Northcentral University

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF TRAVEL: A THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF HOW STUDY ABROAD AND

POSITIVE REGRESSION AFFECT PERSONAL GROWTH

A Dissertation Submitted to the

Graduate Faculty of the Department of Psychology in

Candidacy for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

in PSYCHOLOGY

by

Greta Elena Couper

January 2001

Copyright © 2001

Greta Elena Couper

All rights reserved

APPROVAL

We, the undersigned, certify that we have read this dissertation and approve it as fully adequate in scope and quality for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology.

Author: Greta Elena Couper Title: THE PSYCHOLOGY OF TRAVEL: A THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF HOW STUDY ABROAD AND POSITIVE REGRESSION AFFECT PERSONAL GROWTH

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is deeply grateful to the many people who helped lift this Augean task

over Daedalus wings and around Odyssean shoals toward its final completion. Special

thanks goes to my father Clive Richard Hamilton Couper, who told me from the day I

arrived on this planet “You can do anything,” long before such advice was fashionable!

He was born in Rome, Italy, of American artist parents, and triggered my interest in

travel and the arts. Next, to my mother Louisa Couper for arranging many special

summers in Santa Barbara with the international community there. To Paul A.

Cantalupo, M.D., for inspiring me to study psychology, philosophy, and psychoanalysis.

To Michael D. Welch, Ed.D., for his motivation, coaching and positive belief in human

potential. And finally, to Lisa Merryman, for being my safety net when all seemed

impossible.

A large thank you to my dissertation committee for keeping me moving forward:

Lori Phelps, Gil Linné, and Richard Jones. Thanks also to many others who include

Martha Monroe, Lynn Velazquez, Kim Gibbs, Susan Cox, and Vanessa Reyes. The

outstanding contributions of everyone who assisted on this project are much appreciated.

Grazie tanto! Va’ dove ti porta il cuore. . .

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ABSTRACT

Title: THE PSYCHOLOGY OF TRAVEL: A THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF HOW STUDY ABROAD AND POSITIVE REGRESSION AFFECT PERSONAL GROWTH

Author: Greta Elena Couper, Ph.D. Degree: Doctor of Philosophy, 2001

Institution: Northcentral University Scope of Study:

This theoretical analysis and retrospective study explores the psychology of travel, and how and why study abroad affects personal growth and career choice. International travelers often experience something far beyond the acquisition of new subject matter or cultural awareness—they undergo a personal paradigm shift that alters their perception of themselves and their world in such a way as to clarify areas of their lives that were previously unclear. Many conceptual frameworks in developmental psychology are outlined to help define how people acquire new behavioral skills. This sometimes occurs through re-experiencing regressive situations from earlier childhood stages of development and adaptation in the more secure adult years. The theories outlined include those of Kohlberg (1984), Erikson (1968), Loevinger (1976), Kegan (1982), Basseches (1984), Cantalupo (1978), Marcia (1980), P. Adler (1975), Perry (1970), and Dabrowski (1977). Transformative learning refers to a dialectic, experiential form of learning through which one reexamines and changes perceptions, values, and behavior.

The participants in this study were 126 college alumni five or more years after

graduation, both who had and had not attended a study abroad program. A survey was distributed that consisted of demographic information, the Keirsey Temperament Sorter (KTS-II), a portion of the Omnibus Personality Inventory, and six open-ended questions related to regression, career consolidation, world-mindedness, and life goals. The emphasis was on self-awareness, not on the design, development, or administration of a study abroad program.

Findings and Conclusions:

Quantitative and qualitative data comparing the differences between study abroad alumni and non-study abroad alumni were analyzed using the statistical procedures of two-way analysis of variance (2x2 ANOVA) and chi-square (χ2). Findings showed that (1) one’s temperament did not determine whether the study abroad experience was effective; (2) vocational goals were toward service careers and away from monetary pursuits; (3) childhood feelings (not actions) in times of frustration were more evident

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but less emotional; (4) new challenges and environments were more readily accepted; (4) time allocation was more flexible and less scheduled; and (5) corporate culture was easier to adjust to for those with experience abroad. Of particular interest were the differences in personality traits between female and male participants. This is important because other cultures provide varied experiences based on their unique definitions of appropriate gender behavior and opportunity. Thus, research on the influence of travel on personal growth should include analysis by gender.

With the dawning of the twenty-first century, positive psychology is emerging as a

field in its own right. This specialty encompasses the science of positive influences and strives to improve the quality of life for all people. Further research should be pursued on how and why international travel affects personal growth, whether regressive experiences during travel help trigger learning, and how much pretravel training and emotional support during travel is required for optimal learning conditions. This will assist with the design of, and decisions to attend, such programs. Travel and multicultural encounters provide opportunities for personal growth. These experiences can transform individuals, organizations, and society.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................ ii

ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................... iii

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... viii

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1

Introduction................................................................................................................ 1

Definition of Terms.................................................................................................... 3

Statement of the Problem.......................................................................................... 5

Overview of Related Literature................................................................................ 6

Methodology............................................................................................................. 13

Limitations of the Study.......................................................................................... 17

CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .......................................... 18

Travel and Study Abroad ....................................................................................... 19

Self-Awareness Through Travel......................................................................... 20

Historical Grand Tour......................................................................................... 21

Study Abroad Research ...................................................................................... 24

Measurement Techniques ....................................................................................... 37

Theories of Cognitive, Moral, and Ego Development .......................................... 39

Identity and Self-Esteem .................................................................................... 43

Postformal Adult Development: Relativism and Dialectics............................... 47

Career Development................................................................................................ 51

Personal Growth Through Travel.......................................................................... 58

Experiential and Transformative Learning......................................................... 59

Permission to be Different.................................................................................. 63

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Heightened Awareness and Perception .............................................................. 64

Culture Shock ..................................................................................................... 72

Adaptation/Accommodation............................................................................... 83

Reentry ............................................................................................................... 91

Positive Regression .................................................................................................. 94

Summary ................................................................................................................ 106

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY.............................................................................. 107

Introduction............................................................................................................ 107

Constructs............................................................................................................... 108

Instruments and Validity ...................................................................................... 110

Keirsey Temperament Sorter (KTS) ................................................................ 111

Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI).............................................................. 112

Personality Career Inventory (PCI) .................................................................. 113

Internet Survey Forms ...................................................................................... 114

Computer Software........................................................................................... 114

Population Sample ................................................................................................. 114

Procedures .............................................................................................................. 116

PCI Instrument Development ........................................................................... 116

Population Sample Confound Control.............................................................. 116

Data Collection and Processing ............................................................................ 117

Statistical Analysis ................................................................................................. 120

Limitations ............................................................................................................. 121

Conclusions............................................................................................................. 123

CHAPTER 4. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS.............................................................. 124

Participant Demographics .................................................................................... 124

Personality Traits .................................................................................................. 125

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Temperament ......................................................................................................... 130

Career Choice and Vocational Type .................................................................... 130

Evaluation of General Questions.......................................................................... 134

Integration and Synthesis of Data........................................................................ 164

CHAPTER 5. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................... 168

Limitations ............................................................................................................. 169

Summary of Findings and Relationship to Literature ....................................... 170

Recommendations.................................................................................................. 173

Conclusions............................................................................................................. 175

APPENDICES............................................................................................................... 177

Appendix A. U.S. Population: Temperament, Traits, and Vocational Type .. 177

Appendix B. Letter of Consent, Instruction, and Rationale for Study............ 178

Appendix C. Personality Career Inventory (PCI) ............................................. 179

Appendix D. Assessment Utilization Request Form.......................................... 182

Appendix E. The Keirsey Temperament Sorter II (KTS) ................................ 183

Appendix F. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) .................................. 183

Appendix G. Demographics/Scores..................................................................... 185

BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................................................... 191

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Synopsis of Study Abroad and Travel Research ............................... 29

Table 2.2 Comparative Theories of Development to Early Adulthood............. 50

Table 2.3 Comparison of Developmental Stages to Travel Regression.......... 105

Table 4.1 Five Personality Traits .................................................................... 126

Table 4.2 Judging/Perceiving Trait Scores...................................................... 129

Table 4.3 Frequencies of Occupation Type..................................................... 131

Table 4.4 Vocational Types............................................................................. 133

Table 4.5 Representative Activity Analysis .................................................... 135

Table 4.6 Culture Shock Analysis ................................................................... 137

Table 4.7 Life Goal Analysis........................................................................... 142

Table 4.8 Childlike Regression Analysis ........................................................ 146

Table 4.9 Reentry Reactions Analysis ............................................................ 152

Table 4.10 Greatest College Impact Analysis ................................................. 158

Table G.1 Participant Occupations.................................................................. 185

Table G.2 Participant Quantitative Scores ...................................................... 188

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CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

All people have a destiny to fulfill, regardless of their geographic location or

status in society. One of the primary challenges in human growth and development is for

individuals to explore their talents and uniqueness, and develop their “gifts” in order to

establish a raison d’être on this planet. It is not enough to learn just the basic facts and

skills required to survive. People have unique, personal dreams that make them immortal

through following a special path with purpose and accomplishments to offer future

generations, either through individual discoveries or fulfilling part of a collective task.

They must find a way to understand themselves better and develop goals that match their

inherent talents or life may seem a prolonged and tedious pattern of work and bills, or the

proverbial “birth, death, and taxes.” How, then, can greater internal awareness be

accomplished?

Human beings are influenced by family, friends, relatives, peers, social mores,

inherited skills, media, and their immediate environment. Some seek self-awareness and

growth through joining psychotherapy groups, entering into individual long-term

psychoanalysis, following the regimen of training to be a skilled athlete, exploring family

genealogy, or immersing themselves in a religious philosophy, etc. Although such

programs usually do result in an increase in personal awareness when utilized for self-

growth, they can be very slow and extremely expensive, either in direct cost or indirect

loss of income. Is there a way to jump start this process and fast forward through the

experiences needed to explore self-identity? The answer for this researcher, and for

many others, has been through international travel (Kauffmann, 1983; Kennedy, 1994;

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Kottler, 1997; Sleek, 1998). Weaver (1994) stated “The overseas experience, like that of

an encounter or sensitivity group, offers a new social milieu to examine one’s behavior,

perceptions, values, and thought patterns” (p. 175).

Experiencing the diversity of other cultures allows people to perceive alternate

forms of behavior and cognition, and to question their own beliefs and attitudes through a

multitude of factors that utilize all the senses. Often persons returning from their first

sojourn abroad make statements like “This trip transformed me,” “I became more my

own person,” “Now I know what I want to do with my life,” etc. (Desruisseaux, 1998;

Kauffmann, 1983). These travelers have experienced something far beyond acquisition

of new subject matter or cultural awareness—they have undergone a kind of personal

paradigm shift. A cognitive jolt, or mindquake, has altered their perception of themselves

and their world in such a way as to clarify areas of their lives that were previously

unclear. Just what caused this change—how can it be explained?

The theories of developmental psychology help define how people acquire new

behavioral skills as they pass through stages of growth. There are many conceptual

frameworks, such as the developmental theories of Piaget (1969), Erikson (1968), and

Kohlberg (1984), that help to define transformative learning that involves a substantive,

qualitative shift in perception. In addition, international treatises on deep learning,

change learning, or transformative learning (noted by a variety of names) focus on

learning that occurs from a change in perception or personal view. Developmental

“triggers” that cause change to occur have been described abstractly (Hansel, 1985;

Kauffmann, 1983), but few have been explored empirically, partly due to the difficulty in

defining, obtaining, and measuring reliable data. There is a strong link between this shift

and learning. The developmental process is transformative learning about knowledge

and self-identity.

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With the dawning of the twenty-first century positive psychology is emerging as a

field in its own right. This specialty encompasses the science of positive subjective

experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions that strive to improve the

quality of life for all people. The positive emphasis is in direct contrast to the dominant

psychological focus in the past that has stressed pathology. According to Seligman and

Csikszentmihalyi (2000), psychologists, teachers, and parents should seek to help others

through “identifying and nurturing their strongest qualities, what they are best at, and

helping them find niches in which they can best live out these strengths” (p. 6).

Practitioners should amplify abilities in addition to noting weaknesses. Psychologists

who want to improve the human condition are in a position to help everyone, not just

those who suffer. “The majority of ‘normal’ people also need examples and advice to

reach a richer and more fulfilling existence” (p. 10). People’s values and goals mediate

between external events and the perceived quality of experiences. “It is not what

happens to people that determines how happy they are, but how they interpret what

happens” (p. 9). Thus, experiential learning that opens new horizons in cultural

awareness should expand self-understanding, increasing options for personal success.

Definition of Terms

For purposes of this research the following terms are used as defined:

Adaptability. Uses the four traits of emotional resilience, flexibility, perceptual

acuity, and personal autonomy.

Culture Shock. A set of emotional reactions [mild irritability to panic and crisis]

caused by the loss of perceptual reinforcements from one’s own culture, by new cultural

stimuli that have little or no meaning, and by the misunderstanding of new and diverse

experiences (Adler, 1975, p. 13).

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Dialectics. Developmental transformation that occurs via constitutive and

interactive relationships, which includes knowledge acquisition that involves the active

processes of conceptually organizing and reorganizing phenomena rather than the

accumulation of fixed truths. (Adult postoperational stage of cognitive learning and

development). (Basseches, 1984, p. 22; Mines & Kitchener, 1986; Moshman, 1999).

Frame Switching. Shifts between forms of interpretive cognition by a

multicultural individual in response to cues in the social environment (Hong, Morris,

Chiu, & Benet-Martinez, 2000, p. 709).

Identity. A metaphor for the flexible self-in-context (historical, biological,

cultural, social) (Fitzgerald, 1993, p. 188).

KTS II. Keirsey Temperament Sorter; similar to the Myers-Briggs Temperament

Indicator, but a shorter, non-validated version.

MBTI. Myers-Briggs Temperament Sorter; a career-oriented personality survey.

Personal Growth. Changes in self-identity, personality, and adaptability.

Positive Psychology. The science of positive subjective experience, positive

individual traits, and positive institutions that strives to improve the quality of life for all

people (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000, p. 6)

Positive Regression. A temporary retreat to earlier forms of behavior while under

stress that leads to disharmony, self-evaluation of values and behavior, reintegration, and

personal growth.

Quasi-experimental Design. Research design that attempts to approximate a true

experiment in a naturalistic setting by systematically eliminating alternative explanations

of the observed phenomenon (Levin & Hinrichs, 1995, p. 255).

Self-awareness. Who individuals think they are, including the fundamental issues

of feelings, self-esteem, identity, importance, appearance, and worthiness.

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Self-Esteem. A personal judgment of worthiness and attitude toward being

capable, significant, and successful (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 5).

Sojourner. A person who travels to a new place or foreign country for a

temporary short period of time for leisure, study, or work (Brein & David, 1971, p. 217).

Study Abroad. Experiential learning of at least four weeks in another country

where learners live in a culture with a language different from their native language, and

where some independent activities and autonomy with the local inhabitants are required.

Transformative Learning. Learning that involves a substantive, qualitative shift

in perception or understanding that results in permanent change in cognition and

behavior. This includes a change in one’s perceptions, underlying assumptions, values,

and ways of interacting.

Statement of the Problem

Most study abroad, international work, and travel programs state that personal

growth and transformative change occur (Kauffmann, 1983; Kennedy, 1994; Kottler,

1997; NAFSA, 1997), but few studies have researched or attempted to explain how the

phenomena unfold relative to theories of developmental psychology. Anecdotal self-

reports, surveys, and ethnographic observational descriptions are more common.

Researchers agree that it is difficult to measure the benefits of study abroad programs

(Church, 1982; Hutchins, 1996; Kauffmann, 1983). Factors such as advanced

preparation, expectations, length of program, course content, attitude and personality

characteristics of the traveler, depth of immersion, and poststudy follow-up may not all

be present, and research design is diverse and not amenable to meta-analysis. In

addition, consensus does not exist regarding what assessment instruments should be used

to measure change.

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Lack of consistent thinking regarding what and how changes should be measured

reduces the amount of comparative data, statistical macro-analysis, and ability to predict

behavioral patterns from the results. The goals and emphasis of each study need to be

analyzed carefully. For example, when academic program content and the degree to

which facts are learned is the emphasis of a study, then transformative changes in

personality or self-awareness may be only loosely addressed in the assessment. Thus, it

would be difficult to measure just how much these latter traits were affected.

Intercultural adjustment is often defined by means of a U-curve or W-curve of

culture shock (Brein, 1971; Gullahorn & Gullahorn, 1963; Oberg, 1960). Some have

portrayed adjustment as a series of psychological stages. But few researchers have used

an integrated theoretical methodology and the concepts of positive regression to explain

and understand how adjustment and personal transformative changes occur during travel.

The proposed study will address the following problems: (a) What are the affects

of study and travel abroad on personal growth (identity, personality, and adaptation) and

career selection, and (b) Do patterns of adaptation mimic earlier developmental stages?

Specific research questions within this problem are as follows:

• What personal transformation occurs (or is perceived to occur) through travel and study abroad?

• How does study abroad influence life goals and career choice?

• Can adult cultural adaptation be explained in terms of regression to earlier developmental psychological stages of adjustment?

Overview of Related Literature

Travel and study abroad can influence our understanding of global issues,

interpersonal relations, and career selection, as well as personal growth and self-image.

For purposes of this study personal growth includes changes in self-identity, personality,

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and adaptability. Some additional factors that have been explored relative to study

abroad include world-mindedness, ethnocentrism, tolerance, flexibility, self-esteem,

autonomy, confidence, refined career goals, foreign language ability, interest in

international affairs, political orientation, prejudices, tolerance of ambiguity, grades,

attitude toward diverse cultures, and concern for others (Kauffmann, 1983).

Because language has imbedded within it a certain way of perceiving the world

(sentence structure and idiomatic expressions), and the global economy affects most

industries, it is important to have some exposure to foreign languages, culture, and

diversity. This learning is expedited through travel. Without such knowledge people are

left with a narrow approach to cognition that may lead to failure in the global business

world. They lack the potentially more successful methods of acumen found in diverse

cultures (McCully, 1976). It is by honoring diversity while acknowledging personal

internal biases of perception that people are led to greater world understanding and

infinite approaches toward new solutions to problems.

While most foreign students attend college in the United States to obtain a degree,

American students usually go abroad for short language intensives, home-stay exchanges,

or an academic semester or year with the intention of adding an international perspective

to their education. In a survey of all major U.S. institutions by the Chronicle of Higher

Education, results showed that from 1996 to 1997 there was an increase of 11.4% of

American college students participating in study abroad programs (Desruisseaux, 1998).

Increasing interest and participation in the experience of other cultures will assist with

the intercultural communication and recognition of diversity needed to stay competitive

in a global community—a “cultural diversity competence.” This experience also offers

new modes of developmental learning.

Until recently, cognitive learning was believed to reach completion at the end of

adolescence (Erikson, 1968; Piaget, 1969), but current metatheories identify new learning

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stages into the adult years (Basseches, 1984; Moshman, 1999; Muuss, 1996). Each stage,

or period of time, is unique, where new behavior and responses are established, moving

from simple to more complex activities (Chickering, 1969; Erikson, 1968; Kohlberg,

1984; Piaget, 1969). People learn new skills, attitudes, and knowledge that are

appropriate to their maturation, physical makeup, individual traits, and social

environment.

Psychological growth is often described in sequential stages, where individuals

must master the tasks of one stage or they will have difficulty advancing to the next one.

Understanding is cumulative. The knowledge gained sets the framework for the next set

of lessons. What happens if the basic skills are not adequately learned? Is there a way to

“go back” and repeat earlier experiences? Psychiatrist Carl Jung believed that voluntary

analysis or therapy was a means of personal growth for everyone, not merely a treatment

for mental problems. Success was achieved not just by removing maladaptive behavior

but by developing a new balance of inner psychological forces that released creative

energy (McCully, 1976).

The challenge-response theory (Piaget, 1969; Sanford, 1967) is one method used

to define the process of psychological development. Through this, learning is facilitated

by exposure to situations and ideas that cannot be understood within an individual’s

perception or worldview. Previously learned responses are no longer effective.

Individuals must accommodate to their surroundings by developing new responses. If

challenges are not present, development will cease—if too great, development will be

avoided or the person will retreat. Perry (1970) defined an important difference between

adolescent and adult thinking. Whereas adolescents regard the world in polarities (e.g.,

right vs. wrong, us vs. them), adults emerge from this dualistic thinking toward multiple

thinking, as they begin to see other types of effective cognition and develop new

opinions. When ideas are challenged, multiple thinking yields to relative subordinate

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thinking, where an analytic approach to learning is pursued. Then, in a shift to full

relativism, there is an understanding that truth is relative, confined to the specific

framework in which the event occurs. Experience in other cultures increases the

awareness of alternate cognitive styles and may enhance this transitional process.

David Moshman (1999) used a metatheoretical perspective to describe adolescent

and early adult development, integrating concepts from Piaget’s Theory of Formal

Operations, Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development, and Erikson’s Theory of Identity

Formation. By borrowing ideas from many sources, he proposed a constructivist

approach to identity and cognition that can be used to address issues of human diversity.

He stated that, like physiological changes, long-term psychological cognitive changes are

qualitative, progressive, and internally directed.

There is evidence that certain types, forms, or levels of cognition are common

among young adults but are rarely seen in childhood (Moshman, 1996). One well-known

theory concerning a state of cognitive maturity beyond Piaget’s fourth and final stage of

formal operations is dialectical thinking (Basseches, 1986). This “fifth stage”

emphasizes a transformative reality in which a set of relationships continuously changes

over time and is understood in a subjective context. This type of cognition, which

involves processing, knowing, and thinking, is necessary to appreciate the physical and

social complex realities of an interrelated world. Perry (1970) named the stage beyond

Piaget’s operational stage the “period of responsibility.” By exploring multiple theories

and stages of developmental psychology, patterns of cognitive learning can be matched to

actual experiences in order to provide new insights into why and how transformative

changes occur.

The single activity that fills most persons’ daily life is work (Baron & Byrne,

1997). To find employment that matches individual interests and skills, especially in a

complex technical world, is an important challenge and one that requires increasing self-

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awareness. When life was slower and simpler, one generation was able to pass along

enough information to the next to succeed relatively well in personal and business

endeavors. But now the world, access to information, and the need for vocational

refinement and specialties changes faster than the generations, and to succeed individuals

must constantly be learning (Cross, 1981). Kegan (1994), in his book In Over Our

Heads, warned that access to increasing information threatens to overwhelm and exhaust

people unless they establish authority over this data. He suggested that this be achieved

through a qualitative change in mental complexity.

Anthony Marsella (1998) stated that changes in telecommunications, economics,

politics, media, environment, and transportation are strengthening the links between our

daily welfare and that of people in distant lands. But, the maintenance of ethnocultural

diversity is “as important for human survival as is biological diversity because it provides

social and psychological options and choices in the face of powerful unpredictable

environmental demands” (p. 1288).

Selecting a career, and developing a rewarding occupation is a complex

undertaking. In the 1990s career instability and choice became critical life issues. James

Marcia (1980) extended Erikson’s work on identity formation to include the process of

determining identity and styles of coping that an adolescent uses related to career

consolidation. This involves: (1) a transition from no direction or interest in making a

commitment; (2) a decision based on ideas from others; (3) an internal struggle with

choices and issues; and (4) finally arriving at a relatively firm vocational commitment.

As the processes of cognitive development and career choice are understood,

individuals can be encouraged to explore personal interests, identity, and skills; to

become more self-aware; and to strive toward more satisfying and rewarding life goals.

By learning more about themselves, people are in a better position to plan and implement

goals and develop careers that lead to greater success and fulfillment.

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According to Arthur Chickering (1969), the establishment of identity is the

primary element around which other developmental traits revolve. He believed the quest

for self-understanding is a lifetime task that reaches its highest point in early adulthood

(ages 18-25). Identity is “that solid sense of self that assumes form as the developmental

tasks for competence, emotions, and autonomy are undertaken with some success, and

which, as it becomes more firm, provides a framework for interpersonal relationships,

purposes, and integrity” (p. 80).

Chickering stated that self-awareness refers to who individuals think they are,

which includes the superficial aspects of appearance and the fundamental issues of

feelings, self-esteem, importance, and worthiness. Affirmation of self does not

necessarily mean following current styles, peer groups, or dictates of authority, but is

more an integration of influences—of situations, others’ opinions, and orientation. The

establishment of identity leads to a lessening of anxiety and greater personal integration

and stability. Through travel, identity is altered by changes in perception, personality,

acceptance, and cultural influences.

The psychology of travel attempts to explain the effects a sojourn abroad has on

personal growth (identity, personality, and adaptability), regardless of the academic

curriculum or travel itinerary. This theme has been overlooked in the fields of

psychology and psychiatry. Some related research has been done on very specific

groups, as noted below:

• Case studies by colleges interested in promoting and/or developing their semester abroad programs (Carlson, et al., 1990; Kauffmann, 1983).

• Entry and reentry studies with Peace Corps volunteers (Cross, 1998; Harris, 1972; Pearson, 1964; Schillaci, 1997).

• Tourism and marketing studies on how and why people travel (Baloglu, 1996; Lawler, 1989; Richardson, 1996; Woodside, et al., 2000).

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• Business etiquette and protocol studies on persons working abroad (Andrus, et al., 1998; Cook, 1988).

• Military studies on personnel assigned for overseas duty (Simplicio, 1989).

• Research on conveyances of travel and their impact on man (Reason, 1974).

• Historical accounts of expatriate artist colonies (Couper, 1986).

The projects above are sometimes slanted toward defining commercial products

and services, describing historical events, or accomplishing organizational goals, but do

not specifically address the influence of international travel on personal growth and

development. Psychologist Jeffrey Kottler (1997) described an international learning

process in his book Travel That Can Change Your Life: How to Create a Transformative

Experience. He outlined the requirements for pretravel preparation, which include

defining what the sojourner expects to learn. Although such preparation is useful to

enhance an experience, some learning takes place through travel regardless of planning, a

proposition that was supported by Kottler himself when he stated: Traveling can bring out in you parts of yourself that can’t be accessed any other way. Always looking for more efficient and effective ways to promote personal change, I realized that most of the constructive growth I’ve undergone in my own life has not come from books, or the classroom, or even therapy, but from traveling. . . . Travel teaches you most about yourself—about what you miss when you are gone and what you don’t, about what you are capable of doing in strange circumstances, about what you really want that you don’t yet have. (Kottler, 1997, Preface, p. x)

Psychologists are beginning to recognize that personal transformation occurs

through work or travel abroad (Sleek, 1998). Many literary authors have previously

noted the impact of experiencing new cultures. In the incidental notes on author Willa

Cather’s first trip to Europe (Cather, 1956/1988), editor George N. Kates commented

“how much she has matured since the first days of her arrival in ‘quaint’ Chester, merely

a matter of weeks before!” (p. 165)

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Research in tourism by Richardson (1996) revealed certain themes on the value of

self-discovery as the result of visiting new international countries that focused on the

discovery of the individual, cultural, and global ‘self’. Such experiences were shaped

through two factors: (1) negotiation within the host cultures, and (2) tension or stress

from the role of tourist; and were made extant through signature, portal, and reflective

processes.

Travel offers more opportunities for change than almost any other human

endeavor. But there is little consistency regarding how to study and explain

transformative change, particularly through utilizing the theories of developmental

psychology. Three questions regarding the stages of learning need to be addressed:

Description, explanation, and optimization (Baltes & Staudinger, 1996). Description

defines “what” is changing; explanation defines “why” change occurs, and optimization

defines “how” change can be enhanced. Most studies concentrate on the first and third

categories, bypassing why transformation occurs. New methods need to be explored to

understand the complexity of adult developmental change that will help guide individuals

who seek greater self-awareness and adaptability in an ever-changing world community.

Methodology

The emphasis of this research project is to define how change might occur in

personal growth and self-awareness through an overseas study program, regardless of the

academic goals or travel details of the program. Changes in personal growth may be

increased or modified using enhanced curricula but can occur independent of these

details and applications. Changes in identity, perception, and adaptability will be

measured and statistically analyzed. Then an etiology of change will be proposed in

terms of metatheoretical stages of developmental psychology (Moshman, 1999) and

positive regression (Dabrowski, 1964).

14

College alumni who graduated five or more years previously will be studied. (1)

The first group will consist of alumni of a semester-abroad (SA) program. (2) A second

comparison group will consist of randomly selected alumni who have not experienced

extended international travel or study abroad (NA). (3) A third, demographically

comparable matched-pairs comparison group, will consist of subsets of alumni from

groups 1 and 2 (MP).

Three methods of testing will be employed, with results compared using a

triangulation method of analysis. The assessment instruments are: (1) the

Personality/Career Inventory (PCI) developed specifically for this research and based on

questions from the validated Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI); (2) The Keirsey

Temperament Sorter II (similar to the MBTI); and (3) six open-ended questions.

The Personality/Career Inventory (PCI) is a questionnaire that collects

demographic and personality data, and self-reported anecdotal information on awareness,

personal growth, adaptation, complexity, autonomy, positive regression, goals, and career

choice. Because career consolidation is not strongly formed in the first five years after

graduation (Marcia, 1980; Super, 1976) college alumni will be selected from those who

have graduated between five to seven years earlier.

Selection of Participants

Alumni from an undergraduate study abroad program of a medium-sized (7,000

students) liberal arts college will be selected, based on different countries of destination.

Both random and demographically matched comparison groups will be chosen from

similar ethnic backgrounds and majors, who have not attended a study abroad program,

and who have not traveled abroad for more than two weeks for vacation. The

comparison groups will not be segmented based on whether they wanted to attend a study

abroad semester, since this decision is based on many factors, including cost and family

obligations, and is not necessarily related to whether transformative changes in personal

15

growth occur through travel. Alumni who respond are not selected randomly, since their

willingness to participate in the survey will differentiate them from the entire group that

receive the inventories.

Procedures

Multiple methods of assessment have been selected in order to strengthen the

design and analysis of the hypotheses. Format differences will be analyzed using a

triangulation method (i.e., input derived from multiple data sources to illustrate and

understand a complex process). Results from the open-ended questions will be

categorized subjectively. Given the nature of the study, to determine “how” travel

abroad affects personal growth, this flexibility is essential. It is important to remember

that the second and third groups are “comparison groups,” not “control groups.”

Alumni of study abroad (SA) programs and the comparison groups (NA & MP)

will be given the Keirsey Temperament Sorter (KTS II) and the Personality/Career

Inventory (PCI). A statistical analysis of the mean and standard deviations will be done

using two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques and chi-square (χ2) to

determine if there are any significant differences in perceived personal growth traits and

career direction between the groups. Concepts and perceptions related to metatheoretical

stages of developmental psychology and positive regression will be pursued and noted.

Instrumentation

There are a number of problems associated with testing personal growth and

change associated with study abroad. The researcher must choose between standardized

tests that are proven but may not be adjusted to properly assess cross-cultural experiences

or the specific traits under consideration, and internally designed tests in which the

reliability and validity are not known. For these reasons three diverse assessment

approaches will be used to collect results for analysis: a validated inventory, a well-used

inventory, and open-ended questions.

16

Participants were administered the Keirsey Temperament Sorter of 70 items, and

the Personality/Career Inventory (PCI) developed specifically for this study. The PCI

consisted of six open-ended questions and 26 multiple-choice items (of complexity and

autonomy) based on the validated Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI), an assessment

tool produced by The Psychological Corporation (Heist & Yonge, 1968). The full set of

OPI traits includes: Thinking Introversion (TI), Theoretical Orientation (TO), Estheticism

(Es), Complexity (Co), Autonomy (Au), Religious Orientation (RO), Social Extroversion

(SE), Impulse Expression (IE), Personal Integration (PI), Anxiety Level (AI), Altruism

(Am), Practical Outlook (PO), Masculinity-Femininity (MF), and Response Bias (RB).

The two factors of autonomy and complexity were selected based on their importance to

vocational success.

Data Analysis

Data will be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Quantitative methods

will be used to analyze responses from the Keirsey Temperament Sorter (KTS II) and the

Personality/Career Inventory (PCI). Mean and standard deviations will be statistically

compared using two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with main effects of study

abroad (SA/NA) and gender (F/M).

Qualitative methods will be applied to the open, nonstructured survey responses.

Scores will be categorized using the five-step process described by Anastasi and Urbina

(1997): (1) review the data; (2) organize the data into meaningful units; (3) separate the

units that are relevant to the investigation from those that are not; (4) separately analyze

the structured and nonstructured responses; and (5) synthesize the units into areas of

experience. Scores will then be analyzed using chi-square (χ2) two-way crosstabulations

with a layer of gender.

Results of both the quantitative surveys and the qualitative analysis will be

compared using a triangulation methodology, seeking patterns that reflect differences and

17

mimic stages of developmental psychology. Career choice, lifetime goals, and perceived

success will be the practical application marker used to indicate and hypothesize how

transformative change might occur through study abroad. The university’s research

faculty will be consulted to refine the data analysis plan before data collection begins.

Limitations of the Study

The participants of this study are not representative of all international sojourners,

and data obtained from them cannot be generalized to all college alumni. The sample is

not a true random selection since participants must volunteer in order to be included. The

test groups of college alumni will be described and matched demographically using

computer analysis based on gender, age, major, graduation date, and geographic

destination of the study abroad program.

Self-report inventories are open to deliberate misrepresentation if the test taker is

motivated to fake good or fake bad responses, which can occur where self-deception or

impression management are factors (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997). The face validity (ease

of identifying the trait) of a survey item increases the possibility of a false response.

Clear test instructions and establishment of rapport with the participants helps to reduce

false responses.

Although the test groups for this project are limited by the selection and reporting

processes, the principles of developmental psychology that will be used to compare

differences in personal growth during travel abroad are based on validated and generally

accepted theories. The resulting psychological principles matched to transformative

experiences identified during this study could have relevance to individuals sojourning

abroad, offering new insights with which to help them make the choice of whether to

enroll in such a program. This study also attempts to define a potential new method

through which one can explore greater self-awareness and personal growth.

