http://statisctictimes.com/economy/projected-world-gdp-ranking.php

https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/explore/countries/united-states/#united-states-golden-gate-bridge.jpg

https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/explore/countries/united-states/#united-states-golden-gate-bridge.jpg

https://unstats.un.org/unsd/databases.htm

https://www.pwc.com/vn/en/publications/2018/pwc-gmc-the-future-of-asean-time-to-act.pdf


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Chapter 3

Modelling Urban Crime Pattern, Factors

and Evaluate Effectiveness Policing Policy using GIS

Hasranizam Hashim, Wan Mohd Naim Wan Mohd, Eran Sadek Said Md Sadek & Khoiri Mohd Dimyati

Centre of Studies for Surveying Science & Geomatics,

Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Malaysia

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

If cities are to be a city that is sustainable, competitive and safe, crime incidents must be immediately addressed as a high priority in the sustainability of the city. Incidents of crime happen every day is a big bladder to the government, especially the law enforcement agencies in the course of anxiety fear in the lives of the citizens of the city. The lack of urban crime problem and what level of crime pattern in neighbourhood is becoming a growing concern in nation. The urban crime problem cannot be solved simply by providing more police staff and spending more money on development and management in policing policy programme. There is an urgent need for innovation, for better understanding of the current and potential role of the urban crime to meet the needs in sustainability and liveable city. Thus, the adoption of a strategic approach is needed to be planning and managing that city to carry out its function and roles. This research aim is to study and map the crime pattern, factors of urban problem that influence the crime pattern, and evaluate effectiveness policing policy prevention reduce programme in Petaling and Klang district in Selangor. This research is based on data obtained from official government, observation and survey questionnaire that polled public attitudes regarding the factors of crime attributes based. The data was analysed to evaluate and determine mapping the pattern attributes and its level of preferences that influence the strategic approach to the planning and management of successful urban city using Geographical Information System (GIS) with Spatial Regression Modelling. The research suggested that successful urban safe city and neighbourhood as are linked to the distance decay criminal’s home location, population risk, land use risk, safer cities programme and frequency of omnipresence police patrol. The results of the study also suggested that a holistic strategic approach is needed for the police and local authority to successfully managing the urban crime. It is hope that the study can contribute to the improvement of urban safe with better policing policy in Petaling and Klang district.

Key Words: crime mapping, urban crime, GIS, Emerging Hot Spot Analysis, Spatial

Regression


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1. INTRODUCTION

United Nation (UNDESA, 2017, p.3) stated that “crime is studied in order to prevent it”. National Transformation Programme Annual Report (NTP, 2017) expressed at an average of 400 criminal cases reported daily in Malaysia. That means, in a month, a total of 1,200 people in Malaysia became victims and trauma of crime. Therefore, if cities are to be a city that is sustainable, competitive and safe, crime incidents must be immediately be addressed as a high priority in the sustainability of the urban city. To prevent the crime, firstly the study must determine urban crime pattern. Urban is defined a gazette area and its built-up area adjacent to it and the combination of two areas has a population of 10,000 or more, or special development area, or district administrative centre even though the population is less than 10,000 and at least 60% population age with 15 years and above engaged in non-agricultural activities (Second National Urbanization Policy Malaysia, 2016). The population provides a variety of positive and negative effects to everyday life, and among its negative side effects is the crime incidents daily are higher in urban than in rural areas. In Malaysia, high crime areas are in states with major urban hierarchy status and local cities such as in Selangor, Kuala Lumpur, Penang and Johor and are recognized by the government official report (GTP Annual Report, 2010; GTP Annual Report, 2011; GTP Annual Report, 2012; GTP Annual Report, 2013; GTP Annual Report, 2014; NTP Annual Report, 2015; NTP Annual Report, 2016; NTP Annual Report, 2017). Interestingly, in Malaysia, high-risk urban areas have experienced a significant reduction in crime - from 486 crimes that occur daily in 2010 year decreased to 272 crimes each day in 2017 year when the government launched a transformation plan 2010-2020 years to reduce the national crime rate, while Malaysia urban population is expected will increase from 74.8% in 2015 year to 83.3% in 2025 year (Second National Urbanization Policy Malaysia, 2016). This issue raises the question that, is its true crime reduction occurs while population increases every year or are there a crime pattern in certain urban areas are still high (hot spot) compared to other urban areas in the city. United Nation (UNDESA, 1995) by resolution 1995/9 issued a white paper titled "Guidelines for the prevention of urban crime" which explains the importance of research in urban crime prevention with the emphasis on "a local diagnostic survey of crime phenomena, their characteristics, factors leading to them, the form they take and their extent” (p.1) to be given priority in addressing urban crime issues. There are several problems that have been identified to enable this study to be implemented as follows:

i. Lack of study on crime pattern hot spots and cold spots-based location (crime mapping and spatial analysis).

ii. Lack of local studies identified the factors influencing the crime pattern-based location. iii. Lack of local research to test the effectiveness of existing policing policy on crime

pattern-based location.

Therefore, the aim of study to model the spatial crime pattern of the study area. The objectives of this study are to map the crime pattern, to determine the factors that influencing the crime pattern and to evaluate effectiveness of policing policy prevention.

2. METHODOLOGY

The study area is Petaling and Klang district in Selangor with 43 police station boundary neighbourhood. Software used is ArcGIS pro 2.3. Coordinate systems used is WGS84 / World Mercator. unit area analysis with standard distance interval is 400 meters with interval time for entire study for 72 months (2011-2017 years) and 1 month for each year for 7


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years. This study used 93,462-point crime all types incident with 95% score of geocode address street level including violent crime index and property crime index. To test a significant level for crime neighbourhood location, Emerging Hot Spot Analysis (EHSA) tool provides z-score and p-value for each polygon crime hot and cold spot as the map result in attribute data analysis. A confidence level for EHSA as standard by ESRI (2018) is at least 90% and above, is confidence accepted for determines a pattern and trend for features data analysis and to reject the null hypothesis that there is a clusters pattern with hot and cold spot crime with polygon-based fishnet result. Workflow method for EHSA as showing in Figure 1.

Table 1 EHSA workflow using Model Builder ArcGIS Pro 2.3

3. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

In 2011 year, the space time cube has aggregated 7,479 points into 6,460 fishnet grid locations over 12-time step intervals. There is a statistically significant crime increase in point counts over time. The result as show in Table 1. In 2014 year, the space time cube has aggregated 14,816 points into 7,956 fishnet grid locations over 12-time step intervals. There is a statistically significant crime decrease in point counts over time. In 2017 year, the space time cube has aggregated 13,655 points into 9,744 fishnet grid locations over 12-time step intervals. There is a statistically significant crime decrease in point counts over time.


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Table 1 Crime pattern result using EHSA in 2011- 2017

Year 2D location map 3D location map

2011

2014

2017

From Exploratory Regression, only model population size and rate of urbanization

indicators meet the requirements of passing model's predetermined test with Adjusted R-Squared (R2) is larger than > 0.3 (30%) where is .56 (56% ), coefficient (Koenker BP Statistic) p-value cut off is less than < 0.05 (95%) where is p > 0.055 (stationary), VIF is less from < 7.5 where is 3.56, Jarque Bera p-value larger than > is 0.31 (not significance), and spatial autocorrelation p-value is also larger than > 0.1 where is 0.2 (random). The survey data also did not show multicollinearity problems. Summary of variable significance shows that the exploratory variable for population density indicator has no significance (p > 0.10)


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compared to rate of urbanization indicators has positive significance level (p < 0.05) with 95% confidence level with negative linear relationship and size population have positive significance level (p < 0.01) with 99% confidence level with positive linear relationship. Significance, this model is substantial factors and contributes 56 percent (R2 = 0.56) variance to the index crime rate throughout the study year (2011-2017).

4. CONCLUSION

The urban crime pattern shows half the neighbourhood in the study area reaches 99.9 percent significance with a very large z-score of 3.2381 and a very small p-value (p < 0.001) at SS 2 Sea Park, Petaling Jaya. Interestingly, there are 26 locations of new hot spot categories within the study area with each year of study. New hot spot locations are changing location position but cluster pattern within 12 months of time step interval analysis for each year. Overall in urban crime pattern and factors, neighbourhood areas in Sg. Way (Taman Sri Medan), S 17 (Section 17) and Kota Damansara in Petaling Jaya and Bukit Puchong were major contributors to the crime index rate that have positive significance level (p < 0.01) with 99% confidence level. For policing policy effectiveness, the knowledge about the crime pattern can be used in practice for determining targeted where police patrols and other crime prevention initiatives should be implementing to reduce the crime at certain hot spots location.

5. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

For the future work, studies by each type of crime violence and crime property should be a a more in-depth analyse on the crime pattern and the relationship with other factors such as economic that influencing the crime pattern in study area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The first author is the PhD candidate at Centre of Studies for Surveying Science & Geomatics, Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA. He is also the member of International Association of Crime Analysts (IACA) and Institution of Geospatial and Remote Sensing Malaysia (IGRSM).

REFERENCES

United Nation. (2017). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA). World

crime trends and emerging issues and responses in the field of crime prevention and criminal justice. E/CN.15/2017/10. 7 March 2017. pp 1-24. Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and analysis/statistics/crime/ccpj /World_crime _trends_emerging_issues_E.pdf (3 April 2017).

NTP (National Transformation Programme) Annual Report. (2015). Economic Planning Unit (EPU). Reducing Crime Chapter (PDF file). Retrieved from http://ntp.epu.gov.my/ images/ntp/pastreports/2015/NTP_AR2015_ENG.pdf (15 October 2017).

Second National Urbanisation Policy. Malaysia. (2016). The Federal Department of Town and Country Planning Peninsular Malaysia. Ministry of Housing and Local Government. Kuala Lumpur. Malaysia.

GTP (Government Transformation Programme) Annual Report. (2010). Economic Planning Unit (EPU). Malaysia. Reducing Crime Chapter (PDF file). Retrieved from http://ntp.epu.gov.my/images/ntp/pastreports/2010/ GTP_2010_ ENG.pdf (15 October 2017).


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GTP (Government Transformation Programme) Annual Report. (2011). Economic Planning Unit (EPU). Malaysia. Reducing Crime Chapter (PDF file). Retrieved from http://ntp.epu.gov.my/images/ntp/pastreports/2011/ GTP_2011_ ENG.pdf (15 October 2017).

United Nation. (1995). United Nations Department of economic and social affairs (UNDESA). Guidelines for the prevention of urban crime (resolution 1995/9, Annex), the Guidelines for the prevention of crime (resolution 2002/13, Annex). pp 1-2. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/documents/ecosoc/res/1995 /eres1995-9.htm (10 September 2017).


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Chapter 4

Elliptic Net Scalar Multiplication upon Koblitz

and Twisted Edward Curves

Norliana Muslim & Mohamad Rushdan Md Said

Institute for Mathematical Research, Universiti Putra Malaysia

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Elliptic net scalar multiplication provides an alternative method to compute elliptic curve point multiplication. The elliptic net scalar multiplication was initiated with division polynomials in the Weierstrass curves. However, the usage of scalar multiplication via elliptic net for computing scalar multiplications in Koblitz and Twisted Edward curves have yet to be reported. Hence, this study entailed investigations into the generation of point multiplication upon supersingular and non-supersingular Koblitz and Twisted Edward curves. The objectives outlined in this study are to examine the relationships between division polynomials with Koblitz curves and division polynomials with Twisted Edward curves. In this study, the explicit formulae in x and y coordinates for each corresponding Koblitz and Twisted Edward curves were proposed. New analysis on the cost of arithmetic operations such as addition, multiplication, squaring and inversion in elliptic net scalar multiplication upon Weierstrass, Koblitz and Twisted Edward curves are compared and discussed. The proposed elliptic net scalar multiplications have the potential to be developed as smart cards or an Android device in the internet of things.

Key Words: elliptic, division polynomials, Koblitz, non-linear, Twisted Edward.

1. INTRODUCTION

Koblitz (1987) independently proposed the elliptic curve cryptosystem, which relies on the difficulty of discrete logarithmic problem in the group of rational points on an elliptic curve. Scalar multiplication is one of the major activities and difficulties in elliptic curve cryptosystems. Scalar multiplication speed plays an important role in the efficiency of the whole system. Elliptic curves can be represented in different ways. Different forms of elliptic curves have been extensively studied over the past two decades to obtain faster scalar multiplications. One significant family of elliptic curves includes Weierstrass (Silverman, 1986).

Meanwhile, the elliptic net of rank one was defined by Morgan Ward as an elliptic divisibility sequence (Ward, 1948). After studying the non-linear recurrence theory (Shipsey, 2000), Stange introduced a mapping from a finite rank Abelian group to an integral domain R, which was called an elliptic net (Stange, 2007). Since then, elliptic net upon Weierstrass


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with its higher rank has been applied to compute Tate and r-Ate pairing (Ogura et al., 2011). In addition, the same theory of elliptic net has been employed to calculate scalar multiplication (Kanayama et al., 2014), which is the primary goal and interest in this paper. The first elliptic net scalar multiplication was applied to the Weierstrass curve using Weierstrass’s division polynomials. Nevertheless, in the attempt to prove the possibility to construct scalar multiplication via elliptic net using new cryptographic curves, the Koblitz and Twisted Edward curves that related to Weierstrass, had been utilized.

The first objective of this study is to define the explicit formulas of the novel elliptic net scalar multiplications upon two groups of elliptic curves, namely as Koblitz and Twisted Edward curves. The second objective is to analyze the cost of arithmetic operations of the new schemes. The study outcomes are meant to verify the correlations between elliptic divisibility sequences, division polynomials, and Koblitz curves. These correlations, along with the coordinates of multiples of a point P = (x,y) on Koblitz and Twisted Edward curves, form non-linear recurrences that were used to construct new elliptic net scalar multiplication. Furthermore, the cost of arithmetic operations for the new elliptic net scalar multiplication will be evaluated and discussed.

In Section 2, this study introduces the preliminaries topics such as elliptic curve Weierstrass, elliptic net and its scalar multiplication. Section 3 presents the initial division polynomials and their relationships with Koblitz and Twisted Edward curves. After that, the novel elliptic net scalar multiplications are depicted in Section 4, along with its explicit formulas. Meanwhile, Section 5 discusses the computational cost of the novel elliptic net scalar multiplications. The final section concludes the study outcomes.

2. PRELIMINARIES

This section presents several significant concepts that had been applied throughout this study. 2.1 Elliptic Curve Weierstrass Elliptic curves have been widely researched in algebraic geometry and number theory since the mid-nineteenth century. More lately, the elliptic curves have been used to devise efficient algorithms to factor big integers (Lenstra, 1987) or to prove primality (Atkin, A. O. L. & Morain, 1993). The elliptic curves also disclosed usefulness in the building of cryptosystems [18, 20]. In present, there are many models of cryptographic curves such as Weierstrass (Silverman, 1986), Koblitz (N Koblitz, 1991), Hessian (Hesse, 1844), Huff (Huff, 1948), Montgomery (Montgomery, 1987) and Twisted Edward (Bernstein et al., 2008). These models sometimes allow for more efficient computation on elliptic curves or provide other features of interest to cryptographers.

Division polynomials for Weierstrass curves are well known and play a key role in the theory of elliptic curves. They can be used to find a formula for the n-th multiple of the point (x, y) in terms of x and y. The following Weierstrass equation was introduced as the elliptic

curve E for a set of algebraic solutions with 2 3y x Ax B , whereby 2 3 2

1 3 2 4 6.y b xy b y x b x b x b Generally, the Weierstrass curve has division

polynomials expression of 2

2 1 24d b b , 4 4 1 32d b b b , 2

6 3 64d b b , 2 2 2

8 1 6 2 6 1 3 4 2 3 44d b b b b b b b b b b and 2 3 2

2 8 4 6 2 4 68 27 9 .D d d d d d d d


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2.2 Elliptic Net Stange (2008) came up with generalized forms of elliptic divisibility sequences in higher-

order dimensions as well as specific fields and called it as an elliptic net. The elliptic net is a

function of W: A → R from finite-rank free Abelian groups, A, to integral domains, R, which

uphold the said feature.

0, , , , .

W p q s W p q W r s W r W q r s W q r

W p s W p W r p s W r p W q s W q p q r s A

2.3 Elliptic Net Scalar Multiplication upon Weierstrass

Consider the elliptic curve Weierstrass and ,P PP x y is a point on the Weierstrass curve.

