Nisei Linguists

8/7/2019 Nisei Linguists

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Nisei LiNguists

Japan Amrcan

n h Mlary

inllnc srvc drn

World War ii

b

Jm C. McNun

DepartMeNt o the arMy

WashiNgtoN, D.C., 2006


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Lbrary of Congress Catalogng-n-Publcaton Data

McNahon, Jam C., 1952N ln : Japan Amrcan n h Mlary inllnc srvc drn World

War ii / Jam C. McNahon.p. cm.

incld bbloraphcal rrnc and ndx.1. World War, 19391945Parcpaon, Japan Amrcan. 2. und sa.

War Dp. Mlary inllnc srvc. 3. Mlary inllnc srvc Lanaschool (u.s.)Hory. 4. World War, 19391945Mlary nllncundsa. 5. tranlan rvcund saHory20h cnry. 6. JapanAmrcanHory20h cnry. i. tl.

D769.8.A6M45 2006940.548673089956dc22 2006019774

Fr PrnnCMH Pb 70991


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Forword

From lon xprnc, u.s. Army ladr hav ond ha cc n -and land opraon ha on rqrd xrmly ophcad lnc kll.in many ca, ch abl ar nq o narrow con o h naon cvl-an poplac. Nvrhl, whr nllnc ahrn, coalon bldn, andmlary ovrnmn ar concrnd, h ably o ndrand h lana o hnaon all and opponn can pll h drnc bwn vcory and da.

Whn Amrca nrd h war aan Japan n 1941, h nd or h kllwa mprav. A dp ndrandn o boh Japan clr and h Japanlana wold b ncary or Amrcan nllnc or o ccd. How-vr, wh h xcpon o abo 300,000 Japan mmran and hr Amr-can-born chldrn lvn on h W Coa and n Hawa, w Amrcan wramlar wh h nmy lana and clr. th amophr o ora andar ha ollowd h aack on Parl Harbor complcad mar. Mo Amr-can wand ll o do wh anyhn Japan, parclarly hr llow czno Japan orn. evn o, h War Dparmn gnral sa rconzd hncy o marn boh h clr and h lana o hr Aan opponnn ordr o pr h war or cvly and cnly. in rpon, hy rndo h naon cond-nraon Japan Amrcan, orN, n h hop ha

hy wold b wlln and abl o ll ha vod.inally, h warm ladr had o addr a nmbr o h am qonacn oday Army. How wll dd h cond-nraon Amrcan acallypak h complx lana o hr orbar? Cold ho ha dd b rd?Wha wa h b way o nra hm no h varo accal and racnllnc oranzaon ha cold bn rom hr rvc? tha ook onlywo yar o anwr h qon bar wn no only o h cvn oh nnovav proram ha h War Dparmn crad, b alo o h wlln-n o Amrca loyal Japan o nor h dr o hr llow czn andv hr b o h war or. th nd rl conrbd havly o Alld vcoryn h Pacc by makn pobl h rapd xploaon o normaon rom cap-

rd nmy docmn, nrcpd rado commncaon, and pronr o war.to pplmn h Cnr o Mlary Hory work covrn h xplo

o h Japan Amrcan 442d Rmnal Comba tam n erop, h volmchroncl h ablhmn and achvmn o h oranzaon ha rand andmployd h normd Japan Amrcan ln, h u.s. Army Mlaryinllnc srvc. Alhoh on ovrlookd, h nr xprnc provdvalabl lon o u.s. Army ocr boh prn and r. in ac, h globalWar on trrorm ndrln h nd or mlar capabl and proram a hArmy rd l or h and rl ahad.

Wahnon, D.C. JeFFReY J. CLARKe2 spmbr 2006 Ch o Mlary Hory


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th Ahor

Jam C. McNahon rv a command horan or h u.s. eropanCommand. H rcvd h B.A. rom Mddlbry Coll, Vrmon, and M.A.and Ph.D. n hory rom th John Hopkn unvry, Balmor, Maryland.H ha rvd n h u.s. Army n vral componn: Acv Army, Naonalgard, Army Rrv, and cvlan cor. H ha workd a command horanor h Dn Lana in Forn Lana Cnr and or u.s. ArmyPacc.


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Prac

th book ll h ory o an nal rop o Amrcan oldr n WorldWar ii, cond-nraon Japan Amrcan (N) who rvd a nrpr-r and ranlaor n h Mlary inllnc srvc. i dcrb how h WarDparmn rcrd oldr rom an hnc mnory and rand hm n a crchool o h Japan lana. Monh bor h Japan aack on ParlHarbor, h Forh Army inllnc school wa ablhd on h Prdo osan Francco wh xy dn. Ar h aack h Wrn Dn Com-

mand rmovd all pron o Japan ancry rom h W Coa. th WarDparmn ranrrd h chool wh N nrcor and dn o hMdw. For h r o h war h rnamd Mlary inllnc srvc Lan-a school oprad n Mnnoa a Camp sava rom 1942 o 1944 and hna For snlln rom 1944 o 1946. By h prn o 1946 h chool had radadnarly 6,000 mlary ln n h Japan lana.

th book alo dcrb how h N rvd wh vry major n andhadqarr n h Pacc war. thr cora, kll, and loyaly hlpd wn hwar oonr and a lowr co o h und sa han wold ohrw hav bn

pobl. Drn h Amrcan occpaon o Japan hy hlpd rn br n-

m no rnd, h crn h vcory and rvn a a brd bwn hwo clr.Drn h dcad ar h war ll wa pblcly known abo h N ln-

d o connd crcy abo warm nllnc acv. Manwhl,ohr N who rvd n h 100h inanry Baalon and 442d Rmnal Com-

ba tam n ialy and Franc rcvd wdprad rconon. th chand n hla 1970 hroh h or o on man, Joph D. Harrnon. A rrd Navy

jornal, Harrnon conacd hndrd o vran o ambl hr orno h r book vr o dcrb hr xplo n dal. H calld hm Yanksamra o ymbolz hr blnd o Amrcan and Japan ra and val. My

own work ndbd o hm on almo vry pa.th 1980 and 1990 wnd a food o N vran mmor and wr-n. Many vran l ha a mor comprhnv ovrvw wa ndd. in 1994u.s. snaor Danl K. Akaka and vral ohr mmbr o Conr calld onh scrary o h Army o pblh an ocal hory o h N ln. Dr.Jry J. Clark, hn ch horan, nvd m o ndrak h ak. A h mi wa rvn a command horan or h Dn Lana in FornLana Cnr a h Prdo o Monry, Calorna, h drc dcndn oh warm Mlary inllnc srvc Lana school. i ban rarch whppor rom a scrary o h Army Rarch and sdy Fllowhp. Drn hm i alo rvd a rarch drcor or h Aan Amrcan Mdal o Honor


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Rvw rom 1996 nl 1998. i am ral or h commandan and ch oa ndr whom i rvd who rconzd h val o h wo projc.

i compld h mancrp whl rvn a Hadqarr u.s. Army Pacc

a For shar, Hawa, rom 2001 o 2005. i hank h commandn nraland ch o a hr who ppord my work. in 2003 h Cnr o MlaryHory convnd a rvw panl or h mancrp. i am ral o h panlmmbr who rcommndaon rld n a mch mprovd nal prodc. icompld rvon whl rvn a command horan a Hadqarr u.s.eropan Command, Pach Barrack, grmany. Alhoh u.s. eropan Com-mand on h ohr d o h world rom h Pacc, h global War on trror-m rmnd Amrcan vrywhr o h connn nd or cora, loyaly,and lana kll or mmbr o or armd orc n war and pac.

Many popl hlpd m wr h book; hy hav wad ar oo lon o

compld. My dp rr ha my ahr, Col. gor C. McNahon, u.s.Marn Corp, R., dd no lv o h nal rl. A comba vran wh h1 Marn Dvon n World War ii, Kora, and Vnam, h ncorad m nh book arly a b adly pad away bor complon. A m wnon, h N vran bcam my adopv ncl. th book cold no hav bncompld who hr nro aanc, pcally hroh vran aoca-on, ncldn h Mlary inllnc srvc Aocaon o Norhrn Cal-orna, h Mlary inllnc srvc Vran o Hawa, h Mlary inl-lnc srvc Vran o sohrn Calorna, h Japan Amrcan Vrano Amrca, and h Mlary inllnc srvc Norhw Aocaon.

in parclar i wan o hank ho ndvdal who aanc ovr manyyar wa abov and byond h call o dy: Jry J. Clark, sanly L. Falk,shya Khara, Harry K. Fkhara, Rchard K. Hayah, s. Phl iho, sphnM. Payn, thoma t. sakamoo, Jam t. snvaa, John A. taam, td t. t-kyama, Warrn M. tnh, and Roy t. uyhaa.

For rarch aanc, my pcal hank o h a a h Combnd ArmRarch Lbrary, Hoovr inon, Japan Amrcan Naonal Mm,MacArhr Mmoral, Mlary Hory in, Naonal Archv, and NaonalJapan Amrcan Horcal socy. i m alo hank h Pblhn Dvona a h Cnr o Mlary Hory, ncldn Dan M. Donovan, who car-

lly rvwd h x, and s. L. Dowdy, who ranlad my va noon ooraphy no propr map.spcal hank o o my amly who wachd h projc volv, and p-

cally o my w, who who conan ppor and ncoramn h bookwold nvr hav bn compld.

i am olly rponbl or all nrpraon and conclon, a wll a anyrror ha may appar. th vw xprd n h book ar mn and do no nc-arly rfc h ocal polcy or poon o h Dparmn o h Army, hDparmn o Dn, or h u.s. govrnmn.

i hav bn prvld o m o many mn and womn o h ra n-raon who rvd hr conry o loyally drn ch ryn m. to hmall i ow a ra db. tradonal Japan clr dnh bwn wo

v


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knd o oblaon. g a mpl oblaon on ncr n xchan or avor,, ood, or rvc. on a mor complx and dmandn oblaon, ch ah db yo ow yor parn or brnn yo no h world and ran yo o

adlhood. Accordn o henccld Jn amcn h, n o proond ha can nvr b complly rpad n on lm. My db oh lar knd; i can only hop ha my rnd wll accp h book a a paralrpaymn o hr r, panc, and many kndn.

sar-Vahnn, grmany JAMes C. McNAugHtON15 A 2006 Command Horan

u.s. eropan Command

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Conn

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1. tHe u.s. ARMY AND tHe Nisei BeFORe PeARL HARBOR . . . . 3

t N en U.s. am, 1940 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Jn n amc, 1885 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

t Ml inllnc Dvn p Ww Jn, 1940 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

a M sk: ebln Jn-Lnuscl, al ocb 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

t oc Nvl inllnc p W wJn, 1940 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2. FOuRtH ARMY iNteLLigeNCe sCHOOL, NOVeMBeR1941MAY 1942. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

yu Cun Nd yu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Nw tm h Cm t pv yu Ll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

shkaa ga Na, Dcmb 1941 M 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

D hm nd ov, sn 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3. Mis Nisei PiONeeRs, MAY 1942 FeBRuARY 1943. . . . . . . . . . . . 61

inllnc n hw: pl hb Mdw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

inllnc n alk: Dndn alun ilnd . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

inllnc n su pcc a: t gudlcnlCmn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

inllnc n suw pcc a: t alldtnl nd in scn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

pu Nw gun, ocb 1942 bu 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

W Dmn Dcn t m N Cmb Un . . . . . . . . . . 85

4. CAMP sAVAge, 19421943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Jn . a tcncl Dc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

rcun sudn, Jun Dcmb 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

tcn nd Lnn Cm sv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108


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4. CAMP sAVAge, 19421943 (Connd)

mn Lnu tm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

5. CAMP sAVAge, 19431944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

rcun sudn, 1943 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

am innv Jn Lnu scl, Unv Mcn, 1942 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Nv Jn Lnu scl, Unv Cld Buld, 1942 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

o Jn-Lnu pm, 1942 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

6. Mis Nisei iN tHe CAMPAigNs OF 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

t alun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

su pcc a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

Nvj Cd tlk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

suw pcc a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Cnl pcc a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

7. Mis Nisei seRViNg iN tHe CONtiNeNtAL uNiteD

stAtes, 19431945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195t Ml inllnc Dvn pl hb . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

pcc od Bl scn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

pn W inn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

pclcl W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

snl inllnc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

pcc Ml inllnc rc scn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

t Mnn pjc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

am M svc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

ii amd C tnn Cn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

pn Ml gvnmn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

sum hdqu alld exdn c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

Ml inllnc tnn Un . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229


su pcc a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

suw pcc a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

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8. Mis Nisei iN tHe CAMPAigNs OF 1944 (Connd)

Cnl pcc a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

Cn-Bum-ind t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

nk hc nd hd rv incdn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

9. FORt sNeLLiNg, 1944 1945. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

s scl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

rcun sudn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

scl on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

N n Wmn am C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

gdu anmn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

o Jn-Lnu pm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

tnn invn nd occun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326


Lbn pln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

ind-Bum nd Cn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

Cnl pcc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

oknw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

am a c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

pn on Olympic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

11. Mis Nisei AND tHe suRReNDeR OF JAPAN,August sePteMBeR 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

t Jn sund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385

rnl sund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395su a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396

Cn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

Cnl pcc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

t pln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411


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12. Mis Nisei AND tHe eARLY OCCuPAtiON OF JAPAN,sePteMBeR 1945 FeBRuARY 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

snlln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

N av n Jn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

Cun inllnc C, W Cm tl,nd pu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

o occun Du . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

ePiLOgue: Mis Nisei AND HistORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457

BiBLiOgRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

iNDeX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491

tablN.

