188

Notes

The following abbreviations have been used for the location and designation ofdocumentary sources.

Cherwell Papers, Nuffield College, Oxford Public Records Office (PRO):

ADM Admiralty AIR Air Ministry AVIA Ministry of Aviation CAB Cabinet Office DEFE Ministry of Defence FD Medical Research CouncilT Treasury WO War Office

Introduction

1. CAB103/205, Science at War, Memo for ACSP, 8 October 1947.

Chapter 1 Organization of Science for War

1. Editorial, Nature, 17 June 1915. 2. John Bradley, History and Development of Aircraft Instruments, 1909–1919,

PhD thesis, 1994, Science Museum Library. 3. L. F. Haber, The Poisonous Cloud. Chemical Warfare in the First World War,

Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1986, p. 273. 4. Monika Renneberg and Mark Walker (eds), Science, Technology and National

Socialism, Cambridge University Press, 1994, p. 88. 5. Ibid., p. 9. 6. Ibid., pp. 81–2. 7. Ibid., p. 6. 8. Ibid., pp. 53–8. 9. Ibid., p. 51.

10. David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb. The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy,1934–1956, Yale University Press, 1994, p. 146.

11. Ibid., pp. 21, 145. 12. Andrew Brown, ‘Blackett at Cambridge, 1919–1933’, Blackett Centenary

Conference, 24 September 1998. 13. Sir Henry Tizard, ‘Science and the Services’, RUSI Jnl., vol. XCI, no. 563,

August 1946, p. 338.

Notes 189

14. Peter Hennessy and Sir Douglas Hague, ‘How Hitler Reformed Whitehall’,Strathclyde Papers on Government and Politics, no. 41, 1985, p. 8.

15. Ibid., p. 19. 16. Solly Zuckerman, From Apes to Warlords, 1904–46, London, 1978, App. 1,

‘The Tots and Quots’. 17. Anon, Science in War, ‘Penguin Special’, Penguin Books, 1940. 18. Vannevar Bush, Pieces of the Action, London, 1972, p. 74. 19. Ibid., p. 36. 20. James Phinney Baxter, Scientists Against Time, MIT Press, paperback edn,

1968, chs I and VIII. 21. David Zimmerman, Top Secret Exchange, The Tizard Mission and the Scientific

War, McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1996, chs 1–7. 22. Henry E. Guerlac, Radar in World War II, New York, American Institute of

Physics, 1987, ch. 9. 23. Jeremy Bernstein, Experience of Science, Dutton Paperback, New York, 1978, p. 93.24. F. E. Terman to A. P. Rowe, 23 July 1962 (author’s collection). 25. A. P. Rowe, One Story of Radar, Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 84–6.26. A. P. Rowe, ‘From Scientific Idea to Practical Use’, Minerva Quarterly Review,

Spring 1946, pp. 309–10. 27. John Bradley, op. cit. 28. Ralph Benjamin, Five Lives in One, An Insider’s View of the Defence and Intelli-

gence World, Parapress Ltd, 1996, p. 28. 29. Bush, op. cit., p. 279. ADM I/10459, Statistical Branch Admy. Lindemann as

Head of S Branch. 30. Sir Frederick Brundrett to A. P. Rowe, 21 September 1962 (author’s collection).31. Lord Hankey, ‘Technical and Scientific Manpower’, The Worker in Industry,

HMSO, 1952. 32. Alice Kemball Smith and Charles Weiner, Robert Oppenheimer Letters and

Recollections, Harvard University Press, 1980. Letter to James Conant, 1 Febru-ary 1943.

33. Holloway, op. cit., pp. 74–5. 34. Ulrich Albrecht, The Soviet Armaments Industry, Harvard Academic Publishers,

USA, 1993, p. 58. 35. Holloway, op. cit., p. 206. 36. Ibid., pp. 138–41. 37. Ibid., pp. 148–9. 38. K. H. Ludwig, Technik und Ingenieure im Dritten Reich, Dusseldorf, 1979, p. 28.39. AVIA 39/4, German Academic Scientists and the War by Major I. W. B. Gill. 40. ADM 213/611, Scientific Research in Germany: Establishments and Organ-

isation, W. Osenberg, 1945. 41. Thomas Powers, Heisenberg’s War: The Secret History of the German Bomb, p. 501.42. AVIA 39/4, op. cit. 43. Guy Hartcup and T. E. Allibone, Cockcroft and the Atom, Hilger, Bristol, 1986, p. 83.

Chapter 2 Radar: Defence and Offence

1. S. S. Swords, Technical History of the Beginnings of Radar, Peter Peregrinus,London, 1986, p. 43. See also R. W. Burns, Radar Development to 1945, Inst-

190 Notes

itute of Electrical Engineers, 1988, ch. 40, ‘Who invented radar?’ by Prof. C.Susskind.

2. David Pritchard, The Radar War. Germany’s Pioneering Achievement, 1904–45,London, 1929, p. 57 et seq.

3. Swords, op. cit., p. 141. 4. Sir Philip Joubert, ‘Science in Planning for Defence, Review of Science and

Government by C. P. Snow’, Daily Telegraph, April 1961. 5. T 161/855; T 161/891. 6. J. E. Allen to author, 22 December 1980. 7. B. T. Neale, ‘CH, The First Operational Radar’, GEC Journal of Research, Spe-

cial issue on radar, vol. 3, no. 2, 1985. 8. RAF Hist. Soc., The Battle Rethought. A Symposium on the Battle of Britain,

25 June 1990, p. 10. Contains much useful material on radar’s effect on thebattle.

9. Sir Mark Oliphant, ‘Comments on C. P. Snow’s Science and Government’,reviewed by P. M. S. Blackett in Scientific American, September 1966.

10. R. W. Burns, op. cit., ‘The Background to the Development of the CavityMagnetron’, ch. 19.

11. Russell Miller, ‘Secret Weapon: How Two British Inventors Helped to Winthe Battle of the Atlantic’, Sunday Times Magazine, 7 September 1975, pp. 8–15.

12. Burns, op. cit., p. 277. 13. R. W. Clark, Tizard, London, 1965, p. 268. 14. AIR 19/517, Director of Radar. Consideration of A. P. Rowe. Correspond-

ence between Col J. T. C. Moore-Brabazon and Sir Archibald Sinclair, May1941.

15. Sir Bernard Lovell, Echoes of War, Hilger, Bristol, 1991, p. 41. 16. E. G. Bowen, Radar Days, Hilger, Bristol, 1987, p. 69. 17. Ibid., p. 181. 18. Robert Buderi, The Invention that Changed the World. The story of radar from

war to peace, London, 1997, p. 124.19. RAF Hist. Soc., Seek and Sink. A symposium on the Battle of the Atlantic, 21 Octo-

ber 1991. Very good on the technical side. 20. Ibid., p. 50. 21. Ibid., p. 32. 22. Rowe, ‘From Scientific Idea to Practical Use’, op. cit., pp. 306–7. 23. CAB 47/15 Butt Report. 24. Lovell, op. cit., p. 95. 25. Ibid., p. 150. 26. Pritchard, op. cit., p. 91. 27. Lovell, op. cit., p. 184 et seq. 28. Buderi, op. cit., pp. 188–9. 29. Derek Howse, Radar at Sea. The Royal Navy in World War 2, London, 1993, p. 68.30. Ibid., p. 147, AVIA 46/36 Radar History. Interview with Charles Wright.

‘The 271 Set was one of the outstanding achievements of the war’. 31. Howse, op. cit., pp. 156–7. 32. Ibid., p. 96. 33. Ibid., pp. 158–9. 34. D. H. Tomlin, ‘The Origins and Development of the UK army radar to

1946’, in Burns, op. cit., Radar Development to 1945, ch. 20, p. 292.

Notes 191

35. Buderi, op. cit., pp. 131–4. 36. Hartcup and Allibone, op. cit., pp. 109–10. 37. Pritchard, op. cit., pp. 48–50. 38. Ibid., p. 65, 73. 39. Ibid., pp. 155, 165. 40. Howse, op. cit., pp. 45–9. 41. Pritchard, op. cit., p. 195. 42. Guerlac, op. cit., ch. 18.

Chapter 3 Diverse Applications of Radio and Radar

1. Capt. Geoffrey Bennett, RN, ‘The Development of the Proximity Fuse’, RUSIJnl., March 1976.

2. R. V. Jones, Reflections on Intelligence, London, 1989, p. 229 et seq. 3. AIR 40/2572, The Oslo Evidence, Scientific Intelligence sent to Naval

Attaché, Notes by R. V. Jones. See also R. V. Jones, Most Secret War, London,1978, ch. 8.

4. Guy Hartcup, The Challenge of War. Scientific and Engineering Contributions toWorld War Two, David & Charles, 1970, pp. 173–6.

5. T 169/39, Royal Comm on Awards to Inventors. Transcripts of Claim byCobden Turner for PF. See also T 166/25.

6. Baxter, op. cit., p. 223 et seq. 7. WO 163/205, Weapon Development Cttee, ‘VT fuses: development and

production in UK’ by H. Gough. 8. Hartcup and Allibone, op. cit., pp. 110–11. 9. Gen. Sir F. A. Pile to The Times, 5 April 1946.

