Normative Normative theories theories

(of the media)(of the media)An introductionAn introduction

Normative theoryNormative theory Descriptive Descriptive statements are falsifiable statements are falsifiable

statements that attempt to describe reality. statements that attempt to describe reality. By contrast, By contrast, normative normative statements affirm statements affirm

how things should or ought to be, how to how things should or ought to be, how to value them, which things are good or bad. value them, which things are good or bad.

Normative theories of the press: Ideal views Normative theories of the press: Ideal views of how journalism/ media ought to, or are of how journalism/ media ought to, or are expected to, operate – what is desirable in expected to, operate – what is desirable in relation to both structure and relation to both structure and performance): “Journalists/ journalism performance): “Journalists/ journalism should or could do this or that.” should or could do this or that.”

Structure and Structure and performanceperformance

Structure – e.g. freedom from the state, Structure – e.g. freedom from the state, multiplicity of different channels. multiplicity of different channels.

Performance – e.g. how the media carry Performance – e.g. how the media carry out their chosen or allotted informative or out their chosen or allotted informative or entertaining tasks. Conventions, genres, entertaining tasks. Conventions, genres, professional guidelines and ethical rules, professional guidelines and ethical rules, which apply to what the media do. which apply to what the media do.

Four theories of the Four theories of the presspress

The Four Theories of the PressThe Four Theories of the Press (Schramm, (Schramm, Siebert, Peterson. 1956)Siebert, Peterson. 1956)

Basic theories:Basic theories: AuthoritarianAuthoritarian Libertarian Libertarian Variations:Variations: Social responsibilitySocial responsibility Soviet communistSoviet communist

McQuail’s additionsMcQuail’s additionsAdditions (Denis McQuail. Additions (Denis McQuail. Mass Mass

Communication Theory: An IntroductionCommunication Theory: An Introduction):): DevelopmentDevelopment Democratic-participantDemocratic-participant

Authoritarian theoryAuthoritarian theory Applies to authoritarian societies, but can Applies to authoritarian societies, but can

surface in less authoritarian societies surface in less authoritarian societies (particularly in times of war, terrorism)(particularly in times of war, terrorism)

Depends on the medium – TV subject to Depends on the medium – TV subject to greater control in some countriesgreater control in some countries

Propaganda model of Chomsky and Propaganda model of Chomsky and Herman – is US media authoritarian? Herman – is US media authoritarian? (Model (Model alleges systemic biases in the mass alleges systemic biases in the mass media and seeks to explain them in terms media and seeks to explain them in terms of structural economic causes.)of structural economic causes.)

Authoritarian Authoritarian assumptionsassumptions

Press should do nothing to undermine Press should do nothing to undermine vested power and interests;vested power and interests;

Press should be subordinate to vested Press should be subordinate to vested power and authority;power and authority;

Press should avoid acting in contravention Press should avoid acting in contravention of prevailing moral and political values;of prevailing moral and political values;

Censorship justified in the application of Censorship justified in the application of these principles;these principles;

Criminalisation of editorial attacks on Criminalisation of editorial attacks on vested power, deviations from official vested power, deviations from official policy, violation of moral codes.policy, violation of moral codes.

Media as instrument/ mouthpiece to Media as instrument/ mouthpiece to publicise and propagandise government publicise and propagandise government ideology and actions. ideology and actions.

Absolute power of state versus Absolute power of state versus subservience of the individual – press subservience of the individual – press ‘freedom’ a right vested in the state.‘freedom’ a right vested in the state.

Examples: Fascist regimes, some African Examples: Fascist regimes, some African countries, communist countries? Aspects countries, communist countries? Aspects of apartheid SA? of apartheid SA?

Libertarian theoryLibertarian theory Modernity: Rise of democracy, religious Modernity: Rise of democracy, religious

freedom, expansion of economic freedom, freedom, expansion of economic freedom, philosophical climate of the Enlightenmentphilosophical climate of the Enlightenment

Undermined authoritarianism – emphasis Undermined authoritarianism – emphasis on personal freedom and democracyon personal freedom and democracy

The idea that people are rational – can The idea that people are rational – can distinguish between truth and falsehood, distinguish between truth and falsehood, and between good and evil. and between good and evil.

