Normative Theories Normative Theories Of The PressOf The Press

An IntroductionAn Introduction

Normative TheoryNormative Theory Descriptive Descriptive statements are falsifiable statements are falsifiable

statements that attempt to describe reality. statements that attempt to describe reality. By contrast, By contrast, normative normative statements affirm statements affirm

how things should or ought to be, how to how things should or ought to be, how to value them, which things are good or bad. value them, which things are good or bad.

Normative theories of the press: Ideal Normative theories of the press: Ideal views of how journalism/ media ought to, or views of how journalism/ media ought to, or are expected to, operate – what is desirable are expected to, operate – what is desirable in relation to both structure and in relation to both structure and performance): “Journalists/ journalism performance): “Journalists/ journalism should or could do this or that.” should or could do this or that.”

Structure and Structure and PerformancePerformance

Structure – e.g. freedom from the state, Structure – e.g. freedom from the state, multiplicity of different channels. multiplicity of different channels.

Performance – e.g. how the media carry Performance – e.g. how the media carry out their chosen or allotted informative or out their chosen or allotted informative or entertaining tasks. Conventions, genres, entertaining tasks. Conventions, genres, professional guidelines and ethical rules, professional guidelines and ethical rules, which apply to what the media do. which apply to what the media do.

Four Theories of the Four Theories of the PressPress

The Four Theories of the PressThe Four Theories of the Press (Schramm, Siebert, Peterson. 1956)(Schramm, Siebert, Peterson. 1956)

Basic theories:Basic theories: Authoritarian TheoryAuthoritarian Theory Libertarian TheoryLibertarian TheoryVariations:Variations: Social responsibility TheorySocial responsibility Theory Soviet communist TheorySoviet communist Theory

McQuail’s Addition In McQuail’s Addition In Theories Of The PressTheories Of The Press

Additions made by Denis McQuail. (Additions made by Denis McQuail. (Mass Mass Communication Theory: An IntroductionCommunication Theory: An Introduction):):

Development Media TheoryDevelopment Media Theory Democratic-participant TheoryDemocratic-participant Theory

Authoritarian TheoryAuthoritarian Theory

Applies to authoritarian societies, but Applies to authoritarian societies, but can also be seen in less authoritarian can also be seen in less authoritarian societies (particularly in times of war, societies (particularly in times of war, terrorism)terrorism)

Depends on the media forms Depends on the media forms specially Print Journalism and TV - specially Print Journalism and TV - subject to greater control in some subject to greater control in some countriescountries

Authoritarian Authoritarian AssumptionsAssumptions

Press should do nothing to undermine Press should do nothing to undermine vested power and interests;vested power and interests;

Press should be subordinate to vested Press should be subordinate to vested power and authority;power and authority;

Press should avoid acting in contravention Press should avoid acting in contravention of prevailing moral and political values;of prevailing moral and political values;

Censorship justified in the application of Censorship justified in the application of these principles;these principles;

Criminalisation of editorial attacks on Criminalisation of editorial attacks on vested power, deviations from official vested power, deviations from official policy, violation of moral codes.policy, violation of moral codes.

Media as instrument / mouthpiece to publicise Media as instrument / mouthpiece to publicise and propagandise government ideology and and propagandise government ideology and actions. actions.

Absolute power of state versus subservience Absolute power of state versus subservience of the individual – press ‘freedom’ a right of the individual – press ‘freedom’ a right vested in the state.vested in the state.

Whatever the publications are, must to have a Whatever the publications are, must to have a license for all.license for all.

Examples: Fascist regimes, some African Examples: Fascist regimes, some African countries, communist countriescountries, communist countries

Current example from the modern world; Current example from the modern world; Albania Albania

Libertarian TheoryLibertarian TheoryAA Road to Modernised PressRoad to Modernised Press

Modernity: Rise of democracy, religious Modernity: Rise of democracy, religious freedom, expansion of economic freedom, freedom, expansion of economic freedom, philosophical climate of the Enlightenmentphilosophical climate of the Enlightenment

Undermined authoritarianism – emphasis Undermined authoritarianism – emphasis on personal freedom and democracyon personal freedom and democracy

The idea that people are rational – can The idea that people are rational – can distinguish between truth and falsehood, distinguish between truth and falsehood, and between good and evil. and between good and evil.