1. smmary o sdn Pronnl or MisLs Acadmc trmNovmbr 1941 Fbrary 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

2. smmary o sdn Pronnl or MisLs Acadmc trmA 1944 March 1946. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

Char

1. Dpoon o enld N MisLs grada, 19424 1944 . . . . . . . . . 1242. Dpoon o enld N MisLs grada, 19424 1945 . . . . . . . . . 321

Map

1. Wrn Dn Command, 1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222. soh and sohw Pacc Ara, Opraon,

May 1942 Fbrary 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673. War Rlocaon Cnr, 1942 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

4. Japan-Lana trann Proram, 1942 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1545. th Alan, Opraon, 1942 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1676. soh and sohw Pacc Ara, Opraon, 1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1737. Mlary inllnc srvc, N Ln Locaon,

1942 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1968. soh and sohw Pacc Ara, Opraon,

Novmbr 1943 Dcmbr 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2399. Cnral Pacc Ara, Opraon, 1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

10. Chna-Brma-inda, Ara o Opraon, 1944 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27411. Brma, Opraon, 1944 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

12. th Phlppn, Opraon, 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333


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N.

13. Cnral and sohw Pacc Ara, Opraon,Janary A 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

14. Ryky iland, Opraon, March Jn 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35615. Japan Forc, Pacc thar, A spmbr 1945 . . . . . . . . . . . 38816. Occpd Japan, u.s. un Locaon, Janary 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43317. Occpd Japan, Prncpal Rcpon Cnr,

30 spmbr 1945 31 Dcmbr 1948 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

illraon

John F. Ao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10John Wckrln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Ka e. Ramn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24thr nrcor a Cry Fld. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Claroom a Cry Fld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

N dn n Chnaown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Aack on Parl Harbor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Nwpapr annoncn or o Japan Amrcan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46N oldr and h mohr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Makn a broadca o r Japan oldr o rrndr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72g 2 scon, XiV Corp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75inrroan a Japan pronr, Papa Nw gna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Camp sava, Mnnoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95N volnrn or Mlary inllnc srvc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105tachn Japan acc a Camp sava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109tmporary barrack a Camp sava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111Harh wnr a Camp sava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111Mlary inllnc srvc Lana school mblm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112Barrack pokr, Camp sava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113Facly a Camp sava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117top Cla a Camp sava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118Fv N oldr who compld arborn rann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

two N oldr vn a rlocaon camp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128N nrcor and dn, Ann Arbor, Mchan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149inn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168N oldr qonn Japan pronr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169two N on Kka, Alan iland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171Qonn a Japan pronr, Vlla Lavlla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177sdn monorn Japan horwav nw broadca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

N wh h Army snal inllnc srvc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217Rcn rada workn n h ranlaon pool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219two N dmonran a Japan machn n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Dy Oaa and amma on Boanvll, soh Pacc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237Alld tranlaor and inrprr scon, Brban . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243


16/533

xv

p

N wh h 6h Rado sqadron Mobl n inda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249trry Mzar and h am, Nw gna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

Harry Fkhara wh wondd pronr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253Frank Hachya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

N nrroan Japan pronr, sapan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266Hoch Kbo comorn a chld, sapan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267two N wh gnral Mrrll ar Bal o Nhpm ga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

N wh caprd Japan fa, Brma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290N color ard, For snlln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301Colonl Ramn commonn Ao a a major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303tmporary barrack known a h trky Farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312Womn Army Corp dn a chor pracc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

grada hadn ovra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319Mrrll Maradr vran wh Ramn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327Hnry szk n Lzon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

N hlpn qon a Japan oldr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343thr N, Brma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345Qonn a pronr, iwo Jma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

N lana am wh h marn, iwo Jma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354two N qonn a Japan alor, Oknawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

N wh a caprd Japan oldr, Aka shma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363Wallac Amoka and Amrcan parol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364

sy Hah rnd wh h ahr, Oknawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267Alld tranlaor and inrprr scon, Manla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374N bcomn cond lnan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385gnral MacArhr mn wh h Japan pr corp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

N an n h Japan rrndr, Bonn iland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407inrroan a nor Japan ocr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408inrprn or Admral Flchr drn rrndr alk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409Fr womn MisLs rada dployn ovra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421L. Charl tada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

NyKbldn, tokyo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431

A N and parn ar hr rrn rom a camp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435N an wh h Conr inllnc Corp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439tad ichnokch wh gnl ym, Manla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441

N ran nrprn a a war crm rbnal, Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443War crm ral, Kwajaln Aoll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445Qonn a Japan hpmar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448Japan cvlan workn or h Cvl Cnorhp Dachmn . . . . . . . . . . 453

N wh Japan womn a a danc, tokyo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

illraon cory o h ollown orc: covr, 83, 105, 169, 171, 177,237, 253, 266, 280, 290, 343, 353, 360, 363, 364, 367, 374, 385, 393, 407, 408,


17/533

xv

443, 455, Naonal Archv; 10, 13, 38, 95, 109, 111 (), 219, 263, 301, 303, 421,Dn Lana in Forn Lana Cnr; 24, 36, 39, 75, 112, 113, 117,118, 213, 312, 317, 319, 327, 409, Ml inllnc svc Lnu scl

album, 1946; 46, Lbrary o Conr; 57, 128, 435, Bancro Lbrary, unvryo Calorna a Brkly; 111 (bm), 127, son ihmar; 149, 431, Fordhamunvry Pr; 217, 249, 439, 445, Mlary inllnc srvc Vran Clbo Hawa; 232, od pnm; 251, 345, Mlary inllnc srvc Ao-caon o Norhrn Calorna/Naonal Japan Amrcan Horcal socy;243, Vana Pr; 261, 354, Prw enrpr; 334, Hnry e. szk Fam-ly; 427, Cll maazn; 441, Naonal Japan Amrcan Horcal socy.All ohr llraon rom u.s. Army l.


18/533


19/533

Nisei LiNguists

Japan Amrcan n h

Mlary inllnc srvc

drn World War ii


20/533


21/533

1

th u.s. Army and h Nbor Parl Harbor

On 7 Dcmbr 1941, h und sa wa plnd no a war wh Japan.Br hn hroho ea Aa, soha Aa, and h Pacc ndd almoor yar lar wh h da and occpaon o Japan. th u.s. Army nddoldr who cold rad and pak Japan o rv a ranlaor, nrprr,and nrroaor. in an nprcdnd xprmn, h Army rnd o an h-nc rop had prvoly drdAmrcan czn o Japan ancryknown aN (cond nraon)and rand hoand or h Mlary inl-lnc srvc (Mis). Whl hr brohr wr hn n ialy and Franc whh amo 100h inanry Baalon and 442d Rmnal Comba tam (RCt),h Mis N oh n cr n h lana o hr parn homland o

hlp wn h war aan Japan or Amrca, h land o hr brh. in h wayhy ovrcam racal prjdc and provd hr loyaly, kll, and valor. Ar hwar, h Mlary inllnc srvc Lana school rw no h DnLana in Forn Lana Cnr, an ndrn lacy o h Nrvc o h naon.

t N en U.s. am, 19401941

Amrca dd no bn prparn or war n arn nl 1939, by whch mh war wa alrady ran arond h world. grmany had conqrd Ara,Czcholovaka, and Poland, qckly addn Franc and ohr conr and aack-n Bran by ar and a. in h Far ea, Japan had clahd wh h sov unon,


22/533

4 Nisei LiNguists

wa wan war n Chna, and hrand erop soha Aan colon.Amrca dvr hnc rop all ollowd h hn wh concrn, non moro han Japan mmran and hr Amrcan-born chldrn. Lk ohr Amr-

can who cold rac hr ancry o land nld n war, Japan Amrcanhopd ha Amrca cold avod opn confc wh Japan. i Japan and Amrcawn o war, hy wold hav mch o lo.1

in spmbr 1940 h u.s. Conr approvd h r pacm dra. thslcv srvc sym ban o ac all Amrcan, a local board acroAmrca rrd 16 mllon mn bwn h a o wny-on and hry-x.tha Dcmbr h board n o h r ndcon noc, and rh manpowroon ban o wll h Army rank. Dra noc rachd no vry cornr oAmrca, whhr black or wh, rch or poor, vn o rop ha had no y llyhard n Amrcan ocy. On h W Coa and n h trrory o Hawa, hy

rachd no h hom o h 284,000 Japan mmran and hr aml.2

Japan Amrcan commn rpondd wh prd. in la 1940 and no1941 hy hld v crmon or hr N on bn ndcd no hu.s. Army. (Mo o h parn, known a i [r nraon] had com oAmrca bor 1924, whn Conr had clod h door o rhr mmraonrom Japan. thr chldrn, h N, wr czn by brh.) th N and hr

parn hopd ha mlary rvc wold dpl any lnrn qon o hrloyaly o Amrca.

Whn h day cam or h yon mn o rpor or ndcon, many ownhod h sar and srp alond h Rn sn, ymbolzn h N

dal hra. th v ard paroc pch by commny ladr,rop phooraph, and radonal on n Japan and enlh. Promnn am-l hod banq n local raran. som aml av hr on radonalJapan nnn b (hoand-ch bl) no whch mal amly mmbrand rnd ach had wn on ch or ood lck. som i mohr wpopnly; ohr rmand ln. i ahr wlld wh prd, on rcallnhr own rvc n h Japan Army many yar bor. Now hr on woldnally an rconon a r Amrcan; hy cold b Yank ndsamra.3th i parn old hr on ha wa now hr dy pobly o d orhr conry. Abov all, hy m nvr drac h amly: No brn ham!

1 For rpon o Amrcan hnc rop o h war, John M. Blm, V W Vc:plc nd amcn Culu dun Wld W ii(Nw York: Harcor Brac Jovanovch, 1976),pp. 14781, and Ronald takak,Dubl Vc: a Mulculul h amc n Wld Wii(Boon: Ll, Brown, 2000). Jam C. McNahon, Japan Amrcan and h u.s. Army:A Horcal Rcondraon,am h (smmr/Fall 2003): 415.

2 gor Q. Flynn, t D, 19401973 (Lawrnc: unvry Pr o Kana, 1993), pp.952. in h yar bor slcv srvc ban, h Army xpandd hroh volnary nl-mn b allowd no N o nl, xcp or a w who nld n Naonal gard n.

3 th parn o Yank and samra wa r poplarzd n For R. Dll, ynknd smu: amc rl n emnc Mdn Jn (Nw York: Harpr & Row,

1965). in 1979 Joph D. Harrnon ld h bookynk smu: t sc rl N namc pcc Vc (Dro: Prw enrpr, 1979).