10. CAB 122/365, Armament Programmes – VT fuses, 22 November 1945. 11. A. O. Bauer, ‘Receiver and Transmitter Development in Germany, 1920–1943’,

pp. 76–82, Instn of Electrical Engineers Int. Conference on 100 Years of Radio, 5–7September 1995.

12. Ibid., E. B. Callick, VHF Communications at RAE, 1937–42, pp. 153–60. 13. CAB 102/641, History of Development Production of Radio and Radar,

p. 78 et seq. 14. Ibid., Radio at Sea, p. 11 et seq. 15. F. A. Kingsley (ed.), Radar and Other Electronic Systems in the Royal Navy in

World War 2, P. G. Redgment, ‘HF DF in the RN. Development of Anti-U-boat Equipment, 1941–45’, London, 1995.

16. Howse, op. cit., pp. 142–6. 17. ADM 220/1486, C. Crampton et al., ‘HF DF in HM Ships’. 18. C. Crampton, ‘Naval Radio Direction-Finding’, Jnl Instn of Electrical Engin-

eers, vol. 94, pt IIIA, nos 11 and 15, 1947. 19. AVIA 46/37, Interview with Crampton, Admiralty Signal Estab. 20. ADM 220/291, ‘Appreciation of the German Kurier System of telegraphy

and the intercept problem’, 20 August 1948. Reprint of report dated 1945. 21. Jürgen Rohwer, Critical Convoy Battles of March 1943, London, 1977. RAF

Hist. Soc., Seek and Sink, op. cit., Rohwehr, ‘A German perspective’, p. 59.Kingsley, Radar and Other Electronic Systems, op. cit., Relation between DFand Ultra.

192 Notes

22. ADM 220/234 Signal Intelligence Board. D. F. Sub Cttee, 1944–45, Visit toUSA by W. Rose, Admy. Sig. Estab., 13 February 1945.

23. Philip Warner, The Story of Royal Signals, 1945–85, London, 1989, Lieut-ColH. Winterbotham on HF DF.

24. Hartcup, The Challenge of War, op. cit., pp. 182–7. 25. AVIA 23/612, Communications trials of No. 9 Set in a tank with aircraft,

March 1935. 26. M. D. Fagen (ed.), A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System,

1925–75, New York, 1977, ch. 5, p. 319 et seq. 27. Warner, op. cit., pp. 237–8. 28. Hartcup, The Challenge of War, op. cit., pp. 187–9. 29. AVIA 7/968. ‘Jamming from ships’, 8 June 1938. 30. Jones, Most Secret War, op. cit., chs 11, 15 and 16. 31. Ibid., pp. 84–5, ch. 17. 32. Ibid., pp. 243–4. 33. Howse, op. cit., pp. 51–2. 34. Ibid., p. 212. 35. AVIA 7/2713, A Note on the Technical Problems associated with RCM,

October 1942. 36. Operational Research in Bomber Command (Air Historical Branch mono-

graph), ch. 16, Miscellaneous investigations concerning bomber issues. 37. AVIA 26/1872. Technical Report of the German RDF equipment captured at

Bruneval, 28 February 1942. 38. OR in Bomber Command, op. cit., ch. 17, ‘Radio Aids to the Defence of

Bombers’; R. V. Jones, Most Secret War, op. cit., pp. 388–9 and 390–2. 39. OR in Bomber Command, op. cit., ch. 17. 40. Jones, op. cit., pp. 39–40. 41. Ibid., ch. 33, passim. 42. OR in Bomber Cmd, op. cit., ch. 17, ‘The Final Fight for Introduction of Window’.43. Ibid.,44. Ibid., Dates of introduction of radar aids. 45. Ibid., Window for Overlord. Final Scheme.

Chapter 4 Acoustic and Underwater Warfare

1. Willem Hackmann, Seek and Strike. Sonar, Anti-Submarine Warfare and theRoyal Navy 1914–54, HMSO, 1984, p. 7.

2. Ibid., pp. 77–83. 3. Ibid., pp. 83–9. 4. Ibid., p. 92. 5. Ibid., pp. 122–3. 6. Ibid., pp. 171–80. 7. Ibid., pp. 184–7. 8. Ibid., pp. 216–19. 9. Ibid., pp. 197; ADM 219/334.

10. Ibid., p. 196. 11. Ibid., pp. 131–2. 12. Ibid., pp. 192–5.

Notes 193

13. Cherwell Papers, Memo on ASDICS, 1939, PERS. QE (currently missing). 14. ADM I/15197 Admiralty Advisory Panel on Scientific Research, Fowler’s

visit to Fairlie, 16 June 1941. 15. ADM 116/4585 Case 4178, vol. 117. Homing Torpedoes, March 1940. 16. RAF Hist. Soc., Seek and Sink, op. cit., p. 70. 17. ADM I/15197 op. cit., Blackett to Wright, 27 September 1941, Wright to

First Sea Lord, 27 November 1941. 18. Gerald Pawle, The Secret War 1939–1945, London, 1956, p. 31. 19. J. D. Scott and Richard Hughes, The Administration of War Production, London,

1956, p. 132. 20. Hackmann, op. cit., pp. 281–3. 21. Ibid., p. 321. 22. Ibid., p. 335. 23. Sir Bernard Lovell, P. M. S. Blackett. A Biographical Memoir, The Royal Society,

London, 1976, p. 56. 24. John Herrick, Sub-Surface Warfare. The History of Division 6. NDRC Dept.

of Defense, Research and Development Board, Washington DC, January1951.

25. Hackmann, op. cit., pp. 288–9; Herrick, op. cit.26. AIR 65/268, Tactical use of the passive directional radio sonobuoy, 6 March

1950. 27. C. H. Waddington, OR in World War 2: Operational Research against the

U-boat, Elek Science, London, 1973, ch. 7, ‘The Principles of Depth ChargeAttacks’; ADM 213/93, The explosive efficiency of ‘lean torpex’, September1946.

28. ADM 189/175, Technical History of Anti-Submarine Weapons, pt 1. 29. Pawle, op. cit., ch. 12. 30. ADM 189/175, op. cit.; ADM 219/251, R and D in relation to ahead-thrown

anti-submarine weapons. 31. RAF Hist. Soc., Seek and Sink, op. cit., J. Rohwer. 32. Ibid., Lt-Cdr W. S. R. Gardner, ‘The Course of the Battle’, p. 34; ADM I/17667,

Walter to Dönitz on Schnorkel, 20 February 1944. 33. ADM 116/4685, Homing Torpedoes. 34. ADM I/17671, Mark 24 Mine. 35. ADM 213/618, German torpedo docs. History of the Chemical and Physical

Exptl Estab of the German Navy. 36. Hackmann, op. cit., pp. 311–12. 37. Ibid., pp. 318–20; Buderi, op. cit., pp. 160–3. 38. ADM I/22283, Countermeasures to Gnat. Arrangements for speeding com-

pletion of Publican; ADM I/17179, Publican. 39. G. R. Lindsey, Tactical Anti-Submarine Warfare: The past and the future, Adelphi

Papers no. 122, International Institute for Strategic Studies, London, 1976. 40. Albert Wood Memorial No., Jnl. Roy. Naval Scientific Service, vol. 20, no. 4,

July 1965, p. 84. 41. C. F. Goodeve, ‘The Defeat of the Magnetic Mine’, Jnl. Roy. Soc. of Arts,

vol. XCIV, January 1946, p. 81. 42. Jnl. RNSS, no. 4, July 1965, op. cit., pp. 91–2. 43. Ibid., p. 92. 44. Stephen Roskill, The War at Sea, vol. 3, pt 2, HMSO, London, 1961, p. 140.

194 Notes

Chapter 5 The Acquisition of Signals Intelligence

1. Guy Hartcup, The War of Invention, Scientific Developments, 1914–18, London,pp. 125–7.

2. David Kahn, Seizing the Enigma. The Race to Break the German U-Boat Codes,1939–1943, Arrow Books London, 1992, p. 31.

3. F. H. Hinsley and Alan Stripp (eds), Code Breakers. The Inside Story of BletchleyPark, Oxford University Press (paperback edn), 1993, ch. 11.

4. FO 966/1059, Chief Clerk’s Dept., Domestic File, September 1939. 5. Marian Rejewski, ‘How Polish Mathematicians deciphered the Enigma’,

Annals of the History of Computing, vol. 3, July 1981, pp. 211–34. 6. F. H. Hinsley et al., British Intelligence in the Second World War. Its

Influence on Strategy and Operations, 1979–1988, vol. 1, app. 1, London,pp. 491–2.

7. Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing: the Enigma, London, 1983, pp. 96–110. 8. Gordon Welchman, ‘From Polish Bomba to British Bombe: the Birth of Ultra’,

Intelligence and National Security, January 1986, pp. 71–110. 9. Hodges, op. cit., p. 181.