Classical Liberal Perspective:Classical Liberal Perspective: Free market as foundation of free media;Free market as foundation of free media; Freedom to publish without prior Freedom to publish without prior

restriction – independence from restriction – independence from government;government;

Public has access to wide diversity of Public has access to wide diversity of opinion (only limitation on freedom to opinion (only limitation on freedom to publish is public willingness to pay);publish is public willingness to pay);

Market-based diversity promotes public Market-based diversity promotes public rationality – free marketplace of ideas and rationality – free marketplace of ideas and information as a self-righting mechanism, information as a self-righting mechanism, minimises bias and exposes weak minimises bias and exposes weak arguments and evidence.arguments and evidence.

Another Strand in Liberal Tradition: Another Strand in Liberal Tradition: Media as representative agency (‘Fourth Estate’ Media as representative agency (‘Fourth Estate’

alongside executive, legislative and judicial alongside executive, legislative and judicial authorities)) or as a watchdog protecting the authorities)) or as a watchdog protecting the public (individuals rights), overseeing the state. public (individuals rights), overseeing the state.

Watchdog reveals abuses in the exercise of state Watchdog reveals abuses in the exercise of state authority… this role overrides all other functions authority… this role overrides all other functions of the media and dictates the form in which the of the media and dictates the form in which the media should be organised, i.e. the free market. media should be organised, i.e. the free market.

““The best stories are those that afflict the The best stories are those that afflict the comfortable and comfort the afflicted, the ones comfortable and comfort the afflicted, the ones that the people of power do not want told.” Peter that the people of power do not want told.” Peter Beaumont and John Sweeney, Beaumont and John Sweeney, The Observer The Observer

But, can muckraking journalism co-exist with But, can muckraking journalism co-exist with objective journalism? objective journalism?

Objectivity: As newspapers gradually lost Objectivity: As newspapers gradually lost their party affiliations, journalists worked to their party affiliations, journalists worked to establish their independence as searchers establish their independence as searchers after “objective truth”. after “objective truth”.

Independence from government control and Independence from government control and influence – if media is subject to public influence – if media is subject to public regulation it will lose its bite as a watchdog. regulation it will lose its bite as a watchdog.

Press is source of information and platform Press is source of information and platform for expression of a range of divergent for expression of a range of divergent opinions; enables people to monitor opinions; enables people to monitor government and form ideas about policy.government and form ideas about policy.

Curran: Society seen as an aggregation of Curran: Society seen as an aggregation of individuals – media’s representative role individuals – media’s representative role conceived primarily in terms of articulating conceived primarily in terms of articulating public opinion, which is the sum of individual public opinion, which is the sum of individual opinion. How should media relate to opinion. How should media relate to representative structures as distinct from representative structures as distinct from individuals – role of media in mediating class and individuals – role of media in mediating class and other conflict in society? Also, little account of other conflict in society? Also, little account of how power is exercised through non-state how power is exercised through non-state structures, like property and patriarchy.structures, like property and patriarchy.

Is a free press and end in itself, a means to an Is a free press and end in itself, a means to an end, or an absolute right?end, or an absolute right?

Freedom can be abused. Absolute freedom is Freedom can be abused. Absolute freedom is anarchy. Mill: The freedom of the individual anarchy. Mill: The freedom of the individual constrained by the freedom of other individuals. constrained by the freedom of other individuals. (My freedom ends where yours begins).(My freedom ends where yours begins).

Boundaries of freedom defined in such a way Boundaries of freedom defined in such a way that they do not infringe the rights of the that they do not infringe the rights of the individual.individual.

Abolition of censorship; but, also the Abolition of censorship; but, also the introduction of press laws designed to protect introduction of press laws designed to protect individual rights (protection of reputation, individual rights (protection of reputation, privacy, moral development of individuals or privacy, moral development of individuals or groups, security of the state) – could override groups, security of the state) – could override the right of the press’s freedom to publishthe right of the press’s freedom to publish..

Assumptions:Assumptions: Press should be free from any external Press should be free from any external

censorship;censorship; Publication and distribution should be Publication and distribution should be

accessible to any individual or group accessible to any individual or group with a permit or license;with a permit or license;

Attacks on governments or parties Attacks on governments or parties should not be punishable;should not be punishable;

No coercion to publish anything;No coercion to publish anything; Freedom of access to information.Freedom of access to information.

Social Responsibility TheorySocial Responsibility Theory Hutchins Commission, 1947 – reaffirmed the Hutchins Commission, 1947 – reaffirmed the

principles of freedom/ independence but added to principles of freedom/ independence but added to them the notion of social responsibility. them the notion of social responsibility.

Media operate in capitalist economy, but some Media operate in capitalist economy, but some believe the market can function benignly (not just believe the market can function benignly (not just in the interests of shareholders but of all people). in the interests of shareholders but of all people).

