NGOs Role in Education

8/10/2019 NGOs Role in Education

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NGO's Role in Education: 50 Years of Pakistan

By Fayyaz Baqir

Local Heritage of Communit !ork in Education

The areas that now constitute Pakistan had in place a very sound and firm tradition of providingeducation on the basis of self-help by beneficiary communities a little more than a hundred yearsago. This self-help system provided universal literacy to males and females in most of urban andrural settlements through a very elaborate management structure of traditional rural communitieswhich has been called !illage "orporation or !illage #epublic by many modern socialscientists. The nature$ level and outreach of this education was partly described by %.&. 'eitner$(irector of Public )nstruction in Pun*ab in his #eport on indigenous +ducation in Pun*ab

submitted to %overnment of ,British )ndia and published in //0. This system of universalliteracy based on the concepts of voluntary work and self-help was not known as 1%2 work andwas much larger in scale compared to present 1%2 initiatives but was built on the sameconceptual foundations on which educational activities have been successfully undertaken amonglow-income communities by 1%2s during the past few decades. There were eight different typesof schools and standard of education and pedagogical methods used in these schools were so highthat they were imported in +ngland in the earlier part of the nineteenth century. These schoolsincluded Pathshala schools$ "hatshala schools$ %urmukhi schools$ 3anskrit schools$ 4rabicschools$ Persian schools$ 5uran schools and special schools for merchant class.

(escribing educational work in pun*ab 'eitner stated that By /67-66 there were 0/$/89villages and at least as many schools in Pun*ab. )n towns$ (elhi had 089 schools$ 4mritsar 7:schools$and 3ialkot :/.. ,'eitner$ //0$ pp.7. #ate of literacy was so high that referring to /603ettlement #eport 'eitner mentioned that )n the backward district of ;ushiarpur there was school for every 9.


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)n ;indu communities people living together in a settlement constituted an organized body$ andvarious functionaries who met important needs of this community en*oyed rights over the soil.These functionaries included the headmaster$ accountant$ police officer$ the priest$ the schoolmaster$ the astrologer$ the smith$ the carpenter$ the barber$ the potter$ the leather worker$ as wellas other non farming specialists and tradesmen. (ue to their recognized rights over the land thereceived a share from the crop at the time of harvest. This provided a sustainable arrangement forthe community to receive various professional services that it needed. "onsequently one could notsee a single child in any ;indu village- e>cept for the children of outcast families- who was notable to read$ to write and write. ,)bid pp/.

4mong the 3ikh communities financial management of 3ikh schools depended on five differentsources i 4llocation of land for schools$ ii "ontribution of 3ikh fraternity for the cause ofeducation of 3ikh children$ iii +ndowment of (haramsalas to which %urmukhi schools wereattached iv Presents of students or their parents to the teachers ,)bid$ pp:6 and v Fees given byparents in cash or kind for their children?s education. These fees were preferentially given to(haramsala or (ehra rather than Bhai ,school teacher in person as a sign of respect to theteacher.

=uslim communities established and supported Persian and 5uran schools. These schools weregenerally held in or *ust outside the mosque$ and most of the times a teacher was attached to theseschools. 5uran schools e>isted in almost every mosque in Pun*ab as well as in private houses.Persian schools were open to students from other religions and were largely attended by ;induswho in the words of 'eitner were more attracted by the persian language than repelled by the=ohammadan religion , )bid pp.69$ istence of similarsystems in areas outside Pun*ab also.

"uccess and demise of traditional education sstem

Provision of universal literacy through community participation depended on three corecomponents of traditional model@ i 3election and provision of site for school and financialsupport of the teacher by local community. ii Permanent arrangement for financial support oflocal teachers through a variety of means including allotment of plots for school$ presents andgifts to school teachers$ creation of endowments for education and provision of share in thevillage crop. iii Teaching others as a basic moral responsibility of every educated person.3uccessful$ sustainable and community oriented models of education in low income communitiesof contemporary Pakistan depend e>actly on the same three elements. The gap caused by thediscontinuity of the traditional system was anticipated by 'eitner and he had warned that ifcommunity based system of education is demolished under the prete>t of modernization ofeducation literacy will be wiped out from Pun*ab. 'eitner?s prediction prophetically came true.