10. Ibid., pp. 182–4. 11. Hinsley, op. cit., vol. 2, p. 748. 12. Ibid., p. 163 et seq. 13. Hodges, op. cit., pp. 219–21. 14. Hinsley, op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 179 and 747–4. 15. Ibid., op. cit., p. 750; Kahn, op. cit., pp. 220–7. 16. Hinsley, op. cit., pp. 750–2. 17. Ibid., p. 752. 18. Ibid., vol. 3, pt 1, app. 2, passim; Hinsley and Stripp, op. cit., pp. 141–8. 19. Thomas H. Flowers, ‘The design of Colossus’, Annals of the History of Com-

puting, vol. 5, no. 3, July 1983, pp. 239–52. 20. Hinsley, op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 29–30; Hinsley and Stripp, op. cit., ch. 21 by Gil

Hayward, ‘Operation Tunny’, pp. 175–92. 21. Flowers, op. cit., pp. 244–5. 22. Ibid., pp. 245–9. 23. Hinsley, op. cit., vol. 3, pt 1, p. 479 et seq. 24. Hinsley and Stripp, op. cit., p. 163. 25. Hinsley, op. cit., p. 779. 26. Hinsley and Stripp, op. cit., p. 147. 27. J. D. Andrews, ‘Discussion on Flowers’ Lecture on Colossus’, Annals of the

History of Computing, vol. 4, no. 1, January 1982, p. 51. See also B. Randall,‘The Colossus’, in J. Howlett, G. C. Rota and N. Metropolis (eds), A History ofComputing, New York, Academic Press, 1980, pp. 47–92.

28. James R. Chiles, ‘Breaking Codes Was This Couple’s Lifetime Career’, Smith-sonian Magazine, June 1987, pp. 128–44.

29. David Kahn, The Codebreakers (revised edn), New York, 1996, p. 20. 30. Louis Kruh, ‘Reminiscences of a Master Cryptologist’ (interview with Frank

Rowlett), in Cipher A. Deavours et al., Cryptology Yesterday, Today and Tomor-row, Artech House Norwood, MA and London, 1987, p. 105.

31. Bradley F. Smith, The Ultra–Magic Deals and the Most Secret Special Relation-ship, 1940–46, Presidio, 1993, pp. 55–6, 74.

Notes 195

32. Kahn, op. cit.; Kahn on Codes Secrets of the New Cryptology, New York, 1983,pp. 276–7, 331.

33. Hinsley and Stripp, op. cit., App. Japanese naval codes and ciphers, pp. 276–81.34. Carl Boyd, Hitler’s Japanese Confidant, General Shima Hiroshi and Magic Intelli-

gence, 1941–1945, passim. 35. Hinsley and Stripp, op. cit., p. 275.

Chapter 6 Birth of a New Science: Operational Research

1. C. H. Waddington, ‘Science Outside the Laboratory’, Polemic, no. 4, July–August 1946, p. 53.

2. Lord Zuckerman, Six Men out of the Ordinary, London, 1992, p. 22. 3. ADM I/15197, Admiralty Advisory Panel on Scientific Research, Blackett to

Wright, 27 September 1941. 4. P. M. S. Blackett, ‘Scientists at the Operational Level’ – see app. 1, The Ori-

gins and Development of Operational Research in the Royal Air Force, HMSO,London, 1963.

5. WO 291/1911. P. M. S. Blackett, ‘A Note on certain aspects of the methodo-logy of Operational Research’.

6. Edward Meade Earle, Makers of Modern Strategy, Princeton University Press,1944, p. 37.

7. A. V. Hill, The Ethical Dilemma of Science, Oxford University Press, 1960. 8. R. V. Jones, ‘A Concurrence in Learning and Arms’, Blackett Memorial

Lecture, J. Opl. Res. Soc., vol. 33, no. 9, 1982, pp. 780–1. 9. B. H. Liddell Hart, ‘Early Efforts towards Military (Operational) Research’,

Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives, Kings College London. 10. Origins and Development of Operational Research in RAF, op. cit., pp. 6–7. 11. M. Kirby and R. Capey, ‘The air defence of Great Britain, 1920–1940: an

operational research perspective’, J. Opl. Res. Soc., vol. 48, 1997, pp. 563–4. 12. The Times, Obituary of Harold Larnder, 24 August 1981. 13. Origins and Development of Operational Research in RAF, op. cit., pp. 16–17. 14. F. L. Sawyer et al., J. Opl. Res. Soc., vol. 40, no. 2, 1989, ‘Reminiscences of

Operational Research in World War II by some of its Practitioners’, p. 117.15. Ibid., p. 119. 16. Lovell, ‘P. M. S. Blackett’, op. cit., p. 59; Waddington, op. cit., ch. 6. 17. Waddington, op. cit., ch. 7, ‘The early attacks (December 1939)’. 18. Ibid., ch. 3, ‘The general theory: organisation of flying’. 19. Jonathan Rosenhead, ‘Operational Research at the Crossroads: Cecil Gor-

don and the Development of Post-war OR’, J. Opl. Res. Soc., vol. 40, 1989,pp. 4–9.

20. Rosenhead, op. cit., p. 23. 21. Ibid., p. 9. 22. Solly Zuckerman, From Apes to Warlords, 1904–1946, London, 1978, pp. 113–30. 23. Ibid., pp. 139–48. 24. M. Kirby and R. Capey, ‘The area bombing of Germany in World War II: an

operational research perspective’, J. Opl. Res. Soc., vol. 48, 1997, p. 666. 25. Freeman Dyson, ‘The Flying Coffins of Bomber Command’, The Observer

Magazine, 28 October 1979, p. 69.

196 Notes

26. OR in Bomber Command, op. cit., ch. 3, ‘The Study of Night Bombing Tech-niques’.

27. Ibid., ch. 14, ‘The Operational Use of Oboe’. 28. ADM 219/209. Leon Solomon, ‘Some Problems of Naval Operational

Research’, 14 September 1945; PREM 3/414/3, Progress of Analysis of thevalue of Escort Vessels and Aircraft in the anti-U-boat campaign (Blackett).

29. Michael Howard, Grand Strategy, vol. V, HMSO, London, 1972, pp. 303–4.30. ADM 205/30, First Sea Lord’s Records, 1931–45, Papers by Williams and

Blackett, 22 March 1943. 31. Ibid., First Sea Lord’s arguments for Bay offensive, 31 March 1943. 32. Ibid., Slessor to Pound, 4 April 1943. 33. Ibid., Slessor to Pound, 16 April 1943. 34. Ibid., Note by First Sea Lord on Bay Offensive, April 1943. 35. Zuckerman, op. cit., p. 266. 36. P. M. S. Blackett, on E. J. Williams, Obit. notices of FRSs, vol. 5, 1944–45. 37. Hackmann, op. cit., pp. 254–6; Buderi, op. cit., pp. 161–3. 38. Hackmann, op. cit., p. 256. 39. AIR 52/154, Methods of OR (US); Guido Pereira, History of the Organization

and Operation of the Cttee of Opns Analysts, 1945, Air Force Hist. Div. BollingA. F. B., Va (microfilm).

40. Zuckerman, op. cit., chs 8–10. 41. Origins and Development of Operational Research in the RAF, op. cit., p. 129. 42. Zuckerman, op. cit., chs 12–13. 43. J. G. Crowther and R. Whiddington, Science at War, HMSO, 1947, pp. 107–13.44. WO 291/1301, Operational Research in the British Army, 1939–45. 45. Terry Copp, ‘Scientists and the Art of War, Operational Research in 21 Army

Group’, RUSI Jnl., Winter 1991, p. 66. 46. P. Johnson to author, ‘The Use of GL MKIII for Mortar Location’, 8 Novem-

ber 1965. 47. Terry Copp, op. cit., pp. 67–9. 48. P. M. S. Blackett, ‘Critique of Some Contemporary Defence Thinking’,

Encounter, vol. XVI, April 1961, p. 9.

Chapter 7 The Transformation of Military Medicine

1. F. H. K. Green and Sir Gordon Covell, Medical Research, London, 1953. 2. Irvin Stewart, Organizing Scientific Research for War. Boston, Little Brown,

1948, ch. VII. 3. FD 1/6578, British and USA collaboration with research problems 1940–41;

FD I/6721, FD I/6723, Medical Liaison with Canada and USA. 4. FD 1/6781, Scientific Cooperation with Russia; FD I/6783 Scientific Cooperation

and Liaison with Russia, vol. III, 1943–45.5. Green and Covell, op. cit., p. 264 et seq. 6. Norman Heatley to author, 1 April 1989. 7. Leonard Bickel, Rise up to Life. A Biography of Howard Walter Florey who gave

penicillin to the world, London, 1972, p. 141 et seq. 8. FD I/6831, Penicillin Production, Florey to Mellanby, 11 December 1942. 9. FD I/6875, Army research – penicillin trials, April 1943.