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CHAPTER 2.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents a review of the literature relative to the psychology of

travel, study abroad, career consolidation, adult development, positive regression,

measurement processes, and transformation. When a new psychological theory is based

on etiological concepts, the patterns of adaptation being analyzed require insights beyond

the scope of general psychology. Roland Taft (1977) stated that a wide variety of

literature should be used in analyzing the process of adaptation to unfamiliar cultures,

particularly from the fields of psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Thus, the

annotated bibliographic statements in this literature review include information borrowed

from such related disciplines as anthropology, nonfiction travel, biography, sociology,

study abroad programs, classical literature, and popular psychology.

In terms of evolution, the barriers of travel on land, sea, and air have changed

drastically through technology, but physical and psychological constraints remain.

Countless generations of adaptation and adjustment have still left humans in the position

of self-propelled animals, designed to move at around four miles per hour in a relatively

two-dimensional world (Reason, 1974). Industrial psychologists have studied the

physical effects of travel, which include motion sickness, fatigue, stress, and perceptual

disorientation, for much of the 20th century, but few researchers have addressed the full

range of psychological effects.

Sachidananda Mohanty (1998), of the University of Hyderabad, noted the recent

importance of travel literature in research: It is not just its universal appeal to abiding nature across all cultures that makes travel literature so powerfully irresistible, but that in recent times, newer approaches to literary studies such as colonial discourse, gender,

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post-colonial and translation studies have powerfully brought travel and travel literature into the forefront of the mainstream academia. The image of the journey or voyage as in The Illiad, The Tempest or The Ancient Mariner has often served as a universal archetype for the human condition and man’s turbulent passage through the world. . . . What is radically new is perhaps the perception that travel books map out the territories of the mind, define contours of nations and communities, determine forms of cultural and political representations, and mediate across disciplinary boundaries and knowledge systems. (p. 37)

Etiological theories of behavior are often the result of personal experience,

anthropological observations, accidental discoveries, or patterns observed in anecdotal or

autobiographical books and journals. Although literature based on such naturally

occurring phenomena is not scientifically controlled or validated, it is important to

expand the review of related topics to include some anecdotal information in order to

assist in the initial development of a theory, to identify patterns of behavior and greater

self-awareness, and to induce the face validity of newly defined theories and assessment

items. With this in mind, a number of travel, biographical, and career-related articles are

included in the research for this thesis. Books on unfolding awareness through travel

(Iyer, Lee, Castaneda, Twain, Thoreau, Theroux, Chatwin), literature (Cather, Durrell,

Loti), and popular psychological insights into self-awareness through travel (Dikman,

Kottler) were explored to determine patterns in personal growth.

Travel and Study Abroad

Study abroad can be an extraordinary adventure in which education does not stop

when a class ends. A foreign setting exposes the student to a whole new gamut of

cultural, personal, and developmental experiences that open new perspectives. These

dialectical points of view can help in understanding political and economic issues, career

selection, and interpersonal issues (Howard, 1988). Travel also enables one to bring new

insights and visions to the people encountered along the way.

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Self-Awareness Through Travel

Travel is one method to turn our dreams into reality and increase self-awareness

in a fully immersed setting. Steve Zikman (1999) provided a good introduction to this

concept: “Travel attests to our will, our determinations to push the boundaries of our

spirit. Travel is the lifeline to our inner passion, to the life that lies within us all” (p. 28).

Literary figure Lawrence Durrell (1957) described the process of personal growth

and introspection through travel in his book Bitter Lemons as follows: Journeys, like artists, are born and not made. A thousand differing circumstances contribute to them, few of them willed or determined by the will—whatever we may think. They flower spontaneously out of the demands of our natures—and the best of them lead us not only outwards in space, but inwards as well. Travel can be one of the most rewarding forms of introspection. (p. 15)

Travel journalist Pico Iyer (1998) made a simple, but profound statement about

why we travel: “We travel, initially, to lose ourselves, and we travel, next, to find

ourselves” (p. 32). He further stated that one of the joys of travel is leaving beliefs and

certainties at home, and seeing everything anew, in a different and sometimes distorted

light. Iyer related Harvard philosopher George Santayana’s theory that travel is work

(travail), where we put ourselves into situations of potential hazard in order to sharpen

our lives, and are compelled for a moment to work desperately to resolve new issues, no

matter what they are. This stress on work as a transformative experience is what

separates the tourist, who simply views differences from afar, and the traveler or

sojourner, who strives to be a part of, and understand, new situations. Iyer reminded us

of Proust’s statement that the real voyage of discovery is not in seeing new places, but in

seeing things with new eyes (new perceptions). Thus travel spins us around in two ways at once. It shows us sights and values and issues we ordinarily might ignore, but it also, and more deeply,

21

shows us all the parts of ourselves that might otherwise grow rusty. For in traveling to a truly foreign place, we inevitably travel to moods and states of mind and hidden inward passages that we’d otherwise seldom have cause to visit. . . . We travel, then, in search of both self and anonymity—and in finding the one we apprehend the other. (p. 34)

Historical Grand Tour

The English developed the international “Grand Tour” in the 18th century,

considered a necessity for university graduates to polish and refine their classroom

education and prepare for life in the business world. “The wanderings of young

Englishmen across Europe in their quest for artistic and intellectual enlightenment . . .

acquired a fixed pattern; and for the next hundred years and more that pattern was to

remain unchanged, making a deep and ineradicable imprint on cultural life” (Norwich,

1987, p. 5). After the Napoleon Wars in 1815, travel ceased to be limited to the upper

classes, and middle-class young adults followed the exotic roads of the European and

Asian continents (Black, 1997). By 1820 women joined their ranks, among them

Mariana Starke, who wrote one of the first guidebooks for travel in 1840, published by

John Murray as Murray’s Handbooks. Appreciative descriptions of natural beauty were

included along with the details of language, art, and architectural sites of interest. Karl

Baedeker (1899, 1911) later wrote a similar series of handbooks, popular with British,

American, and German travelers. His books became essential travel accouterments.

During the last half of the 19th century, Americans began taking their own

“Grand Tours” in the form of extended vacations. These usually began with a 7- to 10-

day ocean voyage from New York to a port in Europe, and then continued via sea or land.

In 1867, Mark Twain began one of the most elegant of these tours, a 12-month voyage

from New York to Europe and the Holy Land, along with 500 other passengers. In

typical Twain fashion he sent sarcastically humorous journal notes back to a newspaper

in San Francisco, which he later outlined in his book The Innocents Abroad. These tours

22

were little more than insulated visual feasts during which the tourists did not socialize

with members of the host country, nor did they attempt to understand their cultures. The

travelers took along their Baedeker Handbooks, and kept each other “informed” while

rushing between architectural sites. Twain (1911) described a fellow traveler: “He reads

a chapter in the guide-books, mixes the facts all up, and then goes off to inflict the whole

mess on somebody” (p. 57). Yet, despite this insulation and aloof behavior, some

personal growth did occur. “Day by day we lose some of our restlessness and absorb

some of the spirit of quietude of the people. We grow wise apace. We begin to

comprehend what life is for” (p. 57). Summarizing, Twain stated that “travel is fatal to

prejudice, bigotry, and narrow-mindedness. . . . Broad, wholesome, charitable views of

men and things cannot be acquired by vegetating in one little corner of the earth” (p.

407).

In An American Sculptor on the Grand Tour Couper (1986) described the

adventures of Anglo-American artists going abroad to study or work in the 19th century.

This travel was necessitated by a scarcity of marble and other artist materials in the

United States, and because experienced European craftsmen (who were not available at

home) were needed to carve copies of works into marble. Personal letters of the artists

revealed that some emotional learning took place beyond the apprentice setting, despite

financial sheltering by parents and patrons that sponsored such trips. Sculptor William

Couper wrote in a letter his family in Norfolk, Virginia, on arrival in Germany in 1874:

“I tell you it is a dazed position to be placed in not being able to speak, not knowing how

to count your money, and the whole amount in knowing nothing” (p. 11).

Although first encounters initiated experiential, transformative learning, the artist

colonies tended to live in self-isolated groups, and thus they avoided becoming fully

adapted to the new country. By doing this they were also able to romanticize the culture

in their works, as seen in the poem “De Gustibus” by Robert Browning (1855):

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Open my heart and you will see Graved inside of it, “Italy”

In 1902, when Willa Cather was only 28, her writing career had not yet begun.

She was a schoolteacher in Pittsburgh and decided to take a trip to Europe. The

impressions and discoveries she encountered were major confrontations, and they

influenced her for life, growing in intensity and depth throughout her future writing. In

the context of travel she experienced the pleasure of dwelling in surroundings enriched

by the past, which had an immediate and powerful appeal. She kept a journal during this

revelatory travel. This trip opened up new ideas and multiple choices of the direction and

types of people she would later write about. In one paragraph she stated that “constant

comparisons are the stamp of the foreigner; one continually translates manners and

customs of a new country into the terms of his own, before he can fully comprehend

them” (Cather, 1956/1988, p. 9).

Although technology, ease of travel and changes in those cultures that have

incorporated Western standards of dress and behavior may have diluted the variety of

experiences, the process of international travel still has immense value for personal

insight and growth. Studies in the 1960s concentrated on the effects of social patterns of

behavior, personality traits, interaction, background, and situational factors related to

intercultural adjustment and communication for the international traveler (Brein &

David, 1971). Much of this research design was derived from case studies on volunteers

in the Peace Corps.

Hearing too much about a destination can possibly deter one’s interest in traveling

there. Travel writer Paul Theroux (1996) mentioned that he had not bothered to visit

Europe precisely because such a trip had always been regarded as “The Grand Tour,” a

formulated search for wisdom and experience. He preferred to travel to less common

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destinations. But, “because I had not been to any of these Mediterranean places I had

vigorous and unshakable prejudices, and those prejudices amused me and kept me from

wanting to visit the places. . . . But then—it is so funny about travel—I would go to a

place that everyone had been [sic] written about and it was as though I was seeing

something entirely new” (p. 9). Soon we will discover that it was his internal perspective

and views that were changing, regardless of the external influences from the

environment! That is why every new place that is visited appears personally unique to

the traveler.

Study Abroad Research

According to Wallace (1999), the primary objective of an educational program

abroad should be the psychological growth of the participant, where the student gains

self-respect and a broader world-view (p. 22). Although Goodwin and Nacht (1988)

stated that there is no evidence that persons with international experience will be more

enlightened on foreign policies, it “seems likely that they will” (p. 20). They noted that

college students reported the overseas experience changed them in unimaginable ways!

Apart from improving global knowledge foreign travel also provided a perceptual

distance with which to appreciate one’s native culture. Goodwin and Nacht described a

gestalt change whereby students become “more mature, sophisticated, hungry for

knowledge, culturally aware, and sensitive. They learn by questioning their prejudices

and all national stereotypes” (p. 12). Gary Weaver (1994) suggested possible reasons: Giving up inappropriate behaviors, adjusting one’s hierarchy of values, developing new ways of solving problems, and adopting new roles involve going through a period of self-doubt, disorientation, and personal examination of one’s values and beliefs. From this perspective, the so-called ‘symptoms’ of culture shock are simply the ‘growing pains’ that lead to the development of new skills and ways of perceiving the world, greater flexibility in dealing with life’s problems, an enhanced self-awareness, and increased self-confidence. (p. 236)

25

Pascarella and Terenzini (1991) suggested that the mission of colleges has

surpassed the cognitive and intellectual development of students, and now includes

education toward self-understanding, expansion of interests, reduction of narrow-

mindedness, moral development, preparation for employment and membership in society,

and enhancement of quality of life. Much study abroad research examines (a) identity

status, (b) ego development, (c) academic skills, (d) social self-concept, and (e) self-

esteem (p. 162).

Although this dissertation does not address the content or administration of study

abroad programs, concentrating instead on the psychological change and personal

transformation that such programs may generate, it is interesting to note the perceived

academic and social goals. Goodwin and Nacht (1988, p. 9) outlined the objectives as

follows:

1. A finishing school and Grand Tour

2. Broadening of the intellectual elite

3. Internationalizing the educated population

4. Fulfillment of an institutional mission

5. Exploration of roots

6. Mastery of a foreign language

7. The world as laboratory

8. Self-knowledge

9. Learning from others

10. Improvement of international relations

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Numerous texts cite reasons for travel and study abroad. Initially, language

proficiency was one of the main reasons for students to spend time in a foreign country,

but with increased international influence in business, education, and politics the

emphasis is changing. Swinger (1985, pp. 9-11) listed ten benefits of travel:

1. Personal flexibility: Individuals will grow in their ability to accept

differences, tolerance for varying lifestyles, different approaches to problems, and

cultural differences in time and family relationships.

2. Political awareness: News filtered through the media of the host country

shows a new outlook on the politics of the home country.

3. Ambassadorial role: All travelers are representatives of their own country.

4. Recognizing worldwide homogenization: Recognizing the transfer of popular

consumer products between countries.

5. Decentering: Ordinary daily chores and interacting with people are seen in a

new light.

6. Contributing to intercultural understanding: Sharing knowledge about the

home country with the host country and vice versa.

7. Understanding cultural roots: Travelers seek out their ethnic heritage and thus

better understand how their own practices and attitudes developed.

8. Discovering art and architecture: Dwellings, museums, art, shops, and public

buildings reflect the knowledge and views of host countries.

9. Enhancing career opportunities. Firsthand experience and the ability to

communicate with people from other countries are marketable assets in the increasing

global economy.

10. Language practice: Opportunity to practice and become more fluent in a

foreign language and increase cultural understanding.

27

Peter Adler (1975) stated that a successful cross-cultural experience should result

in changes in personality and identity through new awareness of values, attitudes, and

understanding. He proposed a transitional experience model of experiential learning that

is both prescriptive of change, as well as descriptive. The experience involved

movement from a lower state of cultural awareness to a higher state.

Researchers agree that measurement and analysis of the effects of study abroad

are difficult (Kauffmann, 1983; Sell, 1983; Brein, 1971; Bennett, 1986; Kelley & Myers,

1995). Deborah Sell (1983) outlined the possible reasons for lack of consistency in the

results: (a) loosely structured experimental design, (b) infrequent follow-up, (c) lack of

an established theoretical base, and (d) lack of consensus concurring what to measure

(p. 141). She outlined a number of studies that are included in Table 2.1, along with the

results from other extant research.

Initial study abroad research concentrated on culture shock (Oberg, 1960) but

later emphasis was placed on communication and cognitive skills. Detweiler introduced

the concept of categorizing, concluding that people who think in broad terms are more

likely to be successful in cross-cultural adaptation. It was also discovered that those

travelers who experienced higher stress during transition and interaction with the host

country (but remained in the program) had the greatest gain in personal growth (Kelley &

Meyers, 1995).

One point of confusion has been the use of ambiguous, nonspecific terminology,

such as the interchangeable use of the terms adjustment, adaptation, and effectiveness.

Table 2.1 lists those traits that have been found to change through a study abroad

experience. The results were placed in a best-fit category based on loosely defined

terminology.

Asako Uehara (1986) reported that university students who had returned from a

study abroad program had changed their relationships with old friends; changed views on

28

gender roles, dress, and individualism; changed goals and achievement behavior; formed

different views on global issues; and gained an increased awareness of both home and

foreign cultures. Uehara used a retrospective study to compare student surveys from 58

overseas sojourners to 74 domestic travelers, matched by age and status. Increased self-

awareness and cultural awareness were directly proportional. Students noted that they

had learned more about themselves through the foreign sojourn, and that both the travel

and the reentry process provided opportunities for growth.

29

Table 2.1 Synopsis of Study Abroad and Travel Research

This table outlines the positive benefits of study abroad that have been determined through various research projects. The traits summarized below were placed in a “best fit” category. The definitions were diverse, and may not be an exact match.

TRAIT RESEARCH

Gain in Self-Perception, Maturity, and Self-Concept

Abrams*** (1979) Bates (1998) Carsello and Greiser* (1976) Davies* (1974) Garraty & Adams*** (1959) Hoeh and Spuck* (1975) Kennedy (1994) Leonard* (1959) Nash (1975) Richardson (1996) Stauffer* (1973) Uehara (1986)

Developed New Interests Carsello and Greiser* (1976) Garraty & Adams*** (1959) James* (1976) Pelowski* (1979) Wallace (1999)

Developed New Attitudes and Values Billigmeier & Forman* (1975) Burnham, Tudler, & Adams* (1966) Kauffmann (1983) Leonard* (1959) Pace* (1959) Pfnister* (1979) Pyle* (1981) Richardson (1996) Smith* (1970) Thomlison (1991) Uehara (1986)

Gain in Cross-Cultural Understanding, Diverse Policies, Expanded World View

Abrams*** (1979) Bates (1998) Burnham, Tudler, & Adams* (1966) Coelho** (1962)

30

Deutsch** (1970) Garraty & Adams*** (1959) Gurman et al. (1990) Gwynne (1981) Hensley and Price* (1977) Hutchins (1996) Kauffmann (1983) Marion* (1974) Pace* (1959) Richardson (1996) Sanford** (1962) Stauffer* (1973) Thomlison (1991) Uehara (1986) Wallace (1999)

Greater Tolerance, Empathy Baker**** (1983) Gurman et al. (1990) Hensley and Price* (1977) Kauffmann (1983) Leonard* (1959) Marion*** (1980) Pace* (1959) Pfnister* (1972) Pfnister* (1979) Sell** (1983) Stauffer* (1973) Thomlison (1991)

Increased Self-Esteem Bates (1998) Hensley and Price* (1977) Hensley and Sell* (1979) Hutchins (1996) James* (1976) Kauffmann (1983) Nash (1975) Pfnister* (1979)

Greater Autonomy, Independence, Confidence

Baker**** (1983) Billigmeier and Forman* (1975) Hutchins (1996) James* (1976) Kauffmann (1983) Nash (1975)

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Pelowski* (1979) Pfnister* (1979) Pyle* (1981)

Changes/Success in Academic Pursuits, Intellectual Growth or Career Goals

Abrams** (1960) Baker**** (1983) Burnham, Tudler, & Adams* (1966) Hutchins (1996) James* (1976) Nafziger (1996) Wallace (1999)

Increased Social and Interpersonal Skills Abrams*** (1979) Baker **** (1983) Gurman et al. (1990) James* (1976) Kauffmann (1983) McGuigan** (1984) Pelowski* (1979) Pfnister* (1979) Thomlison (1991)

Decreased Interest in Material Possessions Pfnister* (1979) * Cited in Kauffmann, N. L. (1983). ** Cited in Carlson, et al. (1990). *** Cited in Sell, D. K. (1983). **** Cited in Thomlison, T. D. (1991)

Hansel (1985) studied high school students who attended homestay programs

abroad and found change occurred on 10 of the 17 factors examined. The five areas of

greatest change were: (1) awareness and appreciation of host country, (2) foreign

language acquisition, (3) understanding other cultures, (4) international awareness, and

(5) adaptability.

Baker (1983; cited in Thomlison, 1991) found that college students from Brigham

Young University who participated in semester abroad programs had significant new

knowledge in the areas of international affairs, appreciation of other cultures, awareness

of home culture, communication skills, self-confidence, and interest in new subjects.

32

Hannigan (1990) listed the skills that lead to cross-cultural effectiveness as

cultural empathy, ability to form and maintain relationships, ability to deal with

psychological stress, communication skills, and a nonjudgmental attitude. Constructs

listed as negative traits were dependent anxiety, rigidity, ethnocentrism, task-related

behavior, perfectionism, narrow-mindedness, and self-centered behavior (p. 93).

Colleen Kelley and Judith Meyers (1995), developers of the Cross-Cultural

Adaptability Inventory (CCAI), analyzed research related to predicting study abroad

success and the constructs of cross-cultural adaptation. Intercultural effectiveness was

most commonly defined as (a) open-mindedness to new ideas and experiences, (b)

intercultural empathy, (c) accurate perception of similarities and differences between

cultures, (d) nonjudgmental opinions, (e) astute, noncritical observation of one’s own

behavior, (f) the ability to establish meaningful relationships with host-culture persons,

and (g) minimal ethnocentrism (Dinges, as cited in Kelley & Meyers, 1995, p. 7). The

CCAI assesses pre-travelers on four components: emotional resilience, flexibility and

openness, perceptual acuity, and personal autonomy. These factors were derived from a

normative sample, literature review, and expert opinion.

Heather Brown (1998) performed a longitudinal study on 181 undergraduate

students who attended a study abroad program. Of important note is the result that pre-

departure measures of learned helplessness did not predict higher psychological stress

abroad. This underscores the need to use evaluations only for pretraining in weak areas,

but not as selection tools for potential success overseas.

Norm Kauffmann (1983) documented study abroad research that revealed how

this experience impacts personality change. He outlined six studies that used validated

instruments to measure change, and 12 studies that used specially designed instruments.

Only studies that documented change were included; those that did not report significant

change were omitted. It is interesting that the majority of research projects used

33

internally designed instruments. Table 2.1 outlines the traits that were identified by

numerous study abroad research projects. The degree of corroboration is affected by the

intent of the research, as not all studies measured all traits. Also, different research tools

were used, the study abroad programs were varied, trait definitions were nonstandard,

and the tested groups were not demographically homogeneous, so a true meta-analysis is

not possible. But, the change in traits noted indicates an implied relationship to a general

study abroad experience, especially where similar traits have been measured in multiple

studies.

The longitudinal study on The Impact of Study Abroad on Personality Change by

Kauffmann (1983) was one of the most extensive projects undertaken, with 126 study

abroad participants and 90 control participants. All were from three medium-sized

religious-affiliated liberal arts colleges in the Midwest. They were given a pretest and

two posttests. The semester abroad group showed the most change in three dimensions:

(1) changed world-view; (2) increased interest in the welfare of others; and (3) greater

intrapersonal development (self-esteem, confidence, independence). In his conclusions,

Kauffmann stated: Even though this study documented changes in personality functioning that persisted after one year, the real value of the SST experience may be more appropriately assessed after the participants have had a chance to reflect on the college experience . . . and after initial experiences in the world of work. (p. 151)

Jessie Glenora Kennedy (1994) expressed the same ideas when she stated that

“further research is needed to better understand the relationship been [sic] developmental

processes and levels and the cross-cultural learning experience” (p. 5). Kennedy

undertook a research project on the transformational experience of sojourning. She

collected insights from 25 cross-cultural sojourners through interviews and surveys to

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formulate descriptive models of the transformational learning process, believing the keys

to be level of cognitive development, reflection, and dialogue. Her own experience

living in Latvia for three months produced a personal change in self-image, world-view,

and values that were emotional, intellectual, and spiritual. Kennedy outlined six factors

she believed are important to the cross-cultural learning environment and adaptation

process:

1. Purpose of the sojourn: Vacation, business, or education

2. Communication: Language , written, non-verbal, mass communication skills

3. Temporal aspects: Length of stay, time of year, time in history

4. Environmental setting: Physical, economic, political, social, technological

5. Human interactions: Intellectual, social, emotional, spiritual; in a setting from deep to superficial

6. Spatial aspects: Interpersonal, private, public

Key findings on whether a sojourner had a transformative learning experience

were: (a) one’s personality type and learning style were not determinates, (b) one’s level

of ego development and learning were determinates, and (c) transformational learning

occurs regardless of the reason for travel or length of stay. Kennedy (1994) summarized

the importance of international travel as a transformational learning experience as

follows: Increased travel and growing global economies provide an opportunity and a challenge for personal growth and development. Multicultural, multi-methodological, and multidisciplinary research will help to more fully understand this learning opportunity. If taken, the opportunity can help transform individuals, organizations and societies. (p. iii)

35

Marsha Hutchins (1996) surveyed six alumni from an international study tour

regarding how this experience impacted perceptions, professional growth, and personal

development. Data collection included interviews, focus groups, and tour diaries. Key

factors of experiential change were the maturity of the student, participation in multiple

tours, minority situation in host country, destination, level of immersion, and focus of the

tour. In contrast, Kauffmann et al. (1992) noted that the less mature students on a study

abroad program were the ones to gain the most in personal growth. Perhaps these

differences were related to pretraining, administrative features, and program content.

Thomlison (1991) was one of the few researchers to study the differences in the

cross-cultural experience across gender. He administered a retrospective survey to 174

students from 34 different American colleges across the country who had participated in

a study abroad program in England. Particular emphasis was placed on differences

factored by the characteristics of gender and amount of additional travel. Using chi-

square cross-tabulations for 45 variables, he found nine items on that were significant

between how males and females responded. Females differed in the areas of: (1) concern

about nuclear warheads in Europe, (2) strengthened values, (3) lessened stereotypes, (4)

appreciation of the American system of education, (5) concern for international terrorism,

(6) greater awareness of policies and life in the U.S., (7) interest in world issues, (8)

changed eating habits, and (9) interest in social concerns (hunger, etc.) (p. 25). He goes

on to state that “more research on gender is needed to isolate differences in how a study-

abroad experience affects attitudes, beliefs, interests, awareness levels, [and] values” (p.

42).

Cushner, McClelland, and Safford (1992) analyzed research topics in the areas of

intercultural interaction. They summarized these into three main categories, with

subcategories as shown below:

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1. Emotional experiences: Anxiety, disconfirmed expectations, belonging, ambiguity, and confrontation with one’s prejudices.

2. Knowledge areas: Work, time, space, language, roles, importance of the group versus the individual, rituals and superstitions, and social hierarchies—class values.

3. Basis of cultural differences: Categorization, differentiation, ingroup-outgroup distinctions, learning styles, and attribution. (p. 41)

Dennison Nash (1975) compared 41 students who traveled to France for a year

abroad with 32 French language students who stayed in a domestic program. Both

groups were surveyed during the year, and were retested again one year after the program

ended. Findings showed differences for the study abroad group in three areas: (1)

increased autonomy, (2) greater differentiation of self, and (3) greater interest in

international affairs.

Gurman (1990) implemented a retrospective survey of 200 men and women after

their return from a summer abroad program. Results revealed that students perceived a

gain in appreciation of cultural diversity, the importance of cooperation, and

understanding the interdependence of nations. The primary goal of the study was to

determine student perceptions about the program and identify factors that may have

influenced these perceptions. As would be expected in Oberg’s U-curve, students arrived

in London with high expectations, then certain factors altered these attitudes as they

began to deal with day-to-day realities. One interesting negative experience, and one not

often mentioned, was that many students reported homesickness (mean = 3.4 on a five-

point Likert scale). This correlated directly with lack of mail from home and

experiencing financial difficulties (Gurman et al., 1990, p. 582).

An interesting comment about adaptation was made by psychologist Robert Kohls

(1986), in the introduction to Cross-Cultural Reentry: A Book of Readings: “When I first

37

went through culture shock, we were still calling it ‘homesickness,’ although even at the

time I knew I was going through something far more serious than longing for my loved

ones” (p. xix). Despite this formal scientific label, culture shock is still “a phenomenon

that had likely been around since prehistoric humans first moved across this planet.”

In conclusion, Table 2.1 summarizes the findings of many diverse study abroad

research projects. These studies are used to show trends in personal growth.

Measurement Techniques

There are many ways to measure differences and change, and each method has its

advantages and shortcomings. A laboratory-controlled experimental design has high

internal validity where the dependent variable outcome is a direct function of the

independent variables in the approach being tested, but this design has low external

validity, where the results may not be applicable in the real world (McMillan &

Schumacher, 1997). People may also react differently under artificial conditions.

In the field of psychology it is critical that results have validity in normal

situations to be of use in predicting or treating behavior. Basic or applied research,

though, must also be controlled to some degree in order to determine cause and effect and

provide answers to specific questions (Levin & Hinrichs, 1995; Tuckman, 1978). Thus,

psychologists often use quasi-experimental quantitative, correlational, or qualitative

design methodology.

Measuring behavior and personality differences/change due to a condition that

occurs over time (developmental study) requires either a longitudinal study using the

same participants, who are tested and later retested, or a quasi-longitudinal correlational

study using closely matched or randomly assigned participants in a control group who are

demographically similar (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997). Even when the same

participants are used the results can be misleading. Problems are associated with this

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design because it requires: (a) patience and persistence in tracking participants; (b) the

possibility of considerable sample attrition; (c) diverse measurement and interpretation of

change scores; (d) control of regression effects; (e) control of reliability from ceiling and

floor effects of test instrument; and (f) control of other influencing variables (Kauffmann,

1983; McMillan & Schumacher, 1997).

The quasi-experimental design attempts to use true experimental procedures, but

in a naturalistic setting, by systematically eliminating alternative explanations (Levin &

Hinrichs, 1995, p. 255). Inferences may be made about causal relationships based on

interrupted time-series testing on the same participants, or based on retrospective data

from comparable control groups in a posttest-only design. McMillan and Schumacher

(1997) stated that the posttest-only control group design is useful in situations where

pretesting is unfeasible, or where this might have an effect on the treatment. They

outlined the potential disadvantages of such a design: (a) lack of a pretest makes it

difficult to control or check for group differences; (b) special subgroups cannot be

formed to test specific parameters based on the results of the pretest; (c) it is not possible

to determine whether differential attrition has occurred; (d) statistical analysis is less

precise and less likely to show a difference between the experimental and control groups;

and (e) effects of maturation may be a factor on the results. The advantages of a posttest-

only design are noted as it: (1) allows experimental research when pretesting is not

possible, (2) avoids the reactive effect of pretesting, and (3) helps to ensure anonymity

(pp. 334-336).

In retrospective research, or ex post facto design, the researcher examines the

effects of a naturally occurring treatment after it has occurred rather than creating an

artificial treatment (Tuckman, 1978). Thus, the independent variable (treatment) is

determined by selection of participants rather than by manipulation. Through careful

selection of homogeneous experimental and comparative control groups, preexisting

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differences, potential extraneous variables, and rival hypotheses can be limited to help

ensure external validity and strengthen the confidence of the results (McMillan &

Schumacher, 1997).

Theories of Cognitive, Moral, and Ego Development

Psychological development has been explained by a number of theories.

Psychologists who believe that change is directed by the genes (nature - nativists) put

more emphasis on genetic makeup and biological progression toward maturity. Those

who believe that the environment is the primary influence (nurture - empiricists) stress

the role of learning. Interactionists emphasize both heredity and environment and the

dependency between these two factors (Santrock, 1997). Constructivists go a step further

and state that individuals play an active role in their own development, voluntarily and

internally directing change (Moshman, 1999).

For purposes of this research some better-known theories of cognitive, moral, and

ego development will be outlined and contrasted along a gradual process of the life span.

An eclectic theoretical orientation that utilizes ideas from many sources is important in

exploring the complexity of adult development. Comparisons of early developmental

traits to later regressive behavior observed in the adult years will assist in the

understanding of growth through environmental change and positive regression.

It was previously believed that development ended in the late teens, but there is

growing evidence to suggest that young adults (ages 18-25) undergo a distinct period of

change. According to Arnett (2000), “emerging adulthood exists only in cultures that

allow young people a prolonged period of independent role exploration during the late

teens and twenties” (p. 469). The focus is on three main areas of identity exploration:

love, work, and world-view. In both love and work there is a similar contrast between

the transient and tentative explorations of adolescence toward the more serious, focused,

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and intimate explorations of early adulthood. World-views are modified during the

college years, based on a questioning of childhood beliefs and exposure to new global

ideas. But the goals of identity exploration are not limited to direct preparation for adult

roles. They are, in part, explorations for their own sake, focused on obtaining a broad

range of life experiences before taking on more restrictive adult responsibilities:

“Emerging adults may also travel to a different part of the country or the world on their

own for a limited period. . . . This too can be part of their identity explorations, part of

expanding their range of personal experiences prior to making the more enduring choices

of adulthood” (p. 474).

In an attempt to explain adult postformal reasoning, Michael Basseches (1986a)

discussed a theory of dialectics that proposes the following: when people are faced with

competing points of view (nature vs. nurture) they formulate new perspectives (synthesis)

that go beyond just combining the two (interactionism). This new synthesis, when

challenged with the constructivist concept that knowledge is constructed, leads to an even

more complex synthesis. Dialectical reasoning provides a rational definition of adult

complex cognition that extends beyond the logical structure of Piaget’s formal

operations.

Development, as outlined by Santrock (1997), consists of biological, cognitive,

and socioemotional processes. These are interrelated, and influenced by maturation and

experience (nature and nurture), continuity versus discontinuity, and stability versus

change. Maturation is the orderly sequence of changes that are triggered by our genetic

blueprint, while nurture refers to the influences of the environment. Some theorists view

development as a gradual, continuous process (continuity), while others stress distinct

stages in the life span (discontinuity). The stability-change concept describes the degree

to which one becomes an older version of an earlier self or evolves into someone

distinctly different. King (1989) noted that research across theoretical domains shows

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positive correlation between moral, ego, and intellectual development. Moreover,

Loevinger (1976) stated that moral development is one aspect of ego development.

Sigmund Freud (1917) developed a psychoanalytic theory of personality based on

three structures: (a) the id, which consists of instinctive reactions, (b) the ego, whereby

one makes rational decisions based on the demands of reality, and (c) the superego, that

takes into account the morality of right or wrong (conscience). When conflicts arise

between these three areas, the individual deals with the resulting anxiety through the

defense mechanism of repression, distorting and pushing perceptions back into the

unconscious mind. Freud stated that adult personalities are determined by the way that

psychosexual conflicts (oral, anal, and genital) are resolved. When conflicts are

repressed, one becomes fixated at a particular stage of development.

By contrast, Erik Erikson (1964, 1968) believed people developed along

psychosocial stages. He defined eight task-oriented stages from infancy through old age

that included the importance of culture and history. According to Stevens-Long (1984)

Erikson’s dialectic theory is important for two reasons: (a) He emphasized the mutual

importance of biological, personal, cultural, and historical influences on the individual,

and (b) he proposed that all growth proceeds from conflict, defining each stage of

development in terms of a unique crisis. Erikson’s stages include:

1. Basic trust vs. mistrust – Stage at infancy resolving security (hope)

2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt – Stage at early childhood resolving self-control (will)

3. Initiative versus guilt – Stage at play, resolving superego responsibility (sharing)

4. Industry versus inferiority – Stage at school resolving working relationships (competency and self-esteem)

5. Identity versus role confusion – Stage at adolescence resolving continuity of self (fidelity)

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6. Intimacy versus isolation – Stage at young adulthood resolving ego loss and identity fusion (love)

7. Generativity versus stagnation – Stage at maturity resolving leaving a legacy for next generation (care)

8. Integrity versus despair – Stage at old age resolving one’s personal contribution to the world (wisdom).

Jean Piaget (1969) investigated the cognitive development of the child. He

stressed that individuals understand their world through organization and adaptation.