)t is interesting to have a cursory look at the reasons which led 'eitner to arrive at this conclusiontrue. 4t the time of British anne>ation of Pun*ab village cess collected from each village was usedto cover the salary of three village functionariesA 'umberdar$ "howkidar and 3chool Teacher.British administration in Pun*ab decided to continue the salaries of lumberdars and chowkidars-

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which are paid by the government to this very day- and discontinued the salary of local schoolteachers diverting the funds to selected government schools in urban areas for providing moderneducation. That was it. 4s the source of supporting local school teacher with local resources wasblocked community based education system fell apart. 3chools run by religious communities withtheir own resources were gradually closed down due to lack of further demand by government forpeople trained in indigenous schools as well as arm twisting tactics used by the governmentfunctionaries. (uring the period between /6s and independence from British #a* leaders ofvarious communities concentrated their efforts for creating institutions of higher learning to trainmiddle and upper strata of population.NGO's !ork for Education after &nde%endence

4t the time of creation of Pakistan in 978$ private sector had a ma*or share in providingeducation through schools at various levels. These private schools were run both by societiesmotivated by the cause of promoting education as well as individuals making their living througheducation and teaching. 1o detailed figures about the share of private owners and societies areavailable but breakdown between the government and private sector is known. &hereas

government owned 7C of primary schools$ private sector owned 7:C of these schools. Thefigures for ownership of middle and high schools were :C and 9C for government and 78C and/: C for private sector respectively. #est of the schools i.e. 6:C primary schools$ 6C of middleschools and /C of high schools were run by the local bodies.3ince government was not able to meet most of the educational needs of population with its givenresources$ private sector continued to play an important role in providing education. 2neimportant change that took place was greater role of private sector in providing education athigher level and increased involvement of government in primary and middle level education."onsequently government owned 9:C of primary schools and //C of middle schools and privatesector operated 7C high schools and 6C colleges. The role of local bodies declined

significantly during this period and share of educational institutions managed by them came downto less than C in the case of primary and middle schools and colleges and 0


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based services at reasonable prices. (etailed information based on current activities of 1%2managed schools is given below.

PRE"EN "(GE O) NGO !OR* &N E+,C(&ON

E+,C(&ON(L -YH"

The success of 1%2 work in education is based on re*ecting some common myths abouteducation and e>ploding these myths through community level work. )t is therefore paramountthat these myths be e>amined and e>posed before the role of 1%2s in the education sector isconsidered. 3ome of these myths about education are given below.

./ Present education is sociall releant

The first myth circulating in our society is that education is necessary because it is useful orsocially relevant. 3ince the ma*ority of people in our country are illiterate$ many can?t comment onthe benefits of education. Those who are literate are faced with high rates of unemployment. This

phenomenon of low literacy rates and a high rate of unemployment e>ist simultaneously if oureducation system is producing people not prepared for fulfilling societal needs. Persistence of thismyth has precluded any ma*or effort for bringing about any basic changes in our education system.This attitude about education is strengthened by other common myths also. The reason we arehaving so much difficulty in making a transition from a predominantly oral culture to a writtenculture is our misunderstanding of the basic flaws of our education system. 4nalysis offundamental myths surrounding our education shows the relevance$ utility and effectiveness of1%2s in meeting the challenges of a contemporary society.

1/ Education means formal sc$ooling

4nother common misconception is reducing education to the process of going through a formalschooling system. This has deprived most of the initiatives by government and non-governmentalagencies of the fle>ibility$ adaptability and effectiveness of education offered through distantlearning$ functional literacy programs as well as continuous and non-formal education. 4 lack ofawareness of advantages of alternative education arrangements with curriculum based on theassessment of specific needs of the target student population$ a short period for completingstudies$ fle>ible study hours and use of unconventional teaching techniques has blocked theprogress of basic and functional literacy at the grass roots level.

2/ $e Goernment is res%onsi3le for mass education

4nother myth which has paralyzed the popular will for accomplishing a high rate of literacy is thebelief that the %overnment is basically responsible for and capable of promoting universal literacy.This view is also held because most of us are not aware of the e>istence of short term adultliteracy programs$ economically affordable home schools in low income areas$ and the role ofliteracy as a powerful tool for community development and community level costs and benefits ofbasic and functional literacy. The involvement of 1%2s in all aspects of education from setting uphome schools in low income areas to establishing internationally reputed