Notes 197

10. FD I/6732, Report on Mission to the US and Canada undertaken by Prof.I. M. Heilbron and Sir Robert Robinson, August to September 1943.

11. John P. Swann, ‘The Search for Synthetic Penicillin during World War II’,British Jnl. for the History of Science, vol. 16, 1983, p. 164.

12. FD I/7004, Vivicillin. Cutting from Time, 22 May 1944. See also ADM 213/45, Interrogations of German scientists concerned with physiological andpsychological research.

13. FD I/5260, Committee on Shock, vol. 1, 10 June 1941. 14. Anthony Babington, Shell Shock. A History of the Changing Attitude to War

Neurosis, London, 1997, p. 137. 15. R. H. Ahrenfeld, Psychiatry in the British Army in the Second World War, London

(RKP), 1958, passim; John R. Neill, ‘How Psychiatric Symptoms varied inWorld War I and World War II’, Military Medicine, vol. 158, March 1993.

16. David French, ‘Tommy is no soldier. The Morale of the Second British Armyin Normandy, June to August 1944’, Jnl. of Strategic Studies, vol. 19, no. 4,December 1996.

17. Capt. H. J. C. J. L’Etang, ‘A Criticism of Military Psychiatry in the SecondWorld War’, Jnl. RAMC, vol. XCVI, January 1951, pp. 316–27.

18. Prof. Brandon, LMF policy, Reaping the Whirlwind. A Symposium on theStrategic Bomber Offensive, 1939–45, RAF Hist. Soc., 1993, p. 63.

19. FD I/6604, Anti-Malaria Measures in the British Army, 5 November 1940. 20. Ibid., Letter to Sir John Anderson, 21 January 1943. 21. Ibid., Prevention and Treatment of Malaria, 15 March 1943. 22. John Boyd on Neil Hamilton Fairley, Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the

Royal Society, vol. 12, November 1996, pp. 134–8. 23. John H. Perkins, Insects, Experts and the Insecticide Crisis, Plenum Press,

London, 1982, ch. 1; Kenneth Mellanby, The DDT Story, London, 1992,ch. 4.

24. WO 32/9797, Prevention of Typhus Fever, 1941–48, 9 June 1948. 25. FD I/5976, P. A. Buxton, Lice and Typhus, 8 December 1941.26. FD I/6781, Scientific Cooperation with Russia, 6 October 1941 et seq. 27. FD I/6641, K. Mellanby’s visit to America. 28. FD I/6612, Typhus Committee, 7 December 1944, FD I/6635, Typhus

Research in SEAC. 29. FD I/6643, Sulphaguanidine, 17–24 August 1941. 30. Boyd, op. cit., p. 134. 31. FD I/5835, German Medical Research, Field Information Agency Technical

(British Section). 32. Boyd, op. cit., p. 134. 33. Allison Boyle, A History of Aviation Medicine in the Second World War, Disser-

tation, Wellcome Institute, 1989, p. 11. 34. Sir Philip Livingston, Fringe of the Clouds, London, 1962, pp. 159–72. 35. Boyle, op. cit., pp. 12–16. 36. Kenneth Birgin, Aviation Medicine, Bristol, John Wright & Sons, 1949, p. 7. 37. D. H. Robinson, The Dangerous Sky. A History of Aviation Medicine. G. T.

Foulis, Henley on Thames, 1973, pp. 167–9. 38. FD I/5354, Flying Personnel Research Committee, Recent Developments in

Aviation Medical Research in US and Canada, 10 April 1941. 39. Robinson, op. cit., pp. 140–2.

198 Notes

40. Livingston, op. cit., pp. 189, 194; T. M. Gibson and M. H. Harrison, Into ThinAir. A History of Aviation Medicine, London, 1984, pp. 197–8.

41. Gibson and Harrison, op. cit., p. 199. 42. L. J. Bruce-Chwatt, ‘Mosquitoes, Malaria and War: Then and Now’, J R Army

Med. Corps, 1985, vol. 131, pp. 85, 90–1. 43. Ibid., p. 95. 44. Mellanby, op. cit., p. 61. 45. Bruce-Chwatt, op. cit., p. 93. 46. E. H. Beardsley, ‘No Help Wanted. Medical Research Exchange between Rus-

sia and the West during the Second World War’, Medical History, vol. 22,1978, pp. 365–77.

Chapter 8 Unacceptable Weapons: Gas and Bacteria

1. Basil Liddell Hart, Thoughts on War, London, 1944; Haber, op. cit., pp. 243–4.2. Haber, op. cit., p. 296. 3. G. B. Carter, ‘The Chemical and Biological Defence Establishment, Porton

Down, 1916–1991’, RUSI Jnl., Autumn 1991, pp. 66–8; WO 188/802, CBDE:History of Porton by Lieut-Col A. E. Kent.

4. Haber, op. cit., p. 304. 5. WO 188/687, Biological Warfare Repts (Int.), Visits to French Targets,

August–October 1944. 6. WO 188/802, CBDE History of Porton by Lieut-Col A. E. Kent, ch. XIV.

Haber, op. cit., p. 303. 7. Albrecht, op. cit., p. 63 et seq. 8. WO 208/2124, Chemical Warfare. Interrogations of German generals. 9. Edward M. Spiers, Chemical Warfare, London, 1986, p. 73.

10. WO 208/2124, op. cit. 11. WO 208/2183. Investigation into Tabun and Sarin products and Anabasine;

Haber, op. cit., p. 306. 12. WO 195/10429, Appreciation of potential CW value of nerve gases based on

information up to 30 June 1949. 13. WO 208/2124, op. cit. 14. WO 188/802, op. cit., ch. XVI. 15. AIR 2/8658. The use of phosgene by the RAF. 16. AVIA 22/2282, NRC Canada, Liaison Policy; Mel Thistle (ed.), The Mackenzie

– McNaughton Wartime Letters, University of Toronto Press, 1975, pp. 20–2, 58.17. AVIA 22/2286, Scientific Liaison with USA. Policy 1940–45. 18. AVIA 22/2282, Exchange of letters between H. J. Gough and C. J. Mackenzie,

January 1941.19. Hinsley, op. cit., vol. 2, app. 6 and p. 116; CAB 121/100, A/Policy, Chemical

Warfare, 18 March 1942. 20. AIR 2/8658, op. cit., Memo by Brunt, 22 October 1942. 21. CAB 121/101, A/Policy, CW1 (vol. 2), PM’s Personal Minute, D217/4, 6 July

1944.22. Ibid., Military considerations affecting the initiation of chemical and other

special forms of warfare, 26 July 1944. 23. Ibid., PM’s Personal Minute, 29 July 1944.

Notes 199

24. WO 193/712, Chemical Warfare Policy – Offensive, 11 September 1942–20 Sep-tember 1945.

25. WO 188/687, op. cit. 26. CAB 121/103, A/Policy/CW2/2; FD I/5535, BW Committee, 18 January

1940 and 7 February 1940. 27. G. P. Gladstone on Paul Gordon Fildes, Biog Mem Roy Soc, vol. XIX, 1973;

G. B. Carter, ‘Biological Warfare and Biological Defence in the UK 1940–1979’, RUSI Jnl., December 1992, p. 68.

28. WO 188/699, B. W. USA and Canada Correspondence, 10 August 1942. 29. G. S. Pearson, ‘Gruinard Island returns to civil use’, ASA Newsletter, 90–5,

no. 20, 6 October 1990, pp. 8–9 and 14. 30. WO 188/699, Mtg held on 28 April 1943 to discuss Cdn cooperation in dev. of

BW weapons; see also Fildes to Maj. Gen. Waitt (US Army), 13 September1943.

31. Ibid., Fildes to Col Thompson, War Cabinet 1 February 1944. 32. Carter, op. cit., p. 70. 33. WO 188/699, op. cit., Mtg, 11 February 1944. 34. WO 188/657, War Cabinet BW Cttee, 1943–44, 11 April 1944. 35. CAB 121/103, op. cit., 16 June 1944 and BW (44) 1st Mtg, 8 July 1944. 36. Ibid., BW (44) 2nd Mtg, 30 August 1944. 37. Ibid., Fildes’ Note on Present Possibilities of BW, 21 July 1944. 38. WO 188/699, op. cit., Fildes to Lieut-Col James H. Defendorf, US Army Sanitary

Corps, 7 December 1944. 39. WO 208/3972, Investigation of BW targets, 17–20 June 1945. 40. WO 208/3974, Interrogation of Dr Kurt Blome.

Chapter 9 Premature Weapons: the Rocket and the Jet

1. Joseph Needham, The Guns of Khaifêng-fu; China’s Development of Man’s FirstChemical Explosive, Creighton Lecture, University of London, November 1979.

2. R. Amman et al., The Technological Level of Soviet Industry, Yale UniversityPress, London, 1987, p. 78.

3. Renneberg and Walker, op. cit., pp. 56–7 (M. J. Neufeld, ‘The guided missileand the Third Reich’).

4. Ibid., pp. 61, 65. 5. Ibid., p. 62. 6. Ibid., p. 65. 7. Jones, op. cit., p. 340. 8. Dieter Hölsken, V Missiles of the Third Reich. The V1 and V2, Sturbridge,

Mass., 1994, p. 90 et seq. 9. Ibid., p. 98.