Piaget defined four stages: (a) Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years); (b) Preoperational (2 to 7

years); (c) Concrete Operational (7 to 12 years); and (d) Formal Operational (12 to 20

years). Some adults never attain the fourth stage, which includes the ability to think in a

hypothetical-deductive or abstract manner.

Kohlberg (1984) defined six progressive stages of moral development that are

neither innate nor learned, but constructed in a succession of cognitive structures to

resolve conflicts from previous ways of thinking. These stages include: (1)

Heteronomous Morality–Following externally imposed rules; (2) Individualism and

Exchange–Respect for the rights of others to pursue their own interests; (3) Mutual

Expectations–The consideration of multiple perspectives in social relationships; (4)

Social System–Moral determinations are made from the perspective of society as a

whole; (5) Social Contract–Postconventional reasoning that transcends any particular

culture and utilizes cross-cultural analysis; and (6) Universal Ethical Principles–A type of

meta-ethical evaluation and justification of moral issues, usually found in law or

theology, but beyond common human reasoning. According to Tappan (1997), morality

is not a universal concept but is dependent on words, language, and sociocultural

discourse found in the environment.

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There are critical periods in psychological development during which

environmental and cultural influences have major impact and leave permanent traces. If

missed, certain traits may never be fully developed (Cavalli-Sforza, 1995). One such

example is language acquisition in early life. After puberty, a newly studied foreign

language is almost never fully mastered.

In her book Ego Development: Conceptions and Theories, Jane Loevinger (1976)

compared a number of theories using impressionistic descriptions of the progression of

sequences. She is clear that these are not genetic stages (each sequence applies to a wide

range of ages and may have overlapping traits) and stresses that each transition not be

numbered, since that precludes future modifications (p. 14). In order to simplify

comparison and discussion, her ten sequences are identified in Table 2.3 using capital

letters.

Augusto Blasi (noted in Loevinger, 1976) stated it is difficult to define and

describe developmental stages, because (a) there is not a one-to-one relationship between

behaviors and traits or dispositions, (b) no task is reflective of a specific ego level, and

(c) all kinds of development occur simultaneously (p. 183). Strict stage theorists have

simplified the steps of the developmental process as a means of clarifying discussion, but

Perry (1977) warned that “all who have read their diaries ten years back know that

development is not linear” (p. 51). He proposed a metaphor of growth that resembles a

helix, where the same ground is traversed at higher levels and from broader perspectives.

Csikszentmihalyi (1993) mirrored this concept by describing life-cycle development as

an ascending spiral alternating between turning attention inward then outward (p. 235).

Identity and Self-Esteem

According to Moshman (1998), identity formation involves the consideration of

multiple potential selves and the consequent commitment to a particular conception of

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oneself. Cognitive development involves the ability to systematically generate new

frameworks that are not direct extensions of reality and to use hypothetical-deductive

reasoning to infer the consequences of such possibilities. Thus, cognitive development is

important in the construction of identity. Alan Waterman (1992) defined identity

formation as a process of discovery rather than one of construction: A person’s search for identity is an effort to identify those potentials that correspond to the ‘true’ self.’ . . . According to the discovery metaphor, for each person there are potentials, already present though unrecognized, that need to become manifest and acted upon if the person is to live a fulfilled life. (p. 59)

Popular literature suggests the same concept, as reflected in T.S. Eliot’s poem,

(1943, 1971), “Four Quartets”: We shall not cease from exploration And the end of all our exploring Will be to arrive where we started And know the place for the first time. . . . Not known, because not looked for But heard, half-heard, in the stillness Between two waves of the sea. (p. 145)

And from Herman Hesse’s (1925) story Demian: Every man is more than just himself: he also represents the unique, the very special and always significant and remarkable point at which the world’s phenomena intersect, only once in this way and never again. That is why every man’s story is important, eternal, sacred; that is why every man, as long as he lives and fulfills the will of nature, is wondrous. . . . But each of us—experiments of the depths—strives toward his own destiny. (p. 2)

James Marcia (1980) saw identity formation as involving both discovery and

creation. He noted that there are situations that feel right and others where people feel

out of sync. Things can be constructed or just thrust upon one’s experience.

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Travel writer Pico Iyer (1989) defined identity metaphorically as home—not a

physical place but the role and self we choose to occupy. He reported, “I left one kind of

home to find another: to discover what resided in me and where I resided most fully, and

so to better appreciate—in both senses of the word—the home I had left” (p. 9).

Several developmental theorists, including neo-Freudians H. S. Sullivan, Karen

Horney, and Erik Fromm, mentioned self-esteem as a significant factor in personal

growth, but only Alfred Adler used it as the central theme. He was more concerned,

though, with its implications in therapy. Erik Erikson mentioned self-esteem indirectly in

his theories.

Sociologist G. H. Mead (1934) defined the process of developing self-esteem as

follows: individuals internalize the ideas and attitudes of key figures in their immediate

environment, observe their actions and attitudes, adopt these actions (sometimes

unknowingly), and express them as their own. This learning is true for internal attitudes

toward the self, as well as attitudes outward toward objects and others.

Isabel Myers (as cited in Bernstein, 1996) coined the term type patriotism to

represent pride in one’s individuality. Elke Bernstein (1996) noted that it is important to

follow personal preferences and develop inherent skills to become successful and build

self-confidence. If people are not allowed to “be themselves” their energy is diminished,

and they may lose esteem. This can sometimes occur when parents try to influence the

behavior or interests of their children toward the interests of the parents. By

experiencing a new environment, where old rules or restrictions do not apply, the true

self can emerge more easily. This gain in insight is one of the features of travel to

another culture—it opens new doors of opportunity and awareness of skills and interests

that may have become suppressed.

Self-attitudes may be either conscious or unconscious. The very process of

measuring or identifying an attitude may cause an individual to become aware of a

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predisposition for the first time. Stanley Coopersmith (1967) measured self-esteem in

terms of a child’s reaction to failure, confidence in a new situation, sociability with peers,

and the need for encouragement and reassurance. Positive esteem is related to (a)

aspirations and expectations, (b) selectivity of perception and memory, (c) constancy and

independence of judgment, and (d) ability to tolerate and deal with adversity (p. 15). The

concept of “self” is formed through an individual’s personal observations and the

reactions of others to one’s attitudes, appearance, and performance. There is no a priori

opinion that exists separate from that formed through personal experience: As with any abstraction, selectivity results in certain attributes being excluded and others being overemphasized. The self—that is, the object a person regards himself to be—is thus selectively weighted according to the individual’s abstraction of the common features of his personal experiences. Although the idea of the self is open to change and alteration, it appears to be relatively resistant to such changes. Once established it apparently provides a sense of personal continuity over space and time, and is defended against alteration, diminution, and insult. . . . The concept of self is thus multidimensional, with the different dimensions reflecting both the diversity of experience, attributes, and capacity and different emphases in the process of abstraction. (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 21)

Over one-half of the words in any language have evaluative connotations. Thus,

self-reported attitudes are a common feature of subjective experience and useful as a

basis of nomothetic generalization. These attitudes are associated with positive and

negative affective states that can influence motivation. To increase self-esteem

individuals might model after persons who effectively handle anxiety, resolve

ambiguities, and make decisions. Multicultural experiences contain such models:

“Providing advantageous behavioral alternatives in their specific expression is a more

parsimonious procedure than waiting for their self-discovery” (Coopersmith, 1967, p.

263).

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Self-esteem can be achieved in many ways: for Sigmund Freud it was through

physical pleasure; for Harry Sullivan through security of social status; for Alfred Adler

through the quest for power, perfection, and social interests; and for Abraham Maslow

through self-actualization, the degree in which humans are able to find their true selves.

Bernstein (1996) pointed out that once we are aware of our interests and see our less

preferred functions, instead of focusing on the problems that may result from dealing

within these boundaries, we could make a conscious effort to compensate for them.

Postformal Adult Development: Relativism and Dialectics

Jean Piaget’s theories of the cognitive structure of formal operations reached an

end point in adolescence. Many researchers question this early terminus of development

and have postulated new theories of postformal operations into the adult years. This

section reviews some of the more popular models.

Benack and Basseches (1989) reported that the development of postformal

cognition is characterized by a shift from dualistic to relativistic epistemology. At the

formal level people believe that knowledge is absolute and independent of the subject. In

the postformal view, truth is seen as relative (metasystemic) to the perspective from

which one evaluates it. Irwin and Sheese (1989) pointed out that two important forms of

logic are dialectic and relativistic. The first (dialectic) was proposed by Klaus Riegel

(1973) and expanded by Michael Basseches (1984), while the second (relativistic) was

proposed by William Perry (1970).

Perry (1970) developed a scheme of nine stages in which the move from dualistic

thought to relativistic thought occurs between stages four and five. The dualistic and

multiplistic positions of the Perry Scheme define the various stances toward intellect,

morality, and personal identity. His theory of cognitive development contains

hierarchical structures of thought, grouped into the three distinct positions: (1) Dualism

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– Basic duality, multiplicity prelegitimate, and multiplicity subordinate; (2) Relativism –

Multiplicity correlate or relativism subordinated, relativism correlate – competing or

diffuse, and commitment foreseen; and (3) Commitment – Initial commitment,

orientation in implications of commitment, and developing commitments. Overlaying

these nine developmental positions are three positions of deflection: Temporizing,

Escape, and Retreat (p. 57). Perry viewed development as change that is systematic,

successive, and adaptive—a gradual progression toward greater maturity and complex

thinking.

David Moshman (1999) defined an adolescent and adult stage of thinking called

epistemic metacognition—the deliberate control of one’s inferences and the conceptual

knowledge about their justifiability that transforms thinking into reasoning. One may fail

to use good reasoning due to strong identification with one’s beliefs. Jerry Cederblom

(1989) stated, “The chief drawback to identifying myself with my beliefs is that . . . this

inclines me to reject a belief that conflicts with my own, even when I have good reason to

accept it” (p. 149). Individuals who view themselves in a belief-forming process see

change not as a reflection of shortcomings, but as an affirmation of themselves as rational

agents.

Michael Basseches (1986) explained dialectical thinking as a form of cognitive

organization of “world-outlooks or views of the nature of existence (ontology) and

knowledge (epistemology). These world-outlooks share three features—emphasis on

change, wholeness, and on internal relations” (p. 33). Transformative approaches are

considered more permeable than formal approaches, and can be approached through

varied perspectives (praxiological) that may define a problem and solution in

fundamentally different ways.

When adults try to understand the world through fixed or formal assumptions they

may maintain cognitive equilibrium by sealing themselves off from unusual or alternate

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points of view. Dialectical thinking is especially important in cognitive development

because: (a) it enables an individual to embrace global contradictions as opportunities,

especially the reasoning of other cultures who have had different experiences; and (b) it

allows one to apprehend contradictions in the social and internally personal world of

thoughts and feelings (Mines & Kitchener, 1986, p. 55).

Pedersen (1995) described the process of successfully adapting to a new culture

as a transitional experience, leading to Peter Adler’s Fifth Stage of Independence. One

builds a new identity “with an unfolding of the new self. This fifth state then is not the

end point or culmination of development but a state of dynamic tension between self and

culture that opens new perspectives. . . . The multicultural person’s identity is inclusive

rather than exclusive in appreciating both the similarities and the differences between,

among, and within cultures” (p. 246). This type of thinking, in which there is no right or

wrong but only new combinations of choice and behavior, is truly dialectic in nature.

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Table 2.2 Comparative Theories of Development to Early Adulthood

Approx.Years

Theories/Stages/Levels

Traits

0-1 Piaget 1st: Sensorimotor and Object Permanence Freud 1st: Oral stage Erikson 1st: Trust vs. Mistrust

Perception Trust Perceptual Development Conceptual Development Information Processing Habituation and Imitation

2-3 Piaget 2nd: Preoperational - Symbolic Function Stage Erikson 2nd: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Freud 2nd: Anal stage

Egocentrism Independence Adaptability Autonomy Communication Language Scaffolding - Social rules Attachment-Temperament

4-6 Piaget 2nd: Preoperational - Intuitive Thought Erikson 3rd: Initiative vs. Guilt Freud 3rd: Phallic stage Kohlberg 1st Level: Preconventional

Intuition Heteronomous morality (set by others)

6-10 Freud 4th: Latency stage Erikson 4th: Industry vs. Inferiority Piaget 3rd: Concrete Operational - Logical Reasoning

Empathy Complexity Gender Constancy Conservation Skills Acculturation

11-14 Lazarus - Cognitive Appraisal, Coping with Events Freud 5th: Genital stage Piaget 4th: Formal Operational - Abstract Thinking Kohlberg 2nd Level: Conventional Morality

Coping Resilience Rules and standards are internalized

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15-19 Erikson 5th: Identity vs. Identity Confusion

Kohlberg 3rd Level: Postconventional Self-Concept Identity Autonomous Morality, internalized

20-26 Erikson 6th: Intimacy vs. Isolation Marcia Riegel / Basseches Perry Kegan

Career Consolidation Dialectical Thinking Adaptive

Career Development

One of the primary identity issues of the young adult is career development—the

process of career choice and decision-making as it relates to self-concept. Selecting a

career, and developing a rewarding occupation, is a complex undertaking. In the 1990s

career stability and choice became critical life issues. Emerging adults begin to consider

how work and life experiences lay the groundwork for future jobs. They explore work

issues related to: What am I good at? What will I find satisfying for the long term? What

are the chances of getting a job that matches my skills and interests? (Arnett, 2000).

James Marcia (1980) extended Erikson’s work on identity formation to define

four stages of identity and coping styles of adolescence related to career consolidation:

(1) Diffusion–No set ideological direction or interest in exploring ideas or making

commitments; (2) Foreclosure–A commitment has been made to ideas that came directly

from parents or another authority figure, without experiencing a decision-making crisis;

(3) Moratorium–A current struggle with issues, without resolution (identity crisis); and

(4) Achievement–Moving through a period of questioning, searching, or crisis, and

arriving at a relatively firm internal commitment.

Knefelkamp and Slepitza (1976) illustrated a career exploration model. They

proposed that career counselors focus on process elements, decision-making, and life

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span development. The counselors should seek to understand the individual’s needs,

abilities, interests, personality types, and identity factors if appropriate assistance is to

take place. They argued that a new factor, level of individual cognitive complexity used

in approaching the career task, be added to the process of career exploration. The authors

proposed nine areas of qualitative change necessary in the career model, which were

developed from the theories of Perry (1970), Kohlberg (1984), and Loevinger (1976),

among others. These include locus of control, analysis, synthesis, semantic structure,

self-processing, openness to alternative perspectives, ability to assume responsibility,

ability to take on new roles, and the ability to take risks with self (p. 54).

Young adults have a change in locus of control as they progress from an external

framework (parental advice, job market pressures, and assessment results) to internal

points of reference. Through self-processing, individuals obtain the ability to examine

themselves and become cognizant of personal factors. This skill closely parallels that of

self-analysis (Knefelkamp & Slepitza, 1976, p. 54). The factors of openness to

alternative perspectives, ability to take on new roles and ability to take self-risks are all

skills that can evolve through a cross-cultural experience. According to the authors, as

individuals enter the stages of relativism (Perry Scheme) they undergo cognitive flips.

They realize that choosing a career is a personal commitment of self. First, there is the

excitement of entering a new world of work, but then they begin to see their role as an

integration of who they are and what they believe in terms of values, purposes, and

identity. Career image and self-identity become intertwined.

Empowerment in the area of personal development has long been one of the goals

of educational and vocational counseling. Lubinski and Benbow (2000) presented the

Theory of Work Adjustment that facilitates positive exploration of career goals by

aligning learning opportunities with each individual’s salient talents. There are common

threads running through such learning, which include effect motivation, flow, and peak

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experiences. These are similar to the goals of travel and cross-cultural studies

(Massimini & Delle Fave, 2000).

Stevens-Long (1984) described a number of theoretical frameworks that have

been developed to explain the process of occupational choice by adolescents and young

adults. The most elaborate is that of the differentialists who suggest that, in order to

make a successful career choice, individuals must first determine their interests, abilities,

and personality characteristics. Interest and temperament inventories are used to explore

these characteristics. In a second framework, the developmental approach, personality

variables and accumulated self-concept are important. Childhood experiences are

thought to influence one toward particular vocational decisions.

Donald Super (1976) defined five sequential vocational stages as: (a)

crystallization of one’s ideas about work (ages 14 to 18), (b) specification of work

preference (18 to 21), (c) implementation of first jobs (21 to 24), (d) stabilization of

choice (25 to 35), and (e) consolidation and advancement (35 plus). But, Stevens-Long

(1984) pointed out that, although commitment is associated with early job stabilization,

satisfaction and success are more a product of flexibility. Thus, early career changes may

be beneficial, and high levels of initial commitment may actually impede development.

In an earlier work, Super (1957) discussed floundering, a term used to describe

young workers who frequently change and try new jobs, all of which have little

relationship to each other. He pointed out that this could be part of the exploratory

process to find oneself and match skills and interests to a vocation. When job seekers

have a lack of self-concept and personality integration, they have an ill-formed idea of

what they can offer to employers; this lack of self-understanding thus becomes a

handicap: “To know one’s self, what one has to sell, is important” (Super, 1957, p. 114).

A survey of campus officials in the Chronicle of Higher Education (Desruisseaux,

1999) reported that what motivates U.S. students to study abroad is the belief that

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international knowledge and experience will give them an advantage in their careers.

The 1998-99 school year saw a 15% increase in study abroad participation from the

previous year and a greater interest in less traditional travel destinations. According to

the Association of International Educators (NAFSA, 1997), study abroad does more than

promote academic and personal growth, it also enhances employment prospects beyond

global knowledge and new language skills. It strengthens communication across

cultures, flexibility, resilience, and ability to adapt and offers new approaches to deal

with challenging situations.

Carlson et al. (1990) determined that the number of American students who study

abroad is increasing because they believe this experience will make an important

difference in obtaining a job later and in pursuing internationally related careers. Others

seek personal enrichment. Studies indicate that study abroad participants are less set on

specific career goals and more open to vocational exploration.

Schomer (2000) warned “even though globalization is the buzz word of the

century, the level of international awareness is surprisingly low among employees” (p.

76). High technology makes global business a reality, but within the IT (information

technology) sector the potential for creative synergy from the international diversity of

backgrounds and perspectives is not being fully tapped. She suggested a number of steps

that a company can take to increase a global mindset, including: (1) encouraging

international travel and taking courses on international topics, and (2) investing time in

cross-cultural learning and team-building experiences. Such strategies will help achieve

a competitive advantage, cosmopolitan outlook, and knowledge about world industry and

operations.

Certain personality types gravitate toward certain occupations or environments

and specialties within vocations. People work best when they can use their preferred

skills. But, as they are exposed to new environments, they add new skills to their

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repertoire, developing the ability to become “multifunctional” to adjust to varied

demands. Adler (1975) stated that a journey into another culture always becomes a

journey of greater self-awareness. Personal development may include greater self-

understanding, enhanced interpersonal relationships, values, and life direction or

vocation.

Bodden and Klein (1972) reported that vocational cognitive complexity and

appropriate career choice are related but that cognitive complexity operates

independently of personality style. When a person’s vocational stereotypes are

multidimensional (complex), the person is more likely to make a career choice

compatible with personality traits than when the stereotypes are simplistic (p. 58).

According to Myers (as cited in Keirsey, 1998), there are four very unique forms

of temperament: Artisans who are sensual (SP), Guardians who are interested in social

status (SJ), Rationals who have a quest for power (NT), and Idealists, who seek self-

actualization (NF). The theory of four temperaments challenges the hypotheses in the

development of temperament, personality, and behavior, which are: (a) that we have

similar goals of hierarchical motivation toward achieving self-esteem, and (b) that we not

only have the same goals, but that we move through the same stages of growth and

development (pp. 20-22).

Keirsey (1998) defined personality as a combination of temperament and

character. Temperament is a set of inclinations (pre-disposition) while character is a set

of habits (disposition). Temperament is an inborn form of human nature and attitude that

each person inherits genetically, while character is an emergent form of action that

develops through interactions between the environment and temperament.

In an interesting study exploring the personality types of interpreters for the deaf

Joan Blake (2000) utilized the Keirsey Temperament Sorter as a means of measuring the

16 Myers-Briggs vocational types (see Appendix E). She also interviewed participants

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(35 interpreters and 37 students) both in person and via e-mail. The predominant type for

interpreters was INFJ (Counselor) while that for students was ISFJ (Protector). Her

results for interpreters were consistent with published materials, showing a majority of

NF types (Idealists); but for students the SJ (Guardians) temperament was dominant. She

surmised that many SJ students are eventually drawn toward other professions as the

realities of interpreting jobs become more apparent, or that the style of professional

training is not geared toward this temperament.

Costa and McCrae (as cited in Lanyon, 1997) defined the “Big Five” personality

traits as abstractions that represent ways that Americans experience the world, act, and

describe themselves in self-ratings; and as traits that measure potential success in certain

types of work. The five factors are as follows:

1. Emotional stability or Neuroticism (calm, secure, nonanxious)

2. Extraversion (sociable, talkative, assertive, ambitious, active)

3. Openness to experience, culture (imaginative, sensitive, intellectual)

4. Agreeableness (good-natured, cooperative, trusting)

5. Conscientiousness (responsible, dependable, organized, persistent) (p. 256)

Further research shows conscientiousness to be the best predictor of job success,

regardless of the type of job. Extroversion was a valid predictor for managers and sales

but not for other occupations (Lanyon, 1997).

In her research on the vocational implications of a study abroad program,

Hutchins (1996) noted that college participants did not recognize immediate results. It

took between six months to a few years for them to actually realize this growth, which

consisted of greater academic knowledge, professional promotion, increased self-esteem,

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and confidence to initiate intercultural connections. This delay in self-awareness is

consistent with the concept that vocational choice stabilizes around age 25.

A retrospective study by Darice Wallace (1999) on 48 alumni of an international

study abroad program was done ten years after their graduation. This sought to identify

and clarify the long-term effects of such an experience on careers and world perspective.

The areas of change that consistently appeared in the responses were (1) career

advancement, (2) personal accomplishments, (3) greater appreciation for other cultures,

(4) increased foreign language fluency, and (5) greater interest in international issues

(Wallace, 1999, p. 124). Wallace, like Kennedy (1994), was inspired to do research in

this area after having had a personal transformative experience while living with a

Mexican family during a cultural exchange program.

In an opposite approach, Michael Basseches (1986b) described a reciprocal

relationship between personality development and employment conditions. He stated

that in many organizations the goal of a smooth-running operation might occur at the

expense of human development: “Given a concern solely with smooth organizational

functioning, effective performance of work roles may be seen as depending upon the

prior development of requisite cognitive structures by the role-occupant. On the other

hand, given a concern with human development, the challenges presented by new,

increasingly complex work roles may be seen as playing crucial roles in stimulating the

development of cognitive structures in adulthood” (Basseches, 1986b, p. 102). The study

abroad experience is similar. The more structured domestic classes are increasingly

complex as multicultural requirements enter into the academic content abroad. Thus, as

one learns basic course information overseas, one also develops new alternate skills and

self-knowledge.

Carole Widick (1977) discussed the process of assisting young adults with

personal growth. She reiterated that developmental change occurs as a result of

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disequilibrium. When individuals are confronted with information that cannot be

assimilated into their existing mode of thinking, they alter their assumptions. Those who

foster development must be able to operationalize disequilibrium while identifying the

variables that function to stimulate growth. It is more than just changing the process of

reasoning; it involves helping individuals acquire a new set of interpersonal affective

skills for acting on their views of the world (p. 37). This process is facilitated in a study

abroad environment.

Personal Growth Through Travel

Travel provides an encompassing point of reference from which to observe the

self in altered situations from what one is accustomed to. Change occurs through

experiential means, heightened awareness, new perceptions, reactions to culture shock,

and through adaptation and accommodation to a new culture. Whereas regular education

is usually passive, requiring adaptation to external rules and ideas, experiential learning

actively motivates students to take initiative and try diverse paths. This section explores

how travel relates to personal growth. The experience of living abroad profoundly transforms all who undergo it, whether they adjust to the culture or not. Such is the impact of the experience, at so many levels—physical, intellectual, emotional—there is not the possibility of a moderate, much less a neutral, reaction. (Storti, 1965, p. 106)

Feldman (1994) stated that “by interacting with domains that are available in the

world of humanly created culture, individuals are able to transcend constraints and

extend systems” (p. 97). In such interactions, individuals concurrently create internal

changes in their own systems for understanding and interpretation.

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When starting an international trip there is often a feeling of leaving everything

behind and beginning a new life. British writer Laurie Lee (1969) described this

beautifully in his autobiographical book As I Walked Out on a Midsummer Morning: It was a bright Sunday morning in early June, the right time to be leaving home. . . . My mother had got up early and cooked me a heavy breakfast, had stood silently while I ate it, her hand on my chair, and had then helped me pack up my few belongings. There had been no fuss, no appeals, no attempts at advice or persuasion, only a long and searching look. . . . I was nineteen years old, still soft at the edges, but with a confident belief in good fortune. . . . I was excited, vain-glorious, knowing I had far to go; but not, as yet, how far. (p. 14 )

A short time later, while beginning to comprehend the full scope of his adventure, he

wrote: That first day alone—and now I was really alone at last—steadily declined in excitement and vigor. . . . I found myself longing for some opposition or rescue, for the sound of hurrying footsteps coming after me and family voices calling me back. None came. I was free. I was affronted by freedom. (p. 15)

In a shift of focus from a disease model of pathology to a more positive growth

model, psychologists are beginning to promote traits like wisdom and morality. Martin

Seligman (2000) is at the forefront of this movement toward “positive psychology.” This

new field includes: (1) study of subjective well-being, optimism, and contentment; (2)

study of positive individual traits like integrity and vocational wisdom; and (3) study of

positive institutions (Volz, 2000, p. 68). Learning through travel and experience are two

examples of positive self-awareness growth.

Experiential and Transformative Learning

The field of adult learning and psychological development includes theories of

learning, cognitive development, and transformational change. The theory of

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experiential (or contextual) learning states that learning is most effective if it occurs in an

environment that makes the learning relevant, such as in real-life environments as

opposed to classroom instruction (Kolb, 1984). Transformative learning takes this one

step further by stating that learning should transform people and challenge them to

change their belief systems and behavior patterns to meet new needs and opportunities.

Hansel (1985) added that “many educators feel that experiential learning provides

students with a sense of mastery and accomplishment that seems to enhance their self-

esteem” (p. 6). Levin and Hinrichs (1995) discussed the role of experience in problem

solving: “The difference . . . appears to lie, not in sheer mental capacity, but in the

development through experience of efficient heuristic schemes” (p. 264).

Massimini and Delle Fave (2000) reported that optimal experience or flow is the

most positive and complex daily experience noted by cross-cultural learners. They

identified the characteristics of such learning as being “high involvement, deep

concentration, intrinsic motivation, and the perception of high challenges matched by

adequate personal skills” (p. 24).

The process of understanding transformative change involves the discovery and

definition of “learning triggers,” the reliability of which is difficult because retrospective

research relies on the individual’s reconstruction of what was going on. This is similar to

the psychology visual-figure-ground experiments where an image is seen one way, but

once another perspective is introduced the perception shifts and it’s very hard to return to

the original view. The developmental processes described by Perry (1970) or Kegan

(1982) are transformative learning about knowledge and one’s sense of self, particularly

as a learner (Moore, W., The Perry Network, personal e-mail on April 4, 1999).

Perry (1970) proposed an intellectual and ethical model for understanding the

structure and process of learning that focuses on two dynamics: (1) confronting and

coping with diversity and uncertainty, and (2) the consequent evolution of meaning-

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making about learning and self (Kegan, 1982; Perry, 1970). One of the premises is that it

is often more difficult to figure out what a problem is than to find a solution to it.

Learners are seen to cycle through three increasingly complex encounters with diversity

in terms of “multiples”: (1) multiple opinions about a given subject or issue; (2) multiple

contexts/perspectives from which to understand or analyze issues or arguments; and (3)

multiple commitments through which to defend personal values or identity.

Psychologist David Kolb (1984) defined two dimensions of experiential learning:

(1) the process of continued adaptation as opposed to content outcome, and (2) the

concept of socioemotional development, both subjective and objective. He based his

learning theory on the concepts of John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean Piaget; and his

developmental theory on the concepts of Lev Vygotsky. His six characteristics of

experiential learning follow.

1. Learning is a continuous process.

2. Learning is grounded in experience.

3. Learning requires resolution of conflicts between dialectically opposed modes of adaptation to the world.

4. Learning is a holistic process of adaptation.

5. Learning involves transactions between the person and the environment

6. Leaning is the process of creating knowledge. (Kolb, 1984, pp. 25-38).

Kolb’s integrative perspective on learning combined experience, perception,

cognition, and behavior. He stressed the importance of a prehension dimension

(apprehension and comprehension) and a transformation dimension (intention and

extension). His transformation concepts are based on Carl Jung’s psychological types

(introversion and extraversion) as alternative ways of relating. Kolb defined these

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dimensions along two continuums: concrete experience versus abstract conceptualization,

and active experimentation versus reflective observation.

An important factor in transformational experiences is the simultaneity of events.

Jung referred to this as synchronicity. “Outer happenings coincide at times and in a

meaningful way with an inner psychological condition” (McCully, 1976, p. 16). This is

described as causeless order, but it may be that we are just not aware of the causes.

Zikman (1999) defined synchronicity related to travel: No matter our intended design or schedule, Chance is our ever-present travel partner in discovery. Fate and Destiny orchestrate our journey, map out our path. Fortune and Luck plot our course, serve as our compass. We applaud the happenstance of our ways, our happy accidents, our little miracles. We recognize and celebrate the Kismet in our travels, the synchronistic signposts of our soul. (p. 66)

Hopcke (1997) described the four features that are found in all types of

synchronistic events:

1. Acausally connected; rather than connected through a chain of cause and effect

2. Accompanied by deep emotional feelings

3. Symbolic in nature

4. Occur at points of important transitions in our life

Such events are often a turning point in the story of one’s life. Travel sets the

stage for observing everyday situations in new ways. Contact with individuals from non-

European cultures, especially, shows a very different perspective to viewing the world.

Native Americans and Asians perceive their own actions not as an individual cause

producing an effect, but as one part of a web of subjective interconnections. This belief,

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which stresses interconnection with the world rather than individual mastery over the

environment, supports the theory of meaningful chance.

Jack Mezirow (1991) defined a theory of transformational learning that includes

the processes of centrality of experience, critical self-reflection, and rational discourse,

and results in (a) an empowered sense of self, (b) more understanding of how one’s

culture has shaped beliefs, and (c) more strategies and resources for taking action (p.

161). Mezirow sought to formulate a universal definition of human development based

on an individual’s frame of reference. This formulation is similar to Hall’s emphasis on

understanding one’s own culture as a means of developing intercultural awareness. Both

stress that greater self-awareness is a means of gaining greater cultural awareness. In this

author’s experience the reverse was also true: Gaining greater world-awareness resulted

in greater self-awareness.

The act of perspective transformation, according to Mezirow (1991), usually

results from a disorienting dilemma, which is triggered by a major life transition. This is

followed by self-examination, critical assessment of assumptions, exploration of new

roles, development of a plan of action, trial and development of competence, and

eventual reintegration into life on the basis of new perspectives. Both rational and

affective states play a role in transformative learning. In conclusion, transformative

learning draws on the realm of interior experience, much as experiential learning draws

on the realm of external experience.

Permission to be Different

When traveling abroad there is a potential for acceptance beyond that experienced

in the native country. Traits that appear oddly unique at home, such as height, weight,

dress, personality, etc., may be perceived in the new country as typically American.

Thus, there is an opportunity for personal appreciation that may not be found in the home

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society. Although this acceptance is superficial it is refreshingly different. Pico Iyer

(1998) concurred that “many of us will get taken, willy-nilly, as symbols of the American

Dream, regardless of our background” (p. 35). This paradoxical process provides a new

opportunity and basis for identity exploration and increasing self-esteem.

A different culture provides a unique living laboratory in which a visitor can try

various new personas, analyze reactions, and decide if this is someone that they wish to

become. One of the unique aspects of this process is that whoever travelers were at home

is not particularly important. Zikman (1999) described this phenomenon: We are a stranger to the visited. We float in a myriad of different cultures. We’re often misunderstood. We don’t have to know everything. We don’t have to be familiar with everything. We may try, but we’re not obligated to figure everything out. We are naïve. We are charming. We are intriguing. We’re forgiven for our mistakes, our misinterpretations, our exotic ways. . . . We welcome the chance to be a stranger. (p. 77)

Heightened Awareness and Perception

Most everyday behavior is a kind of lazy acceptance what is known or a

preoccupation with being busy. When one travels, there is heightened anticipation that

things will be different and an increased seeking or alertness.

Edward Hall (1981) described the new personal awareness that comes about

through exposure to another culture: “The reasons man does not experience his true

cultural self is that until he experiences another self as valid, he has little basis for

validating his own self. A by-product of such acceptance is a glimpse of the strengths

and weaknesses of one’s own system” (p. 214). What the organism actually perceives is

influenced by five factors: status, activity, setting, experience, and culture (Hall, 1981,

p. 101).

Marshall Singer (1987) defined perception as the way an individual selects,

evaluates, and organizes stimuli from the external environment. But virtually all of these

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can occur below the level of consciousness. “It is not the stimulus itself that produces

specific human reactions and/or actions but rather how the stimulus is perceived by the

individual that matters most for human behavior” (Singer, 1987, p. 9). From Carl Rogers

(1975), “We cannot see all that our senses report, but only the things which fit the picture

we have” (p. 319).