An elliptic net scalar multiplication using Weierstrass’s division polynomials (Kanayama et

al., 2014) can be defined as finding ,kP kPkP x y with the following:

2

ˆ ˆ1 1

ˆkP P

W k W kx x

W k

2 2

3

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ1 2 1 2

ˆ4kP

P

W k W k W k W ky

y W k

Among several cryptographic curves that have been presented in the literature, this

study chooses Koblitz and Twisted Edward curves. The main criteria for the selection are the initial values of the division polynomials. This means that the first two initial value of

division polynomials must be 0 0 and 1 1 . In other words, for any cryptographic curve

that does not hold these criteria, then the curve is not suitable to be utilized with the theory of elliptic net scalar multiplication. 3. METHODOLOGY

3.1 Koblitz curves Koblitz (1991) introduced two common types of curves called non-super singular and super singular curve. These curves are denoted in the following:

2 3 2

1 2 6y b xy x b x b (1)

2 3

3 4 6y b y x b x b (2)

The non-super singular Koblitz curve, as portrayed in equation 1, has the usual quantities of

2

2 1 24 ,d b b 4 0,d 6 64 ,d b 2

8 1 6 2 64 ,d b b b b and 2 2

2 8 627 .D d d d In equation 1, the

division polynomials upon Koblitz curve was derived from Silverman (1986), as shown below:

0 0, 1 1 , 2 12y b x (3)

4 3

3 2 6 83 3x d x d x d (4)

2

682

2

8

3

6

5

2

6

14 101022 dxddxdxdxdxxby (5)


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The usual quantities for super singular curve Koblitz are 02 d , 44 2bd , 6

2

36 4bbd ,

2

48 bd , 3 2

4 68 27D d d and its division polynomials are presented in the following:

0 0, 1 1 , 2 32y b (6)

4 2

3 4 6 83 3 3x d x d x d (7)

6 4 3 2 2

4 3 4 6 8 4 6 4 8 62 2 5 10 10y b x d x d x d x d d x d d d

(8)

3.2 Twisted Edward Curve Initially, the Twisted Edward curve has been introduced to speed up the addition and doubling on elliptic curves (Bernstein & Lange, 2007). The general form of Twisted Edward

curve is 2 2 2 21ax y dx y . The division polynomials of Twisted Edward curve were

defined by Bernstein et. al (2008) as follow:

0 1 2

10, 1,

2 1

a d y

x y

(9)

3 3 4

3 4

2 2

2 1

a d a ay dy dy

y

(10)

6 4

4 7

2 1

2 1

a d y y a dy

x y

(11)

For both types of Koblitz curves and Twisted Edward curves with 2,m the recurrence

relations for m are: 3 3

2 1 2 1 1m m m m m (12)

2 2

2 1 1 2 12 m m m n m my

(13)

4. FINDINGS

The discussion in this section focuses on the main objective of the present study which is to present the explicit formulae of the elliptic net scalar multiplication upon Koblitz and Twisted Edward curves. In addition, the comparison of the cost-ratios will be applied to evaluate the cost of arithmetic operations that will be discussed in Section 5.

4.1 Elliptic Net Scalar Multiplication upon Koblitz Curves

Let 1 1,P x y and the multiple points (N Koblitz, 1991) were implemented to arrive at the

set of division polynomials ,n n , and n upon non-super singular curve:

1 2

( 1) ( 1)

( )n

W n W nx x

W n

(14)

2

111 1 1 2 3

1

ˆ ˆˆ ˆ 1 2( 1) ( 1)1

ˆ ˆ( )n

x W n W ny W n W ny x y x

x W n W n

(15)

while for super singular curve Koblitz, the set of division polynomials is as given below:


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1 2

( 1) ( 1)

( )n

W n W nx x

W n

(16)

2

2

1 3 1 4 2 3

1 1 1 2

2 2n

W n W n W n W ny y b x b

W W n W W n

(17)

Note that from the above, equation 14 and equation 16 are identical to kx in the

elliptic net scalar multiplication upon Weierstrass curve.

4.2 Elliptic Net Scalar Multiplication upon Twisted Edward Curves

Suppose that 1 1,P x y is a point on the Twisted Edward curve. The elliptic net scalar

multiplication upon this curve, ,n nn P x y can be derived as:

22 1 ( )( )2 ( 1) ( 1)

2 1(2 )n

a d y W nW nx W n W n

yW n

(18)

2

1 1

2

1

2 1 1 1

2 1 1 1n

a d y W n y W n W ny

a d W n y W n W n

(19)

4.3 Numerical example on Elliptic Net Scalar Multiplication upon Non-supersingular Koblitz In this instance, the non-super singular Koblitz curve was selected for rapid implementation.

Note that 1 2 61, 0, 1b b b and 6 1b are applied to equation 1. Let 2 3 1y xy x

and point ( 1,0)P with respect to the elliptic net. After that, 5P is calculated.

Solution: First, the initial values of the elliptic net were obtained from the properties of elliptic net, such that

0 0,W 1 1,W and 12 2 2(0) 1 1 1.W y b x

Next, the terms ˆ 3W and ˆ 4W were calculated as

3 3 1 1 1 3 4 1 1 9W

4 1 2 1 1 1 10 4 1 10 1 1 1 16 46W

To continue, the term of ˆ 5W and ˆ 6W were generated using equation 12 and

equation 13 such that

33 3ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ5 4 2 3 1 46 1 9 1 683W W W W W


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2 2

2

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ3 5 2 1 4ˆ 6

ˆ 2

9 683 1 1 46 12897

1

W W W W WW

W

Then,

5 1 2

1 2

2 2

5 1 5 1

5

4 6

5

46 12897 126773 1

683683

W Wx x

W

W Wx

W

The y-coordinate was computed with equation 15, such that

2

115 1 1 1 2 3

1

ˆ ˆˆ ˆ 5 1 5 2(5 1) (5 1)1

ˆ ˆ(5) 5

x W Wy W Wy x y x

x W W

2

111 1 1 2 3

1

ˆ ˆˆ ˆ 6 3(4) (6)1

ˆ ˆ(5) 5

x W Wy W Wx y x

x W W

2

3 3

1 12897 9 11783814941 0 0

683683

Therefore, when ( 1,0)P , 2 3

126773 11783814945 , .

683 683P

5. DISCUSSION

To evaluate the computational cost of arithmetic operations, this study implements the cost-ratios (Lopez and Dahab, 1998) as follow:

1

number of inversion

number of multiplicationr

2

number of multiplication

number of squaringr

3

number of multiplication

number of additionr

Let A denotes the number of addition or subtraction, S as the number of squaring, M

as the number of multiplication and I be the number of inversions. The experimental values for the cost-ratio in the new elliptic net scalar multiplications are given in Table 1.


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Table 1: Comparison of the computational cost of arithmetic operations between ENSM Weierstrass, Koblitz and Twisted Edward Curves.

Curves Number of arithmetic

operation (without repetition)

r1 r2 r3 2I to M

Weierstrass 2A + 3S + 4M + 2I 0.50 1.33 2.00 5M Non-supersingular Koblitz 3A + 2S + 3M + 2I 0.67 1.50 1.00 4.34M

Supersingular Koblitz 4A + 3S + 4M + 2I 0.50 1.33 1.0 5M Twisted Edward 2A + 1S + 4M + 2I 0.50 4.00 2.00 5M

As

2r and 3r are bigger than

1r , this means the cost of the addition, subtraction and

squaring can be neglected. In other words, the main comparison for the computational cost

of the new elliptic net scalar multiplications is depending on the cost of 1r . Since there are 2

inversions required for all types of the elliptic net scalar multiplications, then the cost of inversion can be converted to the cost of multiplication. From Table 1, we can conclude that the computational cost of multiplication in the elliptic net scalar multiplication upon non-supersingular Koblitz is 13.2 % faster than other methods.

6. CONCLUSION

The present study has managed to describe the form of non-supersingular Koblitz, super singular Koblitz and Twisted Edward curves and proposes their division polynomials, along with their properties. Based on the proposed division polynomials, the study was extended to define the explicit formulas for the novel elliptic net scalar multiplications. From the new elliptic net scalar multiplications, this study found that the proposed elliptic net scalar multiplications satisfied the non-linear recurrence properties. Furthermore, from the comparison of computational cost of arithmetic, the present study found that the cost of arithmetic operations in the non-supersingular Koblitz was 13.2% faster compared to other methods.

REFERENCES

Atkin, A. O. L. & Morain, F. (1993). Elliptic curves and primality proving. Mathematics of Computation, 61((203)), 29–68.

Bernstein, D. J., Birkner, P., Joye, M., Lange, T., & Peters, C. (2008). Twisted Edwards Curves. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 5023.

Bernstein, D. J., & Lange, T. (2007). Faster Addition and Doubling on Elliptic Curves. Advances in Cryptology – ASIACRYPT 2007, 29–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-76900-2_3

Hesse, O. (1844). Uber die Elimination der Variabeln aus drei algebraischen G ¨ leichun- gen vom zweiten Grade mit zwei Variabeln. Journal F¨ur Die Reine Und Angewandte Mathematik, 68–96.

Huff, G. B. (1948). Diophantine problems in geometry and elliptic ternary forms. Duke Mathematical Journal, 15(2), 443–453.

Kanayama, N., Liu, Y., Okamoto, E., Saito, K., Teruya, T., & Uchiyama, S. (2014). Implementation of an elliptic curve scalar multiplication method using division polynomials. IEICE Transactions on Fundamentals of Electronics, Communications and Computer Sciences, E97-A(1), 300–302.

Koblitz, N. (1991). Constructing Elliptic Curve Cryptosystems in Characteristic 2. In Menezes A.J., Vanstone S.A. (eds) Advances in Cryptology-CRYPT0’ 90. CRYPTO 1990. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Vol. 537, pp. 156–167). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Koblitz, Neal. (1987). Elliptic curve cryptosystems. Mathematics of Computation, 48(177), 203–203.

https://doi.org/10.1090/S0025-5718-1987-0866109-5 Lenstra, H. W. (1987). Factoring integers with elliptic curves. Annual Mathematics, 126(2), 649–673. Montgomery, P. L. (1987). Speeding the Pollard and Elliptic Curve Methods of Factorization.


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Mathematics of Computation, 48(177), 243–264. Ogura, N., Kanayama, N., Uchiyama, S., & Okamoto, E. (2011). Cryptographic pairings based on

elliptic nets. In Iwata T., Nishigaki M. (eds) Advances in Information and Computer Security. IWSEC 2011. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Vol. 7038). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Shipsey, R. (2000). “Elliptic Divisibility Sequences.” PhD thesis, University of London. Silverman, J. H. (1986). The arithmetic of elliptic curve. New York: Springer-Verlag. Stange, K. E. (2007). Elliptic nets and points on elliptic curves. Algorithmic Number Theory, (1), 1–4.

https://doi.org/10.2140/ant.2011.5.197 Stange, K. E. (2008). Elliptic Net and Elliptic Curve. PhD thesis, Brown University. Ward, M. (1948). Memoir on Elliptic Divisibility Sequences. American Journal of Mathematics, 70(1),

31–74.


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Chapter 5

Integrative Approach of Waqf Properties

Development for a Sustainable Socio-Economic Performance

Siti Sara Binti Ibrahim, Abd Halim Mohd Noor & Shafinar Ismail

Business Management Faculty, University Teknologi MARA,

Negeri Sembilan Business Management Faculty, University Teknologi MARA, Melaka

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Malaysia has a considerable quantity of waqf properties that can be seen as a great

potential mechanism to play a significant role in generating a prominent source of financing for the state and for the needs of the Ummah. However to date, the problem of underperformance in waqf development has not been resolved despite the long period of discussion and negotiation. This is due to a lack of integrative and innovative approach as well as lack of resources, knowledge and skills in developing the waqf properties by State Islamic Religious Councils (SIRCs) who has become a sole trustee to manage and develop the waqf properties in Malaysia. As a result, specific to a waqf land for example, there is only 30% of the land has been developed and cultivated for various purposes such as rental housing, shop lots, agriculture sites and petrol stations, while the rest is remain idle. Thus, for a better performance of waqf development, a cross-sector collaboration practices provides a good mechanism for the SIRCs, government, public and private sector to lend its expertise and share best practices in managing and developing waqf properties. However, not all collaboration may success and contribute to a sustainable socio-economic growth. Managing intangible resources (IRs) namely; commitment, trust, networking and urgency were considered as the most likely sources of collaboration success because they are not easily acquired and replicated but can complement the needs in project collaboration. Therefore this research is done to examine the influence of intangible resources toward the performance of waqf properties development that being an issues in the research study. Additional variables of mediating effect and moderating roles is introduce to fill a knowledge gap in existing literature. The study found that commitment, trust and urgency play significant role to influence the performance of waqf properties development in Malaysia for a sustainable socio-economic growth.

Key Words: cross-sector collaboration, Waqf properties, performance, sustainability


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1. INTRODUCTION

Organizations from different sectors nowadays increasingly engaged in a collaborative practices by sharing their resources and capabilities for them to achieve mutual business goals efficiently (Bond-Barnard, Fletcher, & Steyn, 2018; Edi, 2014; Lee, Yun, Kim, & Washington, 2018; Liu, Ko, & Chapleo, 2018; Nolte, 2018; Ukko & Saunila, 2019). In fact in Malaysia the federal government itself is now looking at the cross-sector collaboration practices in achieving our national socio economic growth for sustainability. It is in line with a policies that recently been introduced “Social Private and Public Partnership” or SPPP, which was initiated by The National Blue Ocean Strategy (NBOS) and incorporated within the 11th Malaysia Plan (RMK-11). NBOS initiatives provide a creative and systematic way through a collaborative strategy from different sectors of firm and organization to create high value impact at low cost towards developing and implementing numerous programmes for socio-economic sustainability.

Same goes to waqf industry that are currently following the others Non-Governmental Organization (NGOs) / Non-Profit Organization (NPOs) to show their interest in cross-sector collaboration practices in developing waqf properties. The federal government through the Department of Awqaf, Zakat and Hajj (JAWHAR) has channelled a fund to show their commitment toward the performance of waqf development in Malaysia, for example; about RM30 million has been channelled by federal government for a smart partnership project between Yayasan Wakaf Malaysia (YWM) and State Islamic Religious Councils (SIRCs) in Malaysia. This is illustrated among the early phased of cross-sector collaboration in waqf properties development in Malaysia.

However to this date, waqf institutions in Malaysia seem to fail to play a dynamic role in uplifting the development and economy of the Muslims and most of the waqf properties or specific to a land, still remain idle (Abas & Raji, 2018; Abdul Hamid & Mohammad, 2014; Allah Pitchay, Mohd Thas Thaker, Mydin, Azhar, & Abdul Latiff, 2018; Ismail, Salim, & Ahmad Hanafiah, 2015; Mohd Puad, Jamlus Rafdi, & Shahar, 2014). Looking at the whole performance of waqf properties within fourteen states in Malaysia, shows unsatisfactory where in waqf properties, specific to waqf land in Malaysia for example, it was estimated that less than 30% of the total acreage has been developed into various uses, such as shop houses, rented houses, patrol station, and agriculture (Abdul Hamid & Mohammad, 2014). Why this happen? There is lack of integrative and innovative approach as well as lack of resources, knowledge and skills in developing the waqf properties by State Islamic Religious Councils (SIRCs) who has become a sole trustee to manage and develop the waqf properties in Malaysia. (Abdul Hamid & Mohammad, 2014; Allah Pitchay et al., 2018; Awang, Hamid, Nazli, & Mohd Lotpi, 2017). Responding to this, there is a need for a current research to be conducted so that waqf properties development can continuously benefit to a sustainable socio-economic growth of the Ummah. Cross-sector collaboration practices is seen to be an innovative approach for SIRCs and their partners to develop waqf properties in Malaysia for a sustainable socio-economic growth.

Despite this, those initiatives, however, are not without controversy. Prior cases and research make the case for the reality that not all collaborations are successful or easy to navigate no matter how imperative the process may be. There is also insufficient foresight and planning as to the strategic division of resources (Leisinger, 2007; Liket & Maas, 2016; Michelini & Fiorentino, 2012; Porter & Kramer, 2006; Ricks & Peters, 2013). As such, the capacities of the intangible resources utilized within the waqf cross- sector collaboration are vital to its success and impact on sustainable socio-economic growth as mentioned in the study of (J. B. Barney, 1991; J. B. Barney, Ketchen, & Wright, 2011; J. Barney, Wright, & Ketchen, 2001) though they was looking from the other conventional perspective of study. Having focuses on the specific intangible resources to influence the waqf properties


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development that contribute from an issues of management that lead to underperformance of waqf properties, this research is filling a conceptual gap by specifically focuses to the management of intangible resources in waqf development through a cross-sector collaborative practices in which differ from previous study, looking at the preliminary development of those practices and only focuses on the financial resources as the tangible resources.

2. METHODOLOGY

In the efforts to tackle the objectives stated, this study emphasizes an integration of Resource-Based View (RBV) theory, Social Capital theory and Stakeholder Salience theory. This is extracted from collaborative theory as underpinning theory in this study. Particularly, the previous research has studied a construct of resources separately from different and individual perspective of resources in RBV theory, SC theory and Stakeholder Salience theory, for example; trust, commitment, connection, power, legitimacy and urgency (J. B. Barney & Wright, 2001; Barrutia & Echebarria, 2015; Campbell & Park, 2016; Chisholm & Nielsen, 2009; Kamasak, 2015, 2017; Masakure, Henson, & Cranfield, 2009; Pee & Kankanhalli, 2016; Runyan, Huddleston, & Swinney, 2007).