10. Origins and Development of OR in the RAF, op. cit., pp. 151–5. 11. Hölsken, op. cit., p. 305. 12. Hölsken, op. cit., p. 313; T. Bower, The Paperclip Conspiracy, London, 1987.13. Amman, op. cit., pp. 79–84. 14. C. W. Lloyd, ‘Pioneering Rockets’, Letter to The Times, 8 May 1995.15. E. W. Constant, The Origins of the Turbojet Revolution, Johns Hopkins Univer-

sity Press, 1980, p. 69.

200 Notes

16. W. Bailey, ‘The Early Development of the Aircraft Jet Engine’, 1995 (unpub-lished thesis held by the Roy. Aero. Soc.), p. 2.

17. CAB 102/393, Development of the Jet Propulsion and Gas Turbine Enginesin the UK, Narrative by C. Keppel, para. 41.

18. Bailey, op. cit., p. 2. 19. F. Whittle, Jet. The Story of a Pioneer, London, 1953, chs 8–9; Obit. of Sir

Frank Whittle, The Times, 10 August 1996. 20. Bailey, op. cit., p. 14. 21. Ibid, pp. 21, 71. 22. E. J. Ermenec (ed.), Interviews with German contributors to Aviation History,

Meckler, London, 1990, Ohain interview, pp. 6–37. 23. Ibid, p. 101. 24. Bailey, op. cit., pp. 81–4. 25. Lord Tedder, With Prejudice, London, 1966, p. 11. 26. CAB 102/394, Development of Jet Propulsion and Gas Turbine Engines in

the UK, C. Keppel narrative, para. 70 et seq. 27. CAB 102/394, op. cit., Whittle’s comments on narrative. 28. M. M. Postan et al., Design and Development of Weapons, London, 1963, p. 122.29. Bailey, op. cit., pp. 85–6; Bower, op. cit. 30. Postan, op. cit., p. 200. 31. W. Baumbach, The Broken Swastika, New York, 1992. 32. Ibid. 33. AIR 62/1009, 25 July 1941; Constant, op. cit., p. 222. 34. AIR 62/1010, Whittle’s report on visit to USA, 8 August 1942. 35. AIR 62/1013, Roxbee Cox’s report on visit to USA, November 1945. 36. The Times, Whittle Obituary, op. cit.

Chapter 10 The Ultimate Weapon: the Atomic Bomb

1. F. W. Aston, Isotopes, London, 1922, p. 104. 2. Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill: The Prophet of Truth, vol. V, 1922–1939,

London 1977, pp. 51–2. 3. Hahn and Meitner, articles in International Atomic Energy Agency Bulletin,

Special Number, 2 December 1962, pp. 6–11. 4. Spencer Weart, Scientists in Power, Harvard University Press, London, 1979, ch. 7.5. Margaret Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939–1945, London, 1964, app. 1.6. Glenn Seaborg in IAEA Bulletin, op. cit. 7. Gowing, op. cit., app. 2, The MAUD Reports. 8. Arnold Kramish, No. 62, The Nuclear Motive: In the Beginning, International

Security Studies Program, The Wilson Center, Washington, DC, 1982, p. 5. 9. Ibid., p. 5; Stewart Cockburn and David Ellyard, Oliphant, South Australia,

1981, ch. 8. 10. Kramish, op. cit., p. 2. 11. Laurence Badash, Scientists and the Development of Nuclear Weapons. From Fis-

sion to the Limited Test Ban Treaty, Humanities Press International, 1995, p. 36.12. Kramish, op. cit., p. 9. 13. Badash, op. cit., p. 39. 14. Gowing, op. cit., p. 62.

Notes 201

15. Kramish, op. cit., pp. 10–11. 16. Holloway, op. cit., pp. 76–9. 17. Ibid., pp. 82–4. 18. Ibid., pp. 96–103. 19. Ibid., pp. 106–8. 20. Ibid., p. 129. 21. Renneberg, op. cit., p. 275. 22. Powers, op. cit., p. 98. 23. Ibid., pp. 135–6. 24. Sir Charles Frank (ed.), Operation Epsilon: the Farm Hall Transcripts, Soc. of

Physics, Bristol, 1993, p. 73. 25. Rudolf Peierls, ‘The Bomb that Never Was’, review of Powers’ Heisenberg’s

War, NY Rev. of Books, 22 April 1993. 26. Frank, op. cit., p. 73. 27. Powers, op. cit., pp. 322–3. 28. Ibid., p. 409. 29. Otto Frisch, What Little I Remember, Cambridge, 1979, p. 176. 30. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, Penguin, London, 1988,

p. 736.31. Kimball Smith, op. cit., p. 320.

Conclusion

1. O. H. Wansbrough Jones, quoted in ‘Present Science and Future Strategy’,Jnl. RUSI, vol. 95, August 1950, pp. 405–23.

2. AIR65/335, Bombsights and Development Policy, October 1950. 3. Sir Edward Bullard, ‘Effect of the War on the Development of Knowledge in

the Physical Sciences’, Procs. Roy. Soc., A342, 1974–75, pp. 222–3. 4. Buderi, op. cit., p. 471. 5. J. D. Bernal, ‘Lessons of the War for Science’, The Freedom of Necessity, Lon-

don, 1949. See also Procs. Roy. Soc., A342, op. cit., pp. 555–74. 6. Sir Harrie Massey, ‘Atomic Energy and the Development of Large Teams’,

Procs. Roy. Soc., op. cit., p. 492.

202

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1993. Howse, Derek, Radar at Sea. The Royal Navy in World War 2, London, 1993. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Procs. of, Fifty Years of Radar,

vol. 177, no. 2, 1985. Jones, R. V., Most Secret War, London, 1978. Jones, R. V., Recollections of Intelligence, London, 1989. Kevless, Daniel, The Physicists. The History of a Scientific Community in Modern

America, New York, 1979. Kimball Smith, Alice and Weiner, Charles, Robert Oppenheimer. Letters and Recol-

lections, Cambridge, Mass. and London, 1989. Lovell, Sir Bernard, Echoes of War, Bristol, 1990. Postan, M. M. et al., Design and Development of Weapons, London, 1963. Powers, Thomas, Heisenberg’s War: the Secret History of the German Bomb, London,

1993. Price, Alfred, Instruments of Darkness, London, 1967. Price, Alfred, Aircraft versus Submarine, London, 1980. Pritchard, David, The Radar War. Germany’s Pioneering Achievement, 1904–45,

London, 1989. Renneberg, Monica and Walker, Mark, Science, Technology and National Socialism,

Cambridge, 1994. Rhodes, Richard, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, Penguin Books, London,

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no. 1631, 1975, pp. 439–591. Smyth, H. D. Atomic Energy for Military Purposes, Princeton, NJ, 1945. Spiers, Edward M., Chemical Warfare, London, 1986. Stewart, Irvin, Organizing Scientific Research for War, Boston, Mass., 1948. Swann, B. and Aprahamian, F., J. D. Bernal. A Life in Science and Politics, London,

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204 Bibliography

Waddington, C. H., OR in World War 2. Operational Research against the U-boat,London, 1973.

Watson-Watt, Sir Robert, Three Steps to Victory, London, 1957. Weart, Spencer R., Scientists in Power, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.

and London, 1979. Webster, Sir Charles and Frankland, Noble, The Strategic Air Offensive against Ger-

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Note The Centre for the History of Defence Electronics at Bournemouth Uni-versity has compiled an oral history of radar.