Maurice Farber (1954) described the differences that may occur in perception

among travelers: One is frequently struck by the astounding differences in what several travelers, each having viewed approximately the same things, report to have perceived. . . . It has been shown that the objective situation is but one element in the percept, and that what is actually seen depends much upon the needs, hopes, fears and expectations of the perceiver” (p. 270).

There is a form of learning through travel that is further increased when one

journeys alone: If you’ve been waiting to find the right person to go along on your trip, look in the mirror and then get out your passport. By traveling alone, you can follow your heart and move in your own rhythms without compromising your plan, your goals, your schedule, your budget, or style of travel. Traveling alone multiplies the possibilities of meeting people: . . . you discard the protective shell of common language, culture, and experience that surrounds you. . . . You’ll experience an accelerated transition into different cultures and absorb new languages more rapidly while traveling solo. . . . By forfeiting the support of a single companion, you open yourself up to the support of the whole world. No matter how many times I’ve traveled alone, I am tweaked with uncertainty before a new trip. But each time I push myself forward, I find my faith well rewarded. (Zepatos, 1996, pp. 17-18)

English poet and travel writer Laurie Lee (1976) related his first experience

abroad, taken from notes in his journal:

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What strikes me most strongly about a lot of them now is their confident enthusiasm and unabashed celebration of the obvious. There may be a simple explanation for this. When I first left my country village, at the age of nineteen, I found an outside world that was sparkling and new. The astonishment and pleasure at what I began to discover around me has continued almost undiminished to the present day (p. 11).

Later, while traveling through Mexico, Lee illustrated a scene of heightened

awareness: The sun was going down as we passed Dolores Hidalgo . . . and saw the last light fading on curling wood smoke, painted beehives, and almond blossoms. My final glimpse of that day was typically surrealist, the sort of thing one learns to expect—two old men, far out in the country, walking into the sunset, one carrying a cello, the other a huge bass fiddle (p. 125).

French naval captain Pierre Loti (1924) noted: “During those times in my life

when my heart is full of some vivid emotion, the smallest details of objects about me

impress themselves on me, and time, which effaces everything else, seems to leave these

impressions” (p. 55).

D. E. Harding (1988) described an enlightening moment in which he stopped

thinking while trekking in the Himalayas, which he labeled a re-birthday: “It felt like a

sudden waking from the sleep of ordinary life, an end to dreaming. It was the self-

luminous reality for once swept clean of all obscuring memory. It was the revelation, at

long last, of the perfectly obvious. It was a lucid moment in a confused life-history”

(p. 24). Castaneda’s Don Juan calls this experience the cubic centimeter of chance

(Castaneda, 1972, p. 234).

Keirsey (1998) agreed that maturation is not just a function of time alone, but that

it needs a stimulus. Thus, character growth must be aroused and awakened in the social

environment. But this stimulation must be timely and relevant to the attitudes and

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actions that are ready to emerge, in what has been called the “teachable moment” or

“window of opportunity” (p. 254).

It is highly recommended that the sojourner keep a daily dairy of the first few

weeks of their trip (Kottler, 1997; White, 1937). This will highlight the feelings,

perceptions, and awareness that are at a heightened state, and which will later change

during travel. Thus, the journal can serve as a learning tool. Upon returning from travel

abroad this will offer personal insights into the stages of growth and reasons for such,

which might otherwise be lost from memory with time and multiple new experiences.

Ethnographer Lewis Morgan spent a year traveling around Europe in 1870 and

made the following notation in his journal: If you write down at the time what you have seen worth recording, you will preserve such a picture of it that you can recall the original in perfect freshness. . . . [Otherwise] the great mass of one’s observations and impressions are imprinted in successive layers upon the mind, and all fade out together. The returned traveller [sic] has a few heads and points, but the best part of his mental work is practically lost. (White, 1937, p. 223)

By keeping a daily log the traveler can later see patterns of change in their

cognition, perception, and behavior. The description of an event or behavior is never

completely objective, being conditioned by the subjective point of view of the observer

and culture. When we perceive behavior in another culture we may not understand the

event but we are made aware of alternate ways of doing things. This insight causes us to

question whether the way we behave or perceive events is the right way.

Adler (1975) stated that every person experiences the world through culturally

influenced values, assumptions, and beliefs (p. 14). Thus, culture is both a perceptual

frame of reference and an environment of experience. Since most individuals are

relatively unaware of their own values and beliefs, transitional experiences from one

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environment to another bring predisposition into awareness and conflict. This leads to

personal growth.

Csikszentmihalyi (1993) outlined current scientific thought regarding the

perception of truth and reality. This view is affected by where one is born, what sort of

early experiences one is exposed to, and what kind of occupation one pursues. He

mentioned that truth is hidden by the Hindu “veils of Maya,” a metaphor of illusion that

describes how perception is altered by an individual’s past, which shapes the present and

future.

According to Hatch (1973), using concepts from Emile Durkheim, there are three

ways to understand and react to an event. The first is (1) Physical – Individual behavior

based on personal sensations and images that are experiences in the mind. The second

two are collective, from the society in which we live: (2) Intellectual – collective

representations, which provide a framework for perception and expression of thought;

and (3) Moral – A set of rules within which behavior is regulated. Lawrence Durrell

described this while noting how the English (including himself) perceive Greeks. He

stated, “My angle of vision was a selfish one” (Durrell, 1957, p. 125).

Carlos Castaneda (1974) used the metaphor of a bubble to illustrate how our

personal perceptions evolve: Sorcerers say that we are inside a bubble. It is a bubble into which we are placed at the moment of our birth. At first the bubble is open, but then it begins to close until it has sealed us in. That bubble is our perception. We live inside that bubble all of our lives and what we witness on its round walls is our own reflection. . . . The teacher’s task is to rearrange the view. (p. 252)

Yaqui Indian Don Juan explained how we perceive our world during a lesson for

his apprentice, Carlos Castaneda. The bubble is divided into two parts, the right half of

reason (the tonal) and the other of will (the nagual), much like the left-brain and right-

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brain of creativity and abstract thinking defined in Western psychology, or the Yin and

Yang of Asian thought. Don Juan continued, “In order to see one must learn to look at

the world in some other fashion” (Castaneda, 1972, p. 256). Once confronted with new

situations and the incapacity to reason everything out, the student discovers that there are

other ways of perceiving reality, and his/her view of the world is forever changed.

Ying-Yi Hong (2000) described a dynamic constructivist approach to perception

that allows individuals to retain multiple internalized cognitive triggers. In this model,

people who have been exposed to two cultures are triggered to react differently

depending on the type of stimulus (e.g., foreign words) and the accessibility of the

concept (e.g., how recently it has been reinforced). In other words, absorbing the

concepts of a new culture does not always replace the ideas of the original culture, even

when the two cultures contain conflicting theories. Thus, culture is not internalized in

the form of an overall mentality or world-view, but rather in the form of a loose network

of domain-specific knowledge structures. By retaining both cultures individuals can use

a dynamic constructivist approach to “frame switch” or select differing forms of behavior

depending on the context. Accessibility can be temporary (caused by recent priming) or

chronic (maintained by frequent use). Thus, bicultural individuals may switch between

cultural lenses, where the internalized culture is defined as a network of discrete, specific

constructs that guide cognition only when they emerge in an individual’s mind.

Most people do not perceive what is occurring around them when they stay in

familiar surroundings because they already know what to expect: “When one says ‘I

know them’ one is inattentive” (Krishnamurti, 1983, p. 112). But when traveling, people

actively look for differences in their surroundings and thus see much more. If people

learn to consciously pay attention to the effect of events around them, they will begin to

see and feel significance even in random or familiar occurrences (Hopcke, 1997).

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People only “see” what has familiar meaning, that which they have seen before.

Thus, perception is influenced by expectations and past experience and dwells in the

perceiver not in the external world. C. S. Lewis (1965) described this phenomena in his

book Out of the Silent Planet: “He gazed about him and the very intensity of his desire to

take in the new world at a glance defeated itself. . . . he knew nothing yet well enough to

see it; you cannot see things until you know roughly what they are” (p. 41).

Theologian Sam Keen (1970) defined the process of awareness in To a Dancing

God: “Mature awareness is possible only when I have digested and compensated for the

biases and prejudices that are the residue of my personal history. Awareness of what

presents itself to me involves a double movement of attention: silencing the familiar and

welcoming the strange” (p. 28).

Parin et al. (1980) stated that we look at alien cultures through our own “adapted

astigmatic curvature of the cornea” and that we need to view them through corrective

lenses (p. 375). While describing new perceptions that surface upon return to the home

country, Kohls (1986) mentioned, “You view America through a sharper lens, and are

able to pick up the strengths and weaknesses of the country much more clearly” (p. 97).

Jung, as noted in McCully (1976), described four types of perception: thinking,

feeling, sensation, and intuition. Each person has a propensity for a particular dominant

style, which can be altered by environment and early developmental stages. Each

perception has an opposite: thinking vs. intuition and feeling vs. sensation. To the extent

that people are exposed to recessive perceptual functions, they will have more creative

energy and broader judgmental conclusions. The rare “universal man” is able to utilize

all four functions to reach great heights of creativity and success.

Thalia Zepatos (1996) explained the process of letting go of expectations and

judgments during travel and setting aside assumptions:

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Things that you stand on as being ultimate truths may not be ultimate truths in a place you visit, according to the lives of people there. And, for me, that’s one of the most valuable things about traveling. When my assumptions are undermined, it helps me know myself and learn what I unconsciously think about life. (p. 149)

Kopp (1983) stated, “Homogenized groups of communally innocent people share

mutually supported perspectives about which they tolerate no challenge” (p. 54). People

can have their perceptions changed through brainwashing, such as in cults or captivity.

They lose their sense of “global coherence” but there is a natural homeostasis and

tendency for thoughts to return to a conventional or universal way of thinking (Harding,

1988).

Castaneda (1974) described a child’s way of seeing the world and filtering

independent views as learning what others describe until it becomes “an endless flow of

perceptual interpretations which we, the individuals who share a specific membership,

have learned to make in common” (p. ix).

Damasio (1995) illustrated a process where the mind is compared to a videotape.

He suggested one take an artificial snapshot of time (video freeze frame) in which to

observe an image (object, action, schema, word). This must remain in focus and be held

active in the mind, which will then assist in decision-making through comparing both the

external view of the world and the internal world perception. In a similar metaphor,

stopping the world is defined as a state in which the “reality of everyday life is altered

because the flow of interpretation, which ordinarily runs uninterruptedly, has been

stopped by a set of circumstances alien to that flow” (Castaneda, 1974, p. xiii). After

stopping the world, the next step is seeing, which is “responding to the perceptual

solicitations of a world outside the description we have learned to call reality” (p. xiv).

In the 19th century many writers (e.g., Gustav, Fechner, and von Helmholz) were

interested in the study of alternate space, such as two- or four-dimensional realities

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(Abbott, 1991). The exploration of two dimensions resulted in slices of perception in

which a solid object, such as a sphere, would change shape over time as it moved through

a plane. Describing moments of time as part of a whole allowed scientists to “stop the

world” and eventually led to the development of the CAT scan in medicine. These

alternate views, like alternate cultural environments, can provide varying reflections of

change and a new way of looking at situations or events.

Culture Shock

Culture shock has been defined as an occupational disease of travelers by Kalvero

Oberg (1960), as a pattern of adjustment and personal transition by Janet Bennett (1977),

and as a transformational process by Peter Adler (1975). Julian Silverman (1994)

reported that the individual in a life-crisis situation may use heightened awareness to see

alternative perspectives for making sense out of the dilemma. The concept of stages of

culture shock is attributed to Oberg, but Lysgaard (1955) introduced the U-curve theory

of regression then reintegration.

According to Weinmann (1983), culture shock is a psychological condition that

leads to increased awareness and personal growth for most people, because it challenges

beliefs and requires the sojourner to develop new communication skills. Many believe

that some degree of culture shock is inevitable and even necessary for better adjustment

and expanded self-awareness.

Craig Storti (1989) introduced some of the reasons for culture shock in his book

The Art of Crossing Cultures: What is different about being overseas, the reason we cannot continue to rely on the natural adjustment process, is not that this process suddenly stops or that we encounter any fundamentally different kind of new situation, but that we encounter new situations on a scale we have never known before. The nearly continuous barrage of new experiences served

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up by the unfamiliar country and culture . . . triggers a correspondingly intense wave of reaction and anxiety. (p. 76)

It is not that one cannot deal with change, but the large amount of change that

must be coped with simultaneously within a new culture can be overwhelming. Storti

went on to explain that misunderstanding behavior, or not being able to converse in the

language, can lead to loss of self-esteem and feelings of helplessness: “But worst of all is

the feeling that comes over us that we are somehow losing touch with who we are. It is

likely that at least part of that loneliness and sense of isolation we feel overseas may not

be the result of missing relatives and friends, but of feeling estranged from our own inner

selves” (p. 93).

The symptoms of culture shock can include physical and emotional discomfort,

homesickness, and adjustment difficulties. According to Gary Weaver (1994), there are

three basic causal explanations: (1) the loss of familiar cues, (2) the breakdown of

interpersonal communications, and (3) an identity crisis (pp. 169-171). The last one,

identity crisis, implies that there is genuine psychological growth that can occur when

one successfully overcomes culture shock. “This period may be similar to the

transitionary [sic] stages we experience during other life crises such as adolescence” (p.

175).

Psychiatrist Paul Cantalupo (1987) said that constant support was a way to assist

with the identity crisis and loss of self-esteem seen in the teenage years. Adolescents go

through stages of mourning and resignation caused by the unfolding awareness of

personal inadequacies: “Parents have to persevere and not abandon them, because this

mourning is successful only in the presence of the parents” (p. 23). In a similar mode,

programs to assist travelers during culture shock crises can benefit from the new

approach to treating schizophrenia developed by Dr. William Anthony (McGuire, 2000),

which utilizes psychological support in place of drug treatment.

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Oberg (1960) outlined six signs, sometimes unconscious, that impair peace of

mind while traveling: (1) strain caused by the effort to make psychological adaptation;

(2) sense of loss and feeling of deprivation in regard to friends and status; (3) anxiety

about losing familiar signs and symbols; (4) feelings of impotence from not coping with

cues in daily orientation—e.g., how to give orders, make purchases, when and how to

respond; (5) confusion in role and identity from unfamiliarity with new types of clues—

words, gestures, facial expressions, customs, language, beliefs; and (6) fear of being

rejected by the new culture (p. 176). Oberg’s formal stages of culture shock are as

follows:

• The Honeymoon Stage. Occurs in the first few weeks, if the sojourner has traveled voluntarily. Everything is fascinating, new, interesting, and stimulating. The individual is optimistic.

• The Coping Stage. The individual starts to seriously cope with everyday life. Symptoms are characterized by frustration, hostility, aggressive attitude toward host society, and increased association with fellow sojourners.

• The Survival Stage. Individuals begin to acquire some language and survival skills, feeling more comfortable, and venturing out on their own.

• The Adjusted Stage. New customs are accepted, enjoyed, and the individual can function without anxiety.

• The Interdependence Stage. A sense of belonging to several cultures at the same time.

Not all sojourners pass through all of Oberg’s stages. Travelers who do not

progress past stage two frequently return prematurely to their home country or stay stuck

in a sort of disillusionment (Church, 1982).

Although the concept of culture shock is usually associated with negative

reactions, Peter Adler (1975) stressed a more positive view in which culture shock can be

viewed as an important trigger for cultural learning, self-development, and personal

growth (p. 14). The problems and frustrations of culture shock stimulate change, and the

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concurrent transitional experiences are the path to higher levels of personality

development. In fact, transitional experiences may be essential to establishing a self-

concept: “The tensions and crises of change demand that the individual answer the

confusions of life experiences with a reaffirmation of his or her uniqueness as an

individual in relationship to others” (p. 20).

Adler further stated that when a situation demands personal change there is a

higher level of emotional involvement, and it is thus experienced more intensely,

especially where there are behavior and attitudinal conflicts. He expanded on the five

stages of culture shock. Most theorists dwell on the extreme aspects of cultural

adjustment and overlook the ensuing changes to identity that occur during this process.

Although each of the five stages may not always follow the preceding ones in every case,

they do delineate a progressive wisdom in experiential learning:

1. Contact: Views the new culture from an insular perception in terms of one’s

own culture. The individual may feel excited, stimulated, euphoric, and curious.

2. Disintegration: Period of confusion and disorientation. Different behavior,

values, and attitudes begin to alter the perceptions of the sojourner. The individual may

feel lower self-esteem, isolated, inadequate, and lonely.

3. Reintegration: Strong rejection of the new culture through stereotyping,

generalization, and judgment. In this stage the individual may relate only to persons of

their own culture, seeking security in the familiar [attachment behavior]. But, the

increase in negative feelings also indicates a growth in perception of cultural differences.

Behavior may include self-preoccupation, self-assertion, and growing self-esteem. The

individual must now choose whether to regress to egocentric feelings in the contact stage,

or move toward a resolution of the new difficulties. Returning home is also an option.

Adler notes that the reintegration decision is based on three situations: (a) intensity of the

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experiences, (b) general resiliency of the sojourner, and (c) interpretation and guidance

provided by significant persons.

4. Autonomy: This stage is marked by increased sensitivity to cultural

differences and the acquisition of skills in the new culture. Individuals are relaxed and

understand verbal and nonverbal communication skills, and, despite a limited

understanding, they often begin to feel like experts on the second culture. There is a

rapid growth of personal flexibility and coping skills. Differences are legitimized, and

the individual is more assured, relaxed, friendly, and empathetic.

5. Independence: Individuals have attitudes, emotions, and behaviors that are

interdependent and influenced by the old and new cultures. Differences are valued as

significant, accepted, and enjoyed.

Self-actualization exists to the extent that choice and responsibility are utilized in

new situations, with a resultant sense of greater independence, even while reexperiencing

emotional states from earlier stages of transition: “Most important, the individual is

capable of undergoing further dynamic transitions in life along new dimensions and of

finding new ways to explore the diversity of human beings” (Adler, 1975, p. 18). New

attitudes are holistically incorporated into identity, and greater understanding leads to a

heightened sense of self. The cross-cultural experience involves growth of personality

along a number of dimensions:

1. Perceptual Level: Personality moves through a symbiotic state of single reality to a differential state of awareness and acceptance of many realities.

2. Emotional Level: Change from dependence to independence.

3. Self-Concept: Change from a monocultural to an intercultural frame of reference.

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Not everyone achieves growth in personality and awareness through travel. There

is some degree of attrition in study abroad programs when students are unable to cope

with new experiential demands. Adler’s Theory of Transitional Experience contains a

framework for training and counseling strategies during adaptation that is developmental

(emphasis on the psychological aspects of adaptation) rather than adjustive (learning the

language, history, culture, and social skills). Throughout the transitional experience,

complex differences may become distorted. But when new emotions are seen and

understood experientially, self-awareness and personal growth occur: “The transitional

experience is, finally, a journey into the self” (Adler, 1975, p. 22).

Most theories of culture shock have been derived from other situations. Furnham

and Bochner (1986) outlined eight hypotheses:

1. Grief and Bereavement: Predicts universal negative experiences of loss without accounting for motivation, expectation, and the reactions of the host culture.

2. Locus of Control: Emphasizes the role of expectations and motivations in relation to internal and external (fatalism) perceived ability to control the environment.

3. Selection Migration: Emphasizes the neo-Darwinian connection between geographic movement and a change in psychological well-being.

4. Expectations: Explains that a person’s behavior is directly related to changing expectations and the subjective value of the consequences of actions.

5. Negative Life Events: Allows for the link between psychosocial negative processes (death, divorce, unemployment) and physical/psychological well-being.

6. Social Support: Loss of social support networks and interpersonal relationships affects a person’s general adaptive functioning.

7. Value Differences: The degree of differences in values between the cultures account for proportionate misunderstanding and distress.

8. Social Skills: Predicts and explains different reactions by different groups (pp. 224-226)

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Furnham and Bochner (1986) preferred the last hypothesis, the social skills

approach, because it both attempts to explain differing reactions and also provides for a

reliable and adaptable method of cross-cultural training.

Paul Pedersen (1995) corroborated the idea that the symptoms of culture shock

can occur under many circumstances, which include retirement, divorce, career change,

bereavement, medical emergencies, and economic loss. These reactions happen when an

individual encounters unfamiliar or unexpected circumstances. In the more positive

educational model of culture shock, “transformation occurs through a series of

degeneration and regeneration events or crises in a non-regular and erratic movement of

change” (p. 4). Pedersen suggested that it is very rare to achieve as successful a level of

functioning in the new culture as at home, suggesting a backward J-curve might be a

more accurate representation of cultural adjustment.

Even when travel is voluntary, the surprising aspects and challenges of a new

environment after the initial “honeymoon stage” can be similar to the stages that occur in

bereavement or dealing with a terminal illness (Kohls, 1986). The five stages of grief

related to death and dying were defined by Kubler-Ross (1997) as denial, anger,

bargaining, depression, and finally acceptance. She pointed out that these stages are not

necessarily sequential and that some might be skipped or repeated. In many ways the

patterns of adjustment to culture shock address these same responses. Not surprisingly,

some travelers who return early from a sojourn due to excessive culture shock do so

because they felt their life was in danger if they stayed.

Janet Bennett (1977), co-founder of the Intercultural Communication Institute

(ICI), described culture shock as a subset of the more encompassing transition shock,

which is a state of loss and disorientation experienced during any readjustment from a

familiar environment. She saw the symptoms as social and physiological stress reactions,

withdrawal, and defensiveness. Successful resolution involves a process of increased

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self-awareness and cultural empathy, the ability to withhold judgment, to deal

comfortably with ambiguities, and use of the imagination to intellectually and

emotionally participate in new experiences.

Bock (1970) stressed the value of experiencing culture shock as a means of

transformational growth and personal development. Those who withdraw and spend time

within their own culture may avoid the negative side of culture shock, but they will also

miss the positive effects: “Direct confrontation with another society is the best way to

learn about alien modes of life or to gain perspectives on one’s own culture. . . . Culture

shock is not valued for its own sake. Its value lies in the liberation and understanding

that can come from such an experience: . . . that other perceptions of reality are just as

valid to those who live according to them as our own belief and value systems are to us”

(Bock, 1970, p. xi).

Ward and Searle (1991) differentiated between psychological adjustment and

cross-cultural transition. They reported that psychological adjustment is best understood

within a stress and coping framework (disintegration and reintegration) and that the

resulting impact may be mediated by personal and social support (p. 211).

When people travel to other cultures there is a tendency to compare themselves to

their new hosts. Krishnamurti (1983) warned that this tendency may lead to anxiety or

fear and suggests a method to alleviate this: “Comparison, with all its complexity, desire

and time, are the factors of fear. . . . When there is observation, and therefore no

movement of thought—merely observing the whole movement of fear—there is the total

ending of fear; and the observer is not different from the observed” (p. 77).

Internal locus of control refers to the perception that reaction to all events are

under one’s control and related to one’s behavior. External locus of control refers to the

perception that events are not related to personal behavior but are reliant upon

uncontrolled factors such as fate, luck, or chance (Ward & Kennedy, 1992). An external

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locus of control can lead to mood disturbance, social difficulties, and anxiety. The host

culture may have very different understandings and explanations for actions and behavior

than those of the new foreign visitor. Sheldon Kopp (1983) used the story Alice in

Wonderland to describe the loss of control adults come to realize: “Grown-ups almost

inevitably find that, like life, Wonderland reduces them to laughing at the comic

absurdity of their nonsensical situation. As life keeps coming at us, there are times when

either we must laugh at ourselves or we will surely die of despair” (p. 165).

Children react with separation anxiety from the loss of family attachments in a

manner similar to the symptoms of culture shock. Furnham and Bochner (1986) noted

that psychoanalyst Bowlby’s theories on separation anxiety, grief, and mourning were

related to an instinctual reaction of man to the loss of an important person. The first loss

of the child, when the relationship from its mother is broken, evokes the following

phases:

1. Anger, weeping, and ingratitude reflect the need to recover the lost object. The child reacts with indiscriminate hostility toward others while also begging for help.

2. Despair, withdrawal, depression, and disorganization result from the failure to recover the lost object.

3. Reintegration and development of a new means of relating to the environment evolve.

The symptoms above are similar to those seen in adult loneliness and isolation

caused by loss of familiar personal attachments. When an Air Force family returned to

America after 20 years of relocation with the military, they had difficulties adjusting to

the outlook and beliefs of their old friends back home. After seeking professional help

for panic attacks and depression, the wife was told she was suffering from “separation

anxiety” (Kohls, 1986, p. 97). Such anxiety, due to separation from the home or adopted

culture, is reminiscent of the first experiences of leaving home as a child.

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Mundorf (1996) described the separation anxiety that a child experiences when

first starting school. She noted that both the actual entry process and the caregiver’s

responsiveness to the child’s behavior lessened the frequency, intensity, and duration of

separation distress.

Culture shock can occur at both the initial departure and arrival in a foreign

culture and again at reentry to the home culture. Surprisingly, this author found very

little reference to the anxiety that is sometimes seen in the time just prior to leaving for a

trip and again in the first days after arrival in a foreign country. Most theorists prefer to

begin at the “Honeymoon Stage,” skipping comment on the initial days of travel. Pre-

travel anxiety and initial reactions on arrival may have ethological roots relating back to

animal territorial ownership and security. The first of these could be called “anticipatory

culture shock” and the second “new arrival shock.”

William B. Hart (1999), in his article “The Intercultural Sojourn as the Hero’s

Journey,” proposed a relationship between travel abroad and Joseph Campbell’s narrative

The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Hart outlined three stages with subcategories: (a)

Departure: Common world, call to adventure, refusal of call, supernatural aid, and

crossing first threshold, (b) Initiation: Road of trials, supreme ordeal, the ultimate boon;

and (c) Return: Refusal of the return, crossing the return threshold, and master of the two

worlds. Hart compared Campbell’s categories with Gullahorn and Gullahorn’s (1963)

stages of the intercultural sojourn. Interesting to note, the “Honeymoon Stage” is listed

as the fifth process of Departure, whereas the four earlier processes, including Refusal of

Call, are not often noted in the cross-cultural literature. To this author they are a part of

the culture-shock process. Hart seemed to corroborate when he stated, “The stage

models in the literature, for more [sic] the most part, ignore what happens before entering

the foreign culture” (p. 10).

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Pretravel anxiety is triggered in the last days before departure and can set the

stage for acute anxiety upon arrival. Symptoms are usually centered on fear of the

unknown and are evidenced by a dread or wish to cancel travel plans. Verbal statements

such as “the trip is too far,” “too dangerous,” or “too expensive” are common signals.

Travelers need to be reminded that this anticipatory fear is normal and usually subsides

as soon as the trip is underway. Experienced French traveler and author Pierre Loti

(1895/1993) described such an encounter just prior to leaving for a trek across the Sinai

Desert: This winter wind whipped everything up, and it became so threatening that we felt a sadness of ancestral and distant origin, a melancholy that was suddenly combined with the attraction of vastness, regret for having come, and a temptation to retreat, something like the instinctive fear that makes the animals of green lands turn back when they see such regions, where death hovers in wait. (p. 4)

Renata DeVerthelyi (1995) provided evidence about “new arrival” anxiety. In a

study of the spouses of international students she found widespread stress. During the

first weeks abroad they described feelings of sadness, loneliness, self-doubt, confusion,

and frustration. Language difficulties made this initial stress even worse. It took

between three to six months for these spouses to feel more optimistic.

Pico Iyer (1989) summarized the potentials of travel and dealing with culture

shock in his book Video Night in Kathmandu: Every trip we take deposits us at the same forking of the paths: it can be a shortcut to alienation—removed from our home and distanced from our immediate surroundings, we can afford to be contemptuous of both; or it can be a voyage into renewal, as, leaving our selves and pasts at home and traveling light, we recover our innocence abroad. (p. 23)

Erin Jansen (1998) studied 86 women who lived abroad. She noted,

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If culture shock is perceived as disorientation, change may produce blockages and defensive communication. Perceived as challenge, however, change can stimulate creativity, provisional communication, and self-development. Positive benefits can and do result from living in foreign countries and this needs to become the central focus in order to increase individual and work performance (p. 8).

To help deal with culture shock, Weaver (1994) stated that just knowing the

progression of symptoms relieves the panic some may feel when they seem “unglued.” It

also assures them that it is a normal reaction and will eventually recede. Understanding

the process gives one a better sense of predictability, self-control, and coping. In

summarizing the potential effects of culture shock, Weaver (1994) stated, “Whether the

experience will eventually become positive or negative, a source of personal growth or

destruction, depends upon one’s expectations, adaptability, tolerance for ambiguity and

stress, and an understanding that there inevitably will be pain which can be handled and

overcome” (p. 175).

Individuals who experience culture shock gradually move toward independence,

responsibility, and the ability to choose and create meaning in new situations. They will

never go back to their old perceptions. This was beautifully illustrated by Kahlil Gibran

in The Prophet: “Your pain is the breaking of the shell that enclosed your

understanding.”

Adaptation/Accommodation

Cross-cultural adaptation is concerned with establishing a mental-emotional state

of comfort, satisfaction, and positive attitude in different circumstances or environments

(Kennedy, 1994). Although most writers use the term cultural adaptation, Furnham and

Bochner (1986) preferred the term cultural accommodation because it does not rely on

the concept of adjustment. The implication is that a sojourner does not need to adjust to a

new culture but, instead, to learn about its salient characteristics. The traveler may

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mentally preserve the differences between cultures (emic approach) or may seek a new

outlook by combining the different viewpoints from both (etic approach).

In his book Excursions Henry Thoreau (1962) described the art of sauntering into

new environments and the changes that it might bring: “We should go forth on the

shortest walk, perchance, in the spirit of undying adventure, never to return—prepared to

send back our embalmed hearts only as relics to our desolate kingdoms” (p. 162). Later,

in the same work, he wrote, “My desire for knowledge is intermittent; but my desire to

bathe my head in atmospheres unknown to my feet is perennial and constant” (p. 204).

In the 19th century, Karl Baedeker (1899) began writing tourist handbooks for

English and German travelers. His advice to tourists that were voyaging to the United

States was as follows: “The first requisites . . . are an absence of prejudice and a

willingness to accommodate oneself to the customs of the country. If the traveller [sic]

exercises a little patience, he will often find that ways which strike him as unreasonable

or even disagreeable are more suitable to the environment than those of his own home

would be” (p. xxx).

French author Pierre Loti (1895/1993) described accommodation during a desert

trek in a somewhat humorous way: “And then there was the very childish fun of putting

on our Arab outfits. . . . But the clothes are more suitable for the burning sun of the days

as well as for the cold of the nights” (p. 4). Later, after cold weather arrived, Then we realize that we are not really men of the tent, in spite of how attractive a nomad’s life might seem on beautiful sunlit days. The man of stone houses, who was created inside of us by ancestral teaching, is vaguely uncomfortable having no roof, no walls, and knowing that there aren’t any anywhere in this dark wilderness of appalling size. (p. 24)

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Adaptation to a new environment involves some internal adjustment to the outside

world. Reason (1974) defined the three processes as sensory, perceptual, and skill

adaptation as follows:

1. In sensory adaptation a lessening of the sensation occurs when one is exposed

to a constant stimulus for some time. Thus, in cultures where household noise or nearby

traffic are common, the occupants tune these out and, in fact, might not be able to sleep if

they find themselves in too quiet an environment. When a sensory stimulus changes, it

tends to appear exaggerated in the opposite direction. This can be observed when

jumping into a tepid swimming pool on a hot day—the water feels much colder than it is.

For a traveler, new noises, odors, temperature, etc., can seem overwhelmingly unbearable

at first. But these will gradually be focused out.

2. In perceptual adaptation there is a gradual disappearance of the disturbance

when someone remains in a new situation for some time, but there is no reduction in the

intensity of sensory inputs.

3. Skill adaptation relies on the reorganization of incoming data and mentally

organizing bits of information into newly meaningful “packages.” Learning a new

language is a good example. What appear to be meaningless sounds become understood

words and phrases.

In their Theory of Intercultural Adaptation Gao and Gudykunst (1990) stated that

a reduction in uncertainty and anxiety increases the chances for successful acculturation

but that some degree of uncertainty and anxiety may be necessary just for sojourners to

perceive the need to adapt. They suggested that pretravel training include techniques for

sojourners to understand how contact with host nationals can affect their experience.

One key aspect is to teach observation skills that can be used to increase personal

awareness after arrival in the host culture—how to describe their observations, search out

alternative interpretations for different behavior, and decide on a culturally appropriate

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interpretation of such behavior. These techniques allow for initial anxiety to be present,

while providing a means to alleviate anxiety that arises in situations that are beyond the

sojourner’s training and understanding.

The field of intercultural communication provides insight into sojourner

experiences from a transformational and developmental perspective. Psychologist Milton

Bennett (1986; 1998) defined six stages of intercultural development. Each stage

represents an increasing sensitivity to cultural difference and is based on concepts from

cognitive psychology and constructivism. The first three stages are ethnocentric—the

individual’s culture is central to reality. The second three stages are ethnorelative—the

individual’s culture is seen in context with other cultures. These concepts are similar to

the Perry Scheme of intellectual and ethical development. Bennett’s stages are:

1. Denial: Denial of difference. Lack of contact with new culture, unchallenged world-view, isolation.

2. Defense: Defense against difference. Counteractivity against differences, denigration and negative stereotyping, ethnocentrism, assumption of cultural superiority; or a reversal of these concepts where the host culture is seen as superior, and there is a denigration of one’s own culture.

3. Minimization: Attempt to preserve one’s own world-view. Trivialize differences, emphasize similarities, belief that all behaviors are innately the same.

4. Acceptance: Differences are acknowledged and respected; seen as a process rather than a set of traits.

5. Adaptation: Changes in behavior and thinking. Empathy and cultural pluralism. The ability to shift between diverse cultures.

6. Integration: Application of ethnorelativism to one’s own reality. Ability to evaluate phenomena relative to cultural context. (Bennett, 1986, pp. 181-186).