While the research is now focuses on the combination of resources that shall be contributed by firms which has been highlighted in RBV, SC and Stakeholder Salience theory. Thus, the study aims to contribute to an extended theory of resources (Warnier, Weppe, & Lecocq, 2013), which later extracted from RBV, SC and Stakeholder Salience Theory. However, still the research will based on the RBV requirement that has been highlighted from previous scholar in which must be rare, valuable, imitable, substitutability (J. B. Barney, 1991; Bromiley & Rau, 2016; Kristandl & Bontis, 2007; Penrose, 2009). Figure 1 shows how the integration of those three theory has been established for the purpose of this study.

Figure 1: The Integration of Resource Based View (RBV) Theory + Social Capital Theory +

Stakeholder Salience Theory

The theory asserts that firms obtain a competitive edge by gathering and utilizing resources that are not substitutable, difficult to replicate and rare. In cross-sector collaborations, the partnership is made possible by the existence of heterogeneous


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resources in each organization which complement each other. The merging of such complementary resources allows for a sustainable competitive edge over other firms (Dolores M. Frias, Miguel A. Rodriguez, J. Alberto Castaneda, 2011; Eisenhardt & Schoonhoven, 1996; Hitt, Xu, & Carnes, 2016; Sandberg, Sui, & Baum, 2019). The organizations’ need to compensate for required resources and unavailable resources is one motivation for seeking out collaborative alliances. Thus, further research in this area is needed to uncover what intangible resources is mostly gives a significant influence to the performance of waqf project collaboration.

Then, to get an empirical data of findings in this study, a quantitative study is conducted in order to determine the positive relationship between intangible resources (commitment, trust, networking and urgency) and the performance of waqf project development through cross-sector collaboration practices. Data was gathered through a structured questionnaire which were distributed to an expert with knowledge and experiences related to all waqf development project in Malaysia, having a collaboration with other sectors. The partners of the project (firm) is also counted to be a respondent of the study. The questionnaire was distributed via two option based on respondent preferences which are mail or drop off to respondent’s office after having an appointment for a short session of briefing to explain about the study to the respondent before they start answering the questionnaire.

3. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this research perspective is a driving force in the efforts to increase and intensify waqf properties development not only for the benefit of society but also to the project collaboration performance between sectors. Discourse also offers motivation for various parties to become involved in collaboration, as well as inspiration for solutions in overcoming the various issues and obstacles that may arise in the process. It is not guaranteed that every collaborative project will be fruitful, but it is recommended that the effort be made to carefully plan and navigate through the various nuances of a collaborative alliance. Thus, this study attempts to determine the factors of intangible resources that positively influence the performance of waqf properties development through a cross-sector collaboration between State Islamic Religious Councils (SIRCs) and their partners. Other than integration of the theories, addition of the mediating and moderating variable to a research framework is considered a novelty in this study.

REFERENCES

Abas, F. N., & Raji, F. (2018). Factors Contributing to Inefficient Management and Maintenance of Waqf Properties: A Literature Review. UMRAN - International Journal of Islamic and Civilizational Studies, 03, 53–67. https://doi.org/10.11113/umran2018.5n3.233

Abdul Hamid, M. I., & Mohammad, M. T. S. (2014). Waqf property: Concept, Management, Development, and Financing. UTM Press.

Allah Pitchay, A., Mohd Thas Thaker, M. A., Mydin, A. A., Azhar, Z., & Abdul Latiff, A. R. (2018). Cooperative-waqf model: a proposal to develop idle waqf lands in Malaysia. ISRA International Journal of Islamic Finance, 10(2), 225–236. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJIF-07-2017-0012

Awang, M. B., Hamid, N. A., Nazli, I., & Mohd Lotpi, M. Y. (2017). Maqasidic approach in the management of Waqf property: A study with reference to Malaysian contemporary issues. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 25(Special Issue), 301–308.

Barney, J. B. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage.pdf. Journal of Management, Vol. 17, pp. 99–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639101700108

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or decline? Journal of Management, 37(5), 1299–1315. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310391805

Barney, J. B., & Wright, M. (2001). The resource-based view of the firm: Ten years after 1991. Journal of Management, 27, 625–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-2063(01)00114-3

Barney, J., Wright, M., & Ketchen, D. J. (2001). The resource-based view of the firm: Ten years after 1991. Journal of Management, 27(6), 625–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-2063(01)00114-3

Barrutia, J. M., & Echebarria, C. (2015). Resource-based view of sustainability engagement. Global Environmental Change, 34, 70–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.06.009

Bond-Barnard, T. J., Fletcher, L., & Steyn, H. (2018). Linking trust and collaboration in project teams to project management success. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business, 11(2), 432–457. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMPB-06-2017-0068

Bromiley, P., & Rau, D. (2016). Operations management and the resource based view: Another view. Journal of Operations Management, 41, 95–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jom.2015.11.003

Campbell, J. M., & Park, J. (2016). Extending the resource-based view: Effects of strategic orientation toward community on small business performance. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2016.01.013

Chisholm, A. M., & Nielsen, K. (2009). Social Capital and the Resource-Based View of the Firm. International Studies of Management & Organization, 39(2), 7–32. https://doi.org/10.2753/imo0020-8825390201

Dolores M. Frias, Miguel A. Rodriguez, J. Alberto Castaneda, C. M. S. and D. B. (2011). The Importance of Internal Resources and Capabilities and Destination Resources to Explain Firm Competitive Position in the Spanish Tourism Industry. International Journal of Tourism Research. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr

Edi, A. C. (2014). Cross-sector Partnerships Models in Corporate Social Responsibility to Implement Poverty Reduction Initiatives in Indonesia. Bisnis & Birokrasi Journal, 21(2).

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Hitt, M. A., Xu, K., & Carnes, C. M. (2016). Resource based theory in operations management research. Journal of Operations Management, 41, 77–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jom.2015.11.002

Ismail, C. Z., Salim, N. J., & Ahmad Hanafiah, N. J. (2015). Administration and Management of Waqf Land in Malaysia: Issues and Solutions. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 6(4), 613–620. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n4s2p613

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Kamasak, R. (2017). The contribution of tangible and intangible resources, and capabilities to a firm’s profitability and market performance. European Journal of Management and Business Economics, 26(2), 252–275. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJMBE-07-2017-015

Kristandl, G., & Bontis, N. (2007). Constructing a definition for intangibles using the resource based view of the firm. Management Decision, 45(9), 1510–1524. https://doi.org/10.1108/00251740710828744

Lee, Y., Yun, L., Kim, M. L., & Washington, M. (2018). A Qualitative Systematic Review of Public–Private Partnership in Promoting Physical Activity. Evaluation and the Health Professions, 1(34).

https://doi.org/10.1177/0163278718796153 Leisinger, K. M. (2007). Corporate Philanthropy: The “Top of the Pyramid.” Business and Society

Review, 3(112), 315–342. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8594.2007.00299.x Liket, K., & Maas, K. (2016). Strategic Philanthropy: Corporate Measurement of Philanthropic Impacts

as a Requirement for a “Happy Marriage” of Business and Society. Business and Society, 55(6), 889–921. https://doi.org/10.1177/0007650314565356

Liu, G., Ko, W. W., & Chapleo, C. (2018). How and When Socially Entrepreneurial Nonprofit Organizations Benefit From Adopting Social Alliance Management Routines to Manage Social Alliances? Journal of Business Ethics, 151(2), 497–516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3231-6

Masakure, O., Henson, S., & Cranfield, J. (2009). Performance of microenterprises in Ghana: A resource-based view. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 16(3), 466–484.


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https://doi.org/10.1108/14626000910977170 Michelini, L., & Fiorentino, D. (2012). New business models for creating shared value. Social

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ordinary and junk resources. Management Decision, 51(7), 1359–1379. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-05-2012-0392


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Chapter 6

Acute Effects of High-Intensity Exercise on Energy Intake and Appetite Suppression in

Obese Males

Fatin S. Zaini, Safwanudin A. Nordin, Alif N. Jumat & S.M.P. Sharifah Maimunah

Faculty of Sports Science and Recreation, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia

[email protected]

ABSTRACT High intensity exercise has been shown to reduce energy intake by supressing appetite response. However, the effect of different high intensity exercise modalities is relatively unknown. Objective: To investigate the acute effect of high intensity aerobic and

resistance exercise on energy intake, appetite suppression and blood glucose level among obese individual. Method: Twelve obese participants (age 20.8±1 yr, BMI:

34.1±3 kg/m2, VO2 max 30.7±3 ml/kg/min) completed a crossover study with an interval of one week between two 30 min trials in a random order. Participants were required to completed, (1) High Intensity Aerobic Exercise (HIAE) - exercise on cycle ergometer for 30 minutes (80-95% of HRmax), (2) High Intensity Resistance Exercise (HIRE) – completed 8 different exercise of weight lifting (80% of 1RM) and (3) control group – condition after a 10 hour overnight fast except for water. Each participant has answered the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire-R18 (TFEQ-R18), Visual Analog Scale (VAS) of appetite rating, measured blood glucose level and food intake recorded for 24 hours. All data were collected two times (before and after exercise). Result: A significant different

between group on energy intake and uncontrolled eating (p <0.05) were noted. Conclusion: In response to acute exercise, both HIAE and HIRE shows significant

reduction of energy intake and improvement in appetite suppression. However, the effects of HIAE is superior compare to HIRE. Key Words: high-intensity exercise, appetite suppression, aerobic exercise, resistance

exercise and obesity

1. INTRODUCTION The prevalence of obesity has reached epidemic occurrence worldwide, with more than 1.6 billion adults overweight (BMI >25kg/m2) and at least 400 million clinically obese (BMI >30kg/m2) (World Health Organization, 2010). Major factor that lead to obesity is energy imbalance where energy intake is not equal to energy expenditure (Balaguera-Cortes et al., 2011). It is generally accepted that the increasing amount of obesity is due to increase energy intake that parallel with reduction in physical activity or exercise. It is important to


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note that the exercise itself have an influence on the total amount of energy intake. The effect of exercise on subsequent energy intake has been found to be influenced by characteristic of the exercise bout, such as intensity and duration (King et al. 1997b; Kissileff et al. 1990; Pomerleau et al., 2004; Balaguera-Cortes et al., 2011). Besides, another factor that may influence the appetite suppression effect is the modalities of exercise performed. Vigorous exercise (high-intensity cycling or running) has been found to significantly reduce hunger during post-exercise (Martins et al., 2008). Several studies have demonstrated increased in fasting and postprandial levels of the satiety hormone pancreatic polyetide (PP) which promote appetite suppression after aerobic exercise (Dengel et al., 1996; Snowling and Hopkins, 2006; Pratley et al., 2000). In other study done by Broom et al., (2008) and Ballard et al. (2009) appetite suppression also can be obtained from resistance exercise. The appetite suppression effect improves blood glucose level following exercise (Pratley et al., 2000; Rice et al., 1999; Dengel et al., 1996). High intensity exercise has been shown to reduce energy intake by supressing appetite response. However, the effect of different high intensity exercise modalities is relatively unknown. Therefore the purpose of this study is to investigate the acute effect of high intensity aerobic and resistance exercise on appetite suppression and blood glucose level among obese individual.

2. METHOD Participants Twelve obese participants (age 20.8±1 yr, BMI: 34.1±3 kg/m2, VO2 max 30.7±3 ml/kg/min) completed crossover study with an interval of one week between two 30 min trials in a random order. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee (FSR/SR243/038/2018) and conformed to the code of ethics of the Declaration of Helsinki. Participants were thoroughly informed of the protocol and the possible risks and benefits of participation before written informed consent were obtained. Study Design During preliminary visit, the risk and flow of the experimental test were explained and participants were required to complete, (1) High Intensity Aerobic Exercise (HIAE) - exercise on cycle ergometer for 30 minutes (80-95% of HRmax), (2) High Intensity Resistance Exercise (HIRE) – completed 8 different exercise of weight lifting (80% of 1RM) and (3) control group. Experimental testing pre-post tests were performed on different days with 7 days interval. Variable measured included energy intake, subjective appetite response on a visual analog scale (VAS), the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire-Revised 18-items (TFEQ-R18) and blood glucose level. Pre-experimental assessment Antropometric measurement (BMI), body fat measurement [Bioelectrical Impendence Analysis (BIA), r=0.96] and beep test (VO2 max), VO2 max were calculated ; VO2max = 43.313 + 4.567*sex – 0.560*BMI + 2.785*stage (r=0.86) [sex: male = 1 & female = 0] (Silva et al., 2012) Experiment trials Participants were required to record all food and drink consumption to measure normal energy intake. Before experimental trials, participants were required to fast for 10 hours except for water. On the morning of each experimental trials, fasting blood glucose were taken and each participant was provided with standardized breakfast (~442 kcal). The participants were asked to answer Three Factor Eating Questionnaire-R18 (TFEQ-R18), Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). 1 hours after the breakfast session, participants were either


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performed exercise on cycle ergometer for 30 minutes with target 80 – 95% of HRmax for aerobic exercise or completed 8 different exercise of weight lifting with target 80% of 1RM for resistance exercise or control test (rest for 60 minutes). After completed experimental trials, blood glucose and VAS was measured immediately for subjective appetite perception. Participants were provided with standardized lunch (~800 kcal). Participants were instructed to fill in the TFEQ-R18 and record post-exercise dietary intake.

Instrumentation 100mm visual analogue scale (VAS) (Flint et al., 2000) has been used to measure the rate of hunger as appetite response. The questions are divided into 2 types (a) questions on appetite b) questions on palatability of test meals. Three factor eating questionnaire 18 items (TFEQ-R18) (Blandine de Lauzon et al., 2004) were used in this study to measured eating behaviour of the subject. TFEQ-R18 version comprises 3 different scale corresponding to cognitive restraint (CR), emotional eating (EE), and uncontrolled eating (UE). 24-h food diary is been used to measure dietary energy intake pre-post exercise testing. All information from dietary intake were calculated and converted into kilo calorie (kcal) following the guidelines references from the Ministry of Health Malaysia. Blood glucose monitor been used to measure participants blood glucose response (One Touch Model Ultra, LifeScan, Milpitas, California). Statistical Analysis Descriptive statistics was used to report the findings of this study. The main data analysis in present study was analysed using (ANOVA: Repeated Measures, Within Between Interaction). Analysis of data was conducted using Statistical Packaging for Social Science (SPSS) with significant accepted at P<0.05. 3. RESULT

Table 1 Overall results of this study HIAE HIRE Control

F(df)

Between

Within Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post

Dietary Intake (kcal)

2476.7 ± 261.4

1044.2 ± 338.9

1413.5 ±155.6

963.4 ± 263.4

2297.0 ± 212.8

2329.5 ± 265.1

F(1,33)= 213.9

p <.05* p <.05

Cognitive Restrain

34.7 ± 29.7

45.2 ± 26.4

44.4 ± 12.5

60.4 ± 16.3

30.0 ± 33.6

59.7 ± 26.1

F(1,33)= 13.5

p >.05 p <.05

Uncontrolled Eating

37.0 ± 14.3

57.9 ± 20.0

66.7 ± 20.1

45.6 ± 12.8

45.6 ± 12.8

54.4 ± 12.6

F(1,33)= 0.9

p <.05* p >.05

Emotional Eating

41.7 ± 18.0

56.9 ± 11.1

39.8 ± 13.8

68.3 ± 15.9

19.4 ± 33.2

25.0 ± 15.1

F(1,33)= 15.8

p >.05 p <.05

Visual Analog Scale (VAS)

48.8 ± 9.9

45.4 ± 7.4

47.5 ± 5.4

51.0 ± 6.9

48.8 ± 4.3

48.1 ± 3.9

F(1,33)= 0.009

p >.05 p >.05

Blood Glucose

4.8 ± 0.5

5.2 ± 0.6

4.8 ± 0.3

4.9 ± 0.3

4.9 ± 0.2

5.1 ± 0.3

F(1,33)= 9.2

p >.05 p <.05

* Significant interaction between groups p<.05


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Table 2 Pairwise comparison between groups

Mean Different Sig

Dietary Intake

HIAE Control -552.8 .048 * HIRE Control -1124.8 .001 * HIAE HIRE 572.0 .001 *

Uncontrolled Eating

HIAE Control -2.5 .201 HIRE Control 6.1 .003 * HIAE HIRE -8.7 .001 *

* Significant at p<.05 HIAE = High Intensity Aerobic Exercise HIRE = High Intensity Resistance Exercise

4. DISCUSSION The results revealed that there is a significant difference between groups in dietary intake (DI). The reduction of energy intake can be observed following HIAE and HIRE compare to control group. This finding is been supported by previous research which stated that, acute high intensity exercise elicits physiologic responses of appetite hormones, such as the immune and stress system that account for post-exercise appetite suppression (Hunschede et al., 2017). Besides that, acute high intensity exercise does not increase hunger, the desire to eat (King et al., 2012) because the appetite and energy intake responses to exercise interventions delineate the appetitive change in exercise-induce weight management (Dorling et al., 2018). Physiologically, increased amount of PYY hormone secreted in the body, increase the suppression of appetite. Other study that supported the findings is done by Martin et al., 2007). In his study, 1 hours cycling at 65% of maximal HR (aerobic exercise) significantly increased plasma levels of the anorexigenic hormones PYY and GLP-1 resulted in a subsequent decrease in hunger. Other appetite hormones are involved in this action that changed the hormonal response of obese individuals which are ghrelin. Ghrelin are appetite hormone that secreted from endocrine cell in the stomach and other tissues cell. Acylation of ghrelin is essential for appetite regulation. According to Ueda et al. (2009), PYY, GLP-1 and ghrelin play roles in short-term regulation of appetite and energy homeostasis. Thus, from this finding the suppression of appetite after HIAE and HIRE caused by the change in acylated ghrelin response which decrease and PYY that increase.