205

Index

Abelson, P. H., 173 Admiralty:

Advisory Panel, 66 Board of Invention and Research, 2 Controller of the Navy, 65 Department of Naval Operational

Research, 111–13 Director of Anti-Submarine

Warfare, 66 Director of Torpedoes and Mines, 65 Directorate of Miscellaneous

Weapons Development, 66–7, 72–3

Mine Design Department, 79–80 Operational Intelligence Centre, 98 Osprey, HMS, see Anti-Submarine

Warfare Proximity fuses, 43 Research Laboratory, 39, 61, 67 Room 40, 82, 84 Signal Establishment, 48 Sweeping Division, 80 U-boat threat, 64

Air Ministry: Directorate of Bombing Operations,

118 Directorate of Scientific Intelligence,

98 Aeronautical Research Committee, 160Amery, Leo, 116 Anderson, Sir John, 109, 128 Anderson, J., 61–2 Anti-Submarine Warfare:

Ahead-thrown weapons, 72–4; Fairlie Mortar, 72; Hedgehog, 72–3; Limbo, 74; Mousetrap, 74; Squid, 73–4

Anti-U-boat Committee, 112–13 Asdics, 61–8; Type 127, 63, 68; Type

128, 68; Type 147, 68, 73 Depth charges, 71, see also

Operational Research, 105–6 Echo ranging, 61

Electrochemical Range Recorder, 62–3

Escort vessels, 67 Fairlie, 65 German acoustic countermeasures

(Alberich), 68 Osprey, HMS, 61, 65, 68, 72 Outcome of campaign, 78–9 Torpex explosive, 71

Appleton, Sir Edward, xii, xiii, 66 Arms, H. S., 173 Arnold, General H., 115 Ardennes, German counter-offensive, 44Armament Research and Development

Establishment, 71 Aston, F. W., 169 Atomic bomb, see also Nuclear energy,

Nuclear fission Feasibility established, 171–2 First chain reaction, 175 First Soviet test, 14 Gaseous diffusion plant, Oak Ridge,

175 German bomb development, 181–3 Los Alamos, 12, 174–6 Manhattan Project, 5, 12, 174–8 MAUD Committee, 172–3, 179 Nuclear electromagnetic separation

plant, Oak Ridge, 175 Plutonium, 173, 175, 176–7 Soviet bomb development, 178–81 Tube Alloys, 173 Uranium, 170–1, 172–3, 177–8,

180, 182 Uranverein, 181–2, 183See also Nuclear Energy

Baldwin, Stanley, 19 Banting, Sir Frederick, 144 Barley, Lieut Colonel, E. J., 144 Barnett, Correlli, xiii Bartlett, A. C., 46 Bavarian Motor Works, 163

206 Index

Bawdsey Research Station, 21, 24, 26, 52, 103

Bell Telephone Laboratories, 26, 35, 70, 76

Bensusan-Butt, David, 31, 110 Bennett, Wing Commander (later Air

Vice-Marshal) Donald, 111 Bernal, J. D., 7, 102, 108–9, 115–16,

121, 187 Betz, Albert, 161 Biological warfare:

American research, 148–9 Anthrax, 148–50 British research, 147–50 French research, 147 Future use of agents, 151

Japanese use of agents, 147 Bertrand, Gen. Gustave, 84, 85 Bethe, Hans, 176 Biggin Hill, 21, 46–7 Birmingham, City of, 109 Birmingham University, 25 Birnbaum (German biological warfare

centre), 150 Blacker, Lieut.-Col. Stewart, 72 Blackett, P. M. S., 6, 66, 70, 71, 90,

100–1, 105, 108, 109–10, 111–14, 121, 173, 186

Bletchley Park, see Government Code and Cipher School

Blizna, 155 Blome, Kurt, 150 Blumlein, A. D., 32 Bohr, Niels, 170, 177, 178 Boot, Harry, 25 Bottomley, Air Marshal Sir Norman,

149 Bowen, E. G., xii, 9, 26, 28 Bragg, W. H., 2 Braun, Werner von, 5, 153–4, 155, 158 Brauschitsch, Field Marshal Walter

von, 153 Bretscher, Egon, 172 Briggs, Lyman, 174 Britain, Great:

Army, Anti-Aircraft Command, 44 21st Army Group, 119–20 British Central Scientific Office,

Washington, 123

British Chiefs of Staff, use of proximity fuse, 45; use of gas against Vls, 146

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, 3

Food supplies, 65–6 Scientific organization for war, 7,

11–12 War Office: Air Defence Research

Establishment, 34;Signals Experimental Establishment, 50

British Tabulating Machine Co., 86 British Thomson-Houston Co., 36,

161, 163 Brode, Robert, 176 Brundrett, Frederick, 66 Bruneval raid, 55 Brunt, David, 145 Bullard, Edward, 66, 72, 186 Bush, Vannevar, xiii, 8, 36, 69, 174 Butement, William, 40–1, 50, 51 Buttle, Dr, 131 Buxton, P. A., 130–1

Cairncross, John, 179 Cairns, Brigadier H., 125 California Institute of Technology, 74 Camouflage of aircraft, 105 Camp Detrick, 148–9 Canada:

Field Experimental Station, 144 National Research Council, 9, 144 Penicillin production, 123–6

Cavendish Laboratory, 21, 25, 172 Chadwick, James, 169–70, 171–2, 176,

177, 187 Chain, Ernst, 123 Chemical Defence Experimental

Station, 130, 139–40, 144, 145; Biological Department, 147–8; Microbiological Department, 151

Chemical warfare: American plans for, 140 British use of in First World War,

138–9 British plans to use in Second World

War, 140, 143–4 French plans for, 140

Index 207

German plans for, 140–1, reluctance to use, 141–3

Soviet Union plans for, 140–1 Respirators for British population,

140 Nerve gases: effect of, 142 German reluctance to use, 142 Biological agents, 146–50 Future use of, 151

Cherwell, Lord (formerlyLindemann, F. A.), 7, 10–11, 23–4, 27–8, 31, 56, 64–5, 108–10, 118, 163, 171, 174, 187

Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory, 175 Chiffriermaschinen Aktien Gesellschaft, 83Churchill, Winston, 9, 11, 24, 32, 57,

67, 88, 106, 109, 118, 141; on retaliation with Chemical Weapons, 143, 145–6; on jet propulsion, 164; on atomic bomb, 169; resignation as Prime Minister, 178

Cipher and cipher-breaking machines: Bomba, 85 Bombe, 86–9 Colossus, 91–3 Enigma, 83–9 Heath Robinsons, 91 Magic, 94–6 Purple, 93–4 Red, 94 Schlüsselzusatz/Tunny, 90–1

Cipher keys: Dolphin, 88 Fish, 90 Shark, 88–9 Sturgeon, 93

Clarendon Laboratory, 11, 25, 28, 172–3

Clarke, Russell, 82 Cobden Turner, H., 40–1 Cockburn, Robert, 46, 54 Cockroft, John, 9, 21, 26, 27, 34–5, 36,

41, 42, 44, 172 Columbia University, 69, 114, 174, 175Compton, Carl, 8 Conant, J. B., 8, 174 Constant, Hayne, 160 Crampton, Christopher, 48

Creasy, Captain (later Rear Admiral George, RN), 66, 69

Crick, Francis, 80, 99 Curie, Irène, 170 Curie, Pierre and Jacques, 60

Davy, Sir Humphry, 1Daventry, 20 Decompression chambers, 133De Havilland Aircraft Co., H1 engine,

165 Denniston, Commander Alastair, 85 Dickins, B. G., 57, 110, 111 Dönitz, Admiral Karl, 15, 64, 67, 74 Dornberger, Colonel (later General)

Walther, 153–5, 156, 158 Dowding, Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh,

28, 103 Drinker, Cecil, 133 DuBridge, Lee A., 9, 10, 27 Duff Cooper, Alfred, 147 Dyhernfurth, 143 Dysentery, 131–2 Dyson, Freeman, 110

Edgewood Arsenal, 140, 144 Einstein, Albert, 4, 174 Eisenhower, General Dwight, 118,

186–7 Electrical and Musical Instruments

Co., 32 Electronic warfare, 52–6 Ellis, C. D., 117 ENIAC computer, 93 Enigma machine, see Cipher machines Entscheidungsproblem, 86 Esau, Abraham, 38

Falck, Colonel Wolfgang, 37 Farm Hall, 181–2, 183 Fermi, Enrico, 17, 170, 174, 175, 176 Fettes College, 80 Feynman, Richard, 177 Fildes, Paul, 147–50 Feather, Norman, 172 Flerov, Georgii, 179 Fleming, Alexander, 123 Flood, F. A., 144 Florey, Howard, 123–5

208 Index

Flowers, Thomas, 90–2 Fowler, R. H., 65, 187 Franz, Anselm, 162 Friedman, William, 94 Frisch, Otto, 170, 172, 177, 178, 183 Fuchs, Klaus, 177, 178, 179–80 Fuller, Major General J. F. C., 50

‘G’ Forces, 134 Galland, General Adolf, 22–3, 165 Geiger, Hans, 14 Geigy, J. R., 130 General Electric Co. (UK), 25–6,

28, 46 General Electric Co. (US), 24, 166–7 Geneva Protocol, 139, 143 German Air Force, 45 German Air Ministry, 162 German Army, 5; see also Rockets

Heereswaffenamt, 5, 142 Waffenamt Prufwesen, 5, 142 German Medical Research,

126, 137 Miracil, 132 Psychiatry, 127 Vivicillin, 126

German Navy: surface vessels: Admiral Graf von

Spee, 38, 64; Bismarck, sinking of, 34; Deutschland, 64; Gneisenau, 54; Scharnhorst, 54

U-boats, 29, 48, 49, 60, 61, 65,67–9, Type xviii, 74; U-110,88; U-559, 88

View on asdics, German science:

Failure of war science, 16–17 German Research Institute for

Aeronautics, 162 Reich Research Council, 4, 150, 153 Institutes of Technology, 153 Gesellschaft für Electrokustische und

Mechanische Apparate (GEMA), 19, 36

Nazi attitude towards, 4 Getting, Ivan, 35 Gloster Whittle aircraft, 161 Gloster Meteor, 164–5 Goddard, Robert, 152–3