23/533

tHe u.s. ARMY AND tHe Nisei BeFORe PeARL HARBOR 5

Chr ran o: n Japan, Bnz! (tn hoand yar!) and n enlh,good lck!4

th N wr ollown n h oop o ohr Amrcan mnory rop

ha had d mlary rvc o oban rconon and cznhp. Drn hCvl War, Frdrck Dola had dcrbd h proron n vvd rm: Lh black man pon h pron h bra lr u.s.; l hm an al ponh bon and a mk on h holdr, and bll n h pock, and hr no powr on h arh whch can dny ha h ha arnd h rh o czn-hp. 5 For h N, mlary rvc wa an mporan n o accpanc no hmanram o Amrcan ocy. th N, lk Chn Amrcan and ohrmmran rop rom Aa bor hm, had rown p ndr h hadow oracal prjdc rnorcd by Amrcan ar o Japan mlarm. th Japa-n nvaon o Chna n 1937 had rad om Amrcan ar and hard o

Japan o nw hh.Donnn u.s. Army norm wa h clmnaon o h N nraon

r o rconzd cznhp. Whn h Japan Amrcan Czn La(JACL) hld naonal convnon n A 1940, Prdn Walr tkamoo

proclamd h ppor or slcv srvc and call[d] pon vry Amrcano Japan ancry o or h l ncary n dn o h conry. t-kamoo hml h xampl, holdn a common n h Ocr RrvCorp. H ccor a prdn ad h polcal calcl vn mor blnlyn Fbrary 1941: th nmbr ha w nd no h army on o h b v-

4 ello R. thorp, e Wnd, rn: an inm accun n inllnc oc n pcc, 193949 (Boon: gamb, 1969), pp. 78; Dak Kaawa,i nd N: t inn-mn y (Nw York: sabry Pr, 1967), pp. 3133; Maako M. Yohoka, J Rmmbr-n My Brohr Ykaka Mzar, Rmark a a Crmony, Dn Lana in, 9 May80, copy a Dn Lana in Forn Lana Cnr (DLiFLC), Monry, Cal.;Cah bwn two World, H Cho, and Foh Wll, sn J Mcu-Nw, 7 Mar 99;thoma t. sakamoo aoboraphy, p. 1, unpbl M, 1 Nov 96, copy n ahor l; John A.Radmakr, t a amcn: t Jn amcn n hw n Wld W ii(Palo Alo,Cal.: Pacc Book, 1951), p. 12.

in Japan vlla, h dparr crmony or nw concrp had bn radonal nc h1870. s Warrn J. Clar, Clo up o h Jap Fhn Man, inn Junl(Novmbr1942): 1623; John F. embr, su Mu: a Jn Vll (Chcao: unvry o ChcaoPr, 1939), pp. 109, 197201; Hll Lory, Jn Ml M: t am n Jn L(Nw York: Vkn, 1943), pp. 12, 1531; Rh Bndc, t Cnmum nd swd: p-n Jn Culu (Boon: Hohon Mfn, 1989), p. 311.

som Japan mraon o Amrca bor 1924 rld rom Japan concrpon law.Yamao ichhah, Jn n Und s: a Ccl sud pblm J-n immn nd t Cldn (sanord, Cal.: sanord unvry Pr, 1932), pp. 8788;Davd J. OBrn and sphn s. Fa, t Jn amcn exnc (Bloomnon: ind-ana unvry Pr, 1991), p. 11; Pal R. spckard, Jn amcn: t mn ndtnmn n enc gu (Nw York: twayn, 1996), p. 12.

5 Qo rom Arhr e. Barba and Flor Hnr, t Unknwn sld: Blck amcnt n Wld W i(Phladlpha: tmpl unvry Pr, 1974), p. x.


24/533

6 Nisei LiNguists

dnc a o whr or loyaly l.6 in h prn o 1941 a N polcal acv- rom sal Lak Cy, Mk Maaoka, wro a mmon o parom, whchh JACL pblhd a h Japan Amrcan Crd. Maaoka calld on ach

Japan Amrcan o dnd Amrca aan all nm, orn or domc,and o acvly am [h] d and oblaon a a czn, chrlly andwho any rrvaon whaovr. 7

th i l prd a n hr on n norm b cold carcly concalhr anxy ha h Amrcan-born oldr mh hav o h aan Japan.thy cold ak comor ha Prdn Frankln D. Roovl promd n 1940no o nd Amrcan boy no any orn war and ha h Army ad rolwa lmd o hmphrc dn. i hopd ha Amrca and Japan coldavod a war ha wold plac hr on n an mpobl poon.

Bca h u.s. Navy, Marn, and Ar Corp rd o accp mo N

nlmn, h Army grond Forc ook h N lc. By h prn o1941 mor han a hoand a schold Barrack n Hawa and a mlar nmbrn Army camp on h W Coa wr n bac rann. tohr wh hn-drd o hoand o ohr yon Amrcan mn, hy wr larnn h baco oldrn.8

thoma toko sakamoo rom san Jo, Calorna, wa h old on olvn chldrn. Whn h rnd xn, h i parn n hm o Japan orchooln. Ar or yar o dyn a a Japan hh chool, sakamoorrnd o Amrca n 1938 o hlp h parn ar a 43-acr r and v-abl arm. Whn h wa drad on 26 Fbrary 1941, a lar crowd o Japan

Amrcan rom h local commny cam o bd arwll o hm and vralohr N dra: A h ran lowly movd rom h hnsana Clara ranaon, h rcalld, h aml wavd boh h u.s. and Japan fa, ho-n bnz ovr and ovr. th cho obnz ayd wh m or a lon m, aw rod h ran wh mxd ln. A h old on, i worrd abo lavnmy parn and h arm, wondrn j how my parn wold alon who

6 Bll Hookawa, JaCL n Qu Juc: t h Jn amcn CznLu (Nw York: Wllam Morrow, 1982), p. 106. Walr tkamoo wa an ROtC rada o

h unvry o Calorna. An aorny, h hld a rrv common n h Jd Advoca gn-ral Corp. For ohr vdnc on JACL ppor or slcv srvc n 19401941, pccCzn, Oc 40; My Kawanam, A N Copl Fac h Dra Problm: goodbyForJ a Yar,pcc Czn, Dc 40; sabro Kdo, th Prdn Cornr, pcc Czn, Fb41. For h ovrall dlmma acn h N, sabro Kdo, saon o Japan n undsa today,pcc Czn, Jl 41.

7 Japan Amrcan Crd,pcc Czn, Apr 41, p. 1. in Mk Maaoka, t Cll MM Mk: an amcn s (Nw York: Wllam Morrow, 1987), p. 50, h word any omd rom h la phra. th rror commonly rpad.

8 For h xclon o pron o Aan dcn by h Army Ar Corp a h m, hHnry H. Arnold Papr, Ar Forc Horcal Rarch Ancy, Maxwll Ar Forc Ba, Alabama.th Army Ar Corp accpd a w N n 19411942, prhap nadvrnly. For h Navy

racal xclon polc n World War ii, Morr J. Macgror, Jr., inn amdc, 19401965 (Wahnon, D.C.: u.s. Army Cnr o Mlary Hory, 1981), pp. 58122.


25/533


my hlp. sakamoo ook h bac rann a For Lw, Wahnon, and wahn and o an anank company.9

Born on Ma n 1919, Hoch Kbo had andd pblc chool n Hawa and

hn nrolld a h unvry o Hawa, majorn n arclr. Boh h rand-ahr had oh n h Ro-Japan War. H wa drad on 30 Jn and ook

bac rann a schold Barrack, whr h wa and o h mdcal cono h 298h inanry.10

Alhoh h nrwar Army prmd no N nlmn, hoandandd coll orn h Rrv Ocr trann Corp (ROtC). By 1941vral hndrd N wr nrolld a h unvry o Hawa, whr hy wrallowd o jon ROtC and arn rrv common. Anohr 500 N wrnrolld a h unvry o Calorna a Brkly, whr hy wr no allowdn h ROtC. Whn h Army calld mo rrv ocr o acv dy n h

amn o 1940, w N wr ncldd.11

By h mmr o 1941 abo 3,000 N wor h bra lr u.s. thyrprnd h nrcon o wo or: how h Japan cam o Amrca andhow h u.s. Army prpard or war wh Japan, h war ha wold vnally

brn h or ohr n prvoly nmand way.

Jn n amc, 18851941

For ovr y yar mmran rom Japan had bn comn o Hawa andh manland and ayn o ra aml. thy ban arrvn n Hawa n 1885

o work on h planaon and rw n nmbr o compr ovr hal o Hawaarclral labor orc whn a w yar. som movd onward o h manlandhroh sal, san Francco, and Lo Anl o work a armr, hrmn,and hopkpr. th ranr rom a drn hor wr no lbl or

9 inrv, ahor wh thoma sakamoo, 16 Nov 87; thoma sakamoo, Ornal Japansdn Rfc on MisLs Lana trann,DLiLC glb (Dcmbr 1996): 1213; saka-moo aoboraphy, 1 Nov 96; Cah bwn two World.

10 Hoch Kbo, Mlary Boraphy, unpbl M, 1996, copy n ahor l; inrv, ahorwh Hoch Kbo, 30 Oc 87.

11 in 1939 a War Dparmn (WD) gnral sa ocr addrd h problm o h rownnmbr o N rrv ocr n Hawa by propon a pcal rrv n o b compodolly o h N. th g2 concrrd, b L. Col. R Braon o h Far earn scon d-ard, ayn hr loyaly cold nvr b rd. i h Army dd no plan o hm, h rcom-mndd nad ha hy mply no b allowd o nroll n advancd ROtC. Mmo, R. s. Braonor Ch, inllnc Br, g2, b: Hawaan Dp. Rrv Ocr o Japan exracon, 4Fb 39, nmarkd oldr; scry-Cla gn Corrp, 19261946, Far earn Br, Oc o h Dr oinl g2, Rcord grop (Rg) 165, Naonal Archv and Rcord Admnraon (NARA).

in h mmr o 1940 h Army calld vral N rrv ocr o acv dy n Hawaalon wh non-N. sxn N rrv ocr hppd o wh h 100h inanry Baalonn Jn 1942. in Novmbr 1942 h Hawaan Dparmn rpord had hr N rrv o-cr rmann on acv dy and hry-wo a y ncalld. som o h wr calld o acv

dy n 1943 o rv wh h 442d RCt. thoma D. Mrphy,ambd n am (Honoll:unvry o Hawa Pr, 1954), pp. 65, 67, 107.


26/533

8 Nisei LiNguists

cznhp. th 1900 cn cond 85,393 Japan lvn n Amrca, o whom72 prcn lvd n Hawa.12

Lk h Chn bor hm, h Japan nconrd racal prjdc n h

Nw World. th Chn had ndrd prjdc aan Ornal ha bandrn h Calorna gold Rh and clmnad n h Chn exclon Aco 1882. Japan dramac 1905 vcory ovr Ra nfamd an-Japan prj-dc n Amrca. th Calorna a llar and h u.s. Conr rhrrrcd Japan mmraon. th Japan ovrnmn acd o proc czn and n 19071908 noad a nlman armn wh h undsa ha rrcd rhr mmraon o amly mmbr. in 1913 Calorna

pad an aln land law ha prohbd ndvdal nlbl or cznhprom prchan land. Ohr a oon ollowd . th Japan prd blvd ndr a clod o pcon, prjdc, and lal rrcon on h par o

hr non-Aan nhbor.13

Dp h dcrmnaon, hndrd o i rvd n h u.s. Navy rom h1890 nl 1907, ally a m mn and cook. Whn h ussMn blw pn Havana Harbor n 1898, vn i on board lo hr lv. Drn h FrWorld War, ovr a hoand i, moly rom Hawa, rvd n h u.s. Army.Ar h war h vran oh o bcom naralzd czn. in 1925 hu.s. sprm Cor rld aan hm on h ba o rac, b n 1935 h u.s.Conr rvrd h dcon and rand hm naralzaon rh n xchanor hr mlary rvc.14

By 1920 h poplaon o Japan dcn lvn on h manland und

sa and Hawa had rn o 220,122. By h m Conr lammd h door orhr mmraon rom Japan n 1924, h i had alrady ablhd amland connd o row n nmbr. th 1940 cn cond 284,731 pron oJapan dcn lvn n Hawa and on h manland. By h m mor hanhal wr czn by brh n a land ha dd no lly accp hm.15 Mo Japan

12 For ovrvw o Japan Amrcan hory, Harry H. L. Kano,Jn amcn:t evlun subculu, 2d d. (enlwood Cl, N.J.: Prnc-Hall, 1976); Davd J.OBrn and sphn s. Fa, t Jn amcn exnc (Bloomnon: indana un-vry Pr, 1991); spckard, Jn amcn; Ronald takak, sn m Dn

s: a h an amcn (Boon: Ll, Brown, 1989).13 Ror Danl, t plc pjudc: t an-Jn Mvmn n Cln nd

sul Jn exclun, 2d d. (Brkly: unvry o Calorna Pr, 1977); gary Y.Okhro, Cn : t an-Jn Mvmn n hw, 18651945 (Phladlpha: tmplunvry Pr, 1991).

14 Bll Hookawa,N: t Qu amcn (Nw York: Wllam Morrow, 1969), p. 394. Foron i World War i vran, eln snada saraohn, t i, p pn: anol h (Palo Alo, Cal.: Pacc Book, 1983), pp. 7174.

15 For a prcpv dcrpon o Japan Amrcan bor h war, Ror Danl, Japa-n Amrca, 19301941: An ehnc Commny n h gra Dpron,Junl W(Ocobr 1985): 3549. For mor rcn dald d, eln H. tamra, amcnzn,acculun, nd enc idn: t N gnn n hw (urbana: unvry o illno

Pr, 1994), and Davd K. Yoo, gwn U N: rc, gnn, nd Culu mn J-n amcn Cln, 19241949 (urbana: unvry o illno Pr, 2000).


