Multiple regimes throughout its history North & West
well-developed large states and hereditary monarchies Hausa in west
organized into powerful trading city- states South small, communal
kinship-based rule British colonialism led to indirect rule, with
chiefs leading on behalf of British government. (Authoritarian rule
under British direction) Post-independence = Military
Authoritarianism Government structure formally federalist &
democratic, but does not generally operate as such British
controlled economy led to current state controlled economy Nigeria
has currently turned to supranationals (IMF & World Bank) to
save economy
Slide 3
Factionalism led to creation of many political parties Failure
to create coherent party system Parties formed and faded around
personalities Multi-party system reinforced and strengthened ethnic
and religious cleavages Independent National Election Committee
(INEC) registered a number of parties following the death of Abacha
in 1998 In order to run candidates for the legislative and
presidential elections of 1999, a party had to qualify by receiving
at least 5% of the votes in two-thirds of the states in the 1998
election This cut the number of parties significantly, only 5
parties were eligible to run candidates in the 2003 election
Slide 4
Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) Well-established Party Began
running candidates in 1998 Party of President Olesugun Obesanjo
(Igbo, Christian from the North) Obasanjo received 62% of vote in
2003 election PDP gained majority in National Assembly and most of
the governors throughout the country Do to voter fraud, difficult
to determine accurate level of support for the PDP All Nigeria
Peoples Party (ANPP) General Muhammadu Buhari, Muslim from the
North, ran against Obesanjo Received about 32% of the vote His
running mate and potential future candidate was Chuba Okadigbo, an
Igbo from the Southeast Other parties that ran presidential
candidates include All Progressive Grand Alliance (APGA), The
Movement for Democracy and Justice (MDJ), and the Justice Party
Alliance for Democracy (AD) did not have a presidential candidate
in 2003, but did receive 9% of the votes for the legislative
elections
Slide 5
Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels: local, state, and
national. National level citizens vote for the president,
representatives to the National Assembly, and senators from their
states. National Elections Presidential Elections After annulled
election of 1993, first election took place in 1999, with another
in 2003. If presidential candidate does not receive outright
majority, a second ballot election takes place. President must
receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the states A purely
regional candidate can not win Requirement reflects difficulty
experienced in attempt to unify Nigeria
Slide 6
Legislative Elections Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of
the 36 states, and one from federal capital territory of Abuja
Elected by direct popular vote 360 representatives of National
Assembly (formerly the House of Representatives) Elected from
single member districts by plurality vote Regional representation
dominates in both houses. Wide-array of ethnic coalitions in
legislature Legislative authority is weak in Nigeria
Slide 7
Currently 3 consecutive elections have been held without
annulment or delay Public protest and several deaths have
accompanied the last few elections, but none were as bad as many
predicted they would be Several politicians were assassinated,
including Marshall Harry, a leader of the ANPP Independent National
Electoral Commission (INEC) Attempted to cleanse electoral process,
declared six million names to be fraudulent during 2003 elections
International teams concluded elections were corrupt Voting boxes
were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed with fraudulent votes Voting
patterns in the south in particular were suspicious
Slide 8
Have actually played an important role in Nigerian politics A
large number of civil society organizations often cooperate with
political parties Religious interest groups important in Nigeria
Christian Association of Nigeria protested when General Babangida
changed Nigerias status in the Organization of Islamic Conference
from observer to member Muslim civil society organizations in the
north work to support the sharia court system Citizens have worked
around military authoritarianism to have an impact on political
life through labor unions, student groups, and populist
groups.