Premises (McQuail):Premises (McQuail): Media have important function to fulfil in society Media have important function to fulfil in society

(support democratic political principles);(support democratic political principles); Media are under obligation to fulfil their social functions Media are under obligation to fulfil their social functions

(transmission of information and creation of a forum for (transmission of information and creation of a forum for different viewpoints);different viewpoints);

Independence of media emphasised in relation to their Independence of media emphasised in relation to their responsibility towards society;responsibility towards society;

Media should meet certain standards.Media should meet certain standards.

Solutions to the Problem (of Solutions to the Problem (of Reconciling Freedom With Reconciling Freedom With Responsibility):Responsibility): Regulation Regulation

Promotion of political and cultural pluralism Promotion of political and cultural pluralism – independent public institutions for control – independent public institutions for control of broadcastingof broadcasting

Balance of public and private ownershipBalance of public and private ownership Professionalism: Professionalism:

Codes of conductCodes of conduct Training and continuing development of Training and continuing development of

professionalism, to advance and nurture professionalism, to advance and nurture balanced and impartial news presentation.balanced and impartial news presentation.

More Principles (McQuail):More Principles (McQuail): Media should accept responsibilities towards societyMedia should accept responsibilities towards society Media should fulfil responsibilities by setting Media should fulfil responsibilities by setting

professional standards with regards to the supply of professional standards with regards to the supply of information and the truth, accuracy, objectivity and information and the truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance of their reportingbalance of their reporting

Media should apply self-regulationMedia should apply self-regulation Media should avoid publicising information that can Media should avoid publicising information that can

lead to crime, violence or social disruption, as well as lead to crime, violence or social disruption, as well as information that can offend ethnic or religious information that can offend ethnic or religious minoritiesminorities

Media collectively should represent all social groups Media collectively should represent all social groups and reflect the diversity of society by giving people and reflect the diversity of society by giving people access to a variety of viewpoints and opportunity to access to a variety of viewpoints and opportunity to react to them. react to them.

Society entitled to high standards and intervention Society entitled to high standards and intervention justifiable if the media fail to meet these standards. justifiable if the media fail to meet these standards.

Soviet Communist Press Soviet Communist Press TheoryTheory

Western notions of freedom of press Western notions of freedom of press rejected by Soviet block as being rejected by Soviet block as being fundamentally ‘unfree’ because Western fundamentally ‘unfree’ because Western media are controlled by capitalist media are controlled by capitalist economic interests (prevent them from economic interests (prevent them from publishing the Marxist truth). publishing the Marxist truth).

Communist press – no profit motive. It Communist press – no profit motive. It means that it did not foreground special, means that it did not foreground special, elite interests in Soviet societyelite interests in Soviet society

Assumptions:Assumptions: Media should act in the interests of and Media should act in the interests of and

be controlled by the working classbe controlled by the working class Media should not be under private Media should not be under private

controlcontrol Media should perform positive functions Media should perform positive functions

for society, such as socialisation (to for society, such as socialisation (to make people conform to desirable make people conform to desirable norms), education, the supply of norms), education, the supply of information, motivation and mobilisation information, motivation and mobilisation of the massesof the masses

Media should respond to the desire and Media should respond to the desire and needs of their recipientsneeds of their recipients

More Assumptions:More Assumptions: Society has right to use censorship and Society has right to use censorship and

other legal measures to prevent and other legal measures to prevent and punish anti-social publicationpunish anti-social publication

Media should reflect complete and Media should reflect complete and objective view of world and society in objective view of world and society in terms of Marxist-Leninist principlesterms of Marxist-Leninist principles

Media should support communist Media should support communist movements everywheremovements everywhere

A Brief Critique Of A Brief Critique Of Libertarian And Social Libertarian And Social Responsibility TheoriesResponsibility Theories

A political critique:A political critique: Journalism in capitalist societies functions in the Journalism in capitalist societies functions in the

interests not of society as a whole, but of dominant interests not of society as a whole, but of dominant groups and classesgroups and classes

Concepts like free press, democracy, the public interest, Concepts like free press, democracy, the public interest, objectivity, neutrality seen as usual tradition objectivity, neutrality seen as usual tradition

All research processes – including journalism – seen as All research processes – including journalism – seen as value-laden and methodological decisions political.value-laden and methodological decisions political.

““Washing one’s hands of the conflict between Washing one’s hands of the conflict between the powerful and the powerless means to side the powerful and the powerless means to side with the powerful, not to be neutral.” with the powerful, not to be neutral.”