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Amrcan wr ll ranr o hr nhbor. th avra Amrcan cold only an aln prnc whn h Amrcan mln po. in Hawa, JapanAmrcan comprd mor han a hrd o h poplaon and ormd hrvn

commn whn ha mlracal ocy. thy wr movn o o h plana-on no ohr cor o h conomy, b hy rmand ndr h domnaon oh wh olarchy. Nvrhl, n h 1940 lcon hrn N wr lcdo h rroral llar.16 On h W Coa, Japan Amrcan mad p amch mallr prcna o h poplaon. thy workd a armr or a kpro mall hop. Many lvd n h Japanown or Ll tokyo o Lo Anl,san Francco, and sal.

in Hawa and on h manland, h i rad aml and bl h n-on o h mmran commny, ncldn chool, chrch, mpl, andcvc oranzaon. som wr Bddh, and om wr Chran. A h yar

pad, om i rrnd o Japan; mo abandond h dram o rrnn.th Japan ovrnmn rmand olco o bjc rdn n Amrcaand manand conla n Honoll and h major W Coa por c. thimpral Japan Navy prodcally n rann vl o call a Amrcan

por, whr h local Japan commn alway rd hm warmly. thi n hr chldrn ar rlar chool hor o Japan-lana chool.thy hopd hr chldrn wold rman conncd o hr ancral homland.B hy cold ha or all Amrca al, wa a ar br plac han Japanor hr aml o lv. Alhoh hy wr dnd cznhp, h i hadmad hr lv n Amrca, a conry ha hld ra prom or hr chldrn.

th N had an olook vry drn rom hr parn. Born and radn Amrca bwn 1910 and 1940, h N andd pblc chool and pokenlh or, n Hawa, pdn Hawaan, amon hr rnd. th parn om-m n hr chldrn o Japan o v rlav or and chool. B Amrcanand Japan obrvr wr nanmo ha a har h N wr rown pa Amrcan boy and rl. th lr o Amrcan ocy and clr provd arronr han h dan call o hr parn homland.

th N wr a problmac nraon rom h bnnn, an objc o con-crn or hr i parn and cholar alk.17 Lk mo chldrn o mmran,hy rw p bwn wo world. th N lvd n wo oc, wro on

ocolo a h unvry o Hawa: th hom, h lana chool, and hJapan commny ormd on. srrondn h mallr world wa h r oAmrcan Hawa. Mch o wha h chldrn larnd n on ocy hy wr

16 Lawrnc H. Fch,hw pn, hw exclln: an enc nd plcl h(Honoll: B Pr, 1961), p. 136. For a vvd porra o Hawaan planaon l n h 1930, h novl by Mlon Mrayama, all i akn i M Bd (Honoll: unvry o HawaPr, 1988). Mrayama rvd wh h Mis n h Chna-Brma-inda thar.

17 For xampl, Yamao ichhah, th Problm o h scond-gnraon Japan, n

Jn n Und s (Nw York: Arno Pr, 1969), and edward K. sron, t scnd-gnn Jn pblm (sanord, Cal.: sanord unvry Pr, 1934).


28/533

10 Nisei LiNguists

xpcd o or or drard n hohr.18 th pll o amlaon waron. From hr clama hy

larnd h o Amrcan pop-lar clr: mc, mov, lan, andpor. From hr chool hy larndh cvc clr o nrwar Amrca:Wahnon, Jron, and Lncoln;h pld o allanc; and an nnloyaly o hr conry.19

On h W Coa, h b knowno h N nraon wa John FjoAo, born n 1909 n Hollywood, Cal-

orna, whr h ahr workd a aardnr.20 H parn rd aca-dmc achvmn and parom. Hmohr hn pcr o Wahnon,Lncoln, and J n h amly parloro npr hr chldrn.

enconrn prjdc arly n l,Ao rpondd by dyn hardr. in1922 h ran or dn body prdn

o h jnor hh chool; whn h won, h prncpal dolvd h dn ov-

rnmn rahr han prm a Japan boy o ak oc. Whn h ncdn wapblczd, Ao bcam h conc N; n h 1920 and 1930 i parn nohrn Calorna prd h xampl on hr chldrn.21

Ao wa h hh chool cla valdcoran, havn achvd h hh aca-dmc rankn. A klll dbar, h nvrhl wa dnd a op po on hchool am n h naonal champonhp n 1926. th pblhr o h L

anl tm ponord Ao o accompany h wnnr o Wahnon, D.C.,

18 Mrphy,ambd n am, p. 11.19 For xampl, Fch,hw pn, pp. 26398. For a nancd dy o h Amrcanza-

on campan n Hawa and h N, tamra, amcnzn, acculun, nd encidn, pp. 4588.

20 Kyoh Yano, Parcpan n h Manram o Amrcan L amd Drawback o RacalPrjdc and Dcrmnaon, n Jn a nd M.i.s.: Jn-amcn sld n Ml inllnc svc, Wld W ii, d. tad ichnokch (Lo Anl: Mlary inll-nc srvc Clb o sohrn Calorna, 1988), pp. 432; inrv, Lon Dn and erc sal whJohn F. Ao, 10 Jan 86, Naonal Japan Amrcan Horcal socy (NJAHs), san Francco,Cal.; inrv, ahor wh John F. Ao, 30 Oc 87; John F. Ao, Obrvaon o a Calorna

N, inrv by Marc Landy, unvry o Calorna a Lo Anl, 1971. For a pronal appr-caon, Jam Oda, sc embddd n Mc Cbl (Norhrd, Cal.: J. Oda, 1993), pp.11324.

21 s, or xampl, tad ichnokch, John Ao and h M.i.s., n ichnokch,Jn a nd M.i.s., pp. 13.

Jn . a


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whr h wa nrodcd o h Japan ambaador. Ar a yar o Japan-lana dy n Japan, h nrd Brown unvry on a Japan ovrnmncholarhp. H ollowd h wh a law dr rom Harvard n 1934 and hn

workd n Nw York (19341936) and Japan and Manchra (19361939), pracc-n Amrcan and Japan commrcal law. H rrnd o Calorna n 1939,

pad h a bar xam, and o o pracc law n Lo Anl.in Aprl 1941 Ao wa ndcd no h Army. Whn h 31-yar-old prva,

r cla, rpord o D Company, 69h Qarrmar Baalon (Lh Man-nanc), a Camp Haan, Rvrd, Calorna, a Rlar Army mar rannarld, J wha w nd, anohr oddamnd lawyr. H n Ao o hmoor pool o b a par clrk. th xmplary N, alnd and ovrdcad,

bcam j anohr oldr n h rapdly xpandn Army.A war approachd, many Amrcan bcam ncranly pco o h

loyaly o h N rardl o h vdnc o amlaon o Amrcan val.Many wh Amrcan ond ppor or hr pcon n h anl o u.s. andJapan law ha l many N wh dal cznhp, clamn h a proo oloyaly o h mpror. th rh wa mor complcad. unl 1924 Japan ao-macally xndd cznhp o chldrn born abroad o Japan naonal. Ar1924 h parn had o rr hr chldrn wh h local conla or Japa-n cznhp. Many i, dnd u.s. cznhp hmlv, ook h mplp or hr chldrn. Ralzn ha hr anaon cold dal cznhpa propaanda, N ladr zd h a y anohr way o dmonrahr loyaly. thy ncorad and ad N o l wh Japan conla

h ncary paprwork o rvok hr Japan cznhp. Nvrhl, hWar Dparmn wa cnly concrnd abo h ha n h prn o1941 h Mlary inllnc Dvon (MiD) rcommndd ha Conr allowndvdal o clary hr a mply by warn an oah o allanc o hund sa n naralzaon cor.22

Morovr, om pcd ha Japan wa concrpn Amrcan-born No rv n h impral Japan Army. in 1940 snaor gy M. gll (D-iowa)vn chard ha Japan wa concrpn N or pona, whch h JACLvoroly prod. N vn Japan n h 1930 ndd rkd concrpon

22 Frank F. Chman, t Bmb pl: t Lw nd Jn amcn (Chcao: Japa-n Amrcan Czn La, 1981), pp. 16768; Mrphy, ambd n am, pp. 1724;Dal Cznhp, nenccld Jn amcn h, rv. d., d. Bran Nya, (NwYork: Fac on Fl, 2001); Okhro, Cn , pp. 20104; tamra,amcnzn, acculu-n, nd enc idn, pp. 8488. For War Dparmn mmo on h o dal cznhp n1941, scry-Cla gn Corrp, 19261946, Far earn Br, Oc o h Dr o inl g2, Rg165, NARA. to avod complcaon, om N rnoncd hr Japan cznhp bor hyravld o Japan. Rchard sakakda mohr dd h n h mmr o 1941 on bhal o hr on

ar h crly nld n h Army and wa n o h Phlppn. Rchard sakakda and Wayns. Kyoak,a s n t Md(Lanham, Md.: Madon Book, 1995), pp. 13738.


30/533

12 Nisei LiNguists

whl n Japan, b hr no vdnc ha N n Hawa or on h manlandwr bn concrpd. Nvrhl, h accaon crclad wdly.23

For h u.s. ovrnmn and mo wh Amrcan, N loyaly rmand

an opn qon. in h amn o 1941 h Wh Ho crly dpachd annvaor o mak an ndpndn amn o h Japan problm. Arconrrn wh Army and Navy nllnc and h Fdral Bra o inva-on, Cr B. Mnon rpord ha h N wr approxmaly nny-h

prcn loyal. th N, h concldd, ar pahcally ar o how hloyaly. thy ar no Japan n clr. thy ar ornr o Japan. 24

Anohr apc o h N clr ha rad pcon wa hr Japan-lana chool. Lk ohr mmran, i parn p prva lanachool o hr chldrn cold larn omhn o h Japan lana andclr. typcally h chool hld cla on hor ach arnoon ar h

pblc chool l o, a wll a on sarday mornn. Cacaan Amrcanpond o h chool a on mor xampl o how vn h chldrn o Japa-n mmran wr bn ndocrnad no Japan clr and loyaly o hmpror.25 in ac, h chool dd ll o nclca Japan val n h Nand vn l n achn h lana. For mo N rnorcd hr n o

23pcc Czn, Jan 41, p. 1. For a dcon o N rvn n h Japan Army bor hwar, John J. sphan,hw und rn sun: Jn pln Cnqu pl h-

b (Honoll: unvry o Hawa Pr, 1984), pp. 3537, 44; and John J. sphan, Hjackd byuopa: Amrcan Nkk n Manchra,am Junl23, no. 3 (Wnr 19971998): 2324,no 168.

Drn h Ro-Japan War o 19041905, a nmbr o i rrnd hom rom Hawa orv n h impral Japan Army and Navy, whch may hav bn h orc o wh Amrcanconcrn n 19401941. s sphan,hw und rn sun, p. 15; Frankln Odo and Kaz-ko snoo,a pcl h Jn n hw, 18851924 (Honoll: Bhop Mm,1985), p. 206.

For h aoboraphy o a Calorna-born N who wa concrpd no h Japan Army, iwao Pr sano, on tund D n sb: t od Jn-amcn poW(Lncoln: unvry o Nbraka Pr, 1997). som N who had rvd n h Japan Armyn h 1930 bqnly rrnd o h und sa, vn hoh orn mlary rvc co

hm hr u.s. cznhp. On wa trry takh Do, who rand h u.s. cznhp andarnd h slvr sar a an nrprr wh h 3d Marn Dvon on iwo Jma. John Wckrln,Japan Amrcan Play Val Rol n und sa inllnc srvc n World War ii (1946),r prnd nhkub Mnc, 27 Oc5 Nov 71, rprnd a a pamphl. Harrnon, ynksmu, p. 276. Anohr wa Karl Yonda, who wa born n Calorna and n o Japan, whrh wa concrpd no h Japan Army. in 1927 h capd and rrnd o Amrca. H vol-nrd or h Mis and lar rvd n Chna-Brma-inda.

24 Mrphy,ambd n am, pp. 3132; gr Robnon,B od pdn: Drnd innmn Jn amcn (Cambrd, Ma.: Harvard unvry Pr, 2001),

pp. 6572.25 Japan-lana school, n enccld Jn amcn h; Mrphy,

ambd n am, pp. 811; Okhro, Cn , pp. 15356; toyoom Mormoo,Jn

amcn nd Culul Cnnu: Mnnn Lnu nd h (Nw York: garland,1997).


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hmlv a Amrcan, no Japan.26Cary McWllam, Calorna jornal- and dor ot Nn, downplayd

h chool: th ac o h mar ha h chool wr nvr cc-l. th ypcal Japan yonr, hwro, pn a prco hor and on-hal on p ball a h clamaand calln h achr nam n Amr-can lan whch h prndd no ondrand. Phycally h wa n chool;mnally h wa makn a rn arondl nd or anohr ochdown. H wa

rl. H cond h mn. A hon, h dahd o rdom.27

som N dd pay anon andacqrd a workn knowld o hJapan lana, b hy wr hxcpon. Br. gn. John Wckr-ln, who ablhd h Forh Armyinllnc school n 1941, lar con-cldd ha Japan lana choolcrad and ncorad by h Japan

ovrnmn bor h war o manan wh h homland had no achvdh rl wh whch hy wr nrally crdd. 28

som wn o xprnc Japan or hmlv. inxpnv amhp armad ravl bwn h und sa and Japan rlavly ay. Many i madh rrn rp or n hr chldrn o ay wh rlav. Ohr rop ch aChn and Flpno prodcally ravld back o hr homland or n hrchldrn. By on ma, 50,000 N vd Japan bor h war. Prhap20,000 had rrnd o h und sa by h amn o 1941. 29 som wn o

26 For xampl, Danl K. inoy,Jun Wnn (enlwood Cl, N.J.: Prnc-Hall, 1967), pp. 3538.

27 Cary McWllam,pjudc: Jn-amcn, smbl rcl inlnc (Boon:Ll, Brown, 1944), pp. 12123. tamra alo mnmz h c o h chool n Hawa: tam-ra, amcnzn, acculun, nd enc idn, pp. 14661. A arly a 1932 ichhahdclard h lana chool a alr. ichhah,Jn n Und s, pp. 32633.