Goodeve, Charles, 66; as Assistant Controller, Research and Development, Admiralty, 67

Göttingen, 161 Gough, H. J., 144 Government Code and Cipher School,

84, 88; and Japan, 96 Graham, Michael, 104 Griffith, A. A., 159–60 Göring, Hermann, 4–5, 37, 45, 162 Gordon, Cecil, 107–8, 121 Gröttrup, Helmuth, 158 Groves, Brig.-General Leslie, 12–13,

16, 175, 176 Gruinard, island of, 148 Guderian, General Heinz, 50 Guillaume, Charles, 158, 161

Haber, Fritz, 3, 144 Hahn, Otto, 14, 170, 181, 183 Halban, Hans, 171, 172 Haldane, J. B. S., 139 Halford, Frank, 165 Hall, T. A., 180Halsbury, Lord, 139 Hamburg, raid on 23 July, 1943,32, 57 Hamilton Fairley, Neil, 129 Hankey, Sir Maurice, 7, 147, 179 Harris, Air Marshal (later Air Chief

Marshal) Sir Arthur, 54, 57, 97, 110, 118

Harvard Sound Laboratory, 69, 76 Heatley, Norman, 124 Heilbron, Ian, 125 Heinkel, Ernst, 161–2, 168 Heinkel 178, 162 Heinkel 280, 162 Heisenberg, Werner, 4, 14, 16, 181–3,

184 Henderson, David, 151 Hermann, Rudolf, 154 Herz, Gustav, 18, 24, 25 High Angle Control System, 39 Hill, A. V., 6, 9, 100, 101 Himmler, Heinrich, 150, 155–6 Hiroshima, 181, 183 Hitch, Charles, 115 Hitler, Adolf, attitude towards science,

4, 14; and code-breaking, 98, 141,

Index 209

150; and rockets, 153, 157; and jet aircraft, 162, 165

Hobart, Maj.-General Sir Percy, 50 Hodgkin, Alan, xii, 27, 28 Home Security, Ministry of, Research

and Experiments Division, 108–9; US Detachment, 115

Hull, port of, 109 Hull, A. W., 24 Hülsmeyer, Christian, 18 Huxley, Leonard, 104

Imperial Chemical Industries, 125 Insecticides:

DDT, 130, resistance to, 136 Paris Green, 129 Pyrethrum, 129

International Nickel Co., 176

Jackson, Derek, 56 Joffe, Abram, 6, 13 Johns Hopkins University, 42 Johnson, Patrick, 119 Joliot, Frédéric, 170, 171 Jones, R. V., xiii, 23, 40, 52, 55, 98, 155 Jumo 004 engine, 162, 165

Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, 170, 181; for Physics, 181, 182

Kammhuber Line, 37 Kammler, General Hans, 156 Kapitsa, Peter, 13, 14, 179, 181 Kerrison, Colonel A. V., 39 King, Admiral Ernest, USN, 114 Keitel, Field Marshal Wilhelm, 142,

150Klystron, 24–5 Knox, Dillwyn, 84, 85 Korolev, Sergei, 153, 158 Kowarski, Lew, 171, 172 Kuhn, Richard, 142 Kühnold, Rudolf, 19 Kurchatov, Igor, 179–80 Kurti, Nicholas, 173

Langevin, Paul, 60–1 Larnder, Harold, 103, 104, 117 Laue, Max von, 14

Lawrence, Ernest, 171, 174 Le Bouchet, 140, 147 Lederle Laboratories, USA, 132 Leedham, Air Commodore Hugh, 46 Leigh-Mallory, Air Chief Marshal Sir

Trafford, 57, 104, 117 Lent, Major Helmut, 38 Liddell Hart, B. H., 50, 102, 138–9 Lindemann, F. A. see Cherwell, Lord Linstead, R. P., 145 Liverpool University, 172 Livingston, Wing Commander Philip,

132–3, 134–5 Lloyd Davies, L., 144 Loomis, Alfred, 26 Los Alamos, see Atomic bomb Lovell, Bernard, xii, 27

Magnetic Air Detection, 69–70 Magnetostriction, 63 Magnetron, cavity, see Radar Maas, Otto, 144, 149 Malaria:

Drugs, 128–9 Prophylaxis, 128–9, 136 Severity of, 135–6

Malvern College, 27 Manhattan Project, see Atomic bomb Marconi, Guglielmo, 19 Marshall, Dr E. K., 131 Martini, General Wolfgang, 37 Massey, Harrie, 80, 187 MAUD Committee, see Atomic Bomb Mayer, Hans Ferdinand, 40 Megaw, Eric, 26 Medical Research Council, 122–3, 149 Meitner, Lise, 170 Mellanby, Sir Edward, 122, 124, 125,

128 Mellanby, Kenneth, 131 Merck, Dr G. W., 148, 151 Messerschmitt, Willy, 162, 168 Messerschmitt 262, 162–3, 165–6 Metropolitan Vickers, F2, 160, 165 Midway, Battle of, 95 Mines (sea):

MX Group, 80 Non-contact (German), 79–80 Pressure, 80

210 Index

Mittelwerke, Nordhausen, 156 Morgan, I. G., 68 Montgomery, General (later Field

Marshal), 119 Morse, P. M., 115 Mountbatten, Admiral Earl Louis, 96,

115–16 Moyer, A. J., 124 Mueller, Herman, 130 Munitions Invention Department, 2 McMillan, E. M., 173, 176

Nagasaki, 183 Naples (typhus epidemic), 130 Nash & Thompson, 28 National Gas Turbine Establishment,

167 Nature, 2, 170 New London Laboratory, 69 Newman, Maxwell, 90–1 Night vision (pilots), 134–5 Nimitz, Admiral Chester, USN, 95 NKVD, 179 Normandy landings, deception plan,

59; and Ultra, 92 Nuclear energy cross section, 171;

critical mass, 171, 177 Nuclear fission established,

170–1

Oberth, Hermann, 152, 158 Ohain, Hans von, 161–2, 168 Oliphant, Mark, 25–6, 171–2, 174 Operational Research:

Origins, 100–3 Army Operational Research Group,

119 Bay offensive, 113–141 Blackett’s Circus, 100–1, 119 Director of Naval Operational

Research, see AdmiraltyRAF Operational Research Sections:

Bomber Command, 56–7,110–11; Coastal Command, 71, 101, and U-boats, 104–8; Fighter Command, 103–4; 2nd Tactical Air Force, 120 Dispute over Air Force claims, 120; Planned Flying and

Planned Maintenance, 106–8; Size of convoys, 111–13 German mortars, detection of, 119–20No. 2 Operational Research Section, 119–20

Oppenheimer, Robert, 12–13, 184 Osenberg, Wilhelm, 15 Oshima, Lieut General Hiroshi, 96 Owen, Wilfred, 139 Oxygen masks for pilots, 133

Parkinson, David, 35 Pearl Harbor, 94–5, 174 Peenemünde (see also Rockets), 5, 153,

155–6 Peierls, Rudolf, 172, 174, 177, 182 Peirse, Air Marshal Sir Richard, 111 Penicillin, 123–6 Penclawdd, 148 Pew, A. E. H., 61, 69 Phillips, G. J., 49 Photographic reconnaissance, 98 Pile, General Sir Frederick, 44, 100–1 Plutonium, see Atomic bomb Pokorny, Francizek, 85 Polish Cipher Bureau, 85 Portal, Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles,

57, 118, 164 Porton, see Chemical Defence

Experimental Station Pound, Admiral Sir Dudley, 114 Power Jets, 161, 163–4, 166–7 Prandtl, Ludwig, 4, 14 Pratt, J. Davidson, 143 Proximity fuse, 39–45 Psychiatry, 126–8; combat fatigue,

127; LMF, 127 Pye Radio, 51 Pyke, Geoffrey, 116

Rabi, Isidor, 8, 9–10 Radar:

Origins, 18–21 British: Committee for the

Scientific Survey of Air Defence, 6–7, 20–1, 23, 52; aircraft interception, 28; AI Mark 10, 28, Air to Surface

Index 211

Vessel, 28–30; Centimetric sets, 31–5; Chain Home, 21–3; Chain Home Low, 22; GL Mark III, 34, 36; Ground controlled Interception, 28; Ground radar, 34–6; H2S,31–3, 55, 58, 185; Leigh Light, 30, 114; Oboe, 31, 33, 111; Magnetron, cavity, 24–6, 185

German: Freya early warning, 36–7, 55–6; Korfu, 32; Lichtenstein aircraft interception, 38, 57; Metox receiver, 30, 49; Naxos, 30, 38; Rotterdamgerät, 32, 38; Seetakt (naval), 38, 54; SN2, 38, 56–7; Würzburg (control and early warning), 37, 55, 56, 59

United States: ASG (George),30; H2X, 33; Radiation Laboratory (Radlab), 9,26, 35; M9 predictor, 35,44; SCR 584, 35–6, 44, 57; SCR 720 (Aircraft Interception), 28