Of particular interest is the shift that occurs in acceptance (stage 4). “Difference”

is subjectively reformulated as a process instead of a thing. That is, people do not have

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values, they value. They do not have behavioral differences, they behave. The result is

that people are seen as co-creators of their own reality. Bennett proposed pretravel

training that includes knowledge about the targeted culture. The degree of such training

must take into account the concept that greater transformation occurs through some stress

and culture shock. People should work on managing stress caused by culture shock

rather than eliminating it (Brislin, 1994, p. 78).

Perry (1970) suggested two ways to deal with stress in the dualistic position of

development where there is increasing complication and incongruity, to make the

experience a positive one: (1) confrontation with diversity that allows a person to

moderate its impact using steplike assimilation and accommodation; and (2) acquiring

analytic and synthetic skills of contextual thought to provide an alternative to helpless

despair in a world devoid of certainty (p. 88).

Richard Brislin (1994) defined four important areas of training for study abroad:

knowledge, skills, awareness, and emotions. He strongly recommended needs

assessment for trainees, and commensurate culture-general and culture-specific training

in these areas of weakness. Skills that help in cultural adjustment are the ability to

tolerate ambiguity, manage stress, establish realistic expectations, and demonstrate

flexibility and empathy

(p. 89).

Cultural styles of interaction can be a source of frustration. Peng and Nisbett

(1999) stated that Eastern (Chinese) ways of dealing with contradiction are dialectic, in

that responses retain opposing perspectives by seeking a middle ground. In Western

cultures, contradictory perspectives are polarized to determine which fact or position is

correct. Characteristics of the latter framework include (a) pursuit of a single truth, (b)

construction of counter-arguments, and (c) preference for consistency (p. 750). The most

optimal way of dealing with contradiction depends on the situation, but Peng and Nisbett

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stressed that “dialectical reasoning may be preferable for negotiating intelligently in

complex social interactions” (p. 751).

In a treatise on the psychology of travel, Maurice Farber (1954) defined a kind of

destination neurosis: Arrival in a foreign country often entails euphoria and exhilaration. In a very real sense, a psychoneurosis may have been left behind, at least insofar as the pathological inter-personal relations are now attenuated over a great distance. In the anonymity of travel, feelings of self-hatred may slough off. To be sure, this happy state does not last indefinitely, for soon new relationships are established on the old neurotic basis. The neurosis, in a manner of speaking, arrives on a later boat. (p. 269)

Roland Taft (1977) outlined a framework of cultural adaptation that defined

commonality in a wide variety of situations. He noted four major aspects of the process:

(a) cultural adjustment – the functioning of the personality; (b) identification – changes in

the person’s reference groups, personal models, and social identity; (c) cultural

competence – acquiring new knowledge and skill; and (d) role acculturation – adoption

of new culturally defined roles (Taft, 1977, p. 146). All of these aspects apply to the way

a person restructures the world, and involve cognitive, dynamic, and performance

processes.

In an American Psychologist article, Hubert Hermans and Harry Kempen (1998)

discussed the phenomenon of hybridization that occurs as a result of cultural connections.

They argued against the concept of homogenous loss of cultural differences, or the idea

of a uniform or diluted culture developing across nations, in favor of the concept of a

recombination of existing forms of thought and behavior (etic adaptation). Hannerz (as

cited in Hermans & Kempen, 1998) proposed the idea of a cultural flow, as opposed to

the view of culture having a single essence. He described three dimensions of a dynamic

culture:

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1. Ideas and modes of thought: Concepts, values, and mental operations that people within a social unit carry together.

2. Forms of externalization: Ways in which ideas are made public and accessible.

3. Social distribution: Ways in which ideas are spread over a population and its social relationships. (p. 1115)

Peter Adler (1994) continued the theme of dialectic adaptation on an individual

level. He described the dawning of a multicultural person who has an abiding

commitment to essential similarities between people, while paradoxically maintaining a

strong commitment to their differences. Instead of eliminating cultural differences, this

person seeks to preserve what is significant and valuable in each culture. What is new is

a change in the structure of self-identity. Instead of a “sense of belonging” there is a

more fluid self-consciousness able to maneuver over new forms of reality. Such a person

lives on the edge of formative thinking, shifting between boundaries, neither a part of nor

totally apart from one culture, but continually recreating a self-image (p. 243).

In research on international students adjusting to life in the United States, Aydin

(1997) found certain personality traits and earlier developmental experiences that

improved the chances of a successful experience. Eight personality traits noted as

adaptive traits were: initiative, tolerance, trust in people, expectations, social adaptability,

personal control, interpersonal interest, and risk-taking. The strongest predictors of

successful adjustment were tolerance, father’s care, personal control, and trust in people.

These patterns show the importance of early relationships with parents in developing

effective attachment styles that can be used later in experiencing separation from one’s

country and adapting to new environments.

The Cavalli-Sforzas (1995) supported the idea of cultural hybridization in their

book The Great Human Diasporas: The History of Diversity and Evolution by stating

that for change to occur some alternative practice must be available—innovation can be

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compared to a “cultural mutation.” Clifford (as cited in Hermans & Kempen, 1998) used

the word “travel” as a metaphor for capturing the dynamics of cultural

interconnectedness. This definition decentralizes the notion of cultural influence in that

the remaking of one’s self-identity occurs through multiple and increasingly broad and

complex experiences.

Parin (1980) further described the process whereby we see all unfamiliar cultures

as similar to each other, in the sense that they are primitive. This error occurs when we

view alien people from our own emotional needs and thought patterns. While Western civilization is inexorable undermining, transforming, or destroying most other cultures, our own feeling of discontent with our culture is becoming more and more acute. We are constantly wondering whether there may not be, somewhere in the world, better sociopsychological solutions than we have been able to find—a way of bringing up children to be freer, happier persons. . . . Indeed, a great deal would be achieved if we could learn to understand alien peoples better” (Parin, 1980, p. 372).

Language reflects our vision of the world. Insup Taylor (1976) described

linguistic differences that represent, preserve, and perpetuate different world-views.

These differences influence cognitive and perceptual performance and methods of

categorizing and labeling events. Milton Bennett (1986) stated: “Languages are more

than simply different codes with which to communicate ideas. They are conveyers of

culturally integrated world views” (p. 46). Cook-Greuter (1989) agreed that language not

only reflects human experience, but it also organizes and filters it.

One of the founders of intercultural relations, Edward T. Hall, drew upon the

theories of Freud and Jung to describe the unconscious nature of culture. Hall (1981)

stated that to move beyond our own culture and become aware of what is unconscious

requires a separation crisis. He referred to this process as psychoanalytic “identity-

separation-growth dynamism” (p. 227). According to Hopcke (1997), Jungian

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psychology strives to retrieve the childlike innocence of the unknown and the

foundations of one’s existence. Travel can open similar doors. The process of adaptation

to a new culture offers many avenues of self-discovery.

Reentry

Cultural readjustment, reacculturation, or reentry shock have been used to define

the process of readapting to the home environment (Martin, 1986). Relationships with

parents, siblings, and friends can change both positively and negatively. Reentry

syndrome is not limited to external boundaries—the locus is internal. Thus, it can begin

in the foreign country (when the sojourner anticipates the return home) or some time after

the physical return (the sojourner continues to act as if still in the foreign culture). Not

only has the traveler changed, but friends at home may have changed.

The penalty for being able to adjust successfully to new conditions is that the

orientation centers of the brain learn these new patterns as “normal.” Thus, when

individuals return to the original home environment, old patterns have to be relearned

(Reason, 1974). Initially, the resulting disturbances from change can be as severe as they

were during the first exposure to a new culture and environment, but since the

characteristics are familiar, the readaptation process is more rapid.

Kohls (1986) reiterated that travelers returning home are no longer the innocent

people they were when they left. People are raised to believe their own cultural behavior

and values are absolute, but through travel they see there are hundreds of other effective

sets of values and assumptions. After experiencing this ‘mind-blowing’ fact, one must

then return home to friends and family who do not share the same truths (p. xxi).

In a study of 62 short-term (six weeks) study abroad students, compared with 21

students in a U.S. based-control group, Nafziger (1996) found that the U-Curve of culture

shock for reentry adjustment did not occur at either the individual or group levels.

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Interestingly, on returning to college after a break, the study abroad group had a higher

level of depressive symptoms after the first week, especially if they had previous

experience living overseas, but the control group showed higher depressive symptoms

after the third week. This might indicate a stronger ability to readjust, with greater

sensitivity to environmental change.

Judith Martin (1986) stressed the importance of communication as a means to

successful readjustment, through renegotiating relationships between family and friends.

In a study of 173 returning students from study abroad homestay programs, parent

relationships were perceived as changing more positively than relationships with friends

and siblings (p. 11). This may be understood contextually, because sojourners usually

return home more self-reliant, independent, and mature—frames of behavior that appear

more “adult” to the parents.

Swinger (1985) warned of surprises on reentry, unrealistic expectations from

family and friends, and an inability to communicate multicultural experiences. Often

negative news from home (pet died, car damaged, etc.) has been withheld until the return.

Also, what seems natural while people are immersed in the daily routine of another

culture does not translate well upon return home. It is difficult to give up what was

enjoyed abroad, which can result in criticism of, and disappointment in, the home culture.

On a more positive note, travel has an impact that lasts a lifetime. Zikman (1999)

summarized the reflections upon returning home: So much seems to have changed. People, places, the discussion at the table. Not the way we remember it. We see things with different eyes, traveler’s eyes. We notice things we once overlooked. We talk with people we once ignored. We visit places we once neglected. We listen to viewpoints we once dismissed. We’re sensitized to our own environment. We are alive, alive at Home. (p. 151)

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Willa Cather (1956/1988) noted in a diary on her first trip to Europe the strong

influences a new location can generate: Out of every wandering in which people and places come and go in long successions there is always one place remembered above the rest because the external or internal conditions were such that they most nearly produced happiness. I am sure that for me that one place will always be Lavandou. . . . One cannot divine nor forecast the conditions that will make happiness; one only stumbles upon them by chance, in a lucky hour, at the world’s end somewhere, and holds fast to the days, as to fortune or fame. (p. 158)

Pierre Loti (1924), French naval captain and author, described the lasting

impressions of travel: One experiences certain indefinite impressions in every spot which seem to depend on circumstances and are especially dependent on climate, the turn of the countryside, the smell of the country. Leaving, one takes a few along; but some are always left and one only reclaims those later, on returning. (p. 25)

Author Italo Calvino (1979), whose book Invisible Cities stretches our

understanding of personal perception with this description of the unforgettable mythical

city Zora: “This city which cannot be expunged from the mind is like an armature, a

honeycomb in whose cells each of us can place the things he wants to remember” (p. 16).

Pico Iyer (1997) described the feelings one may experience when ready to depart for

home. The saddest good-byes are “those we say to ourselves, at foreign airports, as we

shed the daring and irresponsible selves we have come to acquire abroad, and recollect

our normal working lives” (p. 194).

Once you have left home and experienced a new culture you will never be the

same again. No one ever really goes home, because home isn’t just a place we inhabit;

it’s a lifestyle we construct—a pattern of routines, habits, and behaviors that are

associated with unique people, places, and things (Storti, 1965). Anthropologist Carlos

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Castaneda (1972) described this hauntingly in Journey to Ixtlan, his name for that

mythical, sought-after “home”: You will find yourself alive in an unknown land. Then, as is natural to all of us, the first thing you will want to do is to start on your way back to Los Angeles. But there is no way to go back to Los Angeles. What you left there is lost forever. . . . at a time like that what’s important to all of us is the fact that everything we love or hate or wish for has been left behind. . . . your idea of the world [has changed] . . . and when that changes, the world itself changes. (p. 265)

Positive Regression

Many theorists describe a type of regression, fragmentation, or emotional

disintegration that occurs when individuals suddenly find themselves forced to adapt to a

new situation (Erikson, 1964; Dabrowski, 1964; Adler, 1975; Brein, 1971; Perry, 1970).

Whether this experience is pathological or not depends on the type, severity, and duration

of the regression. Psychiatrist Maurice Farber (1954) indicated that one of the reasons

people travel may be the freeing and emergence of repressed behavior. Leaving behind

persons associated with restricted ideas (parents or peers) has a liberating effect.

Perry (1970) described forms of early development that appear to repeat in later

development at levels of more abstract experience, an idea that originated with Piaget’s

concept of vertical décolage. This recapitulated development from an egocentric to a

more objective position recurs at each stage of the Perry scheme. The term regression is

used to mean a “retreat into previously prepared positions” and not an escape. Perry

continued: Growth, we felt, usually occurred in stages. Between the stages, a person might pause to explore the implications of his new position, or he might lie fallow, waiting for the resurgence of strength to meet the new challenge. On occasion he might even have to detach himself from the whole business, or retreat to old positions. (pp. 177-178)

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The theory of positive disintegration was developed by Polish psychiatrist

Kazimierz Dabrowski (1964, 1977a, 1977b). This theory focused on the development of

personality and values. Disintegration refers to a broad range of processes from

emotional disharmony to complete fragmentation of the personality. These reactions are

usually considered negative, but Dabrowski had a different view. He believed that

advanced development requires some psychological disintegration to lower, earlier rote

levels of functioning. Although he proposed that a strong developmental potential was

genetically established, triggered by emotional overexcitement toward life’s crises, his

theories apply to persons at all levels of development to some degree. Of importance is

his stress that what may be considered by some people as pathological symptoms of

psychoneuroses, disintegration, or social maladjustment may actually be positive

reactions, used in establishing an autonomous personality and resolving conflict.

Dabrowski defined five levels of disintegration and reintegration:

1. Primary Integration. Behavior is guided by biological impulses and uncritical adherence to social convention.

2. Unilevel Disintegration. Reactions to brief and often intense crises on one dimension (e.g., puberty or an external stressful event). A temporary, transitional state.

3. Spontaneous Multilevel Disintegration. Vertical conflicts caused by an involuntary perception of choices in life. Disharmony and a drive to review and reconstruct one’s life follows.

4. Organized Multilevel Disintegration. A deliberate, conscious, and self-directed review of life from multiple perspectives. New values are reflected in new behavior.

5. Secondary Integration. Behavior is guided by conscious, carefully weighed decisions based upon an individualized hierarchy of personal values. Inner conflict is minimal.

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To Dabrowski, crises present conditions for personal growth, which includes

personal examination of the world and one’s values. He regarded conflict as a feeling of

internal inferiority toward oneself as opposed to Adler’s concept of inferiority, which is

based on comparison with others (Aronson, 1964, p. xvi). The development of self (self-

awareness, self-control, and self-criticism) is seen as a third factor, combined with the

influences of heredity and environment. When stress appears, individuals are encouraged

to take a developmental view of their situations. Rather than eliminate symptoms, these

are reframed to yield insight and understanding into personal behavior and choice.

Experiencing crises in new situations can thus be considered a form of

autopsychotherapy. Psychoanalysis emphasizes a similar disequilibrium between id, ego,

and superego, which may lead to pathology, to new defenses, or to growth. Reality is

viewed as a metaphorical screen on which one projects inner conflicts (Aronson, 1964).

Dabrowski stated that a basic condition for self-education is a high level of self-

awareness and recognition of one’s internal environment: “Realization of the

complexities of both the internal and the external environment and of one’s own

hierarchy of values enables one to reach a higher level of integration through

autopsychotherapy, not merely to return to the previous state” (Dabrowski, 1964, p. 120).

In his description of conflict as necessary grounds for personal development

Dabrowski was in accord with Erikson. When the human being, because of accidental or developmental shifts, loses an essential wholeness, he restructures himself and the world by taking recourse to what we may call totalism. It would be wise to abstain from considering this a merely regressive or infantile mechanism. It is an alternate, if more primitive, way of dealing with experience, and thus has, at least in transitory states, a certain adjustment and survival value. It belongs to normal psychology. (Erikson, 1964, p. 93)

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Continuing the theme of positive regression as a means for growth, Erikson

(1950) stated that personal ego integration involves a recapitulation of earlier battles: A lasting ego identity, we have said, cannot begin to exist without the trust of the first oral stage; it cannot be completed without a promise of fulfillment which from the dominant image of adulthood reaches down into the baby’s beginnings and which, by the tangible evidence of social health, creates at every step an accruing sense of ego strength. (p. 218)

Edward T. Hall (1981) agreed with the need for crisis and reintegration: “From

birth to death, life is punctuated by separations, many of them painful. Paradoxically,

each separation forms a foundation for new stages of integration, identity, and psychic

growth.”

John Bowlby (1982), in his studies on childhood development, discussed the

concept of regression during times of anxiety or stress. Although immature behavior

persists in some adults in a psychopathic sense, there are other times when completely

mature people may regress: “Juvenile patterns are often seen in adults when adult

patterns prove ineffective or when, in conditions of conflict, adult patterns become

disorganized” (p. 143). Bowlby suggested that attachment behavior in adults is

considered natural when it occurs after illness or sudden danger, but that it is misleading

to use the term “regressive” since this term carries a pathological connotation (p. 208).

Roland Taft (1977) wrote that “the process of adapting to a new society

corresponds in some respects to that involved in becoming a member of society in the

first place, although there is the important difference that resocialization and

reacculturation involve a transformation of an existing state of affairs” (p. 127). He

noted that, in adapting to situations of extreme cultural discontinuity, some kind of

desocialization might be necessary before resocialization can occur. Taft continued on

this theme by describing the symptoms of culture shock: “The loss of mastery is

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equivalent to infantile regression; that is, the newcomer is reduced to a state of ignorance

and weakness in which seemingly everyday matters have to be explained to him so that

he becomes dependent” (p. 142).

In psychiatric terms, a fear of fragmentation of the personality, or disintegration

anxiety, often occurs when patients are exposed to a repeat of earlier experiences that

interfered with development of the self (APP, 1994, p. 87). This reaction is sometimes

felt as a fear of falling apart or loss of identity. At the same time, an aspect of regression

described as “positive disintegration” has been shown to enhance the learning process

(Dabrowski, 1964).

Psychoanalyst Paul Cantalupo (1978) defined one of the reasons that anxiety may

lead to regression. He suggested that some people succumb to psychiatric disturbances

due to preadolescent parental loss (through death, or absence of one month from divorce,

military duty, or illness, etc.), which causes an arrest of development. Such a person then

fixates on this loss and the parent involved, which “frequently triggers a regression—

periodically, throughout adult life—to the developmental levels prior to the loss” (p. 21).

This happens due to four factors:

1. A splitting in the unity of a person’s self image.

2. The remaining parent sometimes becomes unavailable due to mourning.

3. The child denies the loss.

4. The loss sends a child into a “fantasy” of rejection by the lost parent.

Thus, past patterns may be a factor in determining a student’s ability to adjust to a

new culture, where a repeat of developmental stages is part of the adjustment to new

social rules. If such patterns exist, the student can be encouraged to seek out assistance

when stress becomes excessive. Through such experiences, students can “reexperience”

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and “relearn” behavior patterns related to earlier loss, and thus reintegrate parts of their

self-image.

In more general terms, Zikman (1999) described “relearning” earlier forms of

behavior in a “fast-forward mode” through travel: Travel is finding solutions to problems we encounter and continuing ahead. . . . Moments that seem like steps backwards are now recognized as steps forward. (p. 114) We scurry up a massive learning curve. Everything is inviting. We strive to make sense of all that’s out there. As much as we can, we struggle to participate in what’s before us. We act and react. We ask and listen. We learn about the people we meet and the places we visit. Ultimately, we learn about ourselves. (p. 69)

Peter Adler (1975), author of The Transitional Experience: An Alternative View

of Culture Shock, redefined culture shock, which can have negative connotations, with

the term transitional experience. This suggests a more positive experience of

transformative growth and learning. During his assignment in India with the Peace Corps

he began to realize the positive benefits of cross-cultural adaptation. He suggested that

“psychological movements into new dimensions of perception and new environments of

experience tend to produce forms of personality disintegration” (p. 15). He concurred

with Dabrowski that disintegration is the basis for upward development, creation of new

dynamics, and personality growth.

Regarding terminology, this author prefers the phrase positive regression instead

of positive disintegration, because the latter carries a “Humpty-Dumpty-esque”

connotation of not being able to return to a whole. Although regression is seen as

negative in the literature, it implies a temporary state from which one can return to a

complete self, albeit a different self.

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The processes of perception and reaction are learned at an early age. Once

formed, they change slowly. Marshall Singer (1987) proposed that we change only when

we are “confronted by some event that is so dramatic and/or discordant with an attitude,

value, identity, or belief that we have held dear that we are forced to reevaluate” (p. 11).

Cross-cultural adaptation involves and requires both stressful and growth

experiences that lead toward greater internal capacity to cope and subsequent ability to

adapt. Young Yun Kim (1988) introduced the concept of regression in her theory of

acculturation when she described the cultural adaptation process as consisting of

transformation through successive interplay of degeneration and regeneration. She

defined the process as nonlinear, often resulting in a change of internal attributes and

self-identity. The catalyst to cultural learning is social communication and interaction

with the host country and language.

Harwood (1995), in the book Culture and Attachment, summarized the

attachment theories of Bowlby and Ainsworth as they pertain to adaptation to a new

environment: “Bowlby’s view of the development of an internal working model focused

on two key factors: the amount of stress on the attachment system, and the availability of

the attachment figure to help alleviate that stress” (p. 5). Either too much stress or a

relatively unavailable secure contact can lead to an internal perception of the

environment as dangerous and the self as ineffectual. This may leave the child afraid to

explore new situations, lacking in self-confidence, uncertain about safety, and distrustful

of the reliability of others.

Social psychologist Ainsworth elaborated on Bowlby’s theories by extending the

formula to include internal perception beyond actual fact: “The awareness of potential

safety renders a possibly dangerous situation less alarming” (Harwood et al., 1995, p. 7).

The goal of attachment behaviors thus includes the child’s subjective sense of safety,

which allows greater freedom of exploration and relating to others. Thus, a sense of

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security in a new situation is related to contextual variants that may include setting,

familiarity, preceding events, mood, and development level. These are the same factors

that arouse culture shock when one adapts to a new environment.

Sullivan (as cited in Harper, 1959) considered anxiety a powerful force in the

formation of self. But if too strong in the early years of development, people could

become “inferior caricatures of what they might have been” (p. 67). He worked with

schizophrenics to help reduce the anxiety caused by parataxic distortions of self and

reality. Sullivan stressed the therapeutic value of comparing one’s thoughts and feelings

with others, which he termed “consensual validation.” Thus, life itself, and not only

psychotherapy, can provide corrective experiences.

More recently, Anthony (McGuire, 2000) developed methods of treating

schizophrenia that places emphasis on the potential for growth in the individual, instead

of the medical pathological disease model. This approach provides for a continuously

staffed nonthreatening place for the patient to go for symptom relief and crisis

intervention, much like the “treatment” for culture shock! Patients in the program

reported that the turning point in their recovery was finding a caring mentor they could

trust (p. 27).

Weaver (1994) argued that culture shock may be a temporary form of

schizophrenia. Symptoms such as heightened anxiety, illogical thinking, and withdrawal

from reality are similar in both. Persons from both situations feel overwhelmed by their

environments. Weaver noted the similarity to the work of psychiatrist Henry Stack

Sullivan, who acknowledged the positive aspects of a schizophrenic episode. The

conclusion was that experiencing culture shock can be creatively constructive—not a

breakdown but a breakthrough. The idea that schizophrenia can lead to personal growth

is found in the theories of Kazimierz Dabrowski, Edward Hall, Richard Hughes, Karl

Menninger, Harry Stack Sullivan, John Perry, R. D. Laing, and Anton Boisen (Hall,

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1981; Silverman, 1994). Weaver (1994) agreed that “an experience close to psychosis

may be required to take one outside the collective pressures and assumptions of our

culture”

(p. 175).

Iyer (1998) defined travel in terms of regression to an earlier state in his article

“Why We Travel” noting that when we are abroad we “live without a past or future, for a

moment at least, and are ourselves up for grabs and open to interpretation. . . . The great

promise of it is that, traveling, we are born again and able to return at moments to a

younger and a more open kind of self. To a small extent traveling is a way to reverse

time . . . and of surrounding ourselves, as in childhood, with what we cannot understand”

(Iyer, 1998, p. 34).

Paul Cantalupo (1987) researched the regression that adolescents go through

when trying to become independent. Cantalupo noted that teenagers literally experience

a second phase of separation, similar to the first one at around age two. Low self-esteem

occurs with the awareness that they cannot make it on their own, and anxiety increases

due to conflicts of wanting to be independent. They go through mourning reactions of

denial, anger, guilt, grief, and eventual resignation. Pedersen (1995) concurred that the

process of cultural assimilation is similar to other autonomous or independence-seeking

stages of life. These stages/feelings are potentially “re-experienced” as another phase of

separation when students visit another culture, and come to the realization that they do

not have the skills to be independent. If earlier experiences of separation at age two and

in the teenage years were traumatic, adults may experience greater culture shock at a

sudden loss of independence and competency skills, and regress to previous traumatic

milestone behaviors.

Paul Pedersen (1995) described a set of “critical incidents” that occurred during a

student study tour at sea. In many cases regression to more infantile perceptions and

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behavior occurred during times of stress or cultural challenges: “The individual may

experience an acute sense of profound loss and disorientation regarding what can be

expected of others and what others can expect of the individual. This sense of being

different, isolated, and inadequate seems permanent, together with bewilderment,

alienation, depression, and withdrawal” (p. 79). Two of Pedersen’s students got onto the

wrong bus while visiting Brazil and later described their reactions in a journal: “As we

got further into the countryside, we got very panicky . . . I thought for the rest of my life

we would be caught in backward, tiny villages and no one would be able to find me” (p.

89). Another student experienced fear when the lights went out at a train station in India:

“It was all I could do to keep my wits about me. I couldn’t meet anyone’s eyes and

needed to sort out my thoughts” (p. 111). On another day, I was alone in a country where I did not speak the language. . . . Feelings of fear, anxiety, complete unawareness of who I was, uncertainty of getting back to the ship. . . . I learned much about myself. Especially that being surrounded by foreigners with nobody to talk to is very difficult. I think that I have found my greatest fear, it’s not death but loneliness. (p. 114)

These feelings of abandonment and separation anxiety are not unlike those related

to birth, separation from the mother, or attending school for the first time.

Popular literature often contains the concept of regression when experiencing a

new or strange place. Susan Spano (1998), in her interesting article “Some Lessons in

the Art of Getting Lost in Strange Places,” illustrated the initial contact with a new

culture, which is especially intense when accompanied by jet lag: “Landing in a foreign

city where you don’t speak the language and can’t even read street signs is likely to turn

any traveler into a panicked preschooler separated from Mom” (p. L7).

Iyer (1989) continued the theme of regression:

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If every journey makes us wiser about the world, it also returns us to a sort of childhood. In alien parts, we speak more simply, in our own or some other language, move more freely, unencumbered by the histories that we carry around at home, and look more excitedly, with eyes of wonder. . . . The romance with the foreign must certainly be leavened with a spirit of keen and unillusioned realism; but it must also be observed with a measure of faith. (p. 23)

As children grow they are influenced by others’ descriptions of their world until

they begin to agree with these views. From that moment on, the child is a member of

society. Henceforth, his/her perceptions validate this description. Don Juan suggested to

Carlos Castaneda that he “erase personal history” to free himself of the encumbering

thoughts predetermined by other people. He proposed: “Begin with simple things, such

as not revealing what you really do. Then you must leave everyone who knows you well.

This way you’ll build up a fog around yourself, an exciting and mysterious state of

unknown anticipation” (Castaneda, 1972, p. 14).

Howard Gruber (1984) outlined the theories of developmental psychology as

either Apollonian (steady growth to a tranquil state of adulthood) or Dionysian (perpetual

conflict throughout life). Both of these concepts involve species-specific cycles. In

psychoanalytic theory the suffering is doubled because one must symbolically reenact the

early trauma of first suffering in order to understand and grow. These repeated cycles are

types of regression that allow for struggle and eventual resolution. Table 2.3 compares

various theories of development with the regression experiences of travel.

In dialectic thought form and struggle are not just repetitive behaviors but involve

continuous new adaptations to changing circumstances. To those who dislike change, it

becomes a burden; to those who embrace change, it becomes a challenge and a pleasure.

People with a positive developing self-consciousness see a world in constant transition

and understand their ever-changing relationships within it.

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Table 2.3 Comparison of Developmental Stages to Travel Regression

LOEVINGER Stages & Levels

KOHLBERG PIAGET ERIKSON TRAVEL REGRESSION

A. Presocial Stage Construction of reality Self differentiation Object constancy

1. Sensorimotor Dazed on arrival Culture shock

B. Symbiotic Stage Dependent on mother Language development

1. Trust vs. mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. shame & doubt

Separation anxiety Limited language Mistrust

C. Impulsive Stage Stereotyping “Present” orientation External locus of control Absolutes (right vs. wrong) Rules not understood

1. Heteronomous morality Punishment and obedience Egocentric

2. Preoperational 3. Initiative vs. guilt

Stereotyping Confusion “Place” is source of problems New culture wrong

D. Self-Protective Stage Controlling Opportunistic Vulnerable, Blame Rules are to be broken Rituals Ridicule others External blame Manipulative Values money and things

2. Individualism and purpose Rewards & self interest Naive instrumental hedonism

3. Concrete operational

4. Industry vs. inferiority

Fear Hostility Vulnerable Self-protective Ridicule others Blame others

E. Conformist Stage Conceptual Simplicity Group standards & rules Trust Social conformity Rule-oriented behavior Actions are judged “Right” is the same for all Guilt feelings

3. Interpersonal norms Good relations and approval

4. Early formal operational

(4b. Affiliation vs. abandonment)**

Superficial relationships Shame of ignorance Guilt for breaking social rules Appearances important

F. Self-Aware Level* Conceptual Multiplicity Transition state Multiple alternatives Not stereotypic Pseudo-traits Gender roles “Norm” for adults

4. Social system morality Law and order

Role confusion Adjustment problems Homesick Self-conscious Lonely Embarrassed

(Continued on next page)

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LOEVINGER Stages & Levels

KOHLBERG PIAGET ERIKSON TRAVEL REGRESSION

G. Conscientious Stage Complexity Evaluations and goals Self-criticism Responsibility Internalized rules, not absolute Internal locus of control Broader perspectives, but polar opposites

5. Community rights vs. individual rights Democratic Societal orientation

4. Full formal operational

5. Identity vs. role diffusion

Self-evaluative Responsibility for self Acknowledging differences

H. Individualistic Level* Individuality Emotional dependence Awareness of inner conflict replace morals Tolerate contradictions

6. Universal ethical principles Individual conscience

6. Intimacy vs. isolation

Respect for individuality Social challenges Tolerates contradictions

I. Autonomous Stage Accept and cope with inner conflict: needs and duties Reality complex and multifaceted Tolerate ambiguity Self-fulfillment goal

(5. Post-formal dialectic)**

7. Generativity vs. stagnation 8. Ego integrity vs. despair

Fully reintegrated in new culture Accepts change and tolerates ambiguity

J. Integrated Stage Consolidated identity

Fully bicultural

* Considered a level between stages. Loevinger (1976, pp. 15-28, 77, 83). ** Kegan (1982, p. 86).

Summary

The theory of personal growth through travel and study abroad includes the

concept of positive regression. Travelers find themselves suddenly in an environment

where they may reexperience the stages and challenges of earlier childhood development.

A kind of “regressive self-awareness therapy” results from culture shock, retreat to

earlier forms of behavior, and reintegration. Bipolar in form, euphoric or traumatic, the

severity of regression, self-evaluation, adaptation, and reintegration depends on

individual personality characteristics, the availability of support during crises, and levels

of ego development.

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CHAPTER 3.

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to explore how and why travel and study abroad

affect personal growth and career consolidation, and whether adapting to a new culture

emulates earlier stages of psychological development through positive regression. The

participants were college alumni five or more years after graduation who have had an

opportunity to explore career options. Specifically the study sought to provide

descriptive answers to the following questions:

1. What are the personality and cognitive traits that differ between study abroad and non-study abroad alumni?

2. Does the study abroad experience result in a different level of self-awareness and focus toward career goals and success?

3. Does adapting to a new culture repeat patterns of earlier stages of development?

The research hypothesis stated: If college age adults study abroad for more than

two months in a new environment where culture and language are a challenge, then they

will reexperience earlier psychological stages of childhood development where

communication and independent functioning were limited. By working rapidly back

through these experiences to obtain a state of equilibrium, using adult skills and modeling

samples taken from the new culture, they will learn more about themselves—how they

perceive problems and determine solutions. These new insights will lead to greater self-

identity and self-esteem, increased ability to adapt to new situations, potential

“correction” of psychological lessons learned ineffectively earlier in life, and expanded

self-knowledge and insights for career consolidation and personal satisfaction.

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The methodology used a quasi-experimental, retrospective quantitative design—

nomothetic between-subject applied research conducted on sample groups to identify

general principles of behavior. The three randomly selected sample population groups

were: (1) college graduates who have studied abroad; (2) college graduates who have not

traveled or studied abroad; and (3) matched pairs consisting of those who have not

studied abroad and those with similar demographics in the study abroad sample.

Literature review that influenced the design of this study included many

psychological theories of development (Piaget, Erikson, Kohlberg, Dabrowski,

Loevinger, Chickering, Perry, Marcia, Moshman, Basseches, etc.), general anecdotal and

autobiographical statements (Cather, Twain, Thoreau, Emerson, Durrell, etc.), and travel

nonfiction (Chatwin, Loti, Theroux, Iyer, etc.). This broad spectrum of review across

many disciplines was necessary to show the popular beliefs associated with personal

change through travel.

The hypothesis was based on: (a) an investigative metatheoretical qualitative

analysis of the stages of developmental psychology; (b) research on travel, adapting to

new environments, study abroad and culture shock; (c) theories of cognitive development

in young adults, including dialectic thinking; (d) the psychological concepts of regression

and positive disintegration, (e) self-reported study abroad questionnaire responses from

previous studies; and (f) the personal experience of the researcher.