TFEQ- 18 is the psychological response that has been used to measure eating behaviour of the obese individuals in this study. Uncontrolled eating is the only factor of TFEQ-18 that shows significant result between groups. Based on the result HIAE and HIRE have positive effect in controlling appetite compare to control group. Previous study also stated that acute exercise-induced energy deficits do not create an automatic drive to increase hunger (King et al., 2017). Next factor of TFEQ-R18 is cognitive restraint. Cognitive restraint referred to mind control over food intake in order to loosing or maintaining body weight. There is no significant difference between groups for cognitive restraint. This result is contradict with previous study. Researcher speculate that lack of motivation to lose weight among obese participants lead to such outcome. According to Martins et al. (2008), exercise effect is more effective in creating a negative energy balance in restrained eaters compared with unrestrained eaters; while unrestrained eater increases their energy intake after exercise, restrained eater tends to decrease their energy intake. So, the cognitive restraint of someone are depends on individual mind set or mind control not fully because of exercise itself. Emotional eating also has shown no significant difference between groups. The intensity of the exercise influences the emotional response perceived by the participants. According to (Hill et al., 2013) exercise at or above 60% of an individual’s maximal oxygen


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consumption (VO2 max) generally produces a significant increase in circulating cortisol that has been related to stress response.

Other than that, exercise also helped to reduce glucose level in the body. Many studies showed an improvement of glucose level following exercise. In a study done by Rice (2000), aerobically trained individuals demonstrate decreased glucose level following exercise. In other studies, single exercise bout is associated with significant improvements in insulin sensitivity (Rice et al.,1999); and exercise training showing effect in glucose control in diabetic patients (Snowling et al., 2006). However, present study shows there is no significant difference of blood glucose level between groups following exercise interventions but there is significant increases from pre to post test for HIAE group. According to (Adams, 2013), during intense exercise (>80% VO2max), catecholamine levels rise markedly, causing glucose production to rise. When there is a physically or emotionally stressed, adrenal glands send catecholamines into blood that lead to production of heptic glucose from the process of gluconeogenesis. In the other words, infusing catecholamine is associated with enhanced rates of aerobic glycolysis (resulting in adenosine triphosphate production), glucose release (both from glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis), and inhibit of insulin mediated glycogenesis (Barth et al., 2007).

5. CONCLUSION In response to acute exercise, both HIAE and HIRE shows significant reduction of energy intake and improvement in appetite suppression. However, the effects of HIAE is superior compare to HIRE. REFERENCES

Adams, P. (2013). The impact of brief high-intensity exercise on blood glucose levels. Diabetes,

Metabolic Syndrome and Obesity: Targets and Therapy,113. doi:10.2147/dmso.s29222 Alizadeh, Z., Mostafaee, M., Mazaheri, R., & Younespour, S. (2015). Acute Effect of Morning and

Afternoon Aerobic Exercise on Appetite of Overweight Women. Asian Journal of Sports Medicine,6(2). doi:10.5812/asjsm.6(2)20156.24222

Anglé, S., Engblom, J., Eriksson, T., Kautiainen, S., Saha, M., Lindfors, P., . . . Rimpelä, A. (2009). Three factor eating questionnaire-R18 as a measure of cognitive restraint, uncontrolled eating and emotional eating in a sample of young Finnish females. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity,6(1), 41. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-6-41

Balaguera-Cortes, L., Wallman, K. E., Fairchild, T. J., & Guelfi, K. J. (2011). Energy intake and appetite-related hormones following acute aerobic and resistance exercise. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism,36(6), 958-966. doi:10.1139/h11-121

Ballard, T. P., Melby, C. L., Camus, H., Cianciulli, M., Pitts, J., Schmidt, S., & Hickey, M. S. (2009). Effect of resistance exercise, with or without carbohydrate supplementation, on plasma ghrelin concentrations and postexercise hunger and food intake. Metabolism,58(8), 1191-1199.

doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2009.03.018


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Chapter 7

Millennials and Z Generations Talent at the

Workplace Interest

Rogis Bakera, Hasimi Sallehuddinb, Hasan Al-Banna Mohameda,

Hazril Izwar Ibrahimd, Ahmad Azan Ridzuana

& Norlaila Mazura Mohaiyadina

aFaculty of Defence Studies & Management, Universiti Pertahanan

Nasional Malaysia. bFaculty of Information Science & Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

cCollege of Business Management & Accounting, Universiti Tenaga Nasional. dSchool of Management, Universiti Sains Malaysia.

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Human nature and the fundamental features of our conduct are often contrary to organisational and corporate demands to achieve and maintain competitiveness. The varying employment values between different generations of today's workplace problems with corporate management, and staff experts contribute to the complexity of the workplace. This article empirically discusses a comparison of the millennials and generation Z talent in workplace interest. An integrated literature review technique was used to define and analyse the appropriate literature. This study is a step forward in understanding the comparison of differentiating characteristics values between the workforce interest of Gen Y and Gen Z. Key Words: millennials, Y generation, Z generation, workplace, interest

1. INTRODUCTION In early 21st Century, jobs were characterised by the traditional generations, such asbaby boomers, Generation X, Generation Y and Generation Z (Dick, 2019). At present, the characteristic features of Generation Y and Generation Z are being addressed by more and more research studies (Bencsik et al., 2016). The Generation Y (Gen- Y) is also known as the millennium generation, who are born around 1980 to 2000. Meanwhile, the Generation Z (Gen-Z) was born between 1995 and 2010 (Dick, 2019; Schäffer, 2012; Zemke et al., 2000). The development of Industry 4.0 technologies – from electronics and Internet of things (IoT) to artificial intelligence and cognitive intelligence – has changed the job essence, while the


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political upheavals are challenging the existing world order. In this setting, millennials and Gen Z yearn for rulers whose choices may profit the world, and their lives. In spite of the similarities, there are significant differences between the two generations. These distinctions tend to be highlighted in the commercial setting when several issues occur in the cooperative system at workplaces – particularly in the information sharing and information transfer sector that concerns the features of the two generations (Bencsik et al., 2016). In achieving cooperation between the different age groups, managing conflicts that stems from generational problems are aggravating factors in the challenge. Nowadays, managing the requirements of both youngest age groups to serve their interest of sharing knowledge by meeting their requirements is quite current and unsolved (Bencsik et al., 2016). Corporate solutions are specifically formed in management by the youngest age groups. Such options include options for atypical employment, a home office or the use of technical machinery that was not previously typical, or ergonomics. As the organisational environment option was returned to the front, other options, such as satellite job, hot desk, joint desk, open space, break-out or mobile centres were again made available (Singh, 2014). According to Zaharee et al. (2018), distinctions between millennials and previous generations were perhaps overstated at least in terms of workforce expectations, in which experts who are both in early and later careers mostly want comparable workplace characteristics and possibilities for career growth. The Deloitte (2018) survey involved 10,455 interviews on emerging and developed global markets across 36 countries The results proposed that younger employees need favourable explanations to remain with their employers; they need a realistic chance that by remaining faithful, they will, in the long run, be materially better off - and, like other people, grow quicker and more fully than if they quit. 61% said that they would quit within two years if they had their options. Employed Gen Z participants conveyed even less elegance. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Youngest Generation Characteristics The ‘Y' arises from the word ‘youth’ in English. They were the first phase of the software universe in the digital generation (Bencsik et al., 2016). Now they are the biggest generation, making development programmes maintenance that confront retirement baby boomers critical to R&D organisations in terms of finding the way to attract and retain them (Zaharee et al., 2018). Multi-tasking, multi-side, and mutual care values characterise Gen Y (Schäffer, 2015). According to Weinbaum, Girven and Oberholtzer (2016), the GenY is also the most qualified, educated, and interconnected generation in history, and thus makes them very desirable. They are digitally knowledgeable, so the prompt use of fresh IT instruments and equipment is simple for them. They can accept changes easily, live for today, do not like to plan long stages, and want to understand onself in one’s world.

Generation Z is referred to as Gen Z or iGeneration (Dick, 2019). This is the first generation to be fully digitalised (Johnston, 2013; Padayachee, 2018). According to Tari (2011), Gen Z has the characteristics of the "Net Generation" due to the highly developed digital era in which they are born. They have also been characterised as "Facebook Generation," "digital natives" or sometimes "iGeneration." 2.2 Comparison of workplace interests among generations Related literature showed distinctions between generations because of their phase of existence (Anderson et al., 2017, Lyon & Kuron, 2014). In the workforce, these variations in job quality cause conflicts (Dick, 2019). In addition to philosophical distinctions and treaties, millennials and participants from Gen Z recognise several concrete variables that lead to employers allegiance that may seem hypocritical, considering the group's emotions about


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businesses that are motivated mainly by earnings, but it is truly compatible with the concept that employers should "share the assets," provide excellent employment, and improve the lives of employees. It also reflects the fact that millennials can save their children's post-secondary education and struggle to purchase large ticket items, especially housing, the cost of which has far outperformed wages in much of the world. Zaharee et al. (2018) recognised six types of reward that young generations consider about prospective employers:

a) Salary and Benefits

Financial benefits are at the top of the list for millennials — at least in terms of considering working for an employer (Zaharee et al., 2018). Attraction and retention of millennials and Gen Z start with financial rewards and the culture of the workforce. It is improved when companies and their senior leadership are varied, and when the workforce provides greater flexibility. Those who are less happy with their salary and job flexibility are progressively drawn to the gig economy (Deloitte, 2018). For Gen Z who has fewer financial obligations, monetary rewards are second to the desire to be part of a 'positive workplace culture’ (Deloitte, 2018). Gen Z is not aware of the notion of struggle as compared to Gen Y (Bencsik et al., 2016). GenY and GenZ are suspicious, since they do not assist each other, and only create superficial links (Elmore, 2014).

b) Professional development opportunities

Gen Y and Gen Z showed that the turnover of employees has improved in the absence of development, acceptance, and progress (Pietersen & Oni, 2014). Deloitte's (2016) survey discovered that growth possibilities were the main motivator for wage and other economic advantages; 71% of those who stated that they were inclined to be out of work in the next two years were dissatisfied with the growth of their management abilities. Training opportunities and career development plans are a source of inspiration for employees, and strengthen their loyalty to the organisation (Cloutier et al., 2015).

c) Purposeful work

Significant work is a proven motivator and a millennial priority (Zaharee et al., 2018). Rakic and Zivkovic (2017) recognised motivation and staff fulfilment as the main fields of concern to human resource professionals. Employee motivators are prominent in the knowledge of human resource professionals, and are precursors to workers ' employment values in terms of the extrinsic values that motivate Gen Y, and the inherent values that motivate Gen Z (Khatri & Dixit, 2016). Human resources professionals should make a constant and concerted effort to motivate and engage all employees across generational lines and to adapt their needs in today's evolving workplace (Schullery, 2013).

d) Flexible work arrangements

In the Deloitte study (2016), 88% said they wanted better opportunities to start work and finish work at their time of choice, and 75% said they wanted to work from home or other places where they are more productive. Several surveys have verified the basic factors driving millennial staff to discover job elsewhere, including autonomy, personal freedom to balance job and life, and a flexible job schedule (Coates, 2017; Queiri etal., 2014).

e) Organizational ethos Employees at all senior levels have difficulty in understanding the work ethic of their colleagues from different ages (Sullivan, et al., 2013). Wiedmer (2015) recommended a leadership strategy that minimises harmful work ethics aspects and maximises each generation's favourable working ethics. The Deloitte (2016) study identified


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respondents as the most important corporate values, in which companies place employees first and have a firm foundation of trust and integrity, high-quality customer service, reliable products, attention to the environment, and social responsibility. Table 1 shows the observed features which constitute a threat in regard to

information sharing and intergenerational governance (Bencsik & Machova, 2016).

Table 1 Generational behaviors of various groups of age. Source: Bencsik & Machova, 2016. Y generation Z generation

View Egotistic, short term. Do not feel committed, be

pleased with what you have and reside for the present

Relationship Primarily virtual, network Virtual and shallow

Aim Rivalry for leader position Live in the present

Self-realization Immediate Questions about the need

Information Technology Part of its everyday life Intuitive

Values

The focus will be on flexibility, mobility, wide but superficial understanding, achievement

direction and creativity.

Live for the current, fast response to everything, initiator,

courageous, quick access to data and content search

Other possible characteristics

Desire for autonomy, no regard for tradition, search for fresh types of

understanding, reverse socialization, arrogance, house and part-time

work, provisional leadership, undervalued soft abilities and EQ

Different points of view, absence of thought, happiness,

enjoyment, split attention, absence of rational reasoning,

absence of desire to make sense of stuff, overlap in the limits of job and leisure, feel at home

anywhere.

Employers have to face the fact that the Gen Z will choose careers that concern

them, and not because they want to meet the requirements of anyone. The result of this behaviour is intrinsic motivation; and they have a tough enterprising stance, and they want to have an impact on the setting. At the same time, their main professional goals are work-life equilibrium and career sustainability (Bencsik et al., 2016). Human resources professionals may apply Maslow's hypothesis when studying employee retention and skill development (Dick, 2019). Acevedo (2018) described the concept of Maslow as rooted in natural requirements and dictated that staff will do what is correct if it is consistent with their individual personal requirements.

3. DISCUSSION Participants from the Gen Y attained antipathy in their environments and trigger dispute scenarios by their self-confidence, their convictions that do not accept critique or contradiction, their overconfidence, and their longing for careers (Bencsik et al., 2016). Gen Y and Gen Z are suspicious; they do not help each other because they make connections only superficially (Elmore, 2014). The exciting outcome is that the two generations nearest to each other can function with the least connection (Bencsik et al., 2016). However, the study draws attention to several thought-provoking issues. Research has described the chance that cooperation between different age groups could provide not only dispute, but


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also positive results for the organisation of which the additive use of HR has important tasks. 4. CONCLUSION

HR managers need to face fresh duties to attract and retain youthful staff and guarantee the exchange of information that is essential to competitiveness (Bencsik et al., 2016). To motivate their multi-generational staff, HR managers should investigate the differences in the operating standards of generations. Establishment of values such as patience, comprehension, sympathy; re-arrangement of the organisation; and creating a technical context to all major management problems; are such modifications all organisations must begin preparing for this moment. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work was supported by Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia.

REFERENCES

Anderson, H., Bauer, J., Griffith, J., & Buckley, M. (2017). What works for you may not work for (Gen) Me: Limitations of present leadership theories for the new generation. The Leadership Quarterly, 28 (1), 245-260.

Bencsik, A., Horváth-Csikós, G., & Juhász, T. (2016). Y and Z generations at workplaces. Journal of Competitiveness, 8 (3), 90 - 106.

Bencsik, A., & Machova, R. (2016). Knowledge sharing problems from the viewpoint of intergeneration management. In ICMLG2016-4th International Conference on Management, Leadership and Governance: ICMLG2016 (p. 42). St Petersburg, Russia: Academic Conferences and Publishing Limited.

Cloutier, O., Felusiak, L., Hill, C., & Pemberton-Jones, E. (2015). The importance of developing strategies for employee retention. Journal of Leadership, Accountability and Ethics, 12(2), 119-129.

Coates, T. L. (2017). Hearing the voices of Generation Y employees: A hermeneutic phenomenological study. Human Resource Development International, 20 (1), 37-67.

Deloitte (2018). The 2018 Deloitte Millennial Survey: Millennials disappointed in business, unprepared for Industry 4.0. Retrieved from: https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/global/Documents/About-Deloitte/gx-2018-millennial-survey-report.pdf

Dick, S. D. (2019). A study of the generational differences in work values of generations X, Y, and Z. (Doctoral dissertation). Northcentral University, San Diego, California.