Slide 9
Labor Unions Independent and politically influential prior to
1980s Through the introduction of corporatism the Babangida regime
limited the influence of labor unions A central labor organization
supplanted the older unions, and only candidates approved by
Babangida could be chosen as labor leaders In July 2003 labor
unions widely and openly protested the governments attempt to raise
oil prices for Nigerian consumers Business Interests Business
interests have tended to work in collaboration with the military
regimes, in return for the spoils related to the corruption of the
elite class Associations for manufacturers, butchers, and car
rental firms have operated outside the realm of government and
helped promote economic reforms of the 1990s Human Rights Groups
Promote democratic reforms Include university students, teachers,
civil liberties organizations, and professional groups (doctors,
lawyers) These groups protested against the abuses of Babangida and
Abacha
Slide 10
Kaduna Mafia Loosely organized group of military officers and
civilians who support Babangida; also supported Obasanjo National
Democratic Coalition (NADECO) Based in southwest; supported Abiolas
presidential campaign
Slide 11
Nigeria has well-developed, independent press General Abacha
attempted to curb criticism of his regime by closing several
newspapers and magazines in Nigeria in 1994 Press reflects ethnic
divisions in the country Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly
in the south Radio is the main source of information for most
Nigerians All 36 states have their own radio stations
Slide 12
Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory) Three
branches of government (Legislative, Executive, Judicial) Executive
has been most dominant traditionally Each of the 36 states and 774
local governments has an executive, legislative, and judicial
branch 2 nd, 3 rd, & 4 th Republics (all since 1979) had
presidential system, with a strong executive theoretically checked
by bicameral legislature and independent judiciary Currently
neither federalism or checks & balances operate, and state
& local governments are completely dependent on the central
government
Slide 13
1979, 2 nd Republic, presidential system replaced parliamentary
system based on British model Multiple ethnic groups fragmented the
multi-party system and the legislature and prevented a prime
minister from gaining the necessary authority to rule Belief was
that a president could symbolize national unity and rise above weak
party system U.S. presidential model with two-term limits Appoints
a Cabinet (approved by Senate); veto legislation, which can be
overridden 1983, Major-General Muhammadu Buhari initiated palace
coup, set precedent for military coups and military rule Buhari
ousted by Gen. Babangida in 1985 Gen. Abacha replaces Babangida in
1993 Civilian rule returned in 1999, President Obasanjo
Slide 14
Slide 15
Military Rule 7 military rulers have all ruled differently All
promised transition to democracy Only Obasanjo in 1979 and General
Abubakar in 1999 delivered democratic transition Generals Buhari
(1983-85), Babangida (1985-93), and Abacha (1993-98) used
repression and violence All military & civilian regimes
concentrated power in hands of the executive Patrimonialism
Generals/Presidents head of patron-client system Dispense
government jobs and resources as rewards to political supporters
Cabinet positions & bureaucratic chiefs part of presidents
patronage system Patrimonialism in Nigeria is unstable which has
led to recurring coups
Slide 16
British installed elaborate civil service system during
colonial period Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs
within bureaucracy Civil service sector continued to grow after
independence Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and
inefficient. Bribery is common. Jobs in civil service are often
awarded through the patron- client system, Prebendalism.
Slide 17
Parastatals Most government agencies are parastatals, or
corporations owned by the state. (Similar to Mexico) Provide
commercial and social welfare services Board members are appointed
by government ministers, and corporate executives are part of the
presidents patronage system Parastatals provide public utilities
such as water, electricity, public transportation, and agricultural
subsidies Control major industries such as steel, defense industry,
and petroleum State Corporatism Corporatism authoritarian political
system that allows for political input from selected interest
groups outside the government structure In Nigeria, this input is
provided by parastatals, because they are controlled by the
government it is referred to as State Corporatism Parastatals
insure that the state controls private interest as well as fulfills
social & economic functions Parastatals serve as contact point
between government & business interests, but state ultimately
controls these interactions (Corrupt & inept)
Slide 18
A parliamentary system until 1979 Replaced by a bicameral
legislature Nigerian legislature under military governments have
had no power, under civilian government they have been unable to
check power of the president Legislature is a follower in the
political process instead of a leader Corruption scandals in 1999
president of the Senate and speaker of the lower house were removed
for perjury and forgery. In 2000 the Senate president was removed
for accepting kickbacks for a government contract
Slide 19
Senate 109 Senators 3 from each of the 36 states 1 from Abuja
district Directly elected by popular vote Senators are ethnically
and religiously diverse Only 4 of 109 Senators were women as of
2003 elections Approves high level presidential appointments
National Assembly Formerly called House of Representatives 360
member representatives Single-member districts, elected by
plurality vote Only 23 of the 360 representatives are women
(2003)
Slide 20
Early years of after independence judiciary had great deal of
autonomy Autonomy stripped by military decrees that nullified court
decisions and setup quasi-judicial tribunals outside regular system
Judicial review was suspended Presidential cronies appointed as
justices Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in
accordance with the Constitution, so judicial review exist in
theory Court structure at state & federal level, highest court
is the Supreme Court Sharia courts exist in parallel existence with
courts developed on British model Cases: In 1993, Mshood Abiolao,
winner of annulled 1993 election was detained and died in custody.