Classical liberal perspective:Classical liberal perspective: Free market as foundation of free media;Free market as foundation of free media; Freedom to publish without prior restriction Freedom to publish without prior restriction

– independence from government;– independence from government; Public has access to wide diversity of Public has access to wide diversity of

opinion (only limitation on freedom to opinion (only limitation on freedom to publish is public willingness to pay);publish is public willingness to pay);

Market-based diversity promotes public Market-based diversity promotes public rationality – free marketplace of ideas and rationality – free marketplace of ideas and information as a self-righting mechanism, information as a self-righting mechanism, minimises bias and exposes weak minimises bias and exposes weak arguments and evidence.arguments and evidence.

Another strand in liberal tradition: Another strand in liberal tradition: Media as representative agency (‘Fourth Estate’ Media as representative agency (‘Fourth Estate’

alongside executive, legislative and judicial alongside executive, legislative and judicial authorities)) or as a watchdog protecting the authorities)) or as a watchdog protecting the public (individuals rights), overseeing the state. public (individuals rights), overseeing the state.

Watchdog reveals abuses in the exercise of state Watchdog reveals abuses in the exercise of state authority… this role overrides all other functions authority… this role overrides all other functions of the media and dictates the form in which the of the media and dictates the form in which the media should be organised, i.e. the free market. media should be organised, i.e. the free market.

““The best stories are those that afflict the The best stories are those that afflict the comfortable and comfort the afflicted, the ones comfortable and comfort the afflicted, the ones that the people of power do not want told.” Peter that the people of power do not want told.” Peter Beaumont and John Sweeney, Beaumont and John Sweeney, The Observer The Observer

But, can muckraking journalism co-exist with But, can muckraking journalism co-exist with objective journalism? objective journalism?

Objectivity: As newspapers gradually lost Objectivity: As newspapers gradually lost their party affiliations, journalists worked their party affiliations, journalists worked to establish their independence as to establish their independence as searchers after “objective truth”. searchers after “objective truth”.

Independence from government control Independence from government control and influence – if media is subject to and influence – if media is subject to public regulation it will lose its bite as a public regulation it will lose its bite as a watchdog. watchdog.

Press is source of information and platform Press is source of information and platform for expression of a range of divergent for expression of a range of divergent opinions; enables people to monitor opinions; enables people to monitor government and form ideas about policy.government and form ideas about policy.

Curran: But, society seen as an aggregation of Curran: But, society seen as an aggregation of individuals – media’s representative role individuals – media’s representative role conceived primarily in terms of articulating conceived primarily in terms of articulating public opinion, which is the sum of individual public opinion, which is the sum of individual opinion. How should media relate to opinion. How should media relate to representative structures as distinct from representative structures as distinct from individuals – role of media in mediating class individuals – role of media in mediating class and other conflict in society? Also, little account and other conflict in society? Also, little account of how power is exercised through non-state of how power is exercised through non-state structures, like property and patriarchy.structures, like property and patriarchy.

Is a free press and end in itself, a means to an Is a free press and end in itself, a means to an end, or an absolute right?end, or an absolute right?

Freedom can be abused. Absolute freedom is Freedom can be abused. Absolute freedom is anarchy. Mill: The freedom of the individual anarchy. Mill: The freedom of the individual constrained by the freedom of other individuals. constrained by the freedom of other individuals. (My freedom ends where yours begins).(My freedom ends where yours begins).

Boundaries of freedom defined in such a Boundaries of freedom defined in such a way that they do not infringe the rights of way that they do not infringe the rights of the individual.the individual.

Abolition of censorship; but, also the Abolition of censorship; but, also the introduction of press laws designed to introduction of press laws designed to protect individual rights (protection of protect individual rights (protection of reputation, privacy, moral development of reputation, privacy, moral development of individuals or groups, security of the state) individuals or groups, security of the state) – could override the right of the press’s – could override the right of the press’s freedom to publishfreedom to publish..