Paulo FreirePaulo Freire

Other Problems With Modern Media:Other Problems With Modern Media: Lack of democracy within media Lack of democracy within media

organisations;organisations; Governmental secrecy;Governmental secrecy; Institutionalised racist and patriarchal Institutionalised racist and patriarchal

codes;codes; Commodification of culture:Commodification of culture:

Are we being addressed as citizens or as Are we being addressed as citizens or as consumers? Shift away from involving consumers? Shift away from involving people in societies as political citizens of people in societies as political citizens of nation states towards involving them as nation states towards involving them as consumption units in a globalized corporate consumption units in a globalized corporate world. world.

Additions of Denis McquailAdditions of Denis McquailDevelopment Media TheoryDevelopment Media Theory

This theory is related to Media This theory is related to Media operations and development in the third operations and development in the third world countries world countries

Media are seen as struggling to fulfil Media are seen as struggling to fulfil social and Political duties in these statessocial and Political duties in these states

In this theory it is considered that “BAD In this theory it is considered that “BAD NEWS IS GOOD NEWS” because it NEWS IS GOOD NEWS” because it commands bigger headlinescommands bigger headlines

(Watson; 2003)(Watson; 2003)

The theory illustrates that the bad The theory illustrates that the bad news story must be treated very news story must be treated very carefully as it can be damaging for the carefully as it can be damaging for the nations; specially economical growthnations; specially economical growth

It also explains the importance of It also explains the importance of cultures of different culture of third cultures of different culture of third worldworld

It can be said that this theory is both; It can be said that this theory is both; The Theory of State Support and The Theory of State Support and Resistance Resistance

Democratic-Participant TheoryDemocratic-Participant Theory

This theory tells about;This theory tells about; The new media trends and The new media trends and

developments in the worlddevelopments in the world Criticism on the private and public Criticism on the private and public

monopoly in mass mediamonopoly in mass media Democratic Participant Theory doesn’t Democratic Participant Theory doesn’t

warrant a separate normative warrant a separate normative classificationclassification

(Mcquail)(Mcquail) About the new focus towards positive About the new focus towards positive

strategy of media institutionsstrategy of media institutions

It stands for defence against It stands for defence against commercialization and monopolycommercialization and monopoly

Resistant to centralism and bureaucracyResistant to centralism and bureaucracy

watson; watson; 20032003

The role of receiver in the process of The role of receiver in the process of communication and incorporated communication and incorporated receiver’s rightsreceiver’s rights

To receive the relevant informationTo receive the relevant information To replyTo reply To be informed on the local issuesTo be informed on the local issues To use the new means of communication for To use the new means of communication for

interaction and social setting of community, interaction and social setting of community, interest group or sub-cultureinterest group or sub-culture

ConclusionConclusion The Authoritarian and Libertarian Theories are The Authoritarian and Libertarian Theories are

the basic theories while others are related to the basic theories while others are related to these twothese two

The Authoritarian theory is the ancient form of The Authoritarian theory is the ancient form of the Soviet Theory; the difference is only that the Soviet Theory; the difference is only that the press under authoritarian system can be the press under authoritarian system can be private owned while in Soviet Theory it is private owned while in Soviet Theory it is public owned propertypublic owned property

In other words the Soviet Authoritarian system In other words the Soviet Authoritarian system can also be called the totalitarian systemcan also be called the totalitarian system

The authoritarian theory has least similarities The authoritarian theory has least similarities with rest of the theories; especially Libertarian with rest of the theories; especially Libertarian TheoriesTheories

The libertarian theory promotes the doctrine The libertarian theory promotes the doctrine of “FREEDOM OF PRESS”of “FREEDOM OF PRESS”

The Libertarian Theory flourishes in democratic The Libertarian Theory flourishes in democratic societies that is why it has maximum similarities societies that is why it has maximum similarities with Social Responsibility, Democratic with Social Responsibility, Democratic participant Theory and even with Development participant Theory and even with Development Media TheoryMedia Theory

All these inter-related theories ensure the All these inter-related theories ensure the protection of individual rightsprotection of individual rights

However; these related theories have far less However; these related theories have far less faith in the protection of individual rights than faith in the protection of individual rights than Libertarian theoryLibertarian theory

In modern world the systems of states differ a In modern world the systems of states differ a lot; so we can say that the implementation of lot; so we can say that the implementation of these theories may not be correlated with the these theories may not be correlated with the systemsystem

THANK YOU VERY MUCH THANK YOU VERY MUCH