Elmore, T. (2014). How generation Z differs from generation Y. Retrieved July 01, 2015, from

http://growingleaders.com/blog/generation-z-differs-generation-y/. Johnston, K. (2013). A guide to educating different generations in South Africa. Issues in Information

Science and Information Technology, 10, 261-273. Khatri, K., & Dixit, N. (2016). Managing aspiration of generation Y and generation Z at work place.

Khoj: Journal of Indian Management Research & Practices, Special Issue 2016, 65-69.

Lyons, S., & Kuron, L. (2014). Generational differences in the workplace: A review of the evidence and directions for future research. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35(S1), S123-S157.

Padayachee, K. (2018). The myths and realities of generational cohort theory on ICT integration in education: A South African perspective. The African Journal of Information Systems, 19(1), 54-84.

Pietersen, C., & Oni, O. A. (2014). Employee turnover in a local government department. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5 (2), 141-153.

Queiri, A., Yusoff, W. F. W., & Dwaikat, N. (2014). Generation-Y employees’ turnover: Workvalues fit perspective. International Journal of Business and Management, 9 (11), 199-213.


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Rakic, T., & Zivkovic, S. (2017). Hierarchy of needs and correlation connections as an important element of successful employees’ motivation. Ekonomika, 63(4), 61-73.

Schäffer, B. (2015). A legifjabb titánok. Hungary: Book Kiadó. Schäffer, B. (2012). Ifjú titánok. Budapest: Könyvműhely Kiadó. Schullery, N. M. (2013). Workplace engagement and generational differences in values. Business

Communication Quarterly, 76(2), 252-265. Singh, A. (2014). Challenges and Issues of Generation Z. Journal of Business and Management, 16

(7), 59-63. Sullivan Havens, D., Warshawsky, N. E., & Vasey, J. (2013). RN work engagement in generational

cohorts: The view from rural US hospitals. Journal of Nursing Management, 21 (7), 927-940. Weinbaum, C., Girven, R. S., & Oberholtzer, J. (2016). The millennial generation: Implications for the

intelligence and policy communities. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.

Wiedmer, T. (2015). Generations do differ: Best practices in leading traditionalists, boomers, and generations X, Y, and Z. Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 82(1), 51-58.

Zaharee, M., Lipkie, T., Mehlman, S. K., & Neylon, S. K. (2018). Recruitment and retention of early-career technical talent: What young employees want from employers a study of the workplace attributes that attract early-career workers suggests that millennials may not be so different from earlier generations. Research-Technology Management, 61 (5), 51-61.


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Chapter 8

Beliefs and Subjective Values in Nurturing

Young Ten-Pin Bowlers

Ting Pei Yi1, Chin Ngien Siong2 & Garry Kuan3

1Institute of Teacher Education Tun Abdul Razak Campus 2Institut of Teacher Education Batu Lintang Campus

3School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia

[email protected]

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to explore the motivation processes by utilising the Expectancy-value Model of Achievement Choice (Eccles et al., 1983) in ten-pin bowling. This study examined gender, age groups and race differences of ten-pin bowlers’ expectancy beliefs and subjective task values. The participants comprised of 100 young bowlers aged 13 to 21 years old. The athletes completed the expectancy-value questionnaire assessing their expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values. The independent sample t-test and one-way ANOVA were utilised to analyse the data. The independent sample t-test showed that there was no significant gender difference in expectation beliefs, t(98) = .41, p = .68 and subjective task value, t(98) = .95, p = .34. However, one-way ANOVA showed that there was a significant difference in expectancy beliefs, F(2,97) = 17.06, p = .001 and utility value, F(2,97) = 17.06, p =.001. Post Hoc Tukey’s HSD showed that 19-21 age group displayed

higher expectancy beliefs (6.16 + .49) and utility value (6.26 + .74) as compared to the 13-15 age group (4.88 + 1.24; 5.31 + 1.40) and 16-18 age group (5.29 + .82; 5.98 + 1.14) respectively. However, the one-way ANOVA showed no significant difference between races in expectancy beliefs, F(3,96) = 2.91, p = .40 and subjective task values, F(3,96) = 1.11, p = .35. The findings recommend the adaptation of a mastery environment that can enhance learning, self-improvement and enjoyment so that bowlers and significant others can work together to achieve higher success in bowling.

Key Words: expectancy beliefs, subjective task values, bowling, achievement choice

1. INTRODUCTION

When we talk about nurturing young athletes, expectancy beliefs and subjective task values play an important role to motivate athletes to perform and achieve better results in their sport by using the expectancy-value model of achievement choice (Eccles et al., 1983). The Eccles et al. (1993)’s expectancy-value theory refers to motivated behaviour that is characterised by voluntary choices, persevering effort, and achievement, which are related



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with one's perceived expectancy of success and values in certain activities (Eccles & Wigfield, 1995). The achievement-belief and behaviours of the athletes are influenced by their expectancies to become success. For example, athletes’ evaluation of their ability in different tasks during training and their sense of performance in their given tasks (Chin et al., 2019). Whereas, the subjective task values refer to the perceived value a task may provide for present and future goals, in which the values are placed by an individual on their success in a domain or task. The task values are attainment, intrinsic, utility and cost (Chin et al., 2009).

The purpose of this study is to determine the expectancy beliefs and subjective task values among young bowlers, which requires an understanding of both theoretical and applied perspective in examine the psychological processes underlying their motivation. This study utilised the Expectancy value model of achievement choice (Eccles et al., 1983) to provide the theoretical framework to examine the motivational processes of the ten-pin bowlers. The Eccles et al. (1983) expectancy-value model of achievement choice is a social-cognitive theory which explains motivational factors that individuals use in making decisions about achievement-related choices.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW Expectancy-related beliefs The first determinant of achievement choice in Eccles et al. (1993)’s expectancy-value model is expectancy-related beliefs. Expectancy-related beliefs consist of both expectancies for success and beliefs about ability. Expectancy for success focuses on the general question “Can l do this task? (Eccles, 2006). Expectancies of success are similar to efficacy expectations or children’s confidence in being successful at a specific achievement activity or task (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). Eccles et al. (1983) defined expectancies for success as individuals’ beliefs about how well they will do on upcoming tasks, either in the immediate or longer-term future and are closely related to their beliefs about ability. They defined beliefs about ability as the individual’s perception of his or her current competence at a given activity or the children’s evaluation of their ability in different achievement tasks. In this model, ability beliefs and expectancies for success are distinguished theoretically in that ability beliefs are seen as broad beliefs about competence in a given domain, in contrast to one's expectancies for success on a specific upcoming task (Wigfield et al., 2006). Ability beliefs focus on present ability and expectancies for success in the future. The Eccles et al. (1983) expectancy-value model shows that children and adolescents do not distinguish between these two levels of beliefs (Wigfield et al., 2006). Conley (2007) stated that expectancies and ability beliefs are considered competence-related beliefs as they are empirically indistinguishable and highly related to each other in real-world achievement situations even though they can be theoretically distinguished from each other.

Subjective task values The second determinant of achievement choice in Eccles et al. (1983) expectancy-value model is subjective task values. Subjective task value beliefs focus on the general question “Why am l doing this task?” (Eccles, 2006; Wigfield et al., 2006). Subjective task values are defined as incentives for engaging in different tasks (Xiang, McBride & Bruene, 2006). There are three different motivational components of subjective task values. The four components are attainment value or importance, intrinsic value or interest and utility value or usefulness associated with engaging in the task.


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The Relationship between expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values A number of large-scale correlational studies were conducted to investigate how children’s expectancies for success, ability beliefs and subjective task values change across school years, and how children’s beliefs and values relate to their performance and activity choice (Eccles et al., 1983; Eccles & Wigfield, 1995; Wigfield et al., 1997). These studies which used both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs have consistently showed positive relationship between expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values that cut across achievement domains such as Mathematics, English, reading, music, sports and physical education in the expectancy-value model of achievement choice (Eccles et al., 1983; Gao, 2007; Gao & Xiang, 2008; Wigfield et al., 1997). This fact represents a departure from older expectancy-value theories that assumed that expectancy and task value beliefs are negatively related (Miller, 2004). Eccles and her colleagues have posited that expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values would be positively related to each other (Eccles et al., 1993; Eccles, Wigfield & Schiefele, 1998). In other words, individuals tend to see the activity as more important, interest and useful if they do well and believe they are competent on the activity (Gao & Xiang, 2008). Further study by Gao and Xiang (2008) also revealed positive relationships among expectancy-related beliefs and three subjective task values (importance, interest and usefulness) indicating that students who scored higher on expectancy-related beliefs in weight training tended to see it as more useful, important and interesting than students who scored lower on expectancy-related beliefs. This positive link demonstrated that students who scored higher on expectancy-related beliefs regarding sports and physical education tended to see it as more useful, important and interesting (Gao, 2007). 3. METHODOLOGY

3.1. Participants and Instrument This study comprised of 100 bowlers aged 13 – 20 years old. They were 46 males and 54 females. Permissions were obtained from the Amateur Bowling Association of Sarawak (ABAS) before the research was conducted, and the participation was voluntary. For the data collection in this study, the instruments utilised was the expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values. The expectancy and subjective task values measures were adapted from instruments developed and used by Eccles et al. (1983); Xiang et al., (2003); Xiang, McBride and Bruene (2006). The expectancy-related Beliefs and Subjective Task Values Measures The expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values measures were developed by Eccles et al. (1983). The questionnaire consists of 11 items assessing athletes’ self-perceptions of their ability, expectations of becoming success, intrinsic value, attainment value and utility value. All these items are measured on a 7-point Likert scales anchored at both ends. The expectancy-related beliefs measure comprised of expectancy-related beliefs and expectancy for success subscales meanwhile, the subjective task values measures comprised of attainment value, utility value and intrinsic value subscales. The following is a brief description of each of the subscales in this questionnaire: 1. Expectancy-related beliefs: The athletes were asked three questions to assess their

general ability in athletics. For example, “How good are you at physical activities and training in athletics?” (1 = not at all good, 7 = very good)

2. Expectancies for success: The athletes were asked two questions to assess expectancies for success in athletics. For example, “How well do you think you will learn physical activities and training in athletics this year?” (1 = not at all well, 7 = very well).


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3. Attainment value or importance: The athletes were asked two questions to assess the importance of doing well on a task in athletics. For example, “For me, being good at physical activities and training in athletics is …”(1 = not very important, 7 = very important).

4. Intrinsic or interest value: The athletes were asked two questions to assess the enjoyment or satisfaction inherent in engaging in an activity. For example, “In general, l finds learning new physical activities and training in Athletics is …” (1 = very boring, 7 = very fun).

5. Utility value or usefulness: The athletes were asked two questions to assess perceived usefulness of a task to them. For example, “Compared to your other school subjects, how useful is what you learn in Athletics? (1 = not at all useful, 7 = very useful).

3.2. Data Collection Procedures The questionnaires were printed and prepared together with cover letters and pencils. The questionnaires were distributed to the bowlers with the help of the coaches. The researcher also assured the confidentiality of the bowlers, verbal instructions were given by the researcher on how to administer the questionnaire to the bowlers.

3.4. Psychometric Properties of the Questionnaire The internal consistency of the expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values subscales were assessed using the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. Table 1 shows the reliability of expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values. The result shows high internal consistency which exceeded the minimum acceptable cut-off of .70 (Nunally, 1978) with alpha values of .901 for expectancy-related beliefs and .834 for subjective task values.

Table 1 Reliability for expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values

Scale Cronbach Alpha Coefficient

Overall Expectancy-beliefs and subjective task values questionnaire

.820

Expectancy-related /Beliefs .901

Subjective Task Values .834

3.5. Data Analysis Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the data. The data was coded and analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS). Descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage, means and standard deviations were used to report the data. Independent sample t test and one-way ANOVA were used to determine if any statistical differences existed between expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values among gender, age groups and races. 4. RESULTS & DISCUSSION The demographic characteristics of the participants are shown in Table 1. A total of 100 participants (male = 46, female = 54) were involved in this study. The participants were divided into 3 age groups where 48% of the participants aged between 13-15 years old, 19% of them aged between 16-18 years old, and 33% of the participants were aged between 19-21 years old. the majority of the participants were Malays (n = 40), followed by Dayak (n = 25), Chinese (n = 18) and others (n = 17).


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Table 2. Demographic characteristics of the participants

Characteristics N %

Gender Male

Female 46 54

46 54

Age Groups 13 – 15 16 – 18 19 – 21

48 19 33

48 19 33

Races

Malay Chinese Dayak Others

40 18 25 17

40 18 25 17

Table 3 shows no significant differences between male and female in expectancy-

related beliefs, t(98) = .41, p = .68. The result also showed that there was no significant differences in subjective task values between male and female, t(98) = .95, p = .34.

Table 3. Independent sample t-test on expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values between

genders

Variable Male Female t-test

M SD M SD t df P

Expectancy-related beliefs

5.44 1.04 5.34 1.18 .41 98 .68

Subjective task values 3.51 .75 3.38 .62 .95 98 .34

Utility value 5.73 1.20 5.77 1.27 1.62 98 .87

Attainment value 5.78 1.04 5.82 1.04 .63 98 .86

Intrinsic value 6.07 1.13 6.07 1.03 1.24 98 .99

Table 4 shows significant differences for expectancy-related beliefs and utility values among age groups, F(2,97) = 17.06, p = .001, F(2,97) = 6.82, p = .001. The participants within the age 19-21 have higher expectancy beliefs and utility value (6.16 ± 0.49; 6.26 ± 0.74) compared to the participants aged 16 – 18 years old (5.29 ± 0.82; 5.98 ± 1.14) and 13 -15 years old (4.88 ± 1.24; 5.31 ± 1.40). However, there were no significant differences for attainment value F(2,97) = 2.21, p = .12 and intrinsic value F(2,97) = 1.26, p = .29 among age groups.

Table 4. One way Anova of expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values on age groups

Variable Age Groups

F P value 13 – 15 16-18 19-21


4.88 (1.24)

5.29 (.82)

6.16 (.49)

17.06 .001*

Subjective task values 3.46 (.72)

3.60 (.65)

3.30 (.63)

1.24 .29

Utility value 5.31 (1.40)

5.98 (1.14)

6.26 (.74)

6.82 .001*

Attainment value 5.60 (1.10)

5.82 (.95)

6.10 (.96)

2.21 .12

Intrinsic Value 6.24 (1.04)

6.00 (.87)

5.86 (1.21)

1.26 .29

Table 4 shows the one-way ANOVA for expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values among races revealed no significant differences among different races, F(3,96) = 2.91, p = .40; F(3,96) = 1.11, p = .35 respectively.


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Table 5. One way Anova of expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values on races

Variable Races F P value

Malay Chinese Dayak Others


5.03 (1.29)

5.48 (1.02)

5.53 (.90)

5.91 (.85)

2.91 .40

Subjective task values 3.34 (.63)

3.42 (.68)

3.40 (.70)

3.70 (.74)

1.11 .35

Utility value 5.45 (1.35)

6.06 (1.14)

5.76 (1.00)

6.12 (1.28)

1.69 .18

Attainment value 5.63 (1.07)

5.97 (1.10)

5.92 (.93)

5.88 (1.07)

.69 .56

Intrinsic Value 6.04 (1.21)

6.19 (.88)

6.10 (1.11)

5.97 (0.94)

.79 .50

Discussion In assessing the differences in expectancy-relates beliefs and subjective task values to gender, age groups and races, it was found that there were no significant differences between male and female in expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values. However, the study showed that participants within the age of 19-21 years old had a higher expectancy-related beliefs and utility value compared to other age groups. In addition, no significant differences were found for expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values among races. Expectancy-related beliefs The results obtained in this study showed that there were no significant differences between gender in expectancy-related beliefs and subjective task values. Gender differences in both beliefs and subjective task values will emerge early in the children’s development years but get smaller with age (Eccles, 2006). The learning environment which focuses on personal accomplishments based on their personalised training programmes as well as equal opportunities given to participate by the coaches and the sports authorities have helped enhance their feelings of competence in athletics and motivation (Frederick & Eccles, 2002). The Olympic Council of Malaysia also strongly supports the International Olympic Council’s gender fairness/equality initiative and it encourages, promotes and develops opportunities for women in sports and sport-related activities at all levels. These changes have a positive effect on girls who view athletics as appropriate for both genders. Thus, it is necessary to ensure that girls have confidence in their ability to be successful in athletics. It is also important that they perceive themselves as competent and are able to engage in physical activity (Daigle, 2003). On the contrary, the study shows significant differences in expectancy related beliefs among age group where older athletes tend to have higher beliefs compared to younger athletes. This finding is congruent to findings from the previous study (Xiang, McBride & Bruene, 2006), which showed older athletes have high expectancy beliefs. The reason for this could be because older athletes show signs of maturity that focus on long term goals where success is determined by their amount of effort and time invested in sport. To achieve long term success, they must strive on hard work regardless of ability, prevail further in their performance and persist over time (Chin, Khoo & Low, 2012). William (2013) stated that a student’s or an athlete’s biggest desire is to be treated equally by their coach or teacher without judging their backgrounds. Therefore, physical education (PE) teachers and coaches play a vital role in motivating them to be involved in sports. The finding shows that there were no significant differences in expectancy-related beliefs among races. This concludes that athletes were treated equally by their coaches.