Presiding judges changed often and critics attacked the military
cronyism of the judicial system In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa,
and 8 other activists were detained and executed under court orders
arranged by the military and presided over by military
officers
Slide 21
Military Northeners dominate officer corps and are well-
educated, having attended Sandhurst military academy Traditional
leaders of the various states Positions are hereditary; they are
well-educated and cosmopolitan Well-educated professionals that
make up civil service Nigerian Youth Service Corps (NYSC)
University and graduate school students perform a year of service
outside their state (usually in rural areas) Successful business is
also a path to elite status
Slide 22
Strong, policy-making force in Nigeria Military in Government
those that initiate coups and take over the responsibility of the
executive branch Military in Barracks fulfills traditional duties
of military, its leaders have been critical of military control of
political power. Military has been subject to internal discord,
military presidents often have to keep a close eye on other
military leaders. Babangida protected his authority by constantly
moving military personnel around and appointed senior officers
through his patronage system Military is one of the few
institutions that is truly national in character. Military has
restored and maintained order during ethnic strife and
conflict
Slide 23
Top-down policy-making process. Power concentrated in hands of
the president & cabinet ministers through channels established
by patron clientelism Loyalty Pyramid senior officials supported by
broader base of loyal junior officials State control of resources
means that those in the pyramid get the spoils, they alone have
access to wealth and influence. Loyal clients of patronage
structured pyramids includes: Kaduna Mafia, Babangidas Boys, and
Abachas Boys Military controls pyramids, pyramids supported by guns
(Force); therefore, protesting system can be dangerous Top-down,
self-interested rule established by British during colonial era
when the British relied on native chiefs to ensure Nigerian trade
and resources benefited Great Britain
Slide 24
Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a squandering of
Nigerias wealth Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the
population lives in poverty Large oil revenues have been pocketed
by government officials Economic situation complicated by ethnic
& regional conflict In February 2001, federal government asked
the Supreme Court to all the government to collect oil revenue and
put it in a federal account (Revenue Sharing) Areas in the south
along Niger River Delta protested this idea, they believed the
policy was a way for northerners to take profits and revenue away
from the south
Slide 25
Oil Oil wealth during the 1970s gave Nigeria international
leverage OPEC member Conflicts in Middle East have made Nigeria
more important as a trade partner for other countries since 1970s
Lack of economic diversification hurts Nigeria when oil prices drop
DEBT as a result of drop in oil prices and lack of revenue surplus
Structural Adjustment 1980s, Nigeria seeks assistance from
international organizations to deal with debt crisis World Bank
& IMF involvement Restructure & diversification of Nigerian
economy Privatize parastatals Cut government spending Shock
Treatment not very successful Parastatals still under government
control Debt repayment had to be restructured
Slide 26
Federalism seen as a positive characteristic for Nigerian
political structure Federalism promises power-sharing Allows
citizens more contact points with government Federal Character
Recognition of all ethnic, religious, & regional groups
Nigerian Constitutional Provisions Senators represent diverse
states Representatives elected from diverse districts President
must receive 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the districts Negatives of
Federalism Federalism bloats bureaucracy Promotes corruption within
bureaucracy Jobs created to satisfy demands of various ethnic
groups Legislative branch suffers from gridlock Competition over
government resources
Slide 27
Southerners argue that federalism will only exist when central
government devolves some authority to the state & local
governments Nigerians of the Niger Delta believe they should
control their own resources Redistribution of the regions oil
wealth should be prohibited Southerners suggest that police duties
should also be the responsibility of local and state governments
This True Federalism Movement not supported by Northerners North
has few resources and very little revenue to share Northerners
benefit more from redistribution of wealth programs
Slide 28
President Obasanjo had promised to create more states (36
currently) Defuse ethnic-based political conflict (Federalist 10)
More state governments, however, cost money (which they dont have)
Current federalism creates a lot of competition of money from
government leading to a system called chop-chop politics or log
rolling and pork barrel politics in the US
Slide 29
Economic Reforms of the late 1990s Further privatization of
state-owned industry Limitations on economic controls of the
central government Money taken by General Abacha returned by
foreign banks and placed in the state treasury Scheme for
alleviating poverty in Nigeria Increase in public wages Hope of
decreasing instances of corruption Increase in financial reserves
as a result of stabilized oil prices