Constructs

The independent variable in this study was the experience of study abroad, and

the dependent variables were personal growth and career consolidation. Those aspects of

study abroad that reflect earlier psychological developmental learning stages and

experiences were explored as they related to adaptation to a new culture. Thus, study

abroad was used as a design conduit for emulating and recalling past cognitive learning

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and activities, much as regression therapy and psychoanalysis do in their own unique

ways. [It is important to note that academic content, educational practices, and

administration of a study abroad program were not the concentrations of this project.]

Instead, the personal experience of cultural adaptation during travel was explored as it

related to self-awareness and growth.

All of the constructs for independent and dependent variables are complex. For

purposes of this study, to select and design the survey instruments and control for

interaction or threats to internal validity, construct variables were broken down in the

following manner:

Study Abroad is defined as an experience that includes the independent

subvariables noted below. Participants who did not fit the parameters were not included

in the study abroad sample in order to control confounds to validity. The demographic

portion of the Personality Career Inventory (PCI) asked questions about the following

parameters:

1. Communication Challenges: The new culture utilized a different language

other than the participant’s native tongue, or any additional languages of

fluency.

2. Individual Autonomy: Independent activity was required within the new

environment, such as use of public transportation, banks, post office, etc.

3. Perception: Cultural differences in general beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions.

4. Emotional Constructs: Situations existed where culture shock or stress were

factors, e.g., not a “fully guided” experience.

5. Maturation/History: Persons who have traveled extensively before or after the

college study abroad experience were not used as participants in this study.

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Personal Growth included the following dependent subvariables, which were

components of the test items in the PCI.

1. Emotional Resilience

2. Personal Autonomy

3. Flexibility/Openness

4. Self-Awareness

Career Choice involved the following dependent subvariables that were included

in the inventory items of the PCI:

1. Increased focus on career goals

2. Changed directions of career choice

3. Perceived increase in job acquisition and communication skills

Developmental Traits involved the following dependent subvariables that were

included in the inventory items of the PCI:

1. Altered Perceptions

2. Adaptability

3. Communication Challenges

4. Regression

5. Self-Concept

Instruments and Validity

This study used a mailed survey of dual-choice questions and open-ended

inquiries. The instruments used included the Keirsey Temperament Sorter II (KTS)

(Keirsey, 1998), an internally developed Personality Career Inventory (PCI) that

contained operational content based on the validated but now obsolete Omnibus

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Personality Inventory (OPI) (Heist & Yonge, 1968) and survey items that reflected

positive regression and experiential learning. The KTS results were analyzed, printed,

and returned to the participants in the form of a Career Assessment Report.

In the area of validity, it is important to remember the process of research data

collection and findings. Farber (1954) throws some light on the methodology of the

analysis of travel by the application of existing concepts and knowledge of mechanisms: As with most human activities socially rather than psychologically defined, we are faced with multi-motivational constellations interacting within themselves, susceptible of some generalization but differing among individuals. The observations are presented as hypotheses, but as hypotheses possessing a degree of validity because of their consonance with a body of psychological material which has proved its value. (p. 271)

Keirsey Temperament Sorter (KTS)

The Keirsey Temperament Sorter II (KTS) is a 70-item, dual-choice personality

test (Keirsey, 1998). It uses the attributes of four temperament pairs to assess preferences

and potential career choice. It is similar to other devices derived from Carl Jung’s theory

of “psychological types,” such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) developed by

Isabel Myers and Katherine Briggs, the Singer-Loomis, and the Grey-Wheelright. The

KTS was chosen because it is much shorter than the MBTI and his increased the

likelihood of participants taking the survey, but it has not been formally validated. Thus,

it should be considered an “introduction” to personality types. According to Berens

(1996) both the KTS and MBTI have an error rate of 25%. The MBTI has correlations of

± .70, an acceptable range. She continued to state that while there is no published data on

the Keirsey Sorter the initial correlations of reliability and validity were at acceptable

levels (Berens, 1996).

The KTS questionnaire identifies four temperament sets. The descriptive words

in square brackets below are what Jung intended in his personality types (Keirsey, 1998,

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p. 12). The four temperament sets are: (1) Expressive/Attentive (Reserved), (2)

Introspective/Observant, (3) Tender-Minded (Friendly)/Tough, and (4)

Probing/Scheduled. These are graphed in eight categories, and a Temperament Indicator

based on the 16 MBTI temperaments (see Appendix) is identified in pairs (e.g., Rational:

NT), along with the Variant Temperament indicating a potential professional industry

using four traits (e.g., Architect: INTP). Data were collected by the researcher and

scored, then returned to participants as part of the Career Assessment Report.

Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI)

The Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI) Form F is a personality instrument

composed of 385 items (Heist & Yonge, 1968). It was constructed primarily to assess

selected attitudes, values, and interests relevant to intellectualism and social-emotional

adjustment. There are 14 scales as follows: Thinking Introversion (TI), which measures

reflective thought; Theoretical Orientation (TO), which measures problem solving and

use of the scientific method in thinking; Estheticism (ES), which assesses interest in

esthetic stimuli; Complexity (CO), which assesses tolerance for ambiguity and

uncertainty; Autonomy (AU), which measures nonauthoritarian thinking and

independence; Religious Orientation (RO), which assesses degree of religious liberalism;

Social Extroversion (SE), which assesses preferred style of interpersonal relating;

Impulse Expression (IE), which assesses readiness to speak or act quickly; Personal

Integration (PI), which assesses degree of personal adjustment; Anxiety Level (AL),

which assesses social anxiety and adjustment; Altruism (AM), which indicates concern

for others; Practical Outlook (PO), which measures interest in practical activities and

materialism; Masculinity-Femininity (MF), which assesses differences in attitudes

between men and women; and Response Bias (RB), which assesses response reliability of

the test-taker.

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The OPI instrument was chosen as a baseline for some items because it has been

widely used for longitudinal studies, and because it was designed to provide a means of

assessing personality differences. Two subsets of the operational constructs of

Complexity (CO) and Autonomy (AU) were selected for inclusion in the internally

developed PCI survey for the current research. Thirteen items that reflected face validity

for positive career traits were selected for each of the two constructs, for a total of 26

true/false questions.

Special Comment on the OPI: This instrument contains many questions that are

framed in double negatives. Although potentially confusing to participants, the

instrument was not modified so that the validated statements remained intact.

Personality Career Inventory (PCI)

The PCI is an internally developed instrument designed to test situations and

perceptions that emulate earlier stages of developmental psychology, personality traits,

and career goals. The operations in the survey were chosen to represent those constructs

noted in the earlier section of this chapter (see Constructs). It was designed using subsets

of the Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI) (Heist & Yonge, 1968), the Self-Awareness

Inventory (Osborn & Osborn, 1998), and questions related to stages of developmental

theory designed specifically for this study (see Table 2.2 and Table 2.3). The two subsets

of items selected from the OPI were (1) Complexity, which assesses tolerance for

ambiguity and uncertainty; and (2) Autonomy, which measures nonauthoritarian thinking

and independence. Selection of the operations was determined by comparing the

questions most likely to reflect activities that would be found in the experience of

adapting to another culture, or which reflected experiences from earlier cognitive

developmental stages of learning.

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Internet Survey Forms

The following Internet Web pages were developed/utilized:

1. Demographic Questionnaire, an on-line form

2. Keirsey Temperament Sorter II (KTS), a publicly available on-line survey

3. Personality Career Inventory (PCI), a newly developed on-line survey

Computer Software

The following computer software programs were developed/utilized:

1. Alumni database random selection program for study abroad participants

2. Alumni database random selection program for non-study abroad group

3. Alumni database matched-pairs analysis and selection program

4. Demographic analysis and report of respondent sample populations

5. SPSS Statistical Software Package, ver. 10

Population Sample

Three sample groups were selected from the alumni database of a medium-sized

liberal arts college in the Southwestern United States. The survey and research

information was mailed to 1,500 alumni (half who attended a study abroad program)

from the graduating classes of 1992 through 1995, randomly chosen by computer

selection. Both undergraduate and graduate students were included. Special software

programs were written for this random selection. Participants were selected based on

year of graduation, study abroad experience (or none), and gender. Half were study

abroad participants, and each group was evenly divided by gender.

Based on the responses received from participants, a third “matched-pairs” group

was determined through computer analysis comparing the respondents in both the above

groups with specific demographic criteria, which included gender, graduation year,

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degree, and major, in that order. This third group was tagged for special processing, and

as responses were received the database was continually searched to obtain as many

matched pairs as possible. In a few cases, similar majors were used as a match for major.

Return rates for unsolicited surveys are dependent on the interests of the

recipients, length, purpose, and method of presentation (Dillman, 1978) and can be as

low as 3%. With the added feature of an individualized Career Assessment Report

offered to each participant the anticipated return rate was 10%. Thus, the research set

would consist of approximately 150 participants. This participant count is higher than

most study abroad research projects that usually have between 5 to 50 participants (see

Table 2.1). Because this study was retrospective, seeking fine developmental trait

differences between participants who have studied abroad versus those who have not, the

increased number of participants was important to provide the best basis for comparison.

Survey responses were received from 143 alumni. Seven were eliminated

because they were only partially completed, and requests for additional information were

not fulfilled. Six were eliminated because the respondents did not participate in a study

abroad program but had extensive international travel related to their business after

graduation. Four were eliminated due to the respondents being foreign nationals (This

study was on Americans studying abroad). The final sample consisted of 126 alumni

participants, divided as follows: 25 NAFs, 23 NAMs, 59 SAFs, and 19 SAMs. It is

interesting to note the larger proportion of females (59 SAFs) who responded in the study

abroad group. The statistical procedures used later included gender as a factor to take

this disparate male/female response ratio into account. The return rate of 9.53% (143

surveys) is excellent for an unsolicited survey of the length (108 items) required for this

project and matched the anticipated count.

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Procedures

PCI Instrument Development

In order to enhance the quality and potential for reliability of information

gathered using the internally developed nonvalidated Personality Career Inventory (PCI),

survey items were based on an applicable subset of the constructs and operations of

previous validated psychological instruments and familiar developmental theories of

psychology. No assumption of validity is made for the PCI portion of the data collection,

but the items used reflect the questions being investigated to the best possible judgment

of this researcher.

Population Sample Confound Control

The population sample consisted of 126 college graduates who were grouped by

whether or not they had participated in a study abroad program. From the responses

received, a third matched-pairs group was identified, matched on the demographic

characteristics of both the non-study abroad and the study abroad groups. Because there

might be differences between the experimental group (SA) and the non-equivalent

control group (NA), this third matched group (MP) was used to help control the sample

selection bias often found in quasi-experimental design. The alumni demographics

selected were sufficient to match a proportionate sample of at least 50 participants in

each of the three test groups.

Other sample controls to confounding and validity follow:

1. History Effects: Persons who traveled extensively before or after the college study abroad experience were not used as participants in this study.

2. Selection Bias: A third population sample was identified from demographically matched pairs of the experimental group. This allowed for some controls on the potential confound of study abroad participation bias.

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3. Language. Participants who spoke the language of the host country fluently were not included.

Data Collection and Processing

There are many quantitative methods that match analysis and design to the

research question. According to Wilkinson (1999), “Although complex designs and

state-of-the-art methods are sometimes necessary to address research questions

effectively, simpler classical approaches often can provide elegant and sufficient answers

to important questions” (p. 598). Multiple outcomes require special handling, which may

include Bonferroni correction of p-values, multivariate test statistics, and empirical Bayes

methods. The dilemma of choice arises in that “multiplicities are the curse of the social

sciences” (p. 599).

Psychological research often addresses many variables and many relationships. It

is critical to select and apply the right methodology. Data for this study was collected

with encoded names to insure confidentiality. The codes are as follows:

• SAF#nn for females who studied abroad

• SAM#nn for males who studied abroad

• NAF#nn for females who did not study abroad

• NAM#nn for males who did not study abroad

• MPF#nn for females in the matched-pairs group, with NAF matched to SAF

• MPM#nn for males in the matched-pairs group, with NAM matched to SAM

Participants were coded by gender in order to reduce and/or determine the

potential bias toward different gender-based cultural experiences, methods of reacting to

environmental challenges, and patterns of social interaction. The results were then

analyzed with two-way analysis of variance (2x2 ANOVA) and chi-square (χ2) using

gender (F/M) and study-abroad (SA/NA) as main effects. It was very important to

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compare the groups both by in totals and also within gender, because of the larger

proportion of females in the study abroad sample.

The surveys were made available either via manual postal mail or through HTML

Web forms developed for this study and placed on the Internet. Personal demographic

items were requested (birthday, degree, and date of graduation) as a means of participant

verification. A computer program was written to assist in evaluating the responses and

produce a print out of the individual results. A Career Assessment Report was returned

to each respondent as a thank-you for participating in the study. This report included an

outline of the Myers-Briggs traits and complexity/autonomy scores, produced using

computer-generated CGI scripts.

The survey consisted of four parts:

1. Collection of demographic information that included year of graduation,

gender, major, degree, occupation, travel experience, and languages. This

data was used to determine matched pairs and vocational categories.

2. A set of 26 dual-choice statements designed to test Complexity and

Autonomy, which resulted in two quantitative numeric scores.

3. A series of 70 dual choice questions regarding personality traits and

vocational direction, from the Keirsey (KTS-II) online assessment package,

which resulted in eight quantitative numeric and qualitative alpha-trait scores,

one temperament score, and one vocational-type score.

4. Six open-ended questions related to regression, culture shock, self-awareness,

and career consolidation resulted in six nonparametric qualitative alpha

scores.

The 10 quantitative dependent variables analyzed included eight from the 70

dual-choice KTS survey items on personality traits and two from the 26 dual-choice OPI

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subset survey items. The eight personality traits from the KTS were: (1) Expressive [E],

(2) Attentive/Introverted [I], (3) Introspective [N], (4) Observant/Sensing [S], (5) Feeling

[F], (6) Thinking [T], (7) Probing/Perceptive [P], and (8) Scheduling/Judging [J]. In

addition, a temperament score was obtained from the highest sets of traits, resulting in

one of the following pairs: NF (Idealist), NT (Rational), SJ (Guardian), SP (Artisan).

The two traits scored from the OPI subset were (1) Complexity and (2) Autonomy.

Qualitative responses to open-ended questions and demographic data were sorted

and categorized using the procedures outlined by Anastasi and Urbina (1997): (1) review

the data; (2) organize the data into meaningful units; (3) separate the units that are

relevant to the investigation from those that are not; (4) analyze the structured and non-

structured responses; and (5) synthesize the units into appropriate areas. An initial list of

expected response categories was determined from the review of literature. As responses

were reviewed, extra categories were added when a statement or choice did not appear to

fit a previously defined category.

Occupations were sorted into five types: (1) Service jobs – S, (2) Individual-

oriented – I, (3) External-oriented – E, (4) Business administrative – B, and (5) Creative

arts – A. There is no implication that a certain kind of career would evolve from the

study abroad experience, but this coding allowed an analysis of potential patterns that

might exist between participant groups.

Scores from the open-ended questions were mapped to four categories: (1) Self-

awareness, (2) Career Direction, (3) Positive Regression/Culture Shock, (4) and World-

Mindedness. The survey codes were sorted and analyzed to determine any differences in

responses between the study abroad and non-study abroad groups, based on the types of

responses received, as follows:

• Is there a specific activity that reflects your personality? (career/awareness)

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A = arts/music, D = domestic (cook, sew, parent, garden), G = games/computers, L= literature (read/write), N =nature (camp, hike), P = public speaking, T = travel

• Have you ever felt culture shock? (regression)

M = moving homes, S = social situations, T = traveling, W = workplace

• Do you have a special goal in life? (career/awareness)

F = family, H = helping others, L = live life to the fullest, M = make money, S = self-improvement/education.

• Have you ever felt child-like in an adult stressful situation? (regression)

A = anger/frustration, E = emotional, F = funny/humorous reaction, H = helpless, N = need others, S = simplify situation.

• After traveling did your home/community appear differently? (world-minded)

A = more appreciative, B = busy/noisy, M = materialistic, S = smaller view, U = unaware/naive

• What college experience had the greatest impact on your life? (career/awareness)

A = activities/sports, E = education, P = people, R = responsibility/confidence, S = study abroad

Additional statements provided by the participants were documented in the

descriptions of the findings to illustrate fundamental examples of the research

hypotheses.

Statistical Analysis

Standard statistical analyses were conducted using the SPSS Statistical Software

Package to determine frequency distributions, means, and variance. Questions that were

skipped were not included in the evaluation of the open-ended responses. In addition,

when one participant of a matched pair skipped a question, the co-partner’s response was

also not used during the analysis of the matched-pairs group.

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Nonparametric alpha scores were analyzed using Pearson chi-square and

likelihood ratio chi-square (χ2), with two-way crosstabulations of the independent factor

study abroad (SA/NA) and each dependent trait and a layer effect of gender (F/M). Both

the full set of participants and the matched-pairs groups were compared. This provided

for the two independent factors and interaction between them to be analyzed for each

trait.

Numeric scores were processed using 2x2 analysis of variance (ANOVA) for

each component, with study abroad (SA/NA) and gender (F/M) as fixed factors. This

allowed for between groups and interaction comparisons of the independent variables.

The six open-ended questions also provided useful anecdotal comments. Pertinent

quotations related to the hypotheses are noted in the analysis sections.

Limitations

The sample used in this study was drawn from alumni who attended a medium-

sized liberal arts college (7,000 students) in the southwestern United States. A computer

software program was developed and run against the alumni database to randomly

determine the population samples that received the surveys, but the respondents were all

voluntary; thus, some selection bias may be a factor.

Participants who are otherwise interested in a study-abroad program may not

attend such a program for many reasons: financial, family obligations, academic

requirements, lack of interest, discomfort with travel, etc. The use of matched-pairs

groups helped to eliminate demographic characteristics that may confound results.

The instruments used in this study met the following criteria: (1) The Keirsey

Temperament Sorter (KTS-II) is a well-used online personality instrument providing data

on temperament and potential vocation; (2) the internally developed Personality Career

Inventory (PCI) operational constructs were developed using subsets of the validated

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Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI); and (3) an open-ended self-report segment

provided for individual participant perceptions on the impact or perceived value of a

study abroad experience. Even though some of the instruments have been widely used

for various research projects and career exploration, they have not been used for the

specific purposes of this study. Questions arise as to whether the constructs adequately

measure the differences in personality for study abroad and non-study abroad alumni, and

whether they effectively reflect the traits associated with earlier stages of developmental

psychology.

The last two surveys, the PCI items and open-ended questions, were specifically

designed for this research project. Like all instruments developed for specific studies, the

reliability and validity are unknown. Lack of predetermined analysis on the internally

developed instrument must be taken into consideration when interpreting the results. The

PCI survey does have face validity because the items were designed to reflect traits of

personal growth, cultural adaptation, and earlier stages of development.

Use of a quasi-experimental design is not ideal. For research in applied settings

where the researcher carefully considers threats to validity, this design can provide useful

results. There are problems associated with measuring change in personality in a natural

environment (not laboratory controlled) but such measurements can reveal tendencies

that can later be measured in more controlled environments. Such natural settings

eliminate some of the confounding that can occur from research results produced in

artificial settings.

This study is retrospective in nature. In other words, self-reported data were

collected to test etiologic hypotheses about events that have already happened in which

inferences to putative causal factors or trends are derived. Thus, it is not a directly

controlled experimental “cause-and-effect” relationship study. A third matched-pairs

sample group was identified to help enhance the value of the results, matched as closely

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as possible to the demographics of the study abroad sample. Although longitudinal

studies with data collected over time are generally used to establish cause-and-effect

relationships, it is also possible to conceptualize the reconstruction of events through

introspection and self-reporting. This represents a type of “quasi-longitudinal” account

of the participant’s perceptions. Reports from the past can be very insightful when seen

in the context of what currently holds meaning. But, it is important to remember that

retrospective research relies heavily on self-perception and subjective judgment about

what has already happened. There is a potential tendency to alter behavior when being

assessed; thus, some responses may vary from the actual events that occurred.

Conclusions

It is hoped that the identification of differences for alumni in personality traits,

self-awareness, and cross-cultural adaptation experiences uncovered and outlined in this

study will assist with the decision process of people who are contemplating a study

abroad program. Knowledge of potential personal benefits beyond those achieved in the

academic, political, and cultural arenas are important to this decision.

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CHAPTER 4.

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

The purpose of this study was to explore how and why travel and study abroad

affect personal growth and career consolidation, and whether adapting to a new culture

emulates earlier stages of psychological development through positive regression. The

research attempted to evaluate 10 personality traits; 4 temperaments; 16 vocational types;

and 4 general components related to career, culture shock, self-awareness, and positive

regression. Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS software. The approach

varied dependent on the type of data collected and the subgroups under investigation.

Quantitative scores were analyzed using two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA, with

fixed factors of study abroad and gender) and qualitative scores were analyzed using two-

way crosstabulations (study abroad with a layer effect of gender), and Pearson and

likelihood ratio chi-square (χ2). An alpha level of .05 was used for all statistical tests.

Descriptive analysis on the percent of response types was used to determine the direction

of differences between the subgroups being tested.

Participant Demographics

The research sample consisted of 126 alumni from a medium-sized liberal arts

college (7,000) in the southwestern United States. The study abroad group included 59

female and 19 male alumni (SAs) and the non-study abroad group included 25 female

and 23 male alumni (NAs). In addition, 58 alumni were identified for the matched-pairs

sample (MPs: F = 38 and M = 20) based on similar demographics of gender, graduation

year, degree, and major.

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Personality Traits

The ten personality traits isolated in this study included eight from the MBTI

instrument and two additional traits of complexity and autonomy. These are: (1)

Expressive/Extraverted [E], (2) Introverted/Attentive [I], (3) Introspective [N], (4)

Sensing/Observing [S], (5) Feeling [F], (6) Thinking [T], (7) Probing/Perceptive [P], (8)

Judging/Scheduling [J], (9) Complexity and (10) Autonomy. A second level of

processing determined temperament, obtained from the two highest sets of the eight

paired personality traits, resulting in one of the following pairs: NF (Idealist), NT

(Rational), SJ (Guardian), SP (Artisan). And a third complex component, that of

vocational type (MBTI score), was determined using the highest traits in each of four

pairs, for a total of 16 possible types (when there were no evenly distributed trait pairs).

These categories are discussed in the sections below.

Personality traits were scored and tested in two different ways. A 2x2 analysis of

variance (ANOVA) was used on the quantitative numeric scores to ascertain differences

in the main effects of study abroad/non-study abroad (SA/NA), gender (M/F), and the

interaction of the two variables. Categorical alpha scores from eight MBTI traits were

then analyzed using two-way crosstabulations, with a layer effect of gender, and Pearson

and likelihood ratio chi-square (χ2). Both scoring methods were used because the four

MBTI pairs can be determined from a subset of survey questions, even when some items

are not answered; thus, the dominant alpha score may be of greater interest than the total

numeric score.

The 2x2 ANOVA on the ten personality traits showed no significant difference

between the study abroad and non-study abroad groups. Although significant differences

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were found between gender in the categories of complexity, thinking, feeling, judging,

and perceiving, the interaction effects of gender with study abroad experience were not

significant (see Table 4.1). For the matched pairs subset there were no significant

differences in the raw numeric scores between subjects, either by study abroad or gender.

Table 4.1 Five Personality Traits

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable: COMPLEX

37.146a 3 12.382 1.546 .2065586.803 1 5586.803 697.644 .000

36.375 1 36.375 4.542 .0353.491 1 3.491 .436 .510

5.089E-02 1 5.089E-02 .006 .937976.989 122 8.008

7457.000 1261014.135 125

SourceCorrected ModelInterceptGEND2N_OR_S2GEND2 * N_OR_S2ErrorTotalCorrected Total

Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

R Squared = .037 (Adjusted R Squared = .013)a.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable: T_THINK

128.866a 3 42.955 2.314 .0798896.562 1 8896.562 479.335 .000

79.687 1 79.687 4.293 .0405.383E-02 1 5.383E-02 .003 .957

27.242 1 27.242 1.468 .2282264.348 122 18.560

12119.000 1262393.214 125

SourceCorrected ModelInterceptGEND2N_OR_S2GEND2 * N_OR_S2ErrorTotalCorrected Total

Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

R Squared = .054 (Adjusted R Squared = .031)a.

127

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable: F_FEEL

107.193a 3 35.731 1.940 .12711760.356 1 11760.356 638.579 .000

73.776 1 73.776 4.006 .048.184 1 .184 .010 .920

17.469 1 17.469 .949 .3322246.807 122 18.416

17600.000 1262354.000 125

SourceCorrected ModelInterceptGEND2N_OR_S2GEND2 * N_OR_S2ErrorTotalCorrected Total

Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

R Squared = .046 (Adjusted R Squared = .022)a.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable: J_JUDGE

108.295a 3 36.098 2.428 .06915261.683 1 15261.683 1026.385 .000

102.735 1 102.735 6.909 .0109.555 1 9.555 .643 .4247.254 1 7.254 .488 .486

1814.062 122 14.86920867.000 126

1922.357 125

SourceCorrected ModelInterceptGEND2N_OR_S2GEND2 * N_OR_S2ErrorTotalCorrected Total

Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

R Squared = .056 (Adjusted R Squared = .033)a.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Dependent Variable: P_PERCV

112.262a 3 37.421 2.535 .0606453.762 1 6453.762 437.260 .000

109.785 1 109.785 7.438 .0076.151 1 6.151 .417 .5205.529 1 5.529 .375 .542

1800.667 122 14.7609273.000 1261912.929 125

SourceCorrected ModelInterceptGEND2N_OR_S2GEND2 * N_OR_S2ErrorTotalCorrected Total

Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

R Squared = .059 (Adjusted R Squared = .036)a.

128

Statistically analyzing the eight MBTI personality traits as nonparametric scores

with dichotomous alpha values provided a slightly different picture. The chi-square

showed one trait pair, judging/perceiving, as significantly different: LR χ2(2, N = 126) =

6.053, p < .05. For all participants 66.7% of the study abroad group compared to 75% of

the non-study abroad group selected judging; and 7.7% of the study abroad group but

none of the non-study abroad group were evenly balanced on this trait pair. But this time

there were no differences between gender. (See Table 4.2) This finding was corroborated

with the matched-pairs groups which were significantly different, with 58.6% of study

abroad compared to 79.3% of non-study abroad selecting judging; and 13.8% of study

abroad compared to none of the non-study abroad evenly balanced on this trait pair: LR

χ2(2, N = 58) = 6.735, p < .05. Again, there were no differences by gender. The study

abroad sample was more flexible than the non-study abroad comparison group and also

had a higher percentage of balanced responses on these traits.

Myers defined judging as prone to making schedules and keeping to them, and

perceiving as looking for alternatives, opportunities, and options—i.e., exploring

(Keirsey, 1998, p. 13). Certainly increased flexibility regarding schedules and choosing

different response types depending on the situation are skills one would expect to see

utilized in a study abroad experience.

129

Table 4.2 Judging/Perceiving Trait Scores

Where: J = judging, P = perceiving, and X = an equally balanced choice

All Participants:

N_OR_S * J_P Crosstabulation

36 12 4875.0% 25.0% 100.0%

52 20 6 7866.7% 25.6% 7.7% 100.0%

88 32 6 12669.8% 25.4% 4.8% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

N

S

N_OR_S

Total

J P XJ_P

Total

Chi-Square Tests

3.993a 2 .1366.053 2 .048

126

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

2 cells (33.3%) have expected count less than 5. Theminimum expected count is 2.29.

a.

Matched Pairs Groups:

N_OR_S * J_P Crosstabulation

23 6 2979.3% 20.7% 100.0%

17 8 4 2958.6% 27.6% 13.8% 100.0%

40 14 4 5869.0% 24.1% 6.9% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

N

S

N_OR_S

Total

J P XJ_P

Total

Chi-Square Tests

5.186a 2 .0756.735 2 .034

58

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

2 cells (33.3%) have expected count less than 5. Theminimum expected count is 2.00.

a.

130

Temperament

There are four temperament types defined by Myers: NF = Idealists, NT =

Rationals, SJ = Guardians, and SP = Artisans. Temperament indicates a type of

personality or character with distinct forms of attitude and behavior (Keirsey, 1998,

p. 18). This does not necessarily suggest a vocation but simply how one might interact

with colleagues, regardless of the career they select. It is not until people recognize and

develop their own innate traits that they can become fully mature individuals. The

complex component of temperament was analyzed in this research to show patterns of

personality type who participate in such programs and whether study abroad will assist in

unveiling or expanding inherent traits. It was expected, and confirmed, that there were

no significant differences in temperament between all the grouped participants.

Career Choice and Vocational Type

When participant demographics were compared for occupation, there were

significant differences between the study abroad and non-study abroad groups, χ2(4, N =

126) = 10.314, P < .05 (See Table 4.3). There was no significant difference between the

male participants but a strong difference between the female participants, χ2(4, N = 84) =

11.043, p < .05. Women who studied abroad showed a much higher interest in service-

oriented jobs (34% versus 8%) and the arts (10% versus none) and less interest in

individual-oriented jobs (22% versus 40%), compared to those who have not traveled

extensively. For the matched-pairs group, no differences in occupation type were found.

This may be due to the item of college major being used as a matching demographic

variable in determining the matched pairs groups.

131

Table 4.3 Frequencies of Occupation Type

Legend: N = Non-study abroad, S = Study abroad A = Creative arts, B = Business, E = External-oriented, I = Individual-oriented, S = Service

N_OR_S * OCCTYPE Crosstabulation

2 9 14 19 4 484.2% 18.8% 29.2% 39.6% 8.3% 100.0%

8 10 19 19 22 7810.3% 12.8% 24.4% 24.4% 28.2% 100.0%

10 19 33 38 26 1267.9% 15.1% 26.2% 30.2% 20.6% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

N

S

N_OR_S

Total

A B E I SOCCTYPE

Total

Chi-Square Tests

10.314a 4 .03511.175 4 .025

126

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

1 cells (10.0%) have expected count less than 5. Theminimum expected count is 3.81.

a.

N_OR_S * OCCTYPE * GENDER Crosstabulation

6 7 10 2 2524.0% 28.0% 40.0% 8.0% 100.0%

6 7 13 13 20 5910.2% 11.9% 22.0% 22.0% 33.9% 100.0%

6 13 20 23 22 847.1% 15.5% 23.8% 27.4% 26.2% 100.0%

2 3 7 9 2 238.7% 13.0% 30.4% 39.1% 8.7% 100.0%

2 3 6 6 2 1910.5% 15.8% 31.6% 31.6% 10.5% 100.0%

4 6 13 15 4 429.5% 14.3% 31.0% 35.7% 9.5% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

N

S

N_OR_S

Total

N

S

N_OR_S

Total

GENDERF

M

A B E I SOCCTYPE

Total

Chi-Square Tests

11.043a 4 .02613.545 4 .009

84.299b 4 .990.300 4 .990

42

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid CasesPearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

GENDERF

M

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

3 cells (30.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is 1.79.

a.

6 cells (60.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is 1.81.

b.

132

There are 16 possible vocational-type combinations in the MBTI set, based on the

eight personality traits (four pairs). Myers represented all of these distinct types as being

effectively functioning people but who are effective in different ways, having a set of

“gifts differing.” These combinations were based on Carl Jung’s portrait types, or

archetypes (see Appendix F).

When the participants responded equally to a set of paired traits, they were not

scored in either grouping but were given an “X” to indicate equal traits. Thus, the

number of vocational types for the Keirsey Temperament Sorter increased in this study

from 16 to 37 combinations. The Myers-Briggs scoring system adjusts for this

possibility but the Keirsey does not. Because those participants with equality in their

trait pairs did not fall into a clear vocational category, they are not included in the

detailed discussion of vocational types.

Using chi-square analysis on the participant scores, with dichotomous trait pairs,

no statistical significance was determined within or between the groups. These results

were based on only part of the research group (N = 88) because 38 of the 126 participants

had equal scores on at least one trait pair. Table 4.4 illustrates the vocational types of

participants based on the study abroad factor. Almost all the vocational types are equally

distributed and many were based on small samples. The most popular vocational type

represented, that of ISTJ (Inspector), was twice as high a percent in the non-study abroad

group (29% vs. 14%). This vocational type is defined as someone who prefers to quietly

work behind the scenes, concentrating on details, with little confrontation. They are

highly dependable, no-nonsense types who prefer familiar surroundings. It is not

surprising that they are more highly represented in the non-study abroad group.

133

Table 4.4 Vocational Types

Legend: S = Study abroad, N = Non-study abroad

Extroverted Vocations

0.00%

5.00%

10.00%

15.00%

20.00%

Variances

Per

cent

s

N 0 3.20% 3.20% 0 9.70% 6.50% 16.10% 3.20%

S 5.30% 8.80% 1.80% 3.50% 12.30% 3.50% 15.80% 5.30%

Total 3.40% 6.80% 2.30% 2.30% 11.40% 4.50% 15.90% 4.50%

ENFJ ENFP ENTJ ENTP ESFJ ESFP ESTJ ESTP

Introverted Vocations

0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

Variances

Per

cent

s

N 6.50% 6.50% 6.50% 9.70% 0 29.00% 0

S 7.00% 3.50% 1.80% 14.00% 1.80% 14.00% 1.80%

Total 6.80% 4.50% 3.40% 12.50% 1.10% 19.30% 1.10%

INFJ INFP INTJ ISFJ ISFP ISTJ ISTP

134

Evaluation of General Questions

Previous sections attempted to describe personality and cognitive traits that might

differ based on study abroad experience. The second and third research questions are

harder to measure. There are no standardized tests to determine whether adapting to a

new culture emulates earlier stages of psychological development through positive

regression, or whether study abroad affects career consolidation. In many ways these

issues are perhaps best addressed through anecdotal comments and observation.

Therefore, the research method chosen was to ask six open-ended questions, then place

the responses into qualitative categories based on subjective evaluation of the responses.

If a response did not match a predefined category (determined from the review of

literature), a new category was added. Once the responses were tagged with alpha

values, the results were analyzed using chi-square. Each question and the resulting

classification of responses are discussed separately below.