28 Wckrln, Japan Amrcan Play Val Rol.29 spckard, Jn amcn, pp. 8990. spckard v h nmbr o Kb a 10,000,

b h appl only o h manland. Accordn o h War Rlocaon Ahory, o h 101,278pron n camp n 1942, 9,892 wr Kb. spckard,Jn amcn, p. 167; War RlocaonAhory, t evcud pl: a Qunv Dcn (Wahnon, D.C.: govrnmnPrnn Oc, 1946), abl 2734. N rom Hawa may hav ravld o Japan n vn larr

nmbr. s alo McWllam,pjudc, pp. 32122, and Jacob nBrok al.,pjudc, W,nd Cnun (Brkly: unvry o Calorna Pr, 1954), pp. 27982.

Jn Wckln


32/533

14 Nisei LiNguists

Japan or chooln. For ohr h rp rld rom a amly mrncy ch ah dah o a parn.

N who vd Japan and hn rrnd bcam known aKb (rrndo Amrca).30 Many Amrcan ard ha h Kb had bn xpod o hbacll o Japan mlarm. th c wr ally q h oppo.upon arrvn n Japan, h N wr on oraczd or hr nny pch,mannr, and dr. Mnon rpord: Many o ho who vd Japan b-qn o hr arly Amrcan dcaon com back wh addd loyaly o hund sa. in ac a ayn ha all a N nd a rp o Japan o maka loyal Amrcan o o hm. th Amrcan dcad Japan a boor n Japanand rad a a ornr. 31

Whl dyn n Japan, Kb on wr xpod o complory mlaryrann n Japan mddl and hh chool. thoma sakamoo ook ch ran-n whl andn hh chool n Japan. Whn h radad n 1938, a JapanArmy major ord hm a common n h Army. sakamoo dclnd bcah wa an Amrcan czn. H rcalld ha h Japan ocr bcam aadand wavd h word and calld h yon man a raor o h homland. saka-moo rrnd oon arward o h ral hom, Calorna.32

A dplomac non ro n h amn and wnr o 19401941, h u.s.mbay n tokyo conacd N vn n Japan and rd hm o rrn hom.tho who had bn n Japan h lon rd h mo, om havn almocomplly lo hr ably o pak enlh. Now hy wr ca adr n Hawaor on h W Coa wh ll chanc o ndn work. tho who nrolld nAmrcan hh chool wr oldr han mo ohr dn. thy omm ondhmlv rjcd by boh world. John Ao dcrbd h Kb xprnc,Wh ovr wny yar o clo nhn aan prjdc and dcrmnaonhapd pon hm by chavnc lmn n boh h und sa and Japan, hwa by 1941 alrady a mnally and morally bal-condond vran.33

in h mpndn cr, h Army wold com o prz h Kb or hr lan-a kll. Who br o ranla or nrpr ha dcl lana? B on

30 th War Rlocaon Ahory rrvd h rm Kb or N who had pn hr or mor

yar n Japan. s Alxandr H. Lhon, t gvnn Mn: gnl pncl nd rc-mmndn Bd n exnc Jn rlcn Cm (Prncon: Prncon un-vry Pr, 1945), pp. 7980; spckard,Jn amcn, pp. 8990; Bran Maar Hayah,Dmczn enm: t Jn amcn innmn(Prncon, N.J.: Prncon unvr-y Pr, 2004), pp. 4548, 16163.

31pl hb ack: hn b Jn Cmm n invn plhb ack, 39 par (Wahnon, D.C: govrnmn Prnn Oc, 1946), p. 6, p. 2685.

32 Cah bwn two World.33 John F. Ao, trb o N n g2, Arlnon Naonal Cmry, 2 Jn 63, prnd n

trb o Japan Amrcan Mlary srvc n World War ii, Cnnl rcd(11 Jn63), p. 7. in Ocobr 1940 and aan n Fbrary 1941, h u.s. mbay advd all u.s. czn olav Japan.n rln Und s, 1940, vol. 4, t e(Wahnon, D.C.:

govrnmn Prnn Oc, 1955), pp. 93055; n rln Und s, 1941, vol.5, t e(Wahnon, D.C.: govrnmn Prnn Oc, 1962), pp. 397 453.


33/533


h am Kb l mo knly h anh o h wo conr on o war, or,a Ao p , ho b qald or g2 rvc wr ho who nmnalharrn or rlav and clo rnd d h ron. 34

t Ml inllnc Dvn p W w Jn, 19401941

th War Dparmn Mlary inllnc Dvon wa ll prpard or warwh Japan or any ohr conry. War Plan Orange calld or h Army o dndh Phlppn iland n h vn o war wh Japan, b h Navy wold wa hdcv campan.35 MiD l had dwndld n z drn h nrwar yar.Comba n lackd nllnc pronnl and h pcalzd chool o ranhm, and w ocr vald nllnc a a carr. On xcpon, Col. Rs. Braon, hadd MiD Far earn Branch ar 1937. A W Pon rada,

h had rvd hr or n Japan.36

th snal inllnc srvc (sis) ard ll br n apprhndn Japa-n plan. i had rado nrcp aon arn Japan rom For shar, Hawa,and For McKnly n h Phlppn. in Wahnon, D.C., a handl o ocr,nld mn, and cvlan had bn dcrypn and ranlan Japan dplo-mac ma nc A 1940. Howvr, wh h low volm o manrcpd and dcrypd, h Army ndd only a handl o ranlaor.37

By arly 1941 wa clar ha h Mlary inllnc Dvon had o pr-par or a pobl confc wh Japan. i h u.s. and Japan Arm holdm on om r balld, comba nllnc wold b crcal. th wold

rqr oldr who cold rad and pak Japan. th War Dparmn ndd

34 Ao, trb o N n g2, p. 7.35 Lo Moron, s nd Cmmnd: t tw y, u.s. Army n World War ii

(Wahnon, D.C.: Oc o h Ch o Mlary Hory, 1962), pp. 21127; Bran M. Lnn,gudn em: t U.s. am nd pcc, 19021940 (Chapl Hll: unvry o NorhCarolna Pr, 1997).

36 Brc W. Bdwll, h Ml inllnc Dvn, Dmn amgnl s: 17751941 (Frdrck, Md.: unvry Pblcaon o Amrca, 1986); John P.Fnnan and Romana Danyh, Ml inllnc, Army Lna sr (Wahnon, D.C.:

u.s. Army Cnr o Mlary Hory, 1998), pp. 4160; Davd Kahn, th und sa Vwgrmany and Japan n 1941, nKnwn on enm: inllnc amn b twWld W, d. ern R. May (Prncon: Prncon unvry Pr, 1984), pp. 476501; Lad-la Farao, t Bkn sl: on Mc nd sc rd pl hb (Nw York:Random Ho, 1967), pp. 27992.

37 Ronald Lwn, t amcn Mc: Cd, C nd D Jn (Nw York:Farrar sra grox, 1982); Dan t. Pny, th u.s. Mlary inllnc srvc: th ulraMon, n Ul nd am a c n Wld W ii, d. Lw F. Powll (Wahnon,D.C.: Oc o Ar Forc Hory, 1987), pp. 65103; Jam L. glbr and John P. Fnnan, d.,U.s. am snl inllnc n Wld W ii: a Dcumn h, u.s. Army n World Warii (Wahnon, D.C.: u.s. Army Cnr o Mlary Hory, 1993); Ronald spcor, d.,Lnn enm: K Dcumn n rl Cmmuncn inllnc n W w Jn

(Wlmnon, Dl.: scholarly Rorc, 1988); Hory o spcal Branch, Mis, WD, 19421944,sRH035, Rcord o h Naonal scry Ancy/Cnral scry srvc, Rg 457, NARA.


34/533

16 Nisei LiNguists

pakr o eropan lana a wll, b h wr ar o nd, havn bnrqrd n prvo war. Maj. gn. Charl A. Wllohby, gnral MacArhrch o nllnc drn h war, lar commnd ha ln rqrmn

or h eropan har o war cold hav bn m who lavn h dwalko Nw York Cy, b hr wa a valy drn ory n h Far ea. 38

From Janary hroh March 1941 h und sa and Bran hld hr ra alk n Wahnon o coordna hr dn plan n h Far ea.39 soonar, MiD n a ormr lana aach, L. Col. Mo W. Prw, o h Farea o a h ovrall nllnc por aan Japan. H m wh Amr-can and alld nllnc ocr n Honoll, Manla, Hon Kon, Chnkn,snapor, and lwhr and rrnd wh a ra n o rncy. A a rl,h Army pblhd a handbook on Japan mlary orc n Jly 1941. thArmy alo dcdd o ablh a Japan-lana rann proram.40

th War Dparmn pod on valabl rorc: a mall rop o R-lar Army ocr ch a Braon and Prw who had larnd Japan hrohh lana aach proram. in tokyo, h u.s. mbay had oprad a jon lan-a-rann proram or h Army, Navy, and sa Dparmn nc borh Fr World War. in h 1920 h mbay hrd Nao Naanma a a lan-a nrcor. Naanma dvlopd a o xbook and radr wh whchall h lana aach bcam amlar.41 each yar bwn h war MiD nwo ocr o Japan or or yar o lana rann and rvc a aanmlary aach. Lana aach ook nnv lana cla n tokyo

38 Maj. gn. Charl A. Wllohby, Rmark o Japan Amrcan Czn La, rprn-d n 90h Con., 1 ., Cnnl rcd113, No. 22 (15 Fb 67).

39 Moron, s nd Cmmnd, pp. 8690; Ray s. Cln, Wnn Cmmnd p: ton Dvn (Wahnon, D.C.: Oc o h Ch o Mlary Hory, 1951), pp. 5860.

40 Bdwll,h Ml inllnc Dvn, pp. 43536. Prw rcommnda-on wr prnd n pl hb ack, p. 18, pp. 343639; Clad Maral or 1941, Jap[c] empr Fl, scry-Cla gn Corrp, 19261946, Far earn Br, Oc o h Dr o inlg2, Rg 165, NARA.

tchncal Manal 30480, hndbk n Jn Ml c (Wahnon, D.C.: WarDparmn, Jly 1941), wa rvd and xpandd a h war prord. MiD n pa proo oh Phlppn and Hawaan Dparmn n arly Jn 1941.

in A MiD n Maj. Warrn J. Clar, u.s. Army, Rrd, o rcommnd a War Dpar-mn cr nllnc ym n h Far ea. H bmd h rcommndaon on 3 Novmbr1941, b hy wr nvr mplmnd. Bdwll, h Ml inllnc Dvn,

pp. 43840.41 Rmncnc o Rar Admral Arhr H. McCollm, u.s. Navy Rrd, 2 vol., pp.

25455, unpbl M, 19701971, Naval Horcal Cnr, Wahnon, D.C.; Oc o h Ch oNaval Opraon, school o Ornal Lana, pp. 512, unpbl M, Naval Horcal Cn-r, Wahnon, D.C. Nao Naanma, hjun Nn tkun [sndd Jn rd](tokyo: varo pblhr and don). each yar h sa Dparmn rand on or wo For-n srvc ocr n h Japan proram. John K. emmron wa a dn n 19361939.s John K. emmron, t Jn td: a L n U.s. n svc (Nw York:Hol, Rnhar and Wnon, 1978). Naanma wa a local mploy o h u.s. mbay, no a

u.s. czn. Ar h war, h rmd achn or h u.s. Army. H xbook connd o bpblhd no h 1980.