Radio: High Frequency Direction Finding

(seaborne), 47–9, 68, 78; on land, 49–50; Improvements, 45–6

British Army: Nos 9 and 11 Sets, 50; No. 10 Set, 51–2; No. 19 Set, 51

Royal Air Force: HF, 46; VHF,46–7; For US, 47

Royal Navy, 47 German Air Force, 45–6 German Army, 50; Kurier/Squash

(Flash Radio-Telegraphy), 49 US Army, SCR 508, 51; FM sets,

51; AN/TRs, 51; ANTRC-6, 52 US Signal Corps General

Development Laboratories, 51; US Army Air Force: Radio Sonobuoy, 70–1

Radio Identification Friend orFoe, 55

Radio bombing/navigational aids:British, Gee, 31, 33; GH, 31 German, Knickebein, 52–3; Wotan/

Benito, 53, X-Gerät, 53

Radio countermeasures (see also Electronic warfare): Airborne Cigar, 58; Boozer (tail warning), 58; Carpet, 59; Dartboard, 58; Düppel, 57; Flensburg, 58: Jostle, 58; Mandrel, 55–6; Monica (tail warning), 58; Moonshine, 53; Tinsel, 58; Window/Chaff, 32, 56–7

Radio Research Laboratory (US), 59Rand Corporation, 186 Randall, John, 25–6 Raubkammer, 143 Rejewski, Marian, 85 Richards, Newton, 124 Ridenour, Louis, 35 Roberts, G. A., 102, 111 Robinson, Sir Robert, 125 Rockets (see also Peenemünde; V1; V2):

British test (Operation Backfire), 158 compared with bombers, 157 German long range, 5, 153–7; effect

of attacks, 157 Ground to air (Wasserfall), 15, 154 Post-war development, 157–9 Soviet interest in, 158 US interest in, 158

Rolls-Royce, 164 Roosevelt, President Franklin, 8, 141,

174, 175, 178 Round, H. J., 82 Rover Motor Car Co., 163–4 Rowe, A. P., xii, 10, 20, 27, 31, 52 Rowlett, Frank, 94 Royal Air Force:

Bomber Command, see also Operational Research, 31–3, 80; chemical warfare, 145

Coastal Command, see also Operational Research, 29, 47, 48, 70, 71, 113–4

Cranwell, 160, 163 Fighter Command, see also

Operational Research, 22,46–7, 53

No. 80 Group, 53; No. 100 Group, 58 Pathfinder Force, 111 Physiological Laboratory,

Farnborough, 133

212 Index

Royal Air Force: – continued2nd Tactical Air Force, 120

Royal Aircraft Factory (later Royal Aircraft Establishment), 3, 46; Turbojet, 159–60

Royal Navy (see also Anti-submarine warfare):

Bulldog, HMS, 88 Devonshire, HMS, 62 Graph, HM Submarine (formerly

U-570), 48, 76 Hadleigh Castle, HMS, 68 King George V, HMS, 95 Leamington, HMS, 48 Petard, HMS, 88 Spey, HMS, 68 Vernon HMS (shore establishment),

65, 67 Rudolph, Arthur, 158 Runge, Wilhelm, 19 Rutherford, Ernest (later Lord), 2, 169 Ryle, Martin, 36

Sandwith, Commander Humphrey, 85 Sandys, Duncan, MP, 164 Sargent, John, 139 Sawyer, F. L., 104 Sayers, John, 26 Schelp, Helmut, 162–3, 168 Scherbius, Arthur, 83 Schnorkel, 74, 76 Schonland, Basil, 119, 120 Schrader, Gerhard, 142 Seaborg, Glenn, 173 Shuttleworth, N., 61 Shockley, William, 115 Simon, Francis, 173, 182 Sinclair, Sir Archibald, 27 Skinner, Denis, 27 Slessor, Air Marshal Sir John, 113–4 Smith, B. S., 61–2, 72 Soddy, Frederick, 169 Sonar, origin of name, 69 Somerville, Vice Admiral James, 66 Spaatz, General Carl, 118 Speer, Albert, 15, 141–3, 154,

155, 157 Stalin, Josef, 13–4, 180–1 Stamp, Lord, 149

Stanley, C. O., 51 Stark, Admiral Harold (USN), 114 Steinhoff, Ernst, 154 Stern, W. J., 159 Stimson, Henry, 84 Strachey, Oliver, 84 Strassmann, Fritz, 170, 171 Struszynski, W., 48, 49 Suffield (chemical warfare testing

ground), Alberta, 144 Sulphaguanidine, 131–2 Sutton Oak (pilot plant for chemical

warfare agents), 140 Sylvania Electric Products Inc, 43 Szilard, Leo, 174

Taylor, Geoffrey, 177, 187 Tedder, Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur,

31, 116, 118, 163 Telecommunications Research

Establishment (TRE), xii; Sunday Soviets, 10, 26; move to Malvern, 27, 54, 59

Teller, Edward, 176 Terman, Frederick, 10, 59 Therapeutic Research Corporation,

125Thiel, Walther, 154, 156 Thomson, G. P., 171, 172 Thomson, J. J. (later Sir James), 2 Tiverton, Viscount, 102 Tizard, Sir Henry, 6, 9, 20–1, 23–4, 27,

70, 98, 109–10, 116, 144, 160, 164, 171, 172, 185

Tizard Mission (British Technical Mission to USA), 9

Tomlin, G. M., 40 Torpedoes:

Acoustic, 76–7 Mark 24 ‘Mine’, 76 British electric torpedo, 77 German acoustic torpedo

(Zaunkönig/Gnat), 77–8 Countermeasures against acoustic

torpedoes, 77–8 ‘Tots and Quots’ dining club, 7–8, 102 Townend, Brian, 96 Transportation plans (S Italy and NW

Europe), 116–18

Index 213

Trinity (first atomic bomb test), 178 Tripoli, 116 Truman, President Harry, 178 Tsiolkovskii, Konstantin, 152 Tuck, James, 178 Turbojet engines, 159

Bell XP-59, 166 American, 166 British, 159–61 German, 161–2

Turing, Alan, 86–8 Tukhachevskii, Marshal Mikhail, 5–6 Tuve, Merle, 41–2, 44 Typhus, 130–1; Scrub typhus, 131

Udet, General Ernst, 19, 162 Ultra, 29, 49, 52, 68

and Battle of the Atlantic, 88–9 and Battle of Britain, 87 and chemical warfare, 141 and Norwegian campaign, 87 value of, 96–8

Uranium, see Atomic bomb US Department of Agriculture

Orlando Laboratory, 130 Peoria Laboratory, 124

US Army Air Force, VIIIth Mustang long range fighter, 186 Operational Analysis Group, 115 Sonobuoys, 70

US Chemical Warfare Service,139–40

US Navy: Anti-Submarine Warfare Research

Group, 115 Cleveland, USS, 43 Fitted with British HF DF, 49 Helena, USS, 43 Office of Chief of Naval

Operations, 95 Squid, 74 Type 147 sets, 68 10th Fleet, 115

US scientific organizations: Committee on Medical Research,

122–3, 133 National Advisory Committee for

Aeronautics, 3 National Research Council, 3

National Defence Research Committee, 8–9

Office of Scientific Research and Development, 9, 10

US Ground Combat IntelligenceUnits, 95

US Signals Intelligence Service, later Signal Security Agency, 94, 95

US State Department, 84 US War Department, 94 USSR scientific organization: 5–6,

3–14Collaboration with West, 123 Rockets, 14 Tanks (T34), 13

V1 (flying bomb), 36, 44, 146 Building of, 154 Jet aircraft interception of, 165 Proposed use of biological weapons

against, 146 Proposed use of chemical weapons

against, 145–6 V2 see Rockets Vauban, Marquis de, 101 Vigneaud, V. de and synthetic

penicillin, 126 Vigo Plant, Indiana (biological

weapons), 149

Walden, S. de, 48 Walther, Helmut, 74 Wansbrough-Jones, O. H., 144 Watson-Watt, Sir Robert, xii, 20,

46, 48Wavell, General Sir Archibald, 128 Weizsäcker, Friedrich von, 181 Welchman, Gordon, 86–7 Wells, H. G., 169 Westinghouse Electric Corporation,

166–7; Corsair aircraft, 167 Whittle, Frank, 160–1; W1 aircraft,

163, 166, 167–8 Wilkins, A. F., 20 Williams, E. C., 102–3, 104, 117 Williams, E. J., 105–6, 113,

114, 121 Wimperis, H. E., 20 Wolman, Professor, 154

214 Index

Wood, Albert, 79–80 Worth Matravers, 26 Womens Royal Naval Service, 87 Wound shock, 126 Wright, Charles, 25, 62, 66; see also

Admiralty Director of Scientific Research

Wynn-Williams, C. E., 91

‘Y’ Intelligence, 98 Yagi, Hidetsugu, 17 Yamamoto, Admiral Isoruku, 96

Zeppelin Works, 155 Zimmerman telegram, 82 Zuckerman, Solly, xii–xiii, 7, 102,

108–10, 115–18