1. Is there some activity that reflects your personality? Explain.

This question was designed to measure both self-awareness and career direction

and consolidation. Being represented by an activity meant knowing one’s talents and

understanding how to apply them. The categories defined for this question included: A =

arts/music, D = domestic (cook, sew, parent, garden), G = games/computers,

L = literature (read/write), N = nature (camp, hike), P = public speaking, S = sports, and

T = travel. Having a representative activity was not significantly different within the full

set of SA/NA participants nor for the matched-pairs groups (See Table 4.5). It was also

not significant between gender.

135

Table 4.5 Representative Activity Analysis

LEGEND. x = no activity. (7 participants skipped the question). Activity: A = arts/music, D = domestic (cook, sew, parent, garden), G = games/computers, L = literature (read/write), N = nature (camp, hike), P = public speaking, S = sports, T = travel

ACTIVITY * N_OR_S Crosstabulation

4 11 159.1% 14.7% 12.6%

3 6 96.8% 8.0% 7.6%

3 4 76.8% 5.3% 5.9%

5 5 1011.4% 6.7% 8.4%

3 7 106.8% 9.3% 8.4%

4 1 59.1% 1.3% 4.2%

15 18 3334.1% 24.0% 27.7%

9 912.0% 7.6%

7 14 2115.9% 18.7% 17.6%

44 75 119100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

A

D

G

L

N

P

S

T

x

ACTIVITY

Total

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

12.166a 8 .14415.092 8 .057

119

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

8 cells (44.4%) have expected count less than 5. Theminimum expected count is 1.85.

a.

The following anecdotal comments related to representative activities were

received from participants:

136

Travel. I like the unknown, just going and seeing what happens. I find this makes for a much better learning experience than being led around by someone else. Photography. It requires a lot of creative focus and concentration, and personality.

Dance. It’s a flurry of “disorganized” movement to a consistent beat that comes together beautifully. Building. Digging into the “guts” of an object or system in order to understand how it works/functions. Hiking. Reflects my steady pace, persistence, and desire to reach a goal. Fixing and creating things around the house. Tennis: strategic, fun, active thinking. Sailing—for the tranquility involved with it. Travel—for the unknown adventure it takes one to. Music. Listening to music and letting it engulf me and lift my spirits. Golf. Each game is a little different. Golf demands concentration, patience, creativity, self-reliance, knowing your limitations, and when to exceed them.

2. Have you experienced culture shock? Explain.

Culture shock was used as a measure of potential regression to earlier stages of

psychological development but was not predefined in the survey, so it was open to

individual interpretation. The categories that evolved were M = moving, S = domestic

social situations, T = travel, and W = work environment. Home society involved such

responses as: (a) visiting a nearby neighborhood, (b) generation gap interests in music or

film, (c) changes in general social customs in the home community.

The differences between the NA and SA groups were significant, χ2(4, N = 125)

= 26.026, p < .0005. These remained significant within gender. Females scored χ2(4, N

137

= 83) = 14.293, p < .01, and males scored χ2(4, N = 42) = 17.325, p < .005 (See Table

4.6). For matched pairs the difference between the NA/SA groups for culture shock was

significant, χ2(4, N = 58) = 12.938, p < .05, but within gender it was only significant for

males χ2(4, N = 20) = 13.232, p < .05.

Looking at the larger question of whether participants had ever experienced

culture shock, 60.4% of the NAs and 76.6% of the SAs had. In the non-study abroad

group, the experience that caused most culture shock was moving (29.2%), followed by

the work environment (12.5%), domestic travel (10.4%), and society (8.3%). For the

study abroad participants, 54.5% stated they experienced culture shock while traveling,

11.7% from a move, 6.5% in society, and 3.9% at work. For NA females, moving was

32% and for SA females it was 15.5%. For males, 26.1% of the NAs listed moving, but

none of the SAs did. These differences continued to be significant in the matched-pairs

group, χ2(4, N = 58) = 12.938, p < .05; but when analyzed by gender only the male

participant scores were significant, χ2(4, N = 20) = 13.232, p < .05.

Table 4.6 Culture Shock Analysis

LEGEND. x = No (1 participant skipped the question). Culture Shock: M = moving, S = society, T = travel, W = workplace

All Participants:

C_SHOCK * N_OR_S Crosstabulation

14 9 2329.2% 11.7% 18.4%

4 5 98.3% 6.5% 7.2%

5 42 4710.4% 54.5% 37.6%

6 3 912.5% 3.9% 7.2%

19 18 3739.6% 23.4% 29.6%

48 77 125100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

M

S

T

W

x

C_SHOCK

Total

N SN_OR_S

Total

138

Chi-Square Tests

26.026a 4 .00028.764 4 .000

125

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

2 cells (20.0%) have expected count less than 5. Theminimum expected count is 3.46.

a.

C_SHOCK * N_OR_S * GENDER Crosstabulation

8 9 1732.0% 15.5% 20.5%

2 4 68.0% 6.9% 7.2%

4 31 3516.0% 53.4% 42.2%

4 1 516.0% 1.7% 6.0%

7 13 2028.0% 22.4% 24.1%

25 58 83100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

6 626.1% 14.3%

2 1 38.7% 5.3% 7.1%

1 11 124.3% 57.9% 28.6%

2 2 48.7% 10.5% 9.5%

12 5 1752.2% 26.3% 40.5%

23 19 42100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

M

S

T

W

x

C_SHOCK

Total

M

S

T

W

x

C_SHOCK

Total

GENDERF

M

N SN_OR_S

Total

139

Chi-Square Tests

14.293a 4 .00614.647 4 .005

8317.325b 4 .00220.997 4 .000

42

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid CasesPearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

GENDERF

M

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

4 cells (40.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is 1.51.

a.

6 cells (60.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is 1.36.

b.

Matched Pairs Group:

C_SHOCK * N_OR_S Crosstabulation

9 3 1231.0% 10.3% 20.7%

4 2 613.8% 6.9% 10.3%

5 18 2317.2% 62.1% 39.7%

2 2 46.9% 6.9% 6.9%

9 4 1331.0% 13.8% 22.4%

29 29 58100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

M

S

T

W

x

C_SHOCK

Total

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

12.938a 4 .01213.592 4 .009

58

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

4 cells (40.0%) have expected count less than 5. Theminimum expected count is 2.00.

a.

140

C_SHOCK * N_OR_S * GENDER Crosstabulation

5 3 827.8% 15.0% 21.1%

2 2 411.1% 10.0% 10.5%

4 11 1522.2% 55.0% 39.5%

2 1 311.1% 5.0% 7.9%

5 3 827.8% 15.0% 21.1%

18 20 38100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

4 436.4% 20.0%

2 218.2% 10.0%

1 7 89.1% 77.8% 40.0%

1 111.1% 5.0%

4 1 536.4% 11.1% 25.0%

11 9 20100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

M

S

T

W

x

C_SHOCK

Total

M

S

T

W

x

C_SHOCK

Total

GENDERF

M

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

4.507a 4 .3424.642 4 .326

3813.232b 4 .01016.493 4 .002

20

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid CasesPearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

GENDERF

M

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

8 cells (80.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is 1.42.

a.

10 cells (100.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is .45.

b.

It seems logical that moving and exposure to new social customs within the home

culture would trigger feelings of culture shock, but it was a surprise to this researcher that

141

the work environment was also listed. The noticeable trend here is that those who have

had experiences with other cultures do not find the work experience to be as great a

shock to their routine compared to those who have not traveled abroad. Also, travel

abroad makes moving a much less threatening task for males, while it somewhat lessens

the stress for females. The following anecdotal comments related to culture shock were

received from participants:

Living in a new foreign country—you are out of your comfort zone, challenged—But you are taught so many things. I have experienced reverse culture shock [reentry]. I have lived overseas for 5 years. Culture shock you can prepare for. Reverse culture shock you don’t expect. I felt a sense of not belonging because I did not understand a lot of the history of the culture. I hesitated to act/react because I was a little unsure of the correct way to act/react. It created a new learning environment, but was challenging and rewarding. I feel culture shock in places like Westwood, Santa Monica, and Chinatown. Places where everyone seems homogenous and there isn’t much diversity. I did experience severe reverse culture shock upon my return to the U.S. after living in London. I had a hard time readjusting to Southern California. Everything seemed so loud and brash. The superficiality of life around me made me crazy. I had a hard time relating to family and friends. A lot of it was harsh value judgments I was making in my comparisons. I longed for the simplicity of English life. Corporate culture can be somewhat of a culture shock. The environment in the workplace has many unwritten rules and procedures that prove to silently influence your decisions, behaviors and work. Living in Germany the language barrier was difficult at first. Every time I ever went abroad. It is unavoidable and actually the “jolt” that starts the learning process.

142

I traveled alone to a third-world country where I didn’t speak the language. It made me look into myself and into the reasons I needed to go there. I got down to the basics of communication with others, and I developed a stronger sense of confidence about myself.

3. Do you have a special goal or purpose in life? Explain.

Goals were used to evaluate career direction and reactions to returning home.

The categories that evolved were F = family, H = helping others, L = live life to the

fullest, M = make money, and S = self-improvement. There were significant differences

in the type of special goal or life purpose between the SAs and NAs, χ2(5, N = 124) =

14.238, p < .05; but across gender the differences were not significant (See Table 4.7).

There were no significant differences between the matched-pairs groups.

Table 4.7 Life Goal Analysis

LEGEND. x = No specific goal. (2 participants skipped the question) Goal: F = family, H = helping others, L = live life to the fullest, M = make money S = self-improvement(or education).

All Participants:

GOAL * N_OR_S Crosstabulation

11 16 2723.4% 20.8% 21.8%

9 27 3619.1% 35.1% 29.0%

4 45.2% 3.2%

4 1 58.5% 1.3% 4.0%

13 24 3727.7% 31.2% 29.8%

10 5 1521.3% 6.5% 12.1%

47 77 124100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

F

H

L

M

S

x

GOAL

Total

N SN_OR_S

Total

143

Chi-Square Tests

14.238a 5 .01415.511 5 .008

124

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

4 cells (33.3%) have expected count less than 5. Theminimum expected count is 1.52.

a.

GOAL * N_OR_S * GENDER Crosstabulation

4 11 1516.7% 19.0% 18.3%

5 21 2620.8% 36.2% 31.7%

2 23.4% 2.4%

1 14.2% 1.2%

9 19 2837.5% 32.8% 34.1%

5 5 1020.8% 8.6% 12.2%

24 58 82100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

7 5 1230.4% 26.3% 28.6%

4 6 1017.4% 31.6% 23.8%

2 210.5% 4.8%

3 1 413.0% 5.3% 9.5%

4 5 917.4% 26.3% 21.4%

5 521.7% 11.9%

23 19 42100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

F

H

L

M

S

x

GOAL

Total

F

H

L

M

S

x

GOAL

Total

GENDERF

M

N SN_OR_S

Total

144

Chi-Square Tests

6.747a 5 .2407.262 5 .202

828.541b 5 .129

11.218 5 .04742

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid CasesPearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

GENDERF

M

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

6 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is .29.

a.

9 cells (75.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is .90.

b.

Family was chosen by 23.4% of the NAs and by 20.8% of the SAs. Helping

others was 19.1% for NAs and 35.1% for SAs. Earning money was 8.5% for NAs and

only 1.3% for SAs. Self-improvement was about equally represented, with 27.7% of the

NAs and 31.2% of the SAs. Living life to the fullest was the goal for four SAs (5.2%)

but not for any NA participants. Responses by males and females were similar, except

that for NA males interest in the family was greater, and for NA females interest in self-

improvement was greater. For both the male and female SA participants the highest

scores were in helping others.

The three goals that differed the most were: (1) interest in helping others greatly

was greater for the SA group, (2) interest in earning money was less for the SA group,

and (3) living life to the fullest was greater for the SA group. The following anecdotal

comments related to life and career goals were received from participants: After traveling I realized that I took a lot of things for granted, like an abundance of food, a car, a nice house, etc., when people in other countries may not even be able to get clean drinking water or a warm place to sleep. It really put things into perspective for me, as far as what I have accomplished and what I want to do with my life to help others. Some people prefer to be victims and stay in bad situations. My purpose or goal in life is to create only positive energy. I am considering volunteering my time at a women and children’s shelter.

145

Later in life I began to travel on a regular basis to 3rd world countries and this has had a profound effect on my view of what is required for life happiness. Material possessions do not equate to satisfaction with life for me. New experiences, meeting new people, and learning about other cultures is very rewarding on a personal basis.

4. Have you ever felt “childlike” in an adult stressful situation? Explain.

This item was used to uncover feelings of regression to earlier psychological

stages. Reaction categories that evolved were A = anger, E = emotional, F = funny or

humorous, H = helpless, N = feeling needy, and S = simplify facts. One problem with the

survey was that some participants read this question as “acted” in a childlike manner

instead of “feeling” childlike, so almost half (43.4%) of the participants responded no to

this question. Thus, the scores were not as revealing as they might have been. Future

research should find a way to reword this question so that it maintains its intended

purpose and meaning for all participants.

Differences in responses between the SA and NA groups were significant, χ2(6, N

= 122) = 17.033, p < .01. Within gender females were significantly different, χ2(6, N =

80) = 16.131, p < .05, but males were not.

For matched pairs the differences were significant LR χ2(6, N = 56) = 15.445, p <

.05, and the response patterns were similar. Within gender only the female sets were

significantly different, LR χ2(6, N = 36) = 13.385, p < .05. (See Table 4.8)

146

Table 4.8 Childlike Regression Analysis

LEGEND. x = No (4 participants skipped the question) Childlike Regression: A = anger/frustration, E = emotional, F = funny/humorous reaction, H = helpless, N = need others, S = simplify situation.

All Participants:

CHILDREG * N_OR_S Crosstabulation

3 7 106.5% 9.2% 8.2%

5 1 610.9% 1.3% 4.9%

7 6 1315.2% 7.9% 10.7%

2 19 214.3% 25.0% 17.2%

1 4 52.2% 5.3% 4.1%

8 6 1417.4% 7.9% 11.5%

20 33 5343.5% 43.4% 43.4%

46 76 122100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

A

E

F

H

N

S

x

CHILDREG

Total

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

17.033a 6 .00918.520 6 .005

122

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

6 cells (42.9%) have expected count less than 5. Theminimum expected count is 1.89.

a.

147

CHILDREG * N_OR_S * GENDER Crosstabulation

2 4 68.7% 7.0% 7.5%

5 1 621.7% 1.8% 7.5%

2 2 48.7% 3.5% 5.0%

2 16 188.7% 28.1% 22.5%

1 4 54.3% 7.0% 6.3%

5 5 1021.7% 8.8% 12.5%

6 25 3126.1% 43.9% 38.8%

23 57 80100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

1 3 44.3% 15.8% 9.5%

5 4 921.7% 21.1% 21.4%

3 315.8% 7.1%

3 1 413.0% 5.3% 9.5%

14 8 2260.9% 42.1% 52.4%

23 19 42100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

A

E

F

H

N

S

x

CHILDREG

Total

A

F

H

S

x

CHILDREG

Total

GENDERF

M

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

16.131a 6 .01315.506 6 .017

806.425b 4 .1707.639 4 .106

42

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid CasesPearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

GENDERF

M

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

9 cells (64.3%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is 1.15.

a.

8 cells (80.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is 1.36.

b.

148

Matched Pairs:

CHILDREG * N_OR_S Crosstabulation

3 3 610.7% 10.7% 10.7%

4 414.3% 7.1%

3 4 710.7% 14.3% 12.5%

2 6 87.1% 21.4% 14.3%

1 2 33.6% 7.1% 5.4%

5 517.9% 8.9%

10 13 2335.7% 46.4% 41.1%

28 28 56100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

A

E

F

H

N

S

x

CHILDREG

Total

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

11.867a 6 .06515.445 6 .017

56

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

12 cells (85.7%) have expected count less than 5. Theminimum expected count is 1.50.

a.

149

CHILDREG * N_OR_S * GENDER Crosstabulation

2 2 411.8% 10.5% 11.1%

4 423.5% 11.1%

1 1 25.9% 5.3% 5.6%

2 6 811.8% 31.6% 22.2%

1 2 35.9% 10.5% 8.3%

3 317.6% 8.3%

4 8 1223.5% 42.1% 33.3%

17 19 36100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

1 1 29.1% 11.1% 10.0%

2 3 518.2% 33.3% 25.0%

2 218.2% 10.0%

6 5 1154.5% 55.6% 55.0%

11 9 20100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

A

E

F

H

N

S

x

CHILDREG

Total

A

F

S

x

CHILDREG

Total

GENDERF

M

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

10.588a 6 .10213.385 6 .037

362.112b 3 .5492.865 3 .413

20

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid CasesPearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

GENDERF

M

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

12 cells (85.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is .94.

a.

7 cells (87.5%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is .90.

b.

150

A greater number of SAs (9.2%) reacted with anger to stress compared to 6.5% for NAs,

but they were less emotional. It has been shown that one of the initial reactions to

cultural differences is anger, so some of the SA participants may have recalled this

experience and possibly not worked through it. In contrast, 10.9% of the NAs reacted

emotionally to stress, whereas only 1.3% of the SAs did so. Humor is the primary means

of dealing with stress for 15.2% of the NAs and only 7.9% of the SAs. A larger percent

of the SAs felt needy (5.3%) compared to the NAs (2.2%). This could be a reaction to

problems with communication and unfamiliar environments. In contrast, 17.4% of the

NAs try to simplify a stressful situation, whereas only 7.9% of the SAs do so. This use of

simplification may be a way of masking the threat and lessening the perception of

potential danger. SAs seemed more able to accept complex situations.

In summary, SAs were more likely to react to stress with anger and feelings of

helplessness compared to NAs but were less emotional and more willing to accept the

reality and complexity of a challenging new environment. Within gender no males

indicated a primary emotional or needy reaction to stress, and the strongest reaction was

use of humor (males 21.4% compared to only 5% for females). SA women related a

stronger feeling of helplessness (28.1%) than their SA male counterparts (15.8%). Other

reactions were similar between gender. The following anecdotal comments related to

regression were received from participants: Fatigue and frustration can always reach a maximum and you become more emotional than rational. Sometimes when stressed or overwhelmed my emotions take over and I cry as a release. When I make mistakes I feel helpless. I get over it once I fix the situation, or I learn from it.

151

I have been in situations where my actions have had no effect, making me feel extremely frustrated and rather small. At times like these I pull back and reassess the situation before becoming possibly angry. Many times I will try to make light or joke about the situation, largely in an attempt to remain calm and avoid feeling overwhelmed. I was taking a French language class far too seriously and being very hard on myself. One day the professor called on me and I froze. I was so nervous and frustrated I almost started to cry. Then I regained composure. Afterwards I realized I had created the stress I was under, there was no need. But at the time I wanted to curl up like a baby! Walking through a strange place allows me to learn vicariously, explore, and feel the fear of being out of place.

5. After traveling did your home/community appear differently? Explain.

This item was used to evaluate how travel or study abroad might alter the

perceptions and self-image of individuals. Categories involved the reaction to the home

society and included: A = more appreciative, B = busy/noisy, M = materialistic,

S = smaller view, and U = unaware/naïve. The NA group responded to this question in

relation to traveling domestically. Reactions to returning home were statistically

different for SA/NA participants, LR χ2(5, N = 124) = 11.514, p < .05, but showed no

significant differences across gender. For the matched-pairs groups, only the males

showed a significant difference in responses LR χ2(5, N = 20) = 13.121, p < .05 (See

Table 4.9).

152

Table 4.9 Reentry Reactions Analysis

LEGEND. x = No. (2 participants skipped the question). Reentry: A = more appreciative, B = busy/noisy, M = materialistic, S = smaller view, U = unaware/naïve

All Participants:

REENTRY * N_OR_S Crosstabulation

20 39 5942.6% 50.6% 47.6%

1 3 42.1% 3.9% 3.2%

7 79.1% 5.6%

9 13 2219.1% 16.9% 17.7%

4 6 108.5% 7.8% 8.1%

13 9 2227.7% 11.7% 17.7%

47 77 124100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

A

B

M

S

U

x

REENTRY

Total

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

9.257a 5 .09911.514 5 .042

124

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

5 cells (41.7%) have expected count less than 5. Theminimum expected count is 1.52.

a.

153

REENTRY * N_OR_S * GENDER Crosstabulation

13 30 4354.2% 51.7% 52.4%

1 2 34.2% 3.4% 3.7%

4 46.9% 4.9%

4 11 1516.7% 19.0% 18.3%

2 5 78.3% 8.6% 8.5%

4 6 1016.7% 10.3% 12.2%

24 58 82100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

7 9 1630.4% 47.4% 38.1%

1 15.3% 2.4%

3 315.8% 7.1%

5 2 721.7% 10.5% 16.7%

2 1 38.7% 5.3% 7.1%

9 3 1239.1% 15.8% 28.6%

23 19 42100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

A

B

M

S

U

x

REENTRY

Total

A

B

M

S

U

x

REENTRY

Total

GENDERF

M

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

2.305a 5 .8053.389 5 .640

828.566b 5 .128

10.222 5 .06942

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid CasesPearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

GENDERF

M

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

8 cells (66.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is .88.

a.

8 cells (66.7%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is .45.

b.

154

Matched Pairs:

REENTRY * N_OR_S Crosstabulation

11 14 2539.3% 50.0% 44.6%

1 1 23.6% 3.6% 3.6%

4 414.3% 7.1%

5 6 1117.9% 21.4% 19.6%

3 1 410.7% 3.6% 7.1%

8 2 1028.6% 7.1% 17.9%

28 28 56100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

A

B

M

S

U

x

REENTRY

Total

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

9.051a 5 .10710.898 5 .053

56

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

6 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. Theminimum expected count is 1.00.

a.

155

REENTRY * N_OR_S * GENDER Crosstabulation

8 9 1747.1% 47.4% 47.2%

1 15.9% 2.8%

2 210.5% 5.6%

3 5 817.6% 26.3% 22.2%

2 1 311.8% 5.3% 8.3%

3 2 517.6% 10.5% 13.9%

17 19 36100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

3 5 827.3% 55.6% 40.0%

1 111.1% 5.0%

2 222.2% 10.0%

2 1 318.2% 11.1% 15.0%

1 19.1% 5.0%

5 545.5% 25.0%

11 9 20100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

A

B

M

S

U

x

REENTRY

Total

A

B

M

S

U

x

REENTRY

Total

GENDERF

M

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

3.993a 5 .5505.153 5 .397

369.731b 5 .083

13.121 5 .02220

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid CasesPearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

GENDERF

M

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

10 cells (83.3%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is .47.

a.

12 cells (100.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is .45.

b.

156

A larger portion of the total SA group (50.6%) said that travel gave them greater

appreciation for their home culture, compared to 42.6% of the NAs. Both groups equally

saw their home culture as more busy or confusing (2.1% for NAs and 3.9% for SAs). Of

interest is that no NA participant viewed their home culture as too materialistic, but 9.1%

of the SA group did so. Other reactions were even across the two groups. It was curious

to see the lack of difference within females on reentry. One wonders if women are more

closely bonded to their home culture and society and thus less likely to modify their

perceptions of it.

The following anecdotal comments related to travel, self-image, and reentry were

received from participants: I was always fearful of the “different” people at home. In Europe I walked around as if no one would hurt me. Being back at home I readily pick up on other people’s prejudices that I once had. I am a cautious person but was much more adventurous in Europe. I felt like a different person! My community seemed less unique after traveling abroad. After traveling to Israel I returned home with the feeling that nothing in my home had any purpose/meaning/feeling. All I wanted was to return to Israel with no possessions at all but [with] time to discover, read, learn, and to understand history, people. [Another time] I returned home with an extra appreciation of my home as regards its comfort and the special feeling when there because of the things that are there that are a reflection of me and of my life. Fish don’t know water until they’re out of water. Every time I’ve left the country I return to America seeing it differently. I always look at the people on returning home. How they speak, how they dress, what are their attitudes and how that compares to the environment I was previously in. It can be quite a shock, especially returning to the U.S. and dealing with people that are not quite as aware of the world as you.

157

I found that home compared unfavorably with the place I had visited, both in terms of surroundings and people. Upon returning to the U.S. from Germany I felt there was a tremendous amount of “noise” dealing with consumerism—billboards all over, stores open 24x7, ads, ads, ads. I spend time in the poorest communities in the world. When I come home … I am always overwhelmed with how much we have as Americans. For weeks after my return from a trip I don’t spend much money because I realize there is really nothing I need to buy, only things I want to buy. The world is both large and small, and it sometimes feels like time stands still back home. There is a comfort zone.

6. What college experience/event had the greatest impact on your life?

This survey item was an attempt to determine just how much influence study

abroad had on students as compared to all their other college activities, and also to

identify the nature of these influences. A very broad interpretation might indicate what

college experience had the strongest impact on their choice of vocations since five-year-

out graduates are in that stage where careers are one of the most important issues in their

lives. The categories that evolved were A = activities/athletics, E = education, P =

people, R = responsibility/confidence, and S = study abroad.

Significant differences existed between the SA/NA groups, χ2(4, N = 115) =

34.310, p < .0005, and also within gender. For females χ2(4, N = 77) = 24.591, p <

.0005, and for males LR χ2(4, N = 38) = 11.722, p < .05. For the matched-pairs groups,

the results were similar. There was significant difference between the SA/NA groups,

χ2(4, N = 46) = 23.597, p < .0005, and within gender. For females χ2(4, N = 28) =

14.503, p < .01, and for males χ2(4, N = 18) = 9.900, p < .05 (See Table 4.10).

158

Table 4.10 Greatest College Impact Analysis

LEGEND. (11 participants did not answer the question). Impact: A = activities/sports, E = education, P = people, R = responsibility/confidence, S = study

abroad

All Participants:

IMPACT * N_OR_S Crosstabulation

4 5 910.3% 6.6% 7.8%

11 7 1828.2% 9.2% 15.7%

14 16 3035.9% 21.1% 26.1%

10 7 1725.6% 9.2% 14.8%

41 4153.9% 35.7%

39 76 115100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

A

E

P

R

S

IMPACT

Total

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

34.310a 4 .00046.393 4 .000

115

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

1 cells (10.0%) have expected count less than 5. Theminimum expected count is 3.05.

a.

159

IMPACT * N_OR_S * GENDER Crosstabulation

1 3 45.0% 5.3% 5.2%

8 5 1340.0% 8.8% 16.9%

6 10 1630.0% 17.5% 20.8%

5 5 1025.0% 8.8% 13.0%

34 3459.6% 44.2%

20 57 77100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

3 2 515.8% 10.5% 13.2%

3 2 515.8% 10.5% 13.2%

8 6 1442.1% 31.6% 36.8%

5 2 726.3% 10.5% 18.4%

7 736.8% 18.4%

19 19 38100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

A

E

P

R

S

IMPACT

Total

A

E

P

R

S

IMPACT

Total

GENDERF

M

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

24.591a 4 .00031.354 4 .000

778.971b 4 .062

11.722 4 .02038

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid CasesPearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

GENDERF

M

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

5 cells (50.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is 1.04.

a.

8 cells (80.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is 2.50.

b.

160

Matched Pairs:

IMPACT * N_OR_S Crosstabulation

2 3 58.7% 13.0% 10.9%

5 3 821.7% 13.0% 17.4%

11 2 1347.8% 8.7% 28.3%

5 1 621.7% 4.3% 13.0%

14 1460.9% 30.4%

23 23 46100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

A

E

P

R

S

IMPACT

Total

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

23.597a 4 .00029.885 4 .000

46

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

6 cells (60.0%) have expected count less than 5. Theminimum expected count is 2.50.

a.

161

IMPACT * N_OR_S * GENDER Crosstabulation

1 1 27.7% 6.7% 7.1%

4 2 630.8% 13.3% 21.4%

6 1 746.2% 6.7% 25.0%

2 1 315.4% 6.7% 10.7%

10 1066.7% 35.7%

13 15 28100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

1 2 310.0% 25.0% 16.7%

1 1 210.0% 12.5% 11.1%

5 1 650.0% 12.5% 33.3%

3 330.0% 16.7%

4 450.0% 22.2%

10 8 18100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Count% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_SCount% within N_OR_S

A

E

P

R

S

IMPACT

Total

A

E

P

R

S

IMPACT

Total

GENDERF

M

N SN_OR_S

Total

Chi-Square Tests

14.503a 4 .00618.702 4 .001

289.900b 4 .042

12.732 4 .01318

Pearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid CasesPearson Chi-SquareLikelihood RatioN of Valid Cases

GENDERF

M

Value dfAsymp. Sig.

(2-sided)

9 cells (90.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is .93.

a.

10 cells (100.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimumexpected count is .89.

b.

For the SA group fully 53.9% said that the study abroad program was the greatest

influence in their college years. This is an important statistic, since this selection was not

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prompted by the survey but was a spontaneous choice. Education was a much stronger

choice for the NA group (28.2%) compared to the SA group (9.2%). Gain in

responsibility and confidence was also stronger for the NAs at 25.6% compared to 9.2%

for the SAs. This statistic may be misleading because only one choice was allowed, but

for those students who did not travel abroad the increase in confidence may be related to

their first experience living away from home. Future survey items might include a

request for the three most important influences and have them rated by importance.

Across gender the balance between SA and NA scores paralleled the total scores,

but a few responses were interesting. For males, activities and athletics were stronger

influences than for females (13.2% compared to 5.2%). Surprisingly, males felt that

meeting people (36.8%) was more important than females did (20.6%), whereas females

valued education more (16.9% compared to 13.2%). This fact is interesting when one

contemplates the methods used to gain promotions in the employment sector. Often

advancement is not the result of the knowledge employees gain or possess but who they

network with. This trend toward the “old boys network” for males seems to be already

established in the college years.

Between gender, the SA female participants chose study abroad as the most

important influence in their college years more than the male SAs (59.6% for females

compared to 36.8% for males). It is difficult to know whether our own cultural

differences in restricting females more than males from life experiences may have

influenced this reaction. Although our society strives toward equality of the sexes there

remain strong, albeit sometimes hidden, inclinations toward sheltering females and

restricting nontraditional interests and achievements. The study abroad experience may

have been the first time the females felt independent of the social bonds of the home

culture. The following anecdotal comments related to the greatest impact in college were

received from participants:

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Study abroad. Anybody can take classes but not everyone gets the chance to experience life from a different set of eyes. Reading Great Books. It has made me a well-rounded person. Road trips with my friends. Just the bonding experience and feeling independent. Travel. My first excursion into foreign countries was on a student trip to Asia. It was a revelation to me how fascinating the world at large was and ignited my passion for travel to foreign countries. The trip opened the door to the world and it was then up to me to find a way to continue stepping through into new opportunities. Getting my diploma. College changed the way I think about problems and encouraged a desire for knowledge. Traveling abroad. I learned to let go of the dependence of my parents and others and do things on my own without anyone around to help if I needed it. I learned to make decisions and to handle bad situations on my own. Meeting certain people had a profound impact on me. I now fully understand that people are capable of changing their lives for the better. Playing college baseball. It was irreplaceable. Traveling, playing, interacting closely with teammates. Being sponsored by a professor during a summer internship. This gave me the opportunity to know the professor (whom I considered an influential mentor), and I ended up working for him on several interesting research projects. The time I spent abroad had the greatest impact on me. This year had me reevaluate so many things in my life. I began to appreciate everything on a fuller level. I realized I had become so muddled in my thinking. The U.S. places such an emphasis on money, material things, etc. In time, I realized this isn’t a U.S. issue, it is simply a universal issue that one can either embrace or ignore. Through my time abroad I was given perspective.

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Integration and Synthesis of Data

This study explored how and why travel and study abroad affect personal growth

and career consolidation, and whether adapting to a new culture emulates earlier stages of

psychological development through positive regression. The participants consisted of

126 college alumni, five or more years after graduation. Participants included 78 alumni

who attended a study abroad program and 48 alumni who had not.

A total of 10 personality traits, 4 temperaments, 16 vocational types, and 4 self-

awareness and regression traits were measured and analyzed using the statistical

procedures of two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and chi-square (χ2). Although

many studies on students have shown that autonomy increases with a study abroad

experience, this study comparing study abroad alumni with those who did not attend a

study abroad program did not show any significant differences in autonomy.

Personality traits were quantitatively analyzed using numeric scores and none

were significant between the study abroad and non-study abroad participants. Qualitative

analysis of absolute scores showed one significant trait pair difference between the two

groups, that of judging/perceiving. This trait pair deals with time allocation and making

and keeping schedules. The study abroad alumni were more likely to modify schedules

when circumstances dictated they do so and were also more balanced between using

either reaction depending on the circumstances. This significant difference was also

observed between the matched-pairs groups.

The four temperament types defined by Myers are indications of attitude,

communication style, and behavior in the workplace—not specific vocations. It was

expected, and confirmed, that no significant differences existed in temperament between

all the grouped participants. This clarifies that temperament was not a deciding factor in

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choosing to attend a study abroad program for this participant group and should not be

used as a measure of potential success in such a program.

Comparing participant demographics by occupation category showed a significant

difference between female participants. Female study abroad subjects were more

represented in creative arts and service-oriented vocations and less represented in

individual-oriented and business-centered jobs than their female non-study abroad

counterparts. There were no occupational differences between the male participants, or

between the matched pairs groups.

Of the sixteen MBTI vocational types 38 of the participants (30%) had equal

scores on at least one trait pair. The numeric score differences for the remaining 88 study

abroad and non-study abroad participants were not significant. Comparing descriptive

trends, only one category was absent from the study abroad group, that of INTP -

Architect; whereas five were missing from the non-study abroad group: ENFJ-Teacher,

ENTP - Inventor, ISFP - Composer, INTP - Architect and ISTP - Crafter. The study

abroad program may attract people with more varied interests or help to expand

vocational interests and choices.

Four complex behavior patterns were measured using open-ended survey

questions and qualitative analysis. These included: self-awareness, world-mindedness,

positive regression, and career consolidation. Six open-ended questions centered on the

themes of representative activities, culture shock, life goals, regression/child-like

feelings, cultural perception/reentry, and college influences. Regression was measured

by the experience of culture shock and childlike feelings; world-mindedness was

measured by home reentry reactions. Career consolidation was measured by having life

goals, a representative activity, and the impact of college. Self-awareness was measured

by impact of college and having an activity that reflected the participant’s personality.