Assumptions:Assumptions: Press should be free from any external Press should be free from any external

censorship;censorship; Publication and distribution should be Publication and distribution should be

accessible to any individual or group accessible to any individual or group with a permit or license;with a permit or license;

Attacks on governments or parties Attacks on governments or parties should not be punishable;should not be punishable;

No coercion to publish anything;No coercion to publish anything; Freedom of access to information.Freedom of access to information.

Social responsibility theorySocial responsibility theory Hutchins Commission, 1947 – reaffirmed the Hutchins Commission, 1947 – reaffirmed the

principles of freedom/ independence but added to principles of freedom/ independence but added to them the notion of social responsibility. them the notion of social responsibility.

Media operate in capitalist economy, but some Media operate in capitalist economy, but some believe the market can function benignly (not just believe the market can function benignly (not just in the interests of shareholders but of all people). in the interests of shareholders but of all people).

Premises (McQuail):Premises (McQuail): Media have important function to fulfil in society Media have important function to fulfil in society

(support democratic political principles);(support democratic political principles); Media are under obligation to fulfil their social functions Media are under obligation to fulfil their social functions

(transmission of information and creation of a forum for (transmission of information and creation of a forum for different viewpoints);different viewpoints);

Independence of media emphasised in relation to their Independence of media emphasised in relation to their responsibility towards society;responsibility towards society;

Media should meet certain standards.Media should meet certain standards.

Solutions to the problem (of Solutions to the problem (of reconciling freedom with reconciling freedom with responsibility):responsibility): Regulation Regulation

Promotion of political and cultural pluralism – Promotion of political and cultural pluralism – independent public institutions for control of independent public institutions for control of broadcasting (e.g. ICASA);broadcasting (e.g. ICASA);

Balance of public and private ownershipBalance of public and private ownership Professionalism: Professionalism:

Codes of conduct;Codes of conduct; Training and continuing development of Training and continuing development of

professionalism, to advance and nurture professionalism, to advance and nurture balanced and impartial news presentation.balanced and impartial news presentation.

More principles (McQuail):More principles (McQuail): Media should accept responsibilities towards Media should accept responsibilities towards

society;society; Media should fulfil responsibilities by setting Media should fulfil responsibilities by setting

professional standards with regards to the supply of professional standards with regards to the supply of information and the truth, accuracy, objectivity and information and the truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance of their reporting;balance of their reporting;

Media should apply self-regulation;Media should apply self-regulation; Media should avoid publicising information that can Media should avoid publicising information that can

lead to crime, violence or social disruption, as well lead to crime, violence or social disruption, as well as information that can offend ethnic or religious as information that can offend ethnic or religious minorities;minorities;

Media collectively should represent all social groups Media collectively should represent all social groups and reflect the diversity of society by giving people and reflect the diversity of society by giving people access to a variety of viewpoints and opportunity to access to a variety of viewpoints and opportunity to react to them. react to them.

Society entitled to high standards and intervention Society entitled to high standards and intervention justifiable if the media fail to meet these standards. justifiable if the media fail to meet these standards.

Soviet communist press Soviet communist press theorytheory

Western notions of freedom of press Western notions of freedom of press rejected by Soviet bloc as being rejected by Soviet bloc as being fundamentally ‘unfree’ because Western fundamentally ‘unfree’ because Western media are controlled by capitalist media are controlled by capitalist economic interests (prevent them from economic interests (prevent them from publishing the Marxist truth). publishing the Marxist truth).

Communist press – no profit motive. But, Communist press – no profit motive. But, did this mean it did not foreground special, did this mean it did not foreground special, elite interests in Soviet society? elite interests in Soviet society?