35/533


and on wr bqnly n o Japan Army n a obrvr. thy camaway wh a rhand apprcaon o h Japan Army, oldr, ladr,acc, qpmn, and pr. Whn hnFr Lnan Wckrln rrnd

rom Japan n 1932, h pblhd an arcl n h Cvl Junldcrbn hor and rn ohr ocr o volnr.42 By 1941 MiD had a pool o mor hanory ocr who cold pak a la om Japan. Howvr, no all wr aval-abl by hn, many bn rrd, ncapacad or . . . byond h a and rank onrprr, Wckrln lar xpland.43 th Oc o Naval inllnc (ONi)had a mlar nmbr o lana-qald ocr.44

Army and Navy nllnc ocr wr alo rponbl o proc u.s. r-ror aan pona and aboa. MiD and ONi coordnad hr orwh h Fdral Bra o invaon (FBi). th Japan poplaon on hW Coa and n Hawa wr prm pc, a wr h Japan comm-

n n Mxco, Panama, and h Phlppn. snnn grman vcor nerop nc 1939 raly ncrad Amrcan ar o a h colmn ndhr own conry.45

MiD, ONi, and h FBi dvlopd acv rvllanc proram drcd aJapan commn n h und sa and rror.46 in 1933 h g2 o

42 1 L. John Wckrln, th Japan Lana Dal, Cvl Junl (MayJn1932): 3134. Fr L. Harold Dod pn 19331935 larnn Japan. sx Monh wh hJapan inanry,inn Junl(JanaryFbrary 1937).

43 Wckrln, Japan Amrcan Play Val Rol. L o Japan-Qald Ocr, 27

Mar 41, scry-Cla gn Corrp, 19261946, Far earn Br, Oc o h Dr o inl g2, Rg165, NARA. O h hr ll colonl on h l, by 1942 wo wr rrd and h hrd wa mlaryaach o Arala. Anohr rada, Maj. Maxwll D. taylor (tokyo, 19351939), who lar com-mandd h 101 Arborn Dvon and rvd a Army Ch o sa, nvr rvd n MiD. Max-wll D. taylor, swd nd plw (Nw York: W. W. Noron, 1972), pp. 3136. s alo sdnyF. Mahbr (tokyo, 19201923),i W n amcn s (Nw York: Vana, 1953), pp. 59161.

John t. grnwood, th u.s. Army Mlary Obrvr wh h Japan Army drn hRo-Japan War (19041905),am h (Wnr 1996): 114, 16; Bdwll,h Ml inllnc Dvn, pp. 37994; sco A. Koch, th Rol o u.s. Army Mlary Aa-ch bwn h World War, sud n inllnc (Wnr 1994): 5357; John F. Voaw, undsa Mlary Aach, 18851919: th Amrcan Army Mar n h inrnaonal Arna,Ph.D. D., tmpl unvry, 1991. th Brh Army had a mlar proram or rann lana

aach. M. D. Knndy, t Ml sd Jn L (Boon: Hohon Mfn, 1923).44 Mmo, Naval Aach, Aan Naval Aach, and Lana Ocr Aachd o Amr-

can embay, tokyo, Dc 38 [pdad hroh 1941], n Hnr H. smh-Hon Papr, Box 1,Hoovr inon Archv, sanord unvry, sanord, Cal. For a mlar l, WymanH. Packard,a Cnu U.s. Nvl inllnc (Wahnon, D.C.: Oc o Naval inllnc/

Naval Horcal Cnr, 1996), pp. 36771; Lwn,amcn Mc, pp. 2931.45 John A. Hrz, Japan Amrcan and Mac, am Junl11, no. 2 (Fall/Wnr

1984): 4765; Bob Kmamoo, th sarch or sp: Amrcan Conrnllnc and h Japa-n Amrcan Commny, 19321941,am Junl6 (1979): 4575; Franc MacDonnll,indu : t ax Clumn nd amcn hm n(Nw York: Oxord unvryPr, 1995), pp. 8290;pnl Juc Dnd: r Cmmn n Wm rlcnnd innmn Cvln (sal: unvry o Wahnon Pr, 1997), pp. 5160, 47178.

46 Okhro, Cn . For rhand accon, thorp,e Wnd, rn, pp. 330; ell M.Zachara, sc Mn: t s n inllnc oc (Nw York: g. P. Pnam son,


36/533

18 Nisei LiNguists

Nnh Corp Ara a h Prdo o san Francco av a rrv common oDavd sw, a Japan-pakn com npcor born n Japan. sw rpordo g2 wha h ond o abo Japan vor o h by por. th 12h Naval

Drc nllnc ocr rand John Andron, a san Francco lawyr whohad larnd Japan and knw h local Japan commny, o b a ranlaor.47Whn Cap. Frdrck P. Mnon rrnd n 1937 rom h or a a lanaaach n tokyo, h wa and o Nnh Corp Ara Hadqarr n san Fran-cco. th hadqarr wand a Japan-pakn pron, h rcalld, par-clarly o work wh h Navy and FBi on Japan rlaon n san Francco

bca w had a lo o Japan on hroh hr and hy wr don allknd o hn. in 1939 h War Dparmn and hn-Major Wckrlno h Panama Canal Zon o kp an y on h banal Japan poplaonhr. MiD alo pod Japan-pakn ocr o h Hawaan and Phlppn

Dparmn.48

grown concrn ld h FBi o ropn oc n Honoll nA 1939.49

Local Army, Navy, and FBi oc hrd a w rd N a ranla-or, nrprr, vn a ndrcovr norman. A arly a 1931 h HawaanDparmn g2 rcrd gro iwa o monor h local Japan; h wa on oh r N o rcv a rrv common hroh h unvry o HawaROtC. in 1937 h 14h Naval Drc nllnc ocr rcrd Dola t.Wada, a rada o h unvry o Hawa.50 in ohr way, nllnc ocal

1946), pp. 136212. ONi ban orn rrv common o Japan-pakn Cacaan nh md-1930. Mahbr,i W n amcn s, p. 223.

47 Davd W. sw, sr.,Nn L D, d. Davd W. sw, Jr., socal L Monoraph, vol. 69(tap: Chn Aocaon or Folklor, 1975), pp. 26568. For Andron, Harrnon, yn-k smu, pp. 4445; Mmo, 12h Naval Drc o Ch o Naval Opraon (CNO), 7 Jan 36,b: Japan tranlaor, Foldr A82/P115, tranlaor (5), Commandan Oc, gn Corrp(Dcla), 12h Naval Drc, Rg 181, NARAPacc Ron, san Brno, Cal.

48 inrv, Frdrck P. Mnon, 5 Mar 75, n Frdrck P. Mnon Papr, Hoovr inonArchv. Mnon rrnd o h Far ea n 1938 a aan mlary aach n Pkn ndrCol. Joph W. slwll. H lar ranrrd o tokyo, whr h wa h mlary aach whn hwar ban. th Army Hawaan Dparmn wa ahorzd on Japan lana ocr, bh ncmbn l n h mmr o 1941 who a rplacmn. Mmo, Col. R. s. Braon or

AgO [Adjan gnral Oc], 11 Jl 41, and L. Col. Ralph C. smh or AgO, 22 Jl 41, bohn scry-Cla gn Corrp, 19261946, Far earn Br, Oc o h Dr o inl g2, Rg 165,

NARA. Accordn o horan gary Okhro, a la a Jly 1940 h ONi oc n Hawa had onJapan ranlaor and on ndrcovr opraor and h Hawaan Dparmn g2 had h am.Okhro, Cn , p. 178. Mmo, g2 o tAg [th Adjan gnral] , b: Anmn o MajorJohn Wckrln, 19 Jn 41, scry-Cla gn Corrp, 19261946, Far earn Br, Oc o h Dro inl g2, Rg 165, NARA.

49 tom Coman, t ilnd ed amc: a plcl h hw (Honoll: unvr-y o Hawa Pr, 2003), pp. 4344; Mrphy,ambd n am, pp. 2730; Okhro, Cn, pp. 17879.

50 td t. tkyama al., d., sc Vl: M.i.s. pnnl, Wld W ii pcc t-, ppl hb s. 8, 1951 (Honoll: Mlary inllnc srvc Vran Clb o

Hawa, 1993), pp. 3133; inrv, td tkyama wh Dola t. Wada, 21 Mar 02, copy o apn ahor l.


37/533


oband h q coopraon o N commny ladr who provdd nor-maon on i and N. in h prn o 1940 FBi ocal n Hawa oranzd

N advory comm. in Lo Anl, on 21 March 1941, N ladr hld

a mn wh rprnav o h Naval inllnc, h Army, h Conyovrnmn, h Chambr o Commrc and h mropolan pr. A h m-n, h 11h Naval Drc nllnc ocr, L. Cmdr. Knnh D. Rnl, andohr mlary and local ocal rarmd hr bl n h loyaly o h Nand rjcd any accaon o dloyaly.51

Nvrhl, nllnc ocal had om ca or concrn abo h Japa-n ovrnmn. in Janary 1941 tokyo rd conla n Hawa and hW Coa o p p or o ahr normaon, n u.s. czn o or-n xracon (ohr han Japan), aln (ohr han Japan), commn,

Nro, labor non mmbr, and an-sm. A or h i and N, h

Japan orn mnry advd, in vw o h ac ha hr any lpn h pha, or popl n h u.s. wll b bjcd o condrabl prc-on . . . h mo caon m b xrcd.52 Howvr, Japan ponaor broh w rward byond wha wa rly avalabl n h daly nw-

papr. Amrcan rvllanc o h i wa hnd n h amn o 1940,whn Conr drcd h rraon o all aln rdn, allown ovrn-mn anc o opn nvav l on all i. in h prn o 1941 h FBi

brok no h Japan conla n Lo Anl and phooraphd docmnha dald Japan pona opraon on h W Coa. in Jn 1941 hFBi brok p an pona rn o Japan mlary ocr b ond no v-

dnc o N nvolvmn.53

th War Dparmn wa alo concrnd abo Japan h-colmn acvyn h Phlppn, whr Japan rdn nmbrd ovr 20,000. in la 1940 hPhlppn Dparmn g2 akd h Hawaan Dparmn o nd wo rlabl

N o nlra h Japan commny n Manla. in March 1941 h Hawa-an Dparmn g2 lcd Arhr s. Komor and Rchard M. sakakda. N-hr had vr oo n Japan, b boh pok xclln Japan. th dparmn

51 inllnc Ocr inv sCDC [sohrn Calorna Drc Concl] Mmbr o Dn-

nr Mn, expr Fah n Loyaly o N Czn, pcc Czn, Apr 41, p. 1.52 M no. 44, tokyo o Wahnon, 30 Jan 41, n t Mc Bckund pl hb,

5 vol. (Wahnon, D.C.: Dparmn o Dn, 1977), vol. 1. Mmo, WD gn sa g2 oCh, Conr inllnc Br, 12 Fb 41, b: Roranzaon o Japan inllnc srvc nh und sa, Clad Maral or 1941, Rg 165, NARA.

53pcc Czn, Jan 41. th Aln Rraon Ac o 1940 calld or all rdn aln o brrd and nrprnd bwn 27 A and 26 Dcmbr 1940. MacDonnll, indu, pp. 8285;Nw yk tm, 10 Jn 41, p. 3; tm (23 Jn 1941): 17.

On h cvn o prwar Japan nllnc abo h und sa, Mchal A.Barnhar, Japan inllnc bor h scond World War: B Ca Analy, n May, Knwn on enm, pp. 42455; Pdro A. Lorro, Japan epona and AmrcanConrmar n PrParl Harbor Calorna,Junl amcne an rln 3,

no. 3 (Fall 1994): 197210; sphn C. Mrcado, Japan Army inllnc Acv aan hund sa, 19211945, sud n inllnc 38, no. 2 (smmr 1994): 4955.


38/533

20 Nisei LiNguists

g2 crly nld h wo yon mn no h Corp o inllnc Polc (larrdnad h Conr inllnc Corp) and n hm ndrcovr by amro Manla n Aprl. thr, hy nlrad h Japan bn and dplomac com-

mny and oon ban rporn valabl normaon o h Phlppn Dparmng2. sakakda ond work a a dk clrk a a hol avord by Japan vor and

ban o wn hr r. tha mmr, whn h u.s. ovrnmn roz all Japana, sakakda hlpd Japan bnmn ll o hr dclaraon orm, car-lly rmmbrn any normaon hy akd hm no o wr down, whch hlar pad o h pror.54

Dp h o ndvdal N n nv anmn and condrablcc n conrn Japan pona, Amrcan ocal rmand ncr-an o h loyaly o Amrcan-born N bor h war. No amon o Ncoopraon or rvn dclaraon o parom ch a h Japan Amrcan

Crd cold allay wh pcon ha a la om N mh prov dloyal.N ladr workd hard o dpl h ar. thy vn ard hr xprono parom mh backr and mak wh mor pco han vr.55 inl-lnc ocal archd or a ormla ha wold ll hm wha hy wand oknow. Cold hy r h N, b no h i? Wr Chran Japan morrworhy han Bddh? Cold hy r N who had nvr vd Japan

b no ho who had? Cold hy r only N who md mor Amrcan-zd and ook no par n Japan commny oranzaon?