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Experiencing culture shock was significantly higher for study abroad groups than

non-study abroad groups. The triggers in order of the highest causes first were travel,

domestic moves, social changes at home, followed by work. Those who had traveled to

other cultures found the occupational environment and corporate culture to be less

stressful than those who had not. Males from the study abroad program found domestic

moves less stressful than females did. Study abroad participants experienced childhood

(regressive) feelings more often. They were more likely to have thoughts of helplessness

or anger (not necessarily actions), were less emotional, and were more willing to perceive

and accept the reality of challenges.

World-mindedness was measured by reentry reactions to international or domestic

travel or moves. More study abroad participants said that travel gave them a greater

appreciation for their home culture, but they also saw their culture as being too

materialistic upon return.

Although there were no statistical differences between the study abroad and non-

study abroad participants in terms of having an activity that reflected their personality,

significant differences were revealed in life goals. Helping others was more important

for study abroad participants, while interest in earning money was less important than it

was for non-study abroad participants.

When responding to what experience had the greatest impact at college, over half

of the study abroad participants mentioned their foreign travel experience. For non-study

abroad participants across gender, males felt that meeting people was more important

whereas females valued education more highly. Study abroad participants also expressed

an interest in “living life to the fullest,” whereas none of the participants in the non-study

abroad group submitted this response.

Anecdotal comments were used in the subjective evaluation of responses, and

noted throughout each section. One example was very insightful: “The U.S. places such

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an emphasis on money, material things, etc. In time, I realized this isn’t a U.S. issue, it is

simply a universal issue that one can either embrace or ignore. Through my time abroad

I was given perspective.”

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CHAPTER 5.

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this study was to explore the psychology of travel—to review

theoretical concepts; measure individual traits concerning how and why travel and study

abroad affect personal growth and career consolidation; and investigate whether adapting

to a new culture emulates earlier stages of psychological development through positive

regression. Specific research questions within this problem were as follows:

• What personal transformation occurs (or is perceived to occur) through travel and study abroad?

• How does study abroad influence life goals and career choice?

• Can adult cultural adaptation be explained in terms of positive regression to earlier developmental stages of psychological adjustment?

The theories of developmental psychology help to define how people acquire new

behavioral skills as they pass through stages of growth. Certain conceptual frameworks

define transformative learning that involves a substantive, qualitative shift in perception.

There is a strong link between this shift and learning. Experiencing the diversity of other

cultures allows people to perceive alternate forms of behavior and cognition, and to

question their own beliefs and attitudes through a multitude of factors that utilize all the

senses. Travelers experience something far beyond acquisition of new subject matter or

cultural awareness—they undergo a kind of personal paradigm shift. Travel can alter

their perception of themselves and their world in such a way as to clarify areas of their

lives that were previously unclear.

Many research projects have helped to identify the impact a study abroad program

has on students, but few have expanded this to determine the lasting effects of travel on

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personality and career choice. This retrospective study measured survey responses from

126 college alumni five or more years after graduation, some who had participated in a

study abroad program and some who had not. Various hypotheses related to

developmental psychology, positive regression, cultural adaptation, career consolidation,

and the long-term effects of international travel and study were presented. Both

quantitative and qualitative statistical analyses were used to analyze survey responses.

Of particular note were the basic trait differences between gender. Study abroad

research must take into account culture-oriented restrictions, behavior, and environments

that are clearly different for males and females. Results showed differences between the

participant groups in methods of time allocation, the experience of culture shock,

reactions in regressive/stressful situations, vocational goals, and the activity that had the

greatest impact during the college years.

Limitations

This study was retrospective in nature. That is, self-reported data were collected

to test etiologic hypotheses about events that have already happened in which inferences

to putative causal factors or trends may be derived. Thus, it was not a directly controlled

experimental “cause-and-effect” relationship study design. To help enhance the value of

the results a third matched-pairs sample group was used as an additional comparison

group. Although longitudinal studies with data collected over time are generally used to

establish cause-and-effect relationships, it is also possible to conceptualize the

reconstruction of events through introspection and self-reporting. This represents a type

of “quasi-longitudinal” account of the participant’s perceptions. Reports from the past

can be very insightful when seen in the context of what currently holds meaning. But, it

is important to remember that retrospective research relies heavily on self-perception and

subjective judgment about what has already happened.

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The participants were 126 college graduates, from five years or more after

graduation. Participants of one group had participated in a study abroad program and the

other group had not. The results may not reflect the reactions and responses of the

general college alumni population and should be considered in relation to representative

college experiences. There is a potential tendency to alter behavior when being assessed;

thus, some responses could vary from the actual events that occurred.

Summary of Findings and Relationship to Literature

This research project explored the psychology of travel and how study abroad and

positive regression affects personal growth. Both mailed and on-line Internet surveys

were used that consisted of questions on demographics information, dual-choice

personality trait items, and open-ended questions related to behavior and perception. The

Keirsey Temperament Sorter (KTS II) was selected to test personality traits due to its

popular use, shorter number of items, ease of scoring, and availability (Keirsey, 1998). It

is a simplified “introductory” self-scoring version of the MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type

Indicator)—a personality test based on the psychological theories of Carl Jung. Although

not formally validated, Berens (1996) stated that the KTS correlated at an acceptable

level with the MBTI.

The KTS evaluates differences in personal style in four areas: (1) interacting with

others (extrovert versus introvert), (2) understanding the world (sensing/viewing versus

intuition), (3) making decisions (thinking versus feeling), and (4) time allocation

(perceiving versus judging/scheduled).

As was predicted there were no significant differences in quantitative

temperament scores between the non-study abroad (NA) and study abroad group (SA)

groups. Kennedy (1994) concurred that one’s personality type was not related to

transformative growth. Analyzing the 10 personality traits with qualitative statistics

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revealed one trait pair, judging/perceiving (time allocation), as significantly different.

The study abroad (SA) alumni were more likely to change schedules, or use more

balanced reactions when circumstances dictated they do so, than their counterparts in the

non-study abroad (NA) group. This coincides with the results by Swinger (1985), who

noted increased personal flexibility as a benefit of travel.

Of interest were the differences found in basic personality traits between the

female and male participants. Only one research project in the review of literature

included analysis between gender (Thomlison, 1991), but it stands to reason that different

cultures provide very different experiences to travelers based on diverse concepts of

appropriate gender behavior and opportunity. Research on the influence of travel on

personal growth should therefore include within-gender analysis.

Many studies on students have shown that autonomy increases within a study

abroad environment (Hutchins, 1996; Kauffmann, 1983; Nash, 1975), but that was not

corroborated in this study of alumni. Males from the study abroad program reported that

domestic moves were easier and less stressful than was reported by females.

Having experienced culture shock was significantly higher for study abroad than

non-study abroad groups. This factor was used as an indicator of developmental positive

regression. The study abroad groups listed travel as the greatest cause of culture shock

followed by domestic moves, social changes, and then work. Those with travel

experience within other cultures found the occupational environment and corporate

culture to be less stressful than those who had not traveled abroad. Thus, there is a

stronger ability to adapt to new environments for the study abroad participants, which is

corroborated in the literature (Gurman, 1990; Kauffmann, 1983; Thomlison, 1991).

Study abroad participants experienced childhood (regressive) feelings more often.

They were more likely to have thoughts of helplessness or anger (not necessarily

actions), were less emotional, and were more willing to perceive and accept the reality of

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challenges. The reaction of anger to a new environment has frequently been noted as one

of the “stages of acculturation” that people go through when faced with extreme

differences in culture (Adler, 1975). Adler listed this reaction in his second phase of the

stages of culture shock, disintegration, but he was quick to point out that this frustration

is sometimes necessary to stimulate or trigger personal development.

Significant differences were seen in life goals. Interest in earning money was less

important for study abroad participants than for non-study abroad participants. Pfnister

(1979, as cited in Kauffmann, 1983) also noted a decreased interest in material

possessions. More study abroad participants said that travel gave them a greater

appreciation for their home culture, but they also saw their culture as being too

materialistic upon return.

World-mindedness was measured by the reactions to international or domestic

travel reentry or moves. Other researchers have noted that after travel abroad the home

culture is seen in greater bipolar extremes: both smaller and more naïve, but containing

more value and with more appreciative aspects (Bates, 1998; Gwynne, 1981; Richardson,

1996). This dual reaction was also noted in the anecdotal comments of this study. One

participant in particular described feelings of euphoria in the new culture and never

wanting to return home, along with an increased appreciation for all that the home culture

offered and represented. Greater world-mindedness seems to incorporate both

viewpoints.

Vocational choice and goals were partially measured by what experience had the

greatest impact at college. Over half of the study abroad participants stated that this

program was definitely the most significant experience. For non-study abroad

participants, males felt that meeting people was more important, whereas females valued

education more highly. This reflects an interesting difference related to corporate

culture. Many promotions are based on networking or the “old boy network.” The idea

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that women can advance in the business world by working hard and learning more about

their vocations must be balanced by the need to build social connections with colleagues.

Strong personal bonds are important to advancement in the corporate world, and this

concept is apparently already well established in males by the college years. Women

who studied abroad showed a much higher interest in service-oriented jobs and the arts

compared to those who did not travel internationally. Previous study abroad research

projects have corroborated that study abroad does have an impact on career goals

(Hutchins, 1996; Nafziger, 1996; Wallace, 1999) and enhanced career opportunities

(Swinger, 1985).

Recommendations

When pretravel training sessions are implemented for study abroad participants, it

is very important to balance the extent of training with the need to retain some unknown

surprise elements in the experience that serve as “learning triggers.” Bowlby’s theory

explains the psychoanalytic concept of a person’s early experiences and later socio-

emotional functioning, but it also points out how important it is for some stress or anxiety

to be present in order for transformative learning to take place (Adler, 1975; Dabrowski,

1964; Erikson, 1964). Instead of extensive pretravel training to reduce culture shock and

anxiety, it might be more effective to provide a secure place abroad where the sojourner

could return when new situations became overwhelming—a sort of moving “safety net”

with a protective figure and physical haven close by for assistance. For stressful life

stages Cantalupo (1987) suggested that providing continuous background support is more

successful than direct confrontation, especially for teenagers during times of anxiety

caused by increasing awareness of personal limitations. This concept is similar to recent

methods outlined by McGuire (2000) for treating schizophrenic patients, whereby

establishing a safe place for stress reduction is more effective than “treating” the

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symptoms with drugs or interference. Weaver (1994) even suggested that culture shock

might be a temporary form of schizophrenia! Further research on the balance between

degree of pretravel training versus having minimal training with a continuously available

safe location abroad needs to be explored, especially in light of the need for some degree

of tension to stimulate personal growth.

One of the most quoted passages from Alice in Wonderland is that of the Cheshire

Cat advising Alice that if she does not know where she is going, then “it doesn’t matter

which way you go” (Gardner, 1993, p. 88). This seems funny to the reader because

people should know what they want, but in reality many people do not know, and they

have not had opportunities to explore options. During career counseling a frequently

asked question is, “What should I do?” Written assessments like the KTS-II and MBTI

can offer some direction for career choice based on personality traits. But experience

through travel and living within another culture opens many new and unique

opportunities for exploring self-awareness and vocational direction, while increasing a

traveler’s global knowledge, value in the workforce, and self-reliance. Further research

into the process of travel/study abroad and its impact on personal growth is

recommended.

It has been stated that people have one view of the world that is continuously

modified based on their experiences (Parin, 1980; Kopp, 1983). Hong (2000) has

described a dynamic constructivist approach to perception that allows individuals to

retain multiple and seemingly conflicting cognitive patterns of behavior. In this model,

people who have been exposed to two or more cultures are triggered to react differently

depending on the type of stimulus. In other words, absorbing the concepts of a new

culture does not always replace the ideas of the original culture, even when the cultural

rules collide. Instead, one can retain multiple ideas and forms of behavior to be used

when resolving issues within diverse situations.

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Although much of the literature states that travel abroad affects personal growth

and career choice (see Table 2.1), very few researchers have attempted to explain why.

Further research combining the concepts of positive regression, travel, culture shock, and

developmental psychology will help to understand and design study abroad programs that

are more effective in triggering personal growth and self-awareness, while

simultaneously increasing academic and cultural knowledge.

Conclusions

With the dawning of the twenty-first century, positive psychology is emerging as a

field in its own right. This specialty encompasses the science of positive subjective

experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions that strive to improve the

quality of life for everyone. The positive emphasis is in direct contrast to the dominant

psychological focus in the past that has stressed negative pathology. People should be

assisted and trained in methods that identify and nurture their strongest qualities and

skills and find paths in which they can utilize these strengths.

The “Grand Tour” of the past is one avenue of self-exploration. This should be

reinstated—as more than just a tourist trip to many countries and more than a fully

supervised academic semester living abroad. Some planning and preparation will

enhance the effects of such a trip, but overtraining can actually reduce the benefits of the

experience. In addition, just being abroad without plans will have some positive effect

on personal awareness and growth.

It is hoped that the identification of differences in personality, self-awareness,

vocational goals, positive regression, and cross-cultural adaptation revealed in this

research project will assist persons who are contemplating a study abroad program.

Knowledge of the potential personal benefits gained beyond those achieved in the

academic, educational, and political arenas are important in making this choice. Travel

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and study abroad provide excellent situations for seeing ourselves more clearly, both

inwardly and from afar, in new environments with new challenges, and better

understanding who we are and who we want to become. Pico Iyer (1998) summarized

this concept: So at heart, travel is just a quick way of keeping our minds mobile and awake. . . . Romantic poets inaugurated an era of travel because they were the great apostles of open eyes. Buddhist monks are often vagabonds, in part because they believe in wakefulness. And if travel is like love, it is, in the end, mostly because it’s a heightened state of awareness, in which we are mindful, receptive, undimmed by familiarity and ready to be transformed. (p. 55)

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APPENDICES

Appendix A. U.S. Population: Temperament, Traits, and Vocational Type

As cited in Please Understand Me II (Keirsey, 1998).

Temperament NF NT SJ SP Idealists Rationals Guardians Artisans

Percent 12% 12% 38% 38%

Trait Definition Percent

E Extroversion (expressive) 75% I Introversion (reserved) 25% S Sensing (observant) 75% N Intuitive (introspective) 25% T Thinking (objective) 50% F Feeling (sympathetic) 50% J Judging (scheduled) 55% P Perceiving (probing) 45%

Type Definition Percent ENFJ Teacher 5% ENFP Champion 5% ENTJ Field Marshal 5% ENTP Inventor 5% ESFJ Provider 13% ESFP Performer 13% ESTJ Supervisor 13% ESTP Promoter 13% INFJ Counselor 1% INFP Healer 1% INTJ Mastermind 1% INTP Architect 1% ISFJ Protector 6% ISFP Composer 6% ISTJ Inspector 6% ISTP Crafter 6%

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Appendix B. Letter of Consent, Instruction, and Rationale for Study

Dear Alumnus: Self-knowledge and global awareness are increasingly important to personal and career success. A research project is being conducted to help us understand how such awareness is best acquired. It is not necessary to have traveled outside of the United States to participate, because such information can be obtained through the media, assessments, library research, and education. You were randomly selected as part of a relatively small group of alumni to participate in this study. Your opinion is extremely important to define a complete picture of the process for enhancing personal growth and awareness. In appreciation for your participation you will receive a printed Career Assessment Report based on your responses. This will assist you in exploring career options. We would be very grateful if you can take a few minutes to complete the survey. A postage-paid return envelope is enclosed. If you prefer to respond on-line via the Internet, you will find the survey at www.university.edu/research/, but this cover letter should be faxed or mailed back with your signature for verification purposes. Your individual data will be kept completely confidential, and your name will be encoded to maintain anonymity during the analysis of the results. Your signature below indicates that you understand the research procedures and that this process is entirely voluntary. If you have any questions regarding this study, please contact us by phone, fax, or e-mail as indicated in the header above, weekdays from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. I look forward to your participation and providing you a personal Career Assessment Report. Sincerely,

(Researcher Name and Signature)

Participant Signature: ______________________ Date: ___________________

E-mail: __________________________ Telephone: ______________________

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Appendix C. Personality Career Inventory (PCI)

Demographic Information Please fill out the information below. This data will not be stored with your survey responses but will be encoded to maintain anonymity. This will assist in the evaluation of the overall results from participants. Name: _____________________________ Graduation Year: ____________ Occupation: _________________________ Circle one: Female/Male Address: _______________________________________________________ Telephone: ______________________________ Email: __________________________________ Country of Citizenship: _____________________________ Primary Language: _________________________________ List any foreign languages and indicate knowledge level with the codes below: 1 = grammar, 2 = reading, 3 = speaking, 4 = business fluent, 5 = fluent (Sample: French - 3)

Language Level

List any trips outside of the United States (use back of sheet if needed): Reason is a code as follows: VAC = vacation, BUS = business, EDU = education, OTH = other, Group = the number of persons traveling, include yourself.

Country Duration Year Group Reason Comments

Have you ever taken a career assessment survey before? If so, what and where? If yes above, did the career assessment assist in determining your employment goals?

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Situation Statements Responses are: T = True, F = False

1. Usually I prefer known ways of doing things rather than trying out new ways.

2. Society puts too much restraint on the individual.

3. More than anything else, it is good, hard work that makes life worthwhile.

4. The unfinished and the imperfect often have greater appeal for me than the completed and the polished.

5. I dislike following a set schedule.

6. People ought to be satisfied with what they have.

7. In most ways the poor man is better off than the rich man.

8. I have been quite independent and free from family rule.

9. I don’t like things to be uncertain and unpredictable.

10. I like to go alone to visit new and strange places.

11. One of the most important things children should learn is when to disobey authorities.

12. I often find myself listening without hearing.

13. I like to fool around with new ideas, even if they turn out later to have been a total waste of time.

14. I sometimes feel that I am several persons rather than just one.

15. Science has its place, but there are many important things that can never possibly be understood by the human mind.

16. It doesn’t bother me when things are uncertain and unpredictable.

17. For most questions there is just one right answer, once a person is able to get all the facts.

18. It is better never to expect much; then you are rarely disappointed.

19. If you start trying to change things very much you usually make them worse.

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20. Many of my friends would probably be considered unconventional by other people.

21. I find it difficult to give up ideas and opinions that I hold.

22. I have been inspired to a way of life based on duty, which I have carefully followed.

23. I believe it is a responsibility of intelligent leadership to maintain the established order of things.

24. I dislike having others deliberate and hesitate before acting.

25. I find that a well-ordered mode of life with regular hours is not congenial to my temperament.

26. I don’t like to undertake any project unless I have a pretty good idea how it will turn out.

Open Questions: Please answer the following questions. If they do not apply to you, simply write “N/A.” Use back of sheet if necessary.

1. Is there some activity that reflects your personality? Explain.

2. Have you ever felt culture shock? Explain.

3. Do you have a special goal or purpose in life? Explain.

4. Have you ever felt “child-like” in an adult stressful situation? Explain.

5. After traveling did your home/community appear differently? Explain.

6. What college experience/event had the greatest impact on your life?

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Appendix D. Assessment Utilization Request Form

OMNIBUS PERSONALITY INVENTORY (OPI)

Assessment Utilization Request Form In using portions of the Omnibus Personality Inventory (OPI) I agree to the following terms/conditions: 1. I understand that the OPI was formerly copyrighted by Paul Heist, Ph.D., George Yonge,

Ph.D., and THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CORPORATION, New York, NY. 2. I am a professional trained in psychology having completed university graduate courses in

multicultural issues, counseling theories, developmental psychology, psychometrics, and research ethics.

3. In using subsets of the OPI, all ethical standards of the American Psychological Association

and/or related professional organizations will be adhered to. Furthermore, I will follow the “Research With Human Subjects” guidelines put forth by my university. Ethical considerations include but are not limited to participant informed consent, confidentiality of records, adequate pre- and debriefing of participants, and participant opportunity to review a concise written summary of the study’s purpose, method, results, and implications.

4. Consistent with accepted professional practice, I will save and protect my raw data for a

minimum of five years; and if requested I will make the raw data available to The Psychological Corporation (which is ethically responsible to monitor developments on the instrument in terms of utility, reliability, and validity), and to other professional scholars researching the ethical constructs of this instrument.

5. I will send a notification of availability of the research results to The Psychological

Corporation, New York, regardless of whether the study is published, presented, or fully completed.

Signature: _________________________ Date: _________________________ Name: ______________________________________ Address: _____________________________________ Phone: ______________________________________ E-mail: ______________________________________

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Appendix E. The Keirsey Temperament Sorter II (KTS)

The Keirsey Temperament Sorter II is a self-report personality inventory that

consists of 70 dual-choice statements in which participants select one response (Keirsey,

1998). An assessment is generated that is similar to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

assessment. There are 16 possible combined personality roles based on four

combinations of preferences. Participants might agree with both the options in the

statement, so they are requested to select the one response they agree with most. At least

25 questions must be answered in order for the results to have any significant meaning.

In addition, there are four major character temperament indicators, developed

from the S/N major score, and a minor trait. These reflect the personality type and

method of intelligence that is favored, as follows: NF = Idealists, NT = Rationals, SJ = Guardians, SP = Artisans, where:

NF = Diplomatic Intelligence, NT = Strategic Intelligence,

SJ = Logistical Intelligence, SP = Tactical Intelligence

Appendix F. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a self-report personality inventory

designed to provide information about Jungian psychological type preferences (Keirsey,

1998). Isabel Briggs Myers and Katherine Cook Briggs began developing the MBTI in

the early 1940s in order to apply C. G. Jung’s theory of human personality to experiences

in everyday life. MBTI results indicate the respondent’s likely preferences on four paired

dimensions:

• Extroversion (E) / Introversion (I)

• Sensing (S) / Intuition (N)

184

• Thinking (T) / Feeling (F)

• Judging (J) / Perceiving (P)

Results on the Indicator are generally reported with letters representing each of

the preferences. There are 16 possible ways to combine the preferences, resulting in

types:

• ENFP, Champion

• ENFJ, Teacher

• ENTP, Inventor

• ENTJ, Field marshal

• ESFP, Performer

• ESFJ, Provider

• ESTP, Promoter

• ESTJ, Supervisor

• INFJ, Counselor

• INFP, Healer

• INTJ, Mastermind

• INTP, Architect

• ISFJ, Protector

• ISFP, Composer

• ISTJ, Inspector

• ISTP, Crafter

Though many factors influence an individual’s behavior, values, and attitudes, the

four-letter descriptions summarize roles underlying patterns and behaviors common to

most people of that type (Keirsey, 1998).

185

Appendix G. Demographics/Scores

Table G.1 Participant Occupations

LEGEND. NAF = non-study abroad female, NAM = non-study abroad male, SAF = study abroad female,

SAM = study abroad male. Jobs have been classified into five categories: B = Business Administration, E = External-

oriented, I = Introspective, S = Service-oriented, A = Creative Arts

Code OCCUPATION CATEGORY NAF1 Compensation Manager I NAF2 Marketing E NAF3 Education Franchise S NAF4 Leasing E NAF5 Financial Services I NAF6 Lawyer E NAF7 Health Products S NAF8 Entertainment - Producer A NAF9 Engineer I NAF10 Telecommunications I NAF11 Project Manager B NAF12 Financial Services I NAF13 Business Administration B NAF14 Information Technology I NAF15 Marketing E NAF16 Controller I NAF17 Sales & Marketing E NAF18 Product Development I NAF19 TV Production A NAF20 Financial Services I NAF21 Telecommunications E NAF22 Church Director S NAF23 Financial Manager I NAF24 Mortgage Analyst I NAF25 Operations Manager B NAM1 Customer Service S NAM2 Writer A NAM3 Financial Analyst I NAM4 Intl. Sales and Marketing E NAM5 Financial Analyst I NAM6 Engineer I NAM7 Project Manager B NAM8 Business Manager B NAM9 Sports E

186

NAM10 Technology I NAM11 Engineer I NAM12 Mortgage Analyst I NAM13 Sales E NAM14 Sales Training E NAM15 Artist A NAM16 Utilities S NAM17 Manufacturing B NAM18 Information Technology I NAM19 Lawyer E NAM20 Executive Recruiter S NAM21 Systems Analyst I NAM22 Marketing E NAM23 Financial Consultant I SAF1 Teacher S SAF2 Technology Product Manager B SAF3 Teacher S SAF4 Teacher S SAF5 Law E SAF6 Health Care S SAF7 Advertising A SAF8 Administrator B SAF9 Financial Services I SAF10 Teacher S SAF11 Software I SAF12 Education S SAF13 Financial Services I SAF14 Contract Administrator B SAF15 Technical Writer A SAF16 Systems Analyst I SAF17 Systems Analyst I SAF18 Teacher S SAF19 Graphic Artist A SAF20 Medical Assistant S SAF21 Product Development B SAF22 Web Technology I SAF23 Sales E SAF24 Accountant I SAF25 Financial Systems I SAF26 Homemaker S SAF27 Teacher S SAF28 College Faculty S SAF29 Writer/Artist A SAF30 Bank Automation I SAF31 Rental Agency E SAF32 Editor A SAF33 Public Relations E

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SAF34 Advertising A SAF35 Teacher S SAF36 Physician S SAF37 City Management S SAF38 Physical Therapy S SAF39 Psychology grad school S SAF40 Sales E SAF41 Minister S SAF42 Sales E SAF43 Technology Consultant B SAF44 Public Relations E SAF45 Broadcasting E SAF46 Interior Design A SAF47 Health Care Products S SAF48 Social Worker S SAF49 Sales & Marketing E SAF50 Legal Administrator B SAF51 Vocational Counselor S SAF52 Leasing Agent E SAF53 Consultant B SAF54 Teacher S SAF55 International Trade E SAF56 Financial Services I SAF57 Travel Industry E SAF58 Govt. Offices S SAF59 Music Business A SAM1 Financial Consultant I SAM2 Sales E SAM3 Marketing E SAM4 Theatre Manager A SAM5 Intl. Business Consultant B SAM6 Video Editor A SAM7 Aerospace I SAM8 Engineer I SAM9 Business Management B SAM10 Account Manager E SAM11 Business Management B SAM12 Sales E SAM13 Teacher S SAM14 Project Manager B SAM15 College Staff S SAM16 Financial Officer I SAM17 Retailing E SAM18 Marketing E SAM19 Medical Supplier S

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Table G.2 Participant Quantitative Scores

Code MatchPr Autny Cmpx E I S N T F J PNAF1 8 9 3 7 10 10 14 6 15 5NAF2 20 9 6 8 2 14 6 11 9 13 7NAF3 16 10 7 3 7 10 10 6 14 8 12NAF4 5 3 3 7 15 5 17 3 19 1NAF5 17 5 6 7 3 13 7 9 11 16 4NAF6 2 11 6 9 1 15 5 11 8 18 2NAF7 8 11 2 8 7 13 3 17 11 9NAF8 7 7 11 0 10 3 17 3 17 8 12NAF9 10 9 5 5 14 6 3 17 6 14NAF10 25 12 4 7 3 14 6 10 10 14 6NAF11 21 10 7 6 4 14 6 11 9 17 3NAF12 4 10 10 1 9 11 9 16 4 11 9NAF13 1 10 9 5 5 8 12 3 17 13 7NAF14 9 9 3 2 8 14 6 11 9 17 3NAF15 5 5 3 7 11 9 11 9 14 6NAF16 24 7 2 7 3 17 3 12 8 20 0NAF17 22 6 3 2 8 15 5 13 6 18 2NAF18 18 10 6 2 8 15 5 10 10 15 5NAF19 6 5 6 1 9 10 10 5 15 13 7NAF20 8 9 10 5 5 1 19 1 19 4 16NAF21 19 5 9 8 2 12 8 10 10 13 7NAF22 5 5 5 5 5 11 9 9 11 16 4NAF23 5 2 8 2 14 6 10 10 16 4NAF24 9 10 3 7 8 12 7 13 13 7NAF25 3 5 5 3 7 17 3 5 15 13 7NAM1 7 7 9 1 13 7 2 18 14 6NAM2 29 9 10 3 7 6 14 15 5 13 7NAM3 7 5 3 7 12 8 11 9 16 4NAM4 12 6 4 7 3 12 8 6 14 8 12NAM5 7 4 6 4 13 7 7 13 12 8NAM6 10 8 3 7 10 10 13 7 8 12NAM7 10 10 10 6 4 10 10 9 11 12 8NAM8 11 10 9 2 8 13 7 17 3 13 7NAM9 15 7 6 3 7 11 9 11 9 14 6NAM10 6 10 5 5 12 8 13 6 12 8NAM11 13 11 10 0 12 8 1 19 8 12NAM12 27 9 5 1 9 9 11 13 7 13 7NAM13 28 8 8 6 4 11 9 14 6 5 15NAM14 9 8 4 6 11 9 3 17 12 8NAM15 8 9 2 8 16 4 18 2 19 1NAM16 10 8 1 9 3 17 2 18 5 15

189

NAM17 26 8 4 9 1 2 18 3 17 9 11NAM18 14 7 10 6 4 8 12 12 8 13 7NAM19 11 12 5 5 10 10 14 6 5 15NAM20 11 3 7 3 15 5 14 6 16 4NAM21 15 10 7 5 5 16 4 8 8 13 7NAM22 13 6 8 4 6 13 7 7 13 13 7NAM23 10 11 5 5 6 14 7 13 3 17SAF1 2 6 10 7 2 9 10 4 16 11 9SAF2 10 11 1 9 8 12 8 12 14 6SAF3 7 4 8 2 15 5 10 10 16 4SAF4 9 7 4 4 7 11 5 13 7 11SAF5 8 7 0 10 7 13 10 10 9 11SAF6 21 9 10 6 4 11 9 13 7 9 11SAF7 6 4 3 7 12 8 11 9 15 5SAF8 6 4 7 3 11 9 6 14 15 5SAF9 25 9 9 7 3 4 16 3 17 8 12SAF10 4 2 8 2 17 3 15 5 19 1SAF11 10 6 7 3 10 10 10 9 15 5SAF12 7 6 8 2 10 10 1 19 15 5SAF13 6 3 3 7 9 11 5 15 16 4SAF14 18 8 9 1 9 8 12 13 7 11 9SAF15 8 7 1 9 15 5 8 12 16 4SAF16 20 9 5 4 6 14 3 11 9 14 6SAF17 10 11 7 3 12 8 11 9 7 13SAF18 7 4 0 10 10 10 19 1 13 7SAF19 9 2 6 2 13 7 5 15 19 1SAF20 7 7 3 7 6 14 2 18 10 10SAF21 7 8 6 4 12 8 8 12 14 6SAF22 4 4 8 2 14 6 7 12 18 2SAF23 23 8 8 6 4 16 4 12 8 17 3SAF24 10 7 6 2 8 6 10 8 14 5SAF25 19 7 11 6 4 13 7 13 7 16 4SAF26 9 5 4 6 10 10 9 11 12 8SAF27 6 5 3 7 12 8 3 17 15 5SAF28 8 7 8 2 13 7 8 12 15 5SAF29 7 6 5 3 7 8 3 10 9 8SAF30 23 9 9 7 3 6 14 6 14 10 10SAF31 1 11 4 1 8 14 6 13 7 17 3SAF32 9 4 3 7 12 8 6 14 13 7SAF33 10 5 9 1 12 8 15 5 18 2SAF34 8 5 5 5 13 7 4 16 14 6SAF35 8 4 3 7 12 8 1 19 12 8SAF36 2 3 9 1 12 8 3 17 7 13SAF37 7 5 7 3 16 4 13 7 17 3SAF38 16 11 4 8 2 17 3 11 9 16 4SAF39 11 6 1 9 5 15 6 14 8 12SAF40 6 8 5 5 10 10 10 10 12 8

190

SAF41 6 5 8 1 9 9 11 7 13 14 6SAF42 7 12 8 2 8 12 2 18 9 11SAF43 10 11 3 7 11 9 11 9 11 9SAF44 5 5 9 3 7 11 9 7 13 14 6SAF45 8 6 4 3 7 10 10 5 15 15 5SAF46 5 6 6 3 15 5 3 17 15 5SAF47 22 8 12 8 2 4 16 3 17 9 11SAF48 8 8 3 6 4 15 9 10 12 8SAF49 7 11 9 1 11 9 13 7 9 11SAF50 4 9 8 5 3 13 6 3 13 12 4SAF51 7 8 8 7 3 6 14 7 13 8 12SAF52 9 10 9 1 9 11 3 17 7 13SAF53 17 10 13 6 4 1 19 12 8 1 19SAF54 8 3 2 8 14 6 7 13 13 7SAF55 3 3 2 3 7 19 1 14 6 20 0SAF56 24 5 11 6 4 10 10 6 14 7 13SAF57 4 11 5 5 9 11 7 13 11 9SAF58 9 10 6 9 1 14 6 9 11 10 10SAF59 8 7 5 5 9 10 5 14 8 11SAM1 9 3 10 0 11 9 11 9 13 7SAM2 11 9 7 10 0 9 11 6 14 12 8SAM3 10 4 7 2 8 16 4 9 10 13 7SAM4 4 4 3 7 12 8 8 12 15 5SAM5 27 11 10 2 8 12 8 15 5 12 8SAM6 6 4 4 6 14 6 8 12 5 15SAM7 9 5 6 4 10 10 12 8 15 5SAM8 8 9 8 2 8 12 9 11 10 10SAM9 8 10 2 8 9 11 12 8 10 10SAM10 10 11 2 8 10 10 10 10 11 9SAM11 9 9 6 4 5 15 13 7 6 14SAM12 13 8 4 4 6 15 5 18 2 16 3SAM13 10 9 8 2 12 8 7 13 7 13SAM14 28 10 12 4 6 12 8 12 8 9 11SAM15 26 9 10 6 4 3 17 3 17 10 10SAM16 12 8 12 4 6 4 16 5 15 5 15SAM17 7 10 9 1 16 4 15 5 14 6SAM18 14 7 9 7 3 7 13 15 5 12 8SAM19 29 9 9 3 7 16 4 14 6 15 5

191

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