Assumptions:Assumptions: Media should act in the interests of and Media should act in the interests of and

be controlled by the working class;be controlled by the working class; Media should not be under private Media should not be under private

control;control; Media should perform positive functions Media should perform positive functions

for society, such as socialisation (to for society, such as socialisation (to make people conform to desirable make people conform to desirable norms), education, the supply of norms), education, the supply of information, motivation and mobilisation information, motivation and mobilisation of the masses;of the masses;

Media should respond to the desire and Media should respond to the desire and needs of their recipients;needs of their recipients;

More assumptions:More assumptions: Society has right to use censorship and Society has right to use censorship and

other legal measures to prevent and other legal measures to prevent and punish antisocial publication;punish antisocial publication;

Media should reflect complete and Media should reflect complete and objective view of world and society in objective view of world and society in terms of Marxist-Leninist principles;terms of Marxist-Leninist principles;

Media should support communist Media should support communist movements everywhere. movements everywhere.

After fall of Soviet Bloc, is this relevant? After fall of Soviet Bloc, is this relevant? What about China? Cuba? Parts of Africa?What about China? Cuba? Parts of Africa?

A brief critique of A brief critique of libertarian and social libertarian and social

responsibility theoriesresponsibility theoriesA political critique:A political critique: Journalism in capitalist societies functions in Journalism in capitalist societies functions in

the interests not of society as a whole, but the interests not of society as a whole, but of dominant groups and classes. of dominant groups and classes.

Concepts like free press, democracy, the Concepts like free press, democracy, the public interest, objectivity, neutrality seen public interest, objectivity, neutrality seen as myths. as myths.

All research processes – including All research processes – including journalism – seen as value-laden and journalism – seen as value-laden and methodological decisions political.methodological decisions political.

““Washing one’s hands of the conflict Washing one’s hands of the conflict between the powerful and the powerless between the powerful and the powerless means to side with the powerful, not to be means to side with the powerful, not to be neutral.” neutral.”

Paulo FreirePaulo Freire

Concentration of ownership and control of Concentration of ownership and control of media (lack of diversity), and the declining media (lack of diversity), and the declining vitality of publicly funded media/cultural vitality of publicly funded media/cultural institutions like public broadcasters (due institutions like public broadcasters (due to privatisation).to privatisation).

Other problems with modern media:Other problems with modern media: Lack of democracy within media Lack of democracy within media

organisations;organisations; Governmental secrecy;Governmental secrecy; Institutionalised racist and patriarchal Institutionalised racist and patriarchal

codes;codes; Commodification of culture:Commodification of culture:

Are we being addressed as citizens or as Are we being addressed as citizens or as consumers? Shift away from involving people consumers? Shift away from involving people in societies as political citizens of nation in societies as political citizens of nation states towards involving them as consumption states towards involving them as consumption units in a globalised corporate world. units in a globalised corporate world.

Journalists and Journalists and objectivityobjectivity

Can journalists transcend their own Can journalists transcend their own subjectivity in accounting for the subjectivity in accounting for the facts? facts?

Does such a demand rest on Does such a demand rest on plausible philosophical assumptions plausible philosophical assumptions about the nature of, and relations about the nature of, and relations between, perception, the external between, perception, the external world, facts and values?world, facts and values?

The biases of objectivityThe biases of objectivity Theodore Glasser: As a set of beliefs, Theodore Glasser: As a set of beliefs,

objectivity is rooted in a positivistic objectivity is rooted in a positivistic view of the world – a commitment to view of the world – a commitment to external, observable, and retrievable external, observable, and retrievable facts. facts.

Such an ideology promotes three Such an ideology promotes three kinds of bias. kinds of bias.

1.1. Bias against the watchdog role of the Bias against the watchdog role of the media in favour of the status quo. media in favour of the status quo.

To remain value neutral, only news sources To remain value neutral, only news sources with impeccable credentials (invariably with impeccable credentials (invariably prominent members of society) are prominent members of society) are quoted. The democratic process requires quoted. The democratic process requires the participation of ordinary citizens as the participation of ordinary citizens as much as those who are prominent.much as those who are prominent.