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Subjective task values The results of the study showed that there was no significant difference in subjective task values between male and female. This study is in line with the previous study by Gao (2007); Xiang, McBride & Bruene (2006) which showed that there were no significant differences in subjective task values between male and female. The likely reason is athletics has never been stereotyped as gender-bias, dominated by a particular gender. Even at the school level, students of both genders are given equal access and attention to train and learn together as a team. The results of this study are supportive of the belief that sports are increasingly seen as a gender-neutral activity which will lead to greater persistence, enjoyment and satisfaction in athletic participation (Duda et al., 1995). The non-significant difference in beliefs and task values among age groups could be due to the role of significant others. The role of significant others such as coaches, parents and teachers could represent another source of positive influence in these adolescents’ athletes as proven by previous studies (Fredricks & Eccles, 2002; Stuart, 1997). Coaches could have helped the athletes achieve some success through task-oriented performance by providing positive and accurate feedback. They could have also made training fun by introducing interesting, meaningful and challenging activities that are pitched at the athletes’ skill levels. The benefit of sports and the opportunities provided would also have enhanced the adolescent athletes’ involvement in athletics. As children get older usefulness in sports is likely to become a strong predictor of their involvement in different activities (Wigfield, 1994). From the perspective of races, the findings showed no significant differences. According to Chin, Khoo and Low (2012), the reward is one of the main extrinsic factors that lead to the athlete’s achievements. For example, the state government through the Sarawak Sports Council (MSNS) offered incentives of RM5,000 for the first gold medal, RM7,000 for second gold and the same amount for subsequent gold medals to the athletes who delivered medals during SUKMA 2016 regardless of different races and religions.

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION In conclusion, the results of this study can provide additional evidence about gender, age and races differences in athlete’s expectancy-beliefs and subjective task values. In addition, it supports the expectancy-value model of achievement choice for a better understanding of motivation in sports. The PE educators and coaches can increase their students and athletes’ motivation by increasing the understanding of the values such as utility, attainment and intrinsic in learning and decreasing their unwilling to participate in learning in sports and physical activities. Therefore, they can try to enhance their students and athletes’ perceptions of values of learning by explaining to them the behaviours which are associated with learning such as training, understanding the reasons behind the training, and communicate with the coaches on the techniques and strategies. They need to explain to their athletes on how to train technically in mastering their skills and practice on their own during their free time, setting realistic goals and pro-active during training. They need to recognize the utility value of engaging in sports and physical activities which are the positive effects and benefits which can nurture their innate talents properly and systematically. In addition, The PE educators and coaches could adopt a differentiated learning approach in training, task and activity design according to different levels, standards and abilities of students and athletes. It is necessary to balance teaching students and athletes at their instructional levels according to their grade level systematically. Therefore, choosing and finding ways to coach, teach or prompt them through the process to eventually get to the instructional objective and complete the skill on their own.


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6. REFERENCES

Chin, N. S., Khoo, S., & Low, W. Y. (2009). Sex, age group and locality differences in adolescent athletes’ beliefs, values and goal orientation in track and field. Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness, 7(2), 112 – 121.

Chin, N. S., Khoo, S., & Low, W. Y. (2012). Self-determination and goal orientation in track and field. Journal of Human Kinetics, 22, 151-161.

Chin, N. S., Nicholaus, J. A. G., Wee, E. H., & Kuan, G. (2019). Teaching physical activity in pre-school education: A case study in the state of Sarawak, Malaysia. In B. Antala, G. Demirhan, A Carraro, C Oktar, H Oz, and A Kaplanova, Physical education in early childhood education and care (pp.377-386). Slovak Scientific Society for Physical Education and Sport and FIEP: Slovakia.

Conley, A. N. (2007). Patterns and pathways: A person-oriented approach to understanding students’ motivation to learn. Dissertation Abstract International, 68(02), 3264B. Retrieved January 21, 2018, from ProQuest Digital Dissertations database (Publication No. AAT 3253254).

Daigle, K. G. (2003). Gender differences in participation of physical activities: A comprehensive model approach. Dissertation Abstract International, 64(07), 2421A. Retrieved September 14, 2007, from

ProQuest Digital Dissertations database (Publication No. AAT 3098064). Duda, J. L., Chi, L., Newton, M. L., Walling, M. D., et al. (1995). Task and ego orientation and intrinsic

motivation in sport. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 26(1), 40-63. Eccles, J. S. (2006). A motivational perspective on school achievement: Taking responsibility for

learning, teaching and supporting. In R.J. Sternberg & R. F. Subotnik (2006), Optimizing student success in school with the Other Three Rs. (pp.199-224). Information Age Publishing: Greenwich.

Eccle, J. S., Adler, T. F., Futterman, R., Goff, S. B., Kaczala, C. M., Meece, J. L., & Midgley, C. (1983). Expectancies, values and academic behaviors. In J.T. Spence (Ed.), Achievement and achievement motives, (pp. 75 – 146). San Francisco: W.H.Freeman.

Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (1995). In the mind of the actor: The structure of adolescents' achievement task values and expectancy-related beliefs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 215-225.

Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., R. Harold., & Blumenfeld, P. (1993). Age and gender differences in children’s self- and task perceptions during elementary school. Child Development, 64(3), 830 – 847.

Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., & Schiefele, U. (1998). Motivation to succeed. In W. Damon (Series Ed.) & N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology, Vol.3: Social, emotional, and personality development (5th ed., pp. 1017-1095). New York: Wiley.

Fredricks, J. A., & Eccles, J. S. (2002). Children's competence and value beliefs from childhood through adolescence: Growth trajectories in two male-sex-typed domains. Developmental Psychology, 38, 519-533.

Gao, Z. (2007). Understanding students’ motivation in physical education: Integration of expectancy-value model and self-efficacy theory. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University, Louisiana, USA.

Gao, Z., & Xiang, P. (2008). College students’ motivation toward weight training: An application of expectancy-value model. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 27, 399-415.

Miller, B. D. (2004). Achievement behaviours within Kaizen Blitz from an Expectancy-Value perspective: An empirical study. Dissertation Abstract International, 65(10), 5335B. Retrieved February 14, 2018, from ProQuest Digital Dissertations database (Publication No. AAT 3150416).

Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. Stuart, M. E. (1997). An examination of adolescents’ sources of subjective task values in sport.

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Wigfield, A. (1994). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation: A developmental perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 6, 49–78.

Wigfield, A., Eccles, J. S. Schiefele, U., Roeser, R., & Davis-Kean, P. (2006). Development of achievement motivation. In W.Damon and N. Eisemberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (6th ed., pp. 993-1002). New York: Wiley.

Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 68-81.


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Wigfield, A., Eccles, J. S., Yoon, K, S., Harold, R. D., Arbreton, A. J. A., Freedman-Doan, C., & Blumenfeld, P. C. (1997). Change in children's competence beliefs and subjective task values across the elementary school years: A 3-year study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(3), 451-469.

William, H. F. (2013). Physical Education, Exercise and Sport Science in a Changing Society. Buies Greek

Xiang, P., McBride, R., & Bruene, A. (2006). Fourth-grade students' motivational changes in an elementary physical education running program. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. Washington, 77(2), 195-218.

Xiang, P., McBride, R., Guan, J. M., & Solmon, M. (2003). Children's motivation in elementary physical education: An expectancy-value model of achievement choice. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 74, 25-35.

http://proquest.umi.com.newdc.oum.edu.my/pqdweb?index=0&did=1092336821&SrchMode=1&sid=1&Fmt=3&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1192162834&clientId=56581

http://proquest.umi.com.newdc.oum.edu.my/pqdweb?index=0&did=1092336821&SrchMode=1&sid=1&Fmt=3&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=1192162834&clientId=56581


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Chapter 9

Elements of Military Minds Towards Nurturing Young Soldiers’ Patriotism

Ahmad Azan Ridzuan, Jessica Ong Hai Liaw, Norlaila Mazura

Mohaiyadin, Noor Azmi Mohd Zainol & Rogis Baker

Faculty of Defence Studies and Management, National Defence University of Malaysia, 57000 Kuala Lumpur

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

This study was conducted to examine the relationship between military mind elements (personal conduct, military skill, motivation, and military training) and young soldiers’ patriotism (esprit de corps and loyalty) using questionnaires gathered from 420 samples of four Malaysian Army units in Peninsular Malaysia. The outcomes of Smart PLS version 3.2.8 path model showed eight important findings: firstly, the relationship between military mind elements such as personal conduct, military skill, motivation, and military training significantly correlated with young soldiers’ esprit de corps. Secondly, the relationship between military mind elements such as personal conduct and military training significantly correlated with young soldiers’ loyalty, while other elements such as military skill and motivation are not significantly correlated. Statistically, this result confirmed that personal conduct, military skill, motivation, and military training are important determinants of young soldiers’ esprit de corps, while personal conduct and military training are important determinants of young soldiers’ loyalty in the studied organization sample. Furthermore, the implications of these correlations are discussed in this paper.

Keywords: military mind elements, young soldiers’ patriotism, Malaysian Army, Smart

PLS

1. INTRODUCTION The Malaysian Army (MA) is the land component of the Malaysian Armed Forces. The Army contributes to the national defense objectives through the provision of land and special operations capabilities. The MA also provides forces for peace time roles and capacities, including to enhance national domestic security response to a wide range of incidents such as disaster events stemming from natural and/or man-made hazards. It emphasizes on the need to ensure the surrounding territories which has importance for the nation is kept stable and peaceful (NDP, 2004). The key to the capabilities that the Army as a united force possesses is the soldiers. Soldiers learn to conduct operations in unfavorable and risky conditions regardless of the terrain, weather, or any other external factors.

Abrahamsson has developed the concept of military minds to which Samuel Huntington made a substantial contribution to via his writing in The Soldier and The State.


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He concluded that the major components of military minds are five in number: nationalism, pessimistic beliefs about human nature, alarmism, political conservatism, and authoritarianism with increasing professionalism (Abrahamsson, 1972; Zulkifli Zainal Abidin, 2013). A soldier is a person who selflessly devotes their life to ensure that all citizens of their country can live with a peace of mind and without fear. A soldier gives you your freedom, and asks for nothing in return (Zulkifli Zainal Abidin, 2014). Every soldier’s mindset is taught with repetition, practice and training in order to cultivate the ultimate motivation needed to achieve their operational goals. The aim for military training is not just to prepare soldiers for battles, but to also condition their minds so that it is always ready for battle. Building and developing a military mindset is going to take every bit of a soldier’s physical, mental, emotional and spiritual strength.

Another important element of this study is patriotism, which is a sentiment of love and devotion to one’s country. A sense of ‘patriotism’ is not present by itself in human life, but this feeling has to be propagated, fertilized and nurtured into a powerful sense in the soul of each and every citizen. Scholars associate patriotism with ‘love for the country,’ ‘loyalty,’ ‘pride of country’s achievement’, ‘attachment to country’, ‘sharing’, ‘identity’, ‘sense of belonging’, ‘esprit de corps’, and ‘nationhood’, all of which symbolize the country and its people. Patriotism is also explained as the degree of love for and pride in one’s nation (Ku Hasnita & Mohd Haizam, 2009). As a norm, soldiers receive intensive physical training for their missions, while also preparing themselves psychologically to leave loved ones behind to carry out their duties in the name of patriotism.

The objective of this study is to measure two main relationships, i.e. the relationship between military mind elements (personal conduct, military skill, motivation, and military training) and young soldiers’ esprit de corps; and the relationship between military mind elements (personal conduct, military skill, motivation, and military training) with young soldier’s loyalty.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW Countries like Russia and Ukraine priotizes patriotic education among their young generation. In Russia, three groups of organizations are responsible for this, namely state organizations, miscellaneous and non-governmental associations such as “first group – Suvorov military and Nakhimov naval schools, Cadet corps, of the second – DOSAAF as an organization semi state, semi-public, of the third – different military-patriotic, search and military sports associations and clubs, scouting and scout-like organizations, patriotic clubs under the Russian Orthodox Church” (Omelchenko et al., 2015). Their study also revealed that the age group of 15-29 is devoted to the highest number of patriotic activities in schools and universities. The current Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Mahathir Mohammad in the recruits’ end-of-training speech on 31 December 2001 stated, “The country owes it to the military forces who have fulfilled their duties in full loyalty and are willing to sacrifice to ensure that the country is safe and free from any form of threats since the World War 2. Thus, as the citizens we must stay united with the soldiers in sustaining peace so that we will not become slaves to the colonizers once again”. Bashil (1989) in his book, Politics and military – the Hudaibiyyah Agreement, explained that the efforts from the leaders is to form young soldiers who can understand their duties effectively, and at the same time become loyal to the leader and remain true servants of Allah.

Zulkifli Zainal Abidin (2014) described the process of developing future soldiers as one that requires the rebalancing of the combination of training, education, and experience the Army currently uses. In battle, the habits and discipline that have been instilled in training pay off first, because men in combat will instinctively do what they have been in the habit of doing in training; and secondly, only the extra drive of discipline will enable the


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soldier to overcome the fear that all men experience in battle. DA (1967) stated that a high state of training is the best welfare of the troops; training saves lives in combat. Training develops skills, courtesy, personal conduct, high motivation and techniques through practice and observation that contribute to soldiers’ esprit de corps and loyalty. Well-selected soldiers who are highly motivated, trained, and belong to cohesive units under a resolute leader in combat are likely to show enterprise which, based on the circumstances and threat degree, will be viewed as courageous or loyal individual or unit loyalty respectively. Tong (2019) wrote: The truth is, it is costly to train a soldier, and rightly so as wars are increasingly sophisticated and requires highly skilled and smart soldiers. Each time we deploy them, we need to think of them as a special and highly skilled group and not as laborers at our free disposal. Training is what the Army does continuously to build confident, talentedand loyalt, soldiers teeming with esprit de corps (DA, 2014). Tough training teaches young soldiers to overcome fears through their proficiency at a task, and through trust in the competency of others in the team (Mock & D’Amato, 1991). “We train well on how to survive and win on the battlefield of the future. We had better train well...or that battlefield will be in our own backyard” (Gillis, 1982).

Previous findings are consistent with the notion of Dahrendorf, R. (1959), who suggested that Conflict Theory requires focus on the competition for social and economic resources. Power is often used to obtain social order according to this theory, which by itself is an often-utilized theory in the military. Conflict theory would be applicable to soldiers’ military minds in this study because soldiers give up their freedom order to serve the nation, follow orders, and never step out of rank. Another theory, according to Douglas (1978) and Thompson et al. (1990), and named cultural theory, is a general sociological theory aiming at explaining how people perceive and act upon the world around them. More specifically the theory claims that this is largely determined by social aspects and cultural adherence that requires stable mindset. McDaniel, Nooruddin, and Shortle (2016) strongly affiliated patriotism with social identity theory, the study on inter-group relations, group processes the development to which they belong to with the sense of pride and self-esteem, and group conflicts. The application of theories (Dahrendorf, 1959; Douglas, 1978 and Thompson et al., 1990) show that military mind elements if properly implemented will lead to an increment in soldiers’ patriotism (esprit de corps and loyalty) in respective organization (Zulkifli Zainal Abidin, 2014; DA, 1967). The theories related to the literature that has been used to develop the conceptual framework for this study are shown in Figure 1.

2.1 Conceptual Framework and Research Hypothesis The literature has been used as the foundation to develop a conceptual framework for this study as shown in Figure 1.


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Independent variables Dependent variable

Figure 1: The relationship between military mind elements (personal conduct, military skill,

motivation, and military training) and young soldiers’ patriotism (esprit de corps and loyalty). Based on the framework, the following can be hypothesized:

H1: The relationship between personal conduct and young soldiers’ esprit de corps. H2: The relationship between military skill and young soldiers’ esprit de corps. H3: The relationship between motivation and young soldiers’ esprit de corps. H4: The relationship between military training and young soldiers’ esprit de corps. H5: The relationship between personal conduct and young soldiers’ loyalty. H6: The relationship between military skill and young soldiers’ loyalty. H7: The relationship between motivation and young soldiers’ loyalty. H8: The relationship between military training and young soldiers’ loyalty.