P h way, h qon wa nanwrabl. How cold an odr valaparcpaon n por clb, lana chool, commny-ponord vn, or

vn Japan ovrnmnponord dy or o Japan and Manchra? Howo wh havn rlav n Japan? Abn any xplc vdnc o dloyaly, howcold Army, Navy, or FBi ocal look no h har o h yon N mn n

parclar, many o hm ll n hr n or wn, and prdc h r? thN wold hav o dmonra hr loyaly n acon ndr h mo dclcrcmanc, b r hy wold hav o b vn h chanc o do o.

a M sk: ebln Jn-Lnu scl,alocb 1941

i h u.s. Army wr o da h Japan Army, wold nd no ja w dozn ocr, b hndrd and pobly hoand o nrroaor andranlaor. On 24 March 1941, who pccally mnonn h N, MiDdrcd h Forh Army g2 o rvy rank or Japan-pakn oldr:in h vn o a major mrncy nvolvn Japan, hr wll b a ra dmandor Japan pakn mn n nllnc n o many combaan roop and or

54 Ann Bray, undrcovr N, nMl inllnc: i h nd Lnd (ArlnonHall saon, Va.: u.s. Army inllnc and scry Command, 1987), pp. 2945; sakakda andKyoak,a s n t Md, pp. 6264; Dval A. edward, s Cc U.s. am n

W w Jn (g Harbor, Wah.: Rd Appl Pblhn, 1994), pp. 1521.55 Kdo, saon o Japan.


39/533


cran d ndr h War Dparmn. i wold appar drabl, hror, ohav radly avalabl om rcord o h pronnl, ohr wh ch norma-on a o probabl loyaly and ably a obanabl.56

Forh Army, hadqarrd on h Prdo o san Francco, wa h Armyara command on h W Coa. tha prn h hadqarr wa conmd byh moblzaon o Rlar Army and Naonal gard dvon n rann camprchn rom h 3d Dvon a For Lw, Wahnon, o h 7h Dvon aFor Ord, Calorna, o h 40h Dvon a Camp san L Obpo, Calorna. Aan ndcaon o h ron o h moblzaon, on 17 March h War Dpar-mn dnad Forh Army a h Wrn Dn Command (WDC) ndr L.gn. John L. DW, on o h Army mo nor nral. (s M 1.) By hmmr o 1941 Forh Army cond ovr 100,000 oldr, ncldn 1,000 N.evn o, oon bcam clar ha h Forh Army rank wold no yld noh

procn Japan-pakr o m rqrmn. th Army ndd a rannproram. th ormr lana aach knw ha Japan ook lonr o larnhan dd mo eropan lana. th rann wold ak a la x monh,

b h War Dparmn had w alrnav. Wckrln lar wro: tho wwho ralzd h lana dcl nvolvd n procn a war aan hJapan wr alarmd by h lack o or prparaon n h rard.57

in Aprl Maj. Carll C. Dnbry, a ormr lana aach hn n hFar earn Branch, d n N oldr a ln.58 som N,h hoh, alrady pok Japan and wold nd rann only n h mlaryapc o h lana. H dcd h da wh Maj. Wallac H. Moor, who

had bn born n Japan o monary parn and had ah a h unvryo Calorna bor bn calld o acv dy. tohr Dnbry and Moorold h da o hr branch ch, Colonl Braon. Ar h war chool ocalmd hr da a a mar rok.59

A ha m h War Dparmn had no chool or rann n orn lan-a or n comba nllnc. th snal Corp oprad a mall chool a

56 Dra Lr, WD g2 o g2, Forh Army, 24 Mar 41, scry-Cla gn Corrp, 19261946, Far earn Br, Oc o h Dr o inl g2, Rg 165, NARA. Rlad corrpondnc alldd

o a bqn lr, dad 5 May 1941, on h am bjc. Forh Army dclnd o condch rvy, rcommndn nad ha bordna command manan h l. Mmo, HQ,Forh Army, o tAg, 14 May 41, b: Pronnl Famlar wh Japan, Far earn Br, Oc o hDr o inl g2, Rg 165, NARA.

57 Wckrln, Japan Amrcan Play Val Rol.58 By Dcmbr 1941 Dnbry wa ch o h Japan bcon o h Far earn sc-

on. H had rvd a a lana ocr n Japan n 19291933 and n Chna ndr slwll n19351937. Bdwll,h Ml inllnc Dvn, p. 454.

59 Wckrln, Japan Amrcan Play Val Rol. th phra mar rok r appardn a MisLs pr rla o 22 Ocobr 1945. Japan evacaon Rarch sdy (JeRs), p. 2,c. 2, rl 20, ram 0037, Bancro Lbrary, unvry o Calorna, Brkly. Bdwll,h Ml inllnc Dvn, p. 225, da h dcon n Aprl 1941. Wckrln ay Dn-

bry r propod n Jn, whn h corrpondnc rom MiD o Forh Army bn. MiDapparnly dd no condr drcn h Hawaan Dparmn o oranz ch a chool.


40/533

X X X X

FOURTH Western Defense Command

X X

7

X X X

II I

X X

40

X X41

X X

3

X X XIX

C A N A D A

M E X I C O

Ft. Ord

Presidio of Monterey

Fort Lewis

Fort Lawton

Presidio of San Francisco

Camp San Luis Obispo

Camp Roberts

Fort MacArthur

Camp Callan

Fort Douglas

Camp Haan

14,565

4,071

1,191

47 0

2,210

63 2

18 6

2,734

64 3

50 6

458

93,717

U T A H

A R I Z O N A

N E W M E X I C O

C O L O R A D O

W Y O M I N G

I D A H O

O R E G O N

W A S H I N G T O N

M O N T A N A

C A L I F O R N I A

N E V A D A

T E X A S1941

WESTERN DEFENSE COMMAND

Japanese Population per State

Major Military Installations

Western Defense Command Area

583

Map 1


41/533


For Monmoh, Nw Jry, or rado nllnc. in Novmbr 1941 h Corpo inllnc Polc ablhd own rann chool n Chcao. MiD lwa nhr ad nor oranzd o prv a chool, o h local choc wa

o an h ak o Forh Army, h command nar o ponal nrcorand dn.

in Jn 1941 h Far earn Branch o o work on h problm. On 19 Jn rqd ha Major Wckrln b rand o Forh Army o oranz hchool. On 23 Jn Colonl Braon akd h g2 o drc Forh Army o ab-lh a chool wh a mnmm o y N dn. A h nvond , h pro-ram wold con o 3 monh nnv rvw o h lana (moly oral),2 monh dy o mlary rmnoloy, 1 monh nrcon n applcaon oh lana o Comba inllnc (pccally xamnaon o pronr andd o nrprr n h ld).60 th Adjan gnral Oc provdd daa

on h nmbr o Japan Amrcan n norm, rporn ha a o March 1941hr wr 1,690 N n h rvc dvdd rohly qally bwn Hawa andh manland.61 Hndrd mor wr bn ndcd ach monh. th Far earnBranch alo akd Colonl Mnon, h mlary aach n tokyo, o prcha andnd o Forh Army om Japan dconar.62

On 1 Jly h War Dparmn drcd Forh Army o ablh an nl-lnc chool o ran comba nllnc pronnl or work a ranlaor andnrprr o h Japan lana. 63 th drcv cam j n m. thamonh rlaon bwn Amrca and Japan plnd dpr no cr whnJapan occpd Frnch indochna and h und sa roz all Japan a,

mpod an ol mbaro, and rcalld gnral Dola MacArhr rom rr-mn o ablh a nw command, u.s. Army Forc n h Far ea. th Oco Naval inllnc whdrw naval ocr dyn Japan n tokyo, bh Army lana aach rmand n plac.64

th und sa wa ll prpard or war n almo vry rpc, no hla n h lana o h Far ea. in arly 1941 h Rockllr Fondaon

60 Mmo, Braon o Aan Ch o sa (ACs), g2, 23 Jn 41, b: inllnc schoolForh Army, scry-Cla gn Corrp, 19261946, Far earn Br, Oc o h Dr o inl g2,Rg 165, NARA.

61 Mmo, tAgO or Braon, 1 Jl 41, scry-Cla gn Corrp, 19261946, Far earn Br,Oc o h Dr o inl g2, Rg 165, NARA. tAgO rpord h ollown r or N nl-mn by monh: Novmbr 1940, 6; Dcmbr 1940, 397; Janary 1941, 128; Fbrary 1941, 208;March 1941, 906. Drn h am prod anohr ory-v N jond h Naonal gard.

62 Mmo, WD gn sa g2 o ACs, g2, Nnh Corp Ara, 23 Jn 41, b: Japan Dc-onar, scry-Cla gn Corrp, 19261946, Far earn Br, Oc o h Dr o inl g2, Rg165, NARA.

63 Mmo, tAg o Cg [Commandn gnral], Forh Army, 1 Jl 41, b: inllnc school,Forh Army, Ag 352.01, cd n MisLs, trann Hory o h Mlary inllnc srvcLana school, ann. 10, Pronnl Procrmn Oc, c. iV.A., p. 1, unpbl M, 1946, u.s.Army Cnr o Mlary Hory (CMH).

64 For om raon h Navy lana aach lackd dplomac mmny and wr h

a mor rk han ho o h Army. Rmncnc o Rar Admral Arhr H. McCollm,pp. 29899.


42/533

24 Nisei LiNguists

awardd a $100,000 ran o h Amr-can Concl o Larnd soc orh dvlopmn o nnv nrc-

on n orn lana. th cn-c ln a vral nvr

propod o bn mhodcally wha dcrpv analy o ach lcdlana bor movn on o prpar-n nrconal maral.65

in Jly 1941 Cornll unvryponord a hr-day conrnc oJapan-lana achr rom vnAmrcan nvr; rprnav

o MiD, ONi, and h FBi andd. thocr ond h rl orly dap-

ponn. thy larnd ha only xyCacaan dn naonwd wrnrolld n coll-lvl Japan-lan-a cor, moly rom a prlylrary, arc, or phlolocal pon ovw, accordn o on parcpan. i

bcam obvo o all concrnd hah achn mhod and chnq

hn n wr n a a o nmad conon. On h conrnc laday h War Dparmn rprnav, Maj. Wallac H. Moor, ood p anddlvrd a harh amn: Wll, nlmn, yo havn o a hn ha any o h ovrnmn a all. th Army and Navy ocr l h conrncdrmnd o do h job [hm]lv.66

th Army ralzd vral advana n havn own Japan-lanachool a h Prdo o san Francco, amon hm Cap. Ka e. Ramn, acoa arllry ocr hn commandn harbor dn or san Francco Bay.67Ramn had mrad rom Dnmark o h und sa n 1922 and nldn h Army. H wa lcd or h u.s. Mlary Acadmy cla o 1929. H lar

pn or yar n Japan larnn h lana and obrvn h Japan Army.H rrnd o h sa n 1940; b nad o n h lana kll, hArmy and hm o command Bary e, 65h Coa Arllry, ardn hgoldn ga. By h prn o 1941 Ramn wa rvn on h Forh Army

65 Pal F. Anolllo, amd c n Lnu tcn: Ccl evlun ndimlcn (Nw York: Vann, 1947), p. 23.

66 Oc o h Ch o Naval Opraon, school o Ornal Lana, pp. 23; Rmn-cnc o Rar Admral Arhr H. McCollm, pp. 28082.

67 th mo mporan orc or h orn o h chool ar: trann Hory; ibd., ann. 1,

Acadmc trann, 20 Fb 46;MisLs album (Mnnapol: Mlary inllnc srvc Lanaschool, 1946); and Wckrln, Japan Amrcan Play Val Rol.

K e. rmun


43/533


a ovrn h harbor dn. th Army wold oon hav ra nd orh lana kll.68

Bldn a Japan-lana chool prnd a dann challn. Ra-

mn cold hardly xpc o crn all h N oldr hml. to hlp o,MiD n anohr lana aach, Cap. Joph K. Dcky, who had bn rvnn h u.s. mbay n tokyo. Dcky ald or san Francco n A. to ladh or o bld a chool, h War Dparmn dpachd a mor nor ocr,L. Col. John Wckrln (promod ha mmr). H arrvd n san Franccon spmbr. A 44-yar-old nanry ocr, Wckrln had nld n 1917 andbqnly arnd a common. A a lana aach n tokyo rom 1928o 1932, h had wachd a h impral Japan Army occpd Manchra n1931. Rrnn o tokyo a h aan mlary aach rom 1935 o 1938, hhad wachd a h Japan Army aackd Chna n 1937. Ar a oal o h

yar dy n Japan, h wa wll vrd n h Japan hra. snc la 1939 hhad rvd n Panama, archn or pobl Japan bvron, pona, oraboa drcd aan h canal. Now h wold b archn or Amrcan oJapan ancry and rcrn hm or lana rann.69 th hr or-mr lana aach, Ramn, Dcky, and Wckrln, workd ohr oambl dn and nrcor.

tha mmr h Wrn Dn Command hld h lar manvrvr n on h W Coa. All Rlar Army and Naonal gard n ndrDW command rmand n h ld or vral wk, ndrn lon hk,chokn d, and fn n. in h nrval bwn march and rann

xrc, a ran cn playd o hndrd o m n varo camp: an Armyocr appard warn cvlan cloh and carryn cr ordr. A h camphadqarr, h prnd h crdnal and akd o m vry N oldr nh camp. Whn ach oldr rpord o hm, h myro ocr howd hma Japan Army manal and akd hm o rad a w paa.70

68 gor W. Cllm,Bcl r oc nd gdu U.s. Mlacdm W pn, Nw yk, snc i eblmn n 1802, vol. 7, pplmn, 19201930,

d. Wllam H. Donaldon (Chcao: Lakd Pr, 1931); Ka e. Ramn, pch, DLiFLC,25 Jn 77, prnd nDLiLC um (Novmbr 1977); in Mmoram, Ka e. Ramn, 19021988, mmoral rvc bookl, 1988; Norman Y. Mna, trb o Col. Ka e. Ramn,Cnnl rcd(3 May 1988). Ramn wa promod o major on 10 Ocobr 1941.