2. Bias against 2. Bias against independent thinkingindependent thinking. . Journalists have to remain impartial and Journalists have to remain impartial and

value neutral – therefore no longer the value neutral – therefore no longer the need nor the opportunity to develop a need nor the opportunity to develop a critical perspective from which to assess critical perspective from which to assess the events, the issues, the personalities he the events, the issues, the personalities he or she is assigned to cover. or she is assigned to cover.

3. Bias against the journalist’s assumption of 3. Bias against the journalist’s assumption of responsibility for what is reported. responsibility for what is reported.

News seen to exist “out there” (independent News seen to exist “out there” (independent of the reporter), so journalists can’t be held of the reporter), so journalists can’t be held responsible for it. The day’s news is viewed responsible for it. The day’s news is viewed as something journalists are compelled to as something journalists are compelled to report, not something they are responsible report, not something they are responsible for creating. Objectivity in journalism for creating. Objectivity in journalism effectively erodes the very foundation on effectively erodes the very foundation on which rests a responsible press. which rests a responsible press.

““News is never a mere recording or News is never a mere recording or reporting of the world ‘out there’ but a reporting of the world ‘out there’ but a synthetic, value-laden account which synthetic, value-laden account which carries within it dominant assumptions and carries within it dominant assumptions and ideas of the society within which it is ideas of the society within which it is produced.” produced.”

Theodore GlasserTheodore Glasser

Critique of Critique of “professionalism”“professionalism”

Professionalism critiqued as a rhetorical Professionalism critiqued as a rhetorical strategy to hide journalism’s inherent pro-strategy to hide journalism’s inherent pro-systemic bias. systemic bias.

Professionalism implies standards and Professionalism implies standards and procedures, which means journalists tend procedures, which means journalists tend to act as responsible members of the to act as responsible members of the political establishment, upholding the political establishment, upholding the dominant political perspective.dominant political perspective.

Critique of public Critique of public broadcastingbroadcasting

““Perhaps in no other country does broadcasting Perhaps in no other country does broadcasting hold such a privileged position as opinion leader hold such a privileged position as opinion leader as in Britain. When ‘information’ is conveyed on as in Britain. When ‘information’ is conveyed on the BBC with such professional gravitas, it is the BBC with such professional gravitas, it is more likely to be believed. Possessing highly more likely to be believed. Possessing highly professional talent, the illusion of impartiality professional talent, the illusion of impartiality and an essentially liberal ethos, Britain’s ‘public and an essentially liberal ethos, Britain’s ‘public service broadcasting’ has become a finely service broadcasting’ has become a finely crafted and infinitely adaptable instrument of crafted and infinitely adaptable instrument of state propaganda and censorship.” state propaganda and censorship.”

John PilgerJohn Pilger

Chomsky’s Propaganda Chomsky’s Propaganda ModelModel

Traditional theorists see propaganda as Traditional theorists see propaganda as being a useful conceptual tool to apply to being a useful conceptual tool to apply to media products of totalitarian media products of totalitarian dictatorships while applicable to the media dictatorships while applicable to the media of Western democracies only in of Western democracies only in exceptional periods (war). exceptional periods (war).

But, But, Chomsky and HermanChomsky and Herman argue that argue that the propaganda function is a permanent the propaganda function is a permanent feature of Western media systems.feature of Western media systems.

The powerful elite “fix the premises of discourse, The powerful elite “fix the premises of discourse, to decide what the general populace is allowed to to decide what the general populace is allowed to see, hear and think about and to manage public see, hear and think about and to manage public opinion by regular propaganda campaigns”. opinion by regular propaganda campaigns”.

Journalists’ exalted claims to be working as the Journalists’ exalted claims to be working as the noble Fourth Estate are rhetoric. Media practices noble Fourth Estate are rhetoric. Media practices do not reflect a genuine public spiritedness but do not reflect a genuine public spiritedness but rather a concern to boost sales or improve rather a concern to boost sales or improve ratings. The increasing media emphasis on ratings. The increasing media emphasis on infotainment has accompanied the depoliticising infotainment has accompanied the depoliticising of civil society. of civil society.