3. METHODOLOGY A cross-sectional research design was employed because it allowed the researchers to combine military minds literature, the semi-structured interview and the actual survey as the main procedure to collect data and fulfills the research objectives. This research design is appropriate to help the researchers collect accurate, less biased and high quality data (Cresswell, 2012; Sekaran & Bougie, 2013). This study gathered data from the infantry battalion based in Perlis, Kelantan, Melaka and one armoured regiment based in Pahang. This unit serves as operations, training, logistic and administration under the auspices of the Malaysian Army. At the initial stage, a pilot study was conducted via a survey questionnaire with five experienced army officers who have served for more than five years. This group is comprised of a commanding officer, an operation officer, an intelligence officer, an administrative officer and a senior non-commissioned officer who have been involved in the management of the units. Information gathered from the army officers helped the researchers to develop the content and format of the survey questionnaire for the actual research.

Feedback from the interview method was used to understand the nature and characteristics of military minds elements (personal conduct, military skill, motivation, and military training) and young soldiers’ patriotism (esprit de corps and loyalty) and the relationship between such variables in the context of this study. Hence, the pilot study was conducted to verify the content and format of the questionnaire for an actual study. Due to familiarity of the target respondents with the national language, i.e. Malay, a back translation technique was employed to translate the content of survey questionnaire from English into

Military Skill

Personal Conduct

Motivation

Loyalty

Military Training

Esprit de Corps


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Malay in order to enhance the validity and reliability of research findings (Cresswell, 2012; Sekaran, & Bougie, 2013). Information gathered from the soldiers of Malaysian Army helped the researchers to develop the content and format of the survey questionnaire for the actual research. The survey questionnaire has six major sections comprising of: 6 items of personal conduct, 4 items of military skill, 4 items of motivation, 3 items of military training, 3 items of esprit de corps and loyalty had 4 items that were developed based on triangulation from interviews, research from scholar and little adapted from military minds scale (Zulkifli Zainal Abidin, 2014). All items used in the questionnaires were measured using a 7-item scale ranging from “strongly never/strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly always/strongly agree” (7). Demographic variables were used as controlling variables because this study focused on military minds elements towards young soldiers’ patriotism.

The researchers had obtained an official approval and received advice from the Army Headquarter, MINDEF to conduct the study at approved units in Perlis, Kelantan, Melaka and Pahang. The targeted population for this study was the infantry and armored unit. The commanding officer allowed the researchers to conduct this study, but the list of the soldiers was not provided to the researchers. Considering this situation, a convenient sampling technique was used to distribute the survey questionnaires to soldiers who served in Perlis, Kelantan, Melaka and Pahang. A total of 450 questionnaires were distributed. From the total number, 420 usable questionnaires were returned to the researchers, yielding 93.3 percent response rate. The survey questionnaires were answered by participants based on their consents and a voluntarily basis. The number of sample exceeds the minimum sample of 30 participants as required by probability sampling technique, showing that it may be analyzed using inferential statistics (Chua, 2006; Sekaran & Bougie, 2013).

The research statistical analysis was conducted using structural equation model generated by SmartPLS version 3.2.8 (Riggle et al., 2009; Hair et al., 2017). The procedure for analyzing data is: first, validity test was performed by the convergent and discriminant validity. Second, the reliability analysis was performed by Cronbach alpha and composite reliability. Third, the structural model is assessed by examining the path coefficients using standardized betas (β) and t statistics. In addition, R2 is used as an indicator of the overall predictive strength of the model. The value of R2 are considered as follows; 0.19 (weak), 0.33 (moderate) and 0.67 (substantial) (Chin, 1998; Henseler et al., 2009).

4. RESULTS The sample profile for this study with N=420 is as follows: most respondents are male (99.3%), ethnic group is Malay (86.7%), those with bachelor status made up 62.4% of respondents, age group below than 30 years old is 80.7%, rank of Private/Lan-corporal/Corporal (85%), duration of service less than 10 years (78.8%), and earning income less than RM2000 (73.4%). 4.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) The outcomes of CFA were shown in Tables 1 and 2. Table 1 shows that personal conduct, military skill, motivation, military training, esprit de corps and loyalty had the values of average variance extracted (AVE) larger than 0.5, indicating that they met the acceptable standard of convergent validity (Henseler et.al, 2009; Barclay et.al, 1995; Fornell & Larker, 1981). Besides, the table shows that all constructs which had the diagonal values of √ AVE were greater than the squared correlation with other constructs in off diagonal, showing that all constructs met the acceptable standard of discriminant validity (Henseler et al., 2009).


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Table 1: The Results of Convergent and Discriminant Validity Analyses

Construct

AVE Esprit de

Corps Loyalty

Motivation

Personal Conduct

Military Skill

Military Training

Esprit de Corps

0.804 0.897

Loyalty 0.776 0.746 0.881 Motivation 0.656 0.725 0.685 0.810 Personal Conduct

0.603 0.697 0.683 0.703 0.777

Military Skill 0.733 0.720 0.638 0.795 0.695 0.856 Military Training

0.793 0.747 0.803 0.776 0.687 0.762 0.891

Note: √ AVE shows in diagonal

Table 2 shows that all constructs loaded more strongly on their own constructs in the

model, exceeding the specified minimum, 0.6, showing that the validity of measurement model met the criteria (Fornell & Larker, 1981; Chin, 1998; Gefen & Straub, 2005). Besides, the composite reliability and Cronbach’s Alpha had values greater than 0.7, indicating that the instrument used in this study maintained high internal consistency (Henseler, Ringle & Sinkovics, 2009; Nunally & Bernstein, 1994).

Table 2: The Results of Factor Loadings and Cross Loadings for Different Constructs and Construct

Reliability Analysis

Construct Number of Item

Cross Factor Loadings

Composite Reliability

Cronbach Alpha

Esprit de Corps 3 0.853– 0.929 0.925 0.878 Loyalty 4 0.829 – 0.905 0.933 0.903 Motivation 4 0.785 – 0.830 0.884 0.827 Personal Conduct 6 0.716 – 0.840 0.901 0.868 Military Skill 4 0.839 – 0.871 0.917 0.879

Military Training 3 0.880 – 0.899 0.920 0.870

Table 3 shows the outcomes of testing SmartPLS path model using bootstrapping

procedure. The value of R2 is used as an indicator of the overall predictive strength of the model. The value of R2 is interpreted as follows: 0.19, weak, 0.33, moderate and 0.67, substantial (Chin, 1998; Hair et al., 2017; Henseler et al., 2009; Wetzels et al., 2009). In this model testing, firstly, the inclusion of personal conduct, military skill, motivation, and military training appearance in the analysis explained 65.3 percent (moderate) of the variance in young soldiers’ esprit de corps. Secondly, the inclusion of personal conduct, military skill, motivation, and military training appearance in the analysis explained 68.1 percent (substantial) of the variance in young soldiers’ loyalty. The results of SmartPLS path model analysis revealed eight important findings: firstly, H1: personal conduct significantly correlated with young soldiers’ esprit de corps. Second, H2: military skill significantly correlated with young soldiers’ esprit de corps. Third, H3: motivation significantly correlated with young soldiers’ esprit de corps. Fourth, H4: military training significantly correlated with young soldiers’ esprit de corps. Fifth, H5: personal conduct significantly correlated with young soldiers’ loyalty. Sixth, H6: military skill is not significantly correlated with young soldiers’ loyalty. Seventh, H7: motivation is not significantly correlated with young soldiers’ loyalty, and finally eight, H8: military training significantly correlated with young soldiers’ loyalty.


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Table 3: Estimation and Prediction of Esprit de Corps and Loyalty of H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7, and H8.

Relationships β t P value R2

H1: Personal Conduct --> Soldiers’ Esprit de Corps 0.235 3.794 0.000 0.653

H2: Military Skill -----> Soldiers’ Esprit de Corps 0.179 2.335 0.020

H3: Motivation ----> Soldiers’ Esprit de Corps 0.173 2.390 0.017

H4: Military Training -> Soldiers’ Esprit de Corps 0.315 4.754 0.000

H5: Personal Conduct --> Soldiers’ Loyalty 0.246 5.264 0.000 H6: Military Skill -----> Soldiers’ Loyalty -0.083 1.316 0.189 0.681

H7: Motivation ----> Soldiers’ Loyalty 0.090 1.318 0.188

H8: Military Training ----> Soldiers’ Loyalty 0.628 10.111 0.000

Note: Significant at *t >1.96; **t > 2.576; *** t > 3.29

5. DISCUSSION Overall, this result demonstrates that personal conduct, military skill, motivation, and military training are important determinants of young soldiers’ esprit de corps, while personal conduct and military training are important determinant of young soldier’s loyalty in the studied organization. The organization should define military minds elements (personal conduct, military skill, motivation, and military training) for training programs and specify components or outcomes to be fulfilled in order to better understand young soldiers’ esprit de corps and loyalty. Definitions, models, frameworks, and outcomes should be explicitly defied in written policy. Military mind’s training and program for young soldiers must have a clear definition and set of outcomes or goals. Organizations must have a clear understanding of how they contribute to the whole, as well as to organizational structure, command, and authority. With regard to the robustness of research methodology, the survey questionnaire used in this study has satisfactorily met the validity and reliability criteria. This may lead to the production of accurate and reliable research findings. With respect to practical contributions, the findings of this study can be use as useful guidelines by commanding officers in particular to upgrade the expertise of their young soldiers in coping with future challenging operations. Most young soldiers believed that training of military minds is essential and needs to be properly tailored for the respective young and talented soldiers in order to improve their esprit de corps and loyalty for future operations. 6. CONCLUSION This study confirmed that the ability of commanding officers or senior officer given proper guidance, as well as sending the talented young soldiers to relevant courses will improved their military minds elements (personal conduct, military skill, motivation, and military training), and subsequently may enhance their patriotism (esprit de corps and loyalty) in the administrative camp and in the operations environment. The result is consistent with military minds’ literature published. Thus, present research and practices employed within military minds elements such as personal conduct, military skill, motivation, and military training contributes towards young soldiers’ patriotism (esprit de corps and loyalty).


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research works was funded by research grant (UPNM/2-2018/GPJP/SSK/1) Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia. REFERENCES Abrahamsson, B. (1972). Military professional and political power. Beverly Hill: Sage Publication. Bashil, M.A. (1989). Politik dan Ketenteraan – Perjanjian Hudaibiyyah. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Pustaka

Fajar. Barclay, D., Higgins, C., & Thompson, R. (1995). The Partial Least Squares (PLS) Approach to Causal

Modeling: Personal Computer Adoption and use as an Illustration. Technology Study, 2 (2), 285-309.

Chin, W. W. (1998). The Partial Least Squares Approach to Structural Equation Modeling. In G.A. Marcoulides (Ed.), Modern Methods for Business Research (295-358). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Chua, Y.P. (2006). Kaedah Penyelidikan. Kuala Lumpur: McGraw Hill. Creswell, J.W. (2012). Educational Research: Planning, Conduct, and Evaluating Quantitative and

Qualitative Research (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. DA. (1967). Guide for Platoon Sergeants. Pam 350-13, p 18. DA. (2014). Department of the Army. Army training and leader development. Washington, DC:

Government Printing Office. Dahrendorf, R. (1959). The modern social conflict: An essay of the politics of liberty. Stanford:

Stanford University Press. p 38-39. Douglas, M. (1978). Cultural Bias. Occasional Paper no. 35, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great

Britain and Ireland. Fornell, C., & Larker, D. F. (1981). Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and

Measurement Error: Algebra and Statistics. Journal of Marketing Research, 18 (3), 328-388. Gefen, D., & Straub, D. (2005). A Practical Guide to Factorial Validity using PLS-Graph: Tutorial and

Annotated Example. Communication of the Correlation for Information Systems, 16, 91 – 109. Gillis, J. M. (1982). Let the NCO Do His Job. Armor. Mar-Apr, p. 8. Hair, Jr. J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2017). A Primer on Partial Least Squares

Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). Sage Publications, Inc. USA.

Henseler, J., Ringle, C. H., & Sinkovics, R. R. (2009). The Use of Partial Least Squares Path Modeling in International Marketing. New Challenges to International Marketing. Advances in International Marketing, 20, 277-319.

Ku Hasnita Ku Samsu & Mohd Haizam Mohd Nor. (2009). Semangat patriotisme dalam kalangan mahasiswa bukan Melayu di institusi pengajian tinggi, sekitar Lembah Klang. Akademika 75: 85-100. http://ejournal.ukm.my/akademika/article/view/559.

McDaniel, E. L., Nooruddin, I., & Shortle, A. F. (2016). Proud to be an American? The changing relationship of national pride and identity. Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics 1(1): 145-176.

Mock, G. D., & D’Amato, J. K. (1991). Building the Force: Skill, Will and Teamwork. NCO Journal, Summer, p 19.

NDP. (2004). Dasar Pertahanan Negara (National Defense Policy). Perajurit. Julai. p 55-58. Nunally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Omelchenko, D., Maximova, S., Avdeeva, G., Goncharova, N., Noyanzina, O. & Surtaevaa, O. (2015). Patriotic education and civic culture of youth in Russia: Sociological perspective. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. 190: 364-371. www.sciencedirect.com.

Riggle, R. J., Edmondson, D. R., & Hansen, J. D. (2009). A Meta-analysis of the Relationship between Perceived Organizational Support and Job Outcomes: 20 Years of Research. Journal of Business Research, 62: 1027-1030.

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2013). Research Methods for Business: A Skill Building Approach (6th Ed). United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Thompson, M., Ellis, R., & Wildavsky, A. (1990). Cultural Theory. Boulder: Westview Press.


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Tong, L. C. (2019). Armed forces the last resort. Columnists. New Straits Times. July 7. https://www.nst.com.my/opinion/columnists/2019/07/502361/armed-forces-last-resort

Wetzels, M., Odekerken-Schroder, G., & van Oppen, C. (2009). Using PLS Path Modeling for Assessing Hierarchical Construct Models: Guidelines and Empirical Illustration. MIS Quarterly, 33

(1), 177-195. Zulkifli Zainal Abidin. (2013). Hasrat. Cawangan Perkhidmatan Percetakan, Kuala Lumpur. p.18-19. Zulkifli Zainal Abidin. (2014). The Human Dimensions of Soldering: A perspective on future

requirements in the complex operational environment. European Scientific Journal.

August/Special/ Edition ISSN: 1857 – 7881 (Print) e - ISSN 1857- 7431.

https://www.nst.com.my/authors/liew-chin-tong

https://www.nst.com.my/opinion/columnists

https://www.nst.com.my/opinion/columnists/2019/07/502361/armed-forces-last-resort


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Chapter 10

Gender, Personality and Learning Styles of

Selected Primary School Students in Puchong

Nur Fadhlina Zainal Abedin, Tuan Sarifah Aini Syed Ahmad & Siti Sara Ibrahim

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Negeri Sembilan

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

Every student has a different learning style whether he or she prefers visual, audio or kinaesthetic learning style. It is common to have mix learning styles in class. However, there is only one most dominant learning style that they are comfortable with. Recognising student’s learning approach is important because it is a key factor in the formation of an individual. Uninteresting learning process will easily get students bored in class and face difficulties to focus. They tend not to being engaged and are not enthusiastic in class. As a result, it will definitely decrease their academic achievement. Thus, this paper is interested in examining the relationship among gender, personality and learning styles in two schools at Puchong, Selangor using Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA). The return and valid questionnaires are 183. The results in general show a significant relationship of gender and personality with the learning styles except for visual learning style. Female is more dominance in practising the auditory learning style as compared with male. However, male more dominance in kinaesthetic learning style. Graph for personality shows that the introverts preferred visual learning style than extrovert. Kinaesthetic learning style is most preferred by extrovert than introvert. However auditory is not significant with student’s personality. Key Words: Maximum 5 Key words.

1. INTRODUCTION

Learning style is a person's learning preferences in apprehending, organizing, and processing information and learning experiences (Smith, 2010; Buali et al., 2013). The recognition of learning styles will help both student and teacher to use suitable methods of learning and teaching so that it will match to achieve an understanding in the learning process. Moreover, knowing and understanding the use of specific learning styles such as visual, auditory, and kinesthetic modes of learning can help teachers to give the best to their students. In fact, learning styles are factors that directly affect students' learning processes


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where students may use different styles based on their personal differences (Vizeshfar & Torabizadeh, 2018).

There are many approaches to learning style definition in the literature, following the idea that students learn in diverse ways and prefer different teaching approaches. For example, a study done by Vasileva-Stojanovska, Malinovski, Vasileva, Jovevski and Trajkovik (2015) has reported enhancement in learning and performance when students are offered learning approaches that adjusted as to make them comfortable and capable of learning. However, through a previous study, the majority of the styles discussed are in the visual, auditory, and kinesthetic modes of learning which is also in line with this study.

In this practices, learners normally use different learning styles due to their personal differences as well as gender. Therefore it is crucial to both students and teachers to firstly recognize their learning style based on student’s personality and gender so that it gives an excitement as well as satisfaction within the learning process in class. Knowing the importance of comprehending learning styles can not only help the student but help the teachers be more effective in their learning environment. In view of the important role of learning styles in learning and academic achievement, the present study aims to examine the relationship of personality and gender towards learning styles that are most preferred by this construct. Therefore in this paper, it will focuses on the factors of personality and gender which has been claimed to be difference attribute toward learning style preferences. This paper has been organized as follows: First section on the introduction of study. Second section the overview on the literature in learning styles that related to the study. Third section on the methodology applied in the research process and design before come out with a findings of the analysis in the next (section 4). Finally the paper ends with a conclusion that summarizes the findings and provide a recommendation for a future study.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Students have unique learning style and personality. It is common to have students that have different learning styles and personalities in a class. Personality of individuals developed based on learning styles and its development depends on the environment, social and emotional influence and their feelings (Rahman & Ahmar, 2017). Considering students’ learning style and personality in designing learning activities is essential since learning style and personality determine how students learn (Balakrishnan & Gan, 2016). With regard to learning styles, understanding students’ learning styles is vital in order to enhance their learning outcomes (Ibrahim & Hussein, 2015). Other than that, gender also impact the way of learning (Corbin, 2017) Therefore, understanding students’ learning styles and personalities and considering gender are significant in facilitating the instructor to choose the appropriate teaching approach and provide meaningful learning instruction.

Learning Styles Learning style has many definitions and models (Khenissi et al., 2016). For the purpose of the study, learning style is defined as the most preferred and comfortable way of students to learn. Learning styles can be classified by several ways such as cognitive style, personality style and sensory style (Wong & Nunan, 2011). As for this research, we choose to classify learning styles according to sensory style by using The VAK Learning Style Model which explains that students prefer to learn by three ways: (1) visual, (2) auditory or (3) kinaesthetic (MindTool, 2019). The VAK Learning Style Model was introduced in the 1920s by a group of psychologists (MindTool, 2019). The model was refined later by Fleming (1995) who adds another style which is “reading”, and he names the model as the VARK Learning Style Model. VARK is the acronym for visual, auditory, reading and kinaesthetic.


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Fleming and Mills (1992) explain how visual, auditory and kinaesthetic students learn. Visual students prefer to learn by using graphics and symbols, thus information should be presented in diagrams such as graphs, charts, flow charts and models. Auditory students prefer to learn by listening to information, thus information should be presented in lectures, tutorials and discussions. Kinaesthetic students prefer to learn by having connection to the reality, thus learning should occur by experience, example, practice or simulation. Several previous studies indicated learning styles are related to gender.

Ibrahim and Hussein (2015) conducted a study on 210 students consisted of 60 males and 150 females from two nursing colleges that was sampled through a stratified random sampling. The results demonstrated 40% of the students had the visual learning style, 30.5% of the students had the kinaesthetic learning style and 29.5% students had the auditory learning style. Pertaining to gender, the auditory learning style was preferred by females (30.3%) compared to males (27.3%). Whereas, the kinaesthetic learning style was preferred by male (32.3%) compared to females (29.8%). The study also proved that there was no relationship between learning styles and learning achievement.

Pruet, Ang and Farzin (2016) conducted a study on the use of tablets in learning at urban and rural schools in Thailand. The sample comprised 213 students at Grade Two aged from 7 to 16 years old. The results indicated that the most dominant learning style among male and female students was visual (female: M=4,23, male: M=3.96), followed by auditory (female: M=3.97, male: M=3.73) and kinaesthetic (male: M=2.81, female: M=2.65). It was statistically proven that females (M=4.23, had significantly (p<.01) higher visual learning style compared to male (M=3.96). From the mean, it was noted that the kinaesthetic learning style was least preferred by both gender. Thus, they propose that the design of learning instruction on tablets should consider learning styles in order to cater with their learning needs.

Rahman and Ahmar (2017) studied whether learning styles affect learning achievement in Mathematics according to genders. They randomly sampled on 34 students in Indonesian school. The overall results indicated that 50.00% students had the auditory learning style, 29.41% had the visual learning style and 20.59% had the kinaesthetic learning style. According to gender, males dominated the auditory learning styles. (male=29.41%, female=20.59%) and the visual learning style (male=20.59%, female=8.82%). The most preferred learning style was the auditory learning style. While the least preferred was the kinaesthetic learning style. In addition, the study revealved that there was no correlation between learninig styles and Mathematics learning achievement.

Ora, Sahatcija and Ferhataj (2018) carried out a study on 82 university students (38% males, 62% females) in Albania aged between 18 to more than 32 years old. They investigated on the effect on learning styles on hybrid learning perceptions. Overall, the most preferred learning style was the visual learning style (41.5%), followed by the auditory learning style (32.9%) and the kinaesthetic learning style (25.6%). Females (25.1%) dominated the visual (female=25.1%, male=15.9%) and auditory (female=20.7%, 12.2%). While the kinaesthetic learning styles was dominated by males (15.9%) compared to females (9.8%). The most preferred learning style is the visual learning style. While the least preferred was the kinaesthetic learning style. As for perceptions on hybrid learning, , there was no relationship between learning styles and perceptions on hybrid learning.

Empirical evidence on validating the importance of learning styles in learning is still inadequate (Li, Medwell, Wray, Wang, & Xiaojing, 2016). Thus, more systematic studies are required to prove that learning styles are worth to be taken into consideration when providing learning instruction to students.


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Personality Another aspect that differentiate students is personality. There are many ways of classifying personality. However, this study focuses on the classification of personality that divides individuals into two types of personality known as extrovert and introvert. Jensen (2015) describes introverts as “reserved, seeking solitude (a loner), physically passive, quiet, sober and unfeeling” while extroverts are “talkative, a joiner, physically active, affectionate, passionate and fun-loving”. Thus, in the classroom, introverts are shy and more interested in themselves while extroverts are noisy and dominant (Ngugi & Thinguri, 2017).

According to Cook (2016), extroverts associate with objects outside themselves whereas introverts make connections with the contents of their own minds. Cook (2016) states that introverts may choose academic teaching that focusses on individual learning and the knowledge of language while extroverts may choose communicative teaching that involves group work and social know-how. Theoretically, extroverts prefer active learning and prefer kinaesthetic learning style while introverts prefer reflective learning and prefer visual and auditory learning styles (Lawrence, 2015).

Rekabdar, Behrouzi and Hakhverdian (2015) examined the impact of personality of introvert and extrovert on metacognitive strategies on 60 participants who took Intermediate English. They were randomly selected. The results demonstrated that the application of metacognitive strategies had different impacts on introverts and extroverts. Metacognitive strategies significantly enhanced reading performance of extroverts, but did not have any significant effect on introverts.

Alhathli, Masthoff and Siddharthan (2016) studies on the effect of extroversion on the selection of learning materials for language learning. The results showed that the correlation between extroverts and active and social learning materials was positive but weak. Thus, they conclude that the learning material had impacted extroverts in term of promoting enjoyment, enhanced their confidence and improved their skills.

Murphy, Eduljee, Croteau and Parkman (2017) evaluated the impact of personality type of introversion and extroversion on preferences for certain teaching and classroom methods. The participants of the study were 73 undergraduate college students. The sample comprised 39 males and 34 females. The results revealed that personality type of introversion and extroversion did not significantly (p>0.05) impact preferences for certain teaching and classroom methods. Both groups preferred “lecture (professor talks) with student interaction”, demonstrations and practice, and guest speaker related to course topics”. Both groups also strongly disagree with the use of “unscheduled quizzes”, “lecture (professor talks) with no visuals”, and “library research using experiential activities.”

There is exceptionally limited research on the relationship between gender, personality (specially for introverts and extrovert), learning styles and learning. Research has focused more on the relationship between personality and another aspect such as teaching method preference (Murphy et al., 2017), metacognitive strategies (Rekabdar et al., 2015) and selection of learning materials (Alhathli et al., 2016). There are limited studies that relate gender, personality, learning styles and learning. Thus, this study attempts to fill the gap.

3. METHODOLOGY

The questionnaires are distributed to two secondary public schools in Selangor. The respondents are aged 17 year old who will be seated for Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia, SPM (Malaysian Certificate of Education). In total the return questionnaires are 195. However, the valid questionnaires are 183 only. The questionnaires consists of three parts; demographic, learning style and personality. The learning style questionnaire is adapted from VAK Learning Style. The original VAK concepts were first developed by psychologists and child teaching specialists such as Fernald, Keller, Orton, Gillingham, Stillman and Montessori,


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starting in the 1920's. VAK theory is now a favorite of the accelerated learning community because its principles and benefits extend to all types of learning and development, far beyond its early applications. The VisualAuditory-Kinesthetic learning style model does not overlay Gardner's multiple intelligences, or Kolb's theory; rather the VAK model provides a different perspective for understanding and explaining a person's preferred or dominant thinking and learning style, and strengths. Gardner's theory is one way of looking at learning styles; Kolb and VAK are still other ways. The VAK learning style uses the three main sensory receivers: Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic to determine dominant learning style.

The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is an introspective self-report questionnaire with the purpose of indicating differing psychological preferences in how people perceive the world around them and make decisions.

The analysis is conducted by using Manova (Multivariate Analysis of Variance Test) since it deals with more than two categories of dependent variables. The dependent variable is a learning style. There are three categories in learning styles: visual, auditory and kinaesthetic. The dependent variables are gender (1: male, 2: female) and personality type (1: Introvert, 2: extrovert).

4. RESULTS

The descriptive statistics in Table 1 shows the value of the mean, standard deviation and sub-sample size for the three leaning styles across the gender and personality.

Table 1 Descriptive Statistics

GEN PER Mean Std. Deviation N

VIS Male Introvert 11.68 2.780 25 Extrovert 9.87 2.867 39 Total 10.58 2.948 64

Female Introvert 10.89 1.932 44 Extrovert 10.39 2.530 75 Total 10.57 2.331 119

Total Introvert 11.17 2.288 69 Extrovert 10.21 2.649 114 Total 10.57 2.556 183

AUD Male Introvert 8.40 1.732 25 Extrovert 9.79 1.361 39 Total 9.25 1.652 64



KIN Male Introvert 9.92 1.778 25 Extrovert 10.28 2.800 39 Total 10.14 2.442 64



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introspection

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-report_study

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological


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Pillai’s Trace results in multivariate test shows in general, there are significant relationship of gender [F(3,177)=2.95, p<.05] and personality [F(3,177)=2.82, p<.05] with the learning style. The interaction effect GEN*PER is also significant [F(3,177)=5.19, p<.05]. However the tests do not provide the specific relationship of those significant variables in learning styles categories (visual, auditory or kinaesthetic).

Table 2 Multivariate Tests(b) based on Pillai’s Trace

Effect Value F Sig.

Intercept .998 34737.744 .000

GEN .048 2.951 .034

PER .046 2.815 .041

GEN * PER .081 5.186 .002

Table 3 Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Source Dependent

Variable Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model VIS 56.737(a) 3 18.912 2.990 .032

AUD 58.352(b) 3 19.451 6.036 .001

KIN 62.587(c) 3 20.862 3.991 .009

Intercept VIS 18032.805 1 18032.805 2851.433 .000

AUD 14092.632 1 14092.632 4373.440 .000

KIN 14959.642 1 14959.642 2861.562 .000

GEN VIS .764 1 .764 .121 .729

AUD 21.203 1 21.203 6.580 .011

KIN 19.237 1 19.237 3.680 .057

PER VIS 52.373 1 52.373 8.281 .004

AUD 3.064 1 3.064 .951 .331

KIN 27.271 1 27.271 5.217 .024

GEN * PER VIS 16.835 1 16.835 2.662 .105

AUD 48.964 1 48.964 15.195 .000

KIN 8.712 1 8.712 1.666 .198

Error VIS 1132.017 179 6.324

AUD 576.796 179 3.222

KIN 935.774 179 5.228

Total VIS 21649.000 183

AUD 17351.000 183

KIN 18468.000 183

Corrected Total VIS 1188.754 182

AUD 635.148 182

KIN 998.361 182

a R Squared = .048 (Adjusted R Squared = .032) b R Squared = .092 (Adjusted R Squared = .077) c R Squared = .063 (Adjusted R Squared = .047)


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Thus, the study is proceeded with tests of between-subjects effects as shown in Table 3 to examine the specific effect of the significant relationship in the learning styles. As the previous results, there is a significant effect of gender to the learning style. However the significant learning style is only the auditory at 5 percent level [F(1,179)=6.58, p<.05]. Kinaesthetic is significant with a higher significant level [F(1,179)=3.68, p<.10]. For personality effect, there are only two dependent variables; visual [F(1,179)=8.28, p<.05] and kinaesthetic [F(1,179)=5.22, p<.05] are significant. Meanwhile the interaction effect between gender and personality are significant for auditory [F(1,179)=15.20, p<.05] dependent variable. The R2 values indicate that the gender and personality contribute to 48 percent change in visual, 92 percent auditory and 63 percent kinaesthetic as the dependent variables respectively.

The pairwise comparisons in Table 4 for the gender and personality confirm the results show in Table 3. The gender is significant with mean difference of female is higher than male (.734, p<.05), after Type 1 error is controlled using Bonferroni method. On the other hand, the score for introvert personality is higher than extrovert for visual learning style with the difference mean of 1.154. The results are contradict with kinaesthetic learning style where extrovert is more dominance than introvert with score of .833.

Table 4 Pairwise Comparisons

Dependent Variable (I) (J)

Mean Difference

(I-J) Std. Error Sig.(a)

95% Confidence Interval for

Difference(a)

Lower Bound

Upper Bound

Lower Bound

Upper Bound

Lower Bound

VIS Male Female .139 .401 .729 -.652 .931 Female Male -.139 .401 .729 -.931 .652

AUD Male Female -.734(*) .286 .011 -1.299 -.169

Female Male .734(*) .286 .011 .169 1.299 KIN Male Female .699 .365 .057 -.020 1.419

Female Male -.699 .365 .057 -1.419 .020

VIS Introvert Extrovert 1.154(*) .401 .004 .363 1.945 Extrovert Introvert -1.154(*) .401 .004 -1.945 -.363

AUD Introvert Extrovert -.279 .286 .331 -.844 .286

Extrovert Introvert .279 .286 .331 -.286 .844 KIN Introvert Extrovert -.833(*) .365 .024 -1.552 -.113

Extrovert Introvert .833(*) .365 .024 .113 1.552

Based on estimated marginal means * The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. a Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Bonferroni.

The results are represented in Figure 1. For the case of gender, visual learning style is horizontal indicating that no significant relationship in gender. Female is more dominance in practising the auditory learning style as compared with male. However, male more dominance in kinaesthetic learning style. Graph for personality shows that the introverts preferred visual learning style than extrovert. Kinaesthetic learning style is most preferred by extrovert than introvert. Auditory is not significant with personality as indicated earlier.


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Figure 1: Line Graph of Overall Results

5. CONCLUSION

Recognising student’s learning approach is important because it is a key factor in the formation of an individual. Uninteresting learning process will easily get students bored in class and face difficulties to focus. They tend not to being engaged and are not enthusiastic in class. As a result, it will definitely decrease their academic achievement. The results in general show a significant relationship of gender and personality with the learning styles except for visual learning style. Female is more dominance in practising the auditory learning style as compared with male. However, male more dominance in kinaesthetic learning style. Graph for personality shows that the introverts preferred visual learning style than extrovert. Kinaesthetic learning style is most preferred by extrovert than introvert. However auditory is not significant with student’s personality.

REFERENCES

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Cook, V. (2016). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching (5th Ed). New York: Routledge. Corbin, A. (2017). Assessing differences in learning styles : Age , gender and academic performance

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Ibrahim, R. H., & Hussein, D. A. (2015). Assessment of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning style among undergraduate nursing students. International Journal of Advanced Nursing Studies, 5(1),

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Lawrence, W. K. (2015). Learning and Personality. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady. Li, Y., Medwell, J., Wray, D., Wang, L., & Xiaojing, L. (2016). Learning Styles: A Review of Validity and

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Ora, A., Sahatcija, R., & Ferhataj, A. (2018). Learning Styles and the Hybrid Learning: An Empirical Study about the Impact of Learning Styles on the Perception of the Hybrid Learning. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 9(1), 137–148. https://doi.org/10.2478/mjss-2018-0013

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Rahman, A., & Ahmar, A. S. (2017). Relationship between learning styles and learning achievement in mathematics based on genders. World Transactions on Engineering and Technology Education, (March). https://doi.org/10.26858/wtetev15i1y2017p7477

Rekabdar, S., Behrouzi, P., & Hakhverdian, A. (2015). Iranian Intermediate Extroverted vs . Introverted Learners and Metacognitive Strategies, 2(1), 213–225.

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