69 John Wckrln, Pronnl Fl, Naonal Mlary Rcord Cnr, s. Lo, Mo.; Wckr-ln, Japan Lana Dal. th War Dparmn rqd h ranmn rom Panamao Forh Army on 19 Jn 1941. Mmo, WD g2 o tAg, 19 Jn 41, b: Anmn o MajorJohn Wckrln, scry-Cla gn Corrp, 19261946, Far earn Br, Oc o h Dr o inlg2, Rg 165, NARA. H arrvd on or abo 5 spmbr.

From Jly 1941 o Fbrary 1942, h Forh Army g2 wa L. Col. Donald A. sroh; Wckr-ln wa h aan. shya Khara rcall ha whn h bcam an nrcor n Ocobr 1941,Wckrln wa h Forh Army g2 (pronal commncaon o ahor, May 99). Wckrln

pronnl l ndca h dd no rplac sroh nl March 1942.70 trann Hory, ann. 10, c. iV.A., v dal.


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26 Nisei LiNguists

Capan Ramn ond Pv. thoma sakamoo and o an anank non manvr a For Hnr L, Calorna. sakamoo rmmbrd a manwarn cvlan cloh and pakn wh a scandnavan accn. th Danh-

born Ramn ook sakamoo no a ld n, plld a Japan ld manalrom h coa pock, and akd hm o ranla om paa. snc i rad-ad rom h Japan hh chool n 1938, radn and ranlan h xbookwan dcl. sakamoo rcalld ha Ramn mnond h chanc o acommon h wold volnr or h chool. sakamoo oon rcvd ordror h Prdo.71

Capan Dcky vd h 40h Dvon a Camp san L Obpo and nr-vwd Pv. Maaj gn ura, a Kb who a a chld had lvd v yar nJapan. ura wa ordrd who xplanaon o rpor o dvon hadqarr,card and apprhnv o ay h la. Dcky prodcd vral Japan

ld manal and rqd ha i rad and ranla poron o h manal. thwhol procdr, whch lad abo hry mn, md lk an rny o m.upon conclon o h nrvw, h ocr ad ha i wold b harn romhm aan, and h warnd m, n no ncran rm, ha h nrvw wa no o

b rvald or dcd wh anyon. two monh lar, ura and hr ohrN rom h camp rcvd ordr o rpor o h g2, Forh Army.72

For mo N, h nrvw provd mbarran. On o h book hocr d wa h impral Japan Army ld rvc rlaon, skunymu. Anohr wa h Japan mlary acadmy xbook on appld acc,o snjuu. evn h N had pad anon o hr lon, non knw

h complcad Japan mlary rmnoloy, . Prhap hr ahr coldhav rad h maral, b h N cold no. th N probably rcalld allho born arnoon pn n h Japan-lana chool whl hr non-Japan rnd wr alrady on h baball damond. Whn d, vn omcold pak a w word o mpl Japan, mo cold no ranla vn hmpl nnc.

From Jly o Ocobr 1941 Ramn, Dcky, and Wckrln nrvwdall 1,300 N oldr on h W Coa.73 For raon o m, or prhap no

71 thoma sakamoo, pch, DLiFLC, 1 Nov 87; sakamoo, Ornal Japan sdnRfc; inrv, ahor wh sakamoo, 16 Nov 87; Cah Bwn two World; sakamooaoboraphy, 1 Nov 96. Arhr M. Kanko alo wa promd a common n 1941, whn h walcd or lana rann. Davd W. sw, Jr., d., Fr Cla, p. 15, unpbl M, 2000, copyn ahor l. No all N rcrd ha mmr or lana rann rcall bn promdcommon.

72 gn Maaj ura, Boraphy, Mlary inllnc srvc Clb o Norhrn Calorna(h and mlar boraph hrar cd a MisNorCal Bo).

73 som orc, ch a h MisLs pr rla o 22 Ocobr 1945 and h MisLs album,v h nmbr o N oldr nrvwd a h m a 3,700. Ohr orc do no ncarly

bar h o. For xampl, Wckrln 1,300 n h lr o 31 Dcmbr 1941. trann H-ory, ann. 1 (dad Dcmbr 1945), 1,300; trann Hory (dad Aprl 1946) 1,200.

Ar 7 Dcmbr 1941, an nknown nmbr o N wr dchard, b ohr wr ll bndrad a la a Fbrary 1942. tha monh h Wrn Dn Command rpord ranrrn


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whn o cro command ln, no on crnd h N rvn n Hawa. inDcmbr Wckrln rpord o h War Dparmn: th nral mpronand by Ramn and m n or nrvw wh h mn wa an xclln

on. th majory md ar o rv alhoh h nar o h chool, cladby h War Dparmn a cr a ha m, cold no b lly xpland. Manyhoh ha wa o b oranzd alon F.B.i. ln b hr arn o rvll rmand hh. Only a w wr obvoly lln and ncommncav. 74

th ocr hn rd o drmn h loyaly o ach N candda badon h nrvw and cry qonnar, whch hy d or backrondnvaon. in addon o h w malconn, abo 30 prcn o h N hada parn or bln lvn n Japan, an aomacally dqalyn acor.75 For hrmann candda, h ocr qond aml, nhbor, and achr; nom ca hy archd h candda hom. Many wr blackballd by h

nvaor mply bca o racal prjdc or bca h pron bn nv-ad had mad a rp o Japan or had blond o a Japan ahlc clb. 76

Wckrln rpord ha only 40 mn wr cnly qald ln-cally o pr a x monh cor n h Japan lana. O all Ncrnd, only 3 prcn cold b rad accomplhd, 4 prcn procn,and 3 prcn ar. O h N nrvwd, Wckrln rpord, only 17 mnpok, rad and wro Japan procnly, ndcan a radal movn awayrom h nfnc o h r nraon Japan.77

th Army ocr wr pcally nrd n Kb lk sakamoo andura. ironcally, om Kb pokenl o poorly ha hy wr o ll

o h Army. Wckrln dnd abo hal who had lvd n Japan only or ahor prod o m and who olook nally Amrcan, or, who a a rlo hr v o Japan wr mbrd aan h Japan by ramn rcvd

1,211 N oldr rom h W Coa. Mmo, tAgO o Commandn gnral, Wrn DnCommand & Forh Army, 3 Mar 42, sb: enld Pronnl o Japan exracon (Ag 220.31);enmy Aln Fl, Box 23, gnral Robr C. Rchardon, Jr., Papr, Hoovr inon Archv.th slcv srvc lar rpord ha 3,188 N wr drad p o 1 Novmbr 1941. slcvsrvc sym, scl gu, spcal Monoraph no. 10 (Wahnon, D.C.: slcv srvcsym, 1953), p. 114. O h, prhap 2,000 wr rom Hawa. War Dparmn ma or

h mmr o 1942 ran rom 3,000 o 4,600. th r 3,700 may rprn an ma o hoal nmbr o N oldr n Dcmbr 1941, b oo hh or h oal n h WDC. Anohrrpor v a mch hhr r. trann Hory, ann. 10, c. iV.A., p. 2. th c 5,700Prdo o san Francco nrvw and a ha h wa h nmbr nrvwd or h rcla. A oono add b only abo 1,500 pronal hory amn on l.

74 Lr, Wckrln o Dnbry, 31 Dcmbr 1941, trn grp, Oc o h Dr o inl g2, Rg165, NARA; Wckrln, Japan Amrcan Play Val Rol.

75 trann Hory, ann. 4, inllnc scon.76 trann Hory, p. 5. som N nally dqald wr accpd or h chool ar

h war ban.77 Lr, Wckrln o Dnbry, 31 Dcmbr 1941; Wckrln, Japan Amrcan Play

Val Rol. Ramn lar av lhly drn r, 3 prcn a lly qald and

anohr 8 prcn a ponal dn ar a lon rann prod. Ramn, pch, DLiFLC,25 Jn 77.


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28 Nisei LiNguists

hr.th ohr hal had andd chool n Japan and lvd hr or a lonrm. Drn h ay probabl ha, whl n Japan a any ra, h hoho ho who rrnd o Japan a a vry arly a wa prdomnanly Japan. in

many ca h nfnc o Japan had dappard nc hr rrn. 78 th Kbprovd o b h mo valabl o all. A w vn had pronal knowld o hJapan Army rom havn rvd a concrp.79 Wckrln dmd 5 prcnor l o h Kb complly nabl or mlary rvc, dcrbn hm aho namlad lmn who hav, or blv hy hav, ca o ha hund sa, ho who parn hav manand a vry clo wh h oldconry, ho who wn o Japan a nan and only rrnd whn h la yaror wohr olook bn wholly Japan. 80

th War Dparmn alo archd or Cacaan oldr who pok Japan,o ll aval. Many clamd an ably o pak Japan ha ar rpad hr

acly wh h lana. Only wo Cacaan nld mn wr lcd or hr cla. Boh had lvd n Japan or a m and pok om colloqal Japan.81

Wckrln lar concly dcrbd how h lcon o N o nq-ond loyaly raonably qald n h Japan lana bcam h prmaryak. 82 in or monh o archn, h Army ocr ond y-h N whom h wo crra.

t oc Nvl inllnc p W w Jn,19401941

ONi wa makn own prparaon or h comn confc wh Japan. Fordcad h u.s. Navy had bn rharn War Plan Orange. ONi d radonrcp aon o monor h Japan Fl. Drc nllnc ocr kpwach ovr local Japan commn on h W Coa and n Hawa.83 inWahnon, h ONi Far ea scon mployd a handl o Japan ranlaor.th con ch, L. Cmdr. Arhr H. McCollm, had bn aond n tokyon 19221925 and aan n 19281930 and pok Japan. in 1940 h happnd

78 Lr, Wckrln o Dnbry, 31 Dcmbr 1941.79 Maahar Ano, Loyal Ln: N o World War ii Larnd Japan n Mnnoa,

Mnn h 45, no. 7 (Fall 1977): 27387, ncld a dcon o h pcal rol o hKb.

80 ibd.81 som Cacaan who pok Japan, ch a Fabon Bowr, wr ovrlookd a h m,

parclarly hy wr and od Forh Army. sanly L. Falk and Warrn M. tnh,d.,Mis n W n Jn (Wahnon, D.C.: Japan Amrcan Vran Aocaon,1995), pp. 1112, 94. th wo Cacaan lcd or h r cla wr Dmpr Drk andVcor V. Bloo, a Ran mmran who lar chand h la nam o Bll. Nhr wa

procn noh o rada wh h r cla.82 Wckrln, Japan Amrcan Play Val Rol.83 For naval nllnc aan Japan bor 7 Dcmbr 1941, Alan H. Bah, tckn

ax enm: t tum anl-amcn Nvl inllnc (Lawrnc: unvry Pr oKana, 1998), pp. 13568; Lwn,amcn Mc, pp. 1648.


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pon glnn W. shaw, an acqananc who had ah enlh n Japan and hadpblhd ranlaon o modrn Japan play and novl. McCollm mad hmch o h tranlaon scon.84

th Navy had own mall pool o ocr-ln n h am prorama h u.s. mbay n tokyo. svral ormr naval lana aach workd nh Far ea scon and ndrood h rn nd or mor Japan ln.svral wr alrady aackn h Japan naval and dplomac cod; h orwold oon rqr many mor.

in h amn o 1940, a h Navy ban calln rrv ocr o acvdy, Albr e. Hndmarh, a proor o nrnaonal law a Harvard unvr-y, oband a common and approachd h Far earn Branch o or hrvc. Whl pndn a yar a an xchan proor a h impral unvr-y n tokyo, h had larnd om Japan. in Dcmbr 1940 McCollm av

Hndmarh and shaw h ak o dvlopn a Japan-lana proram or hNavy. in h prn o 1941 hy condcd a rvy o coll dn and ondy-x who had om ponal o larn h lana.85 th Navy cold no drawpon h rvc o N a aly a h Army or on mpl raon: A h

Navy rapdly xpandd n 19401941 had connd radonal racal xcl-on polc aan Aan. Flpno wr allowd o rv, b only a cook andm ward. i h Navy wand Japan ln, wold hav o ran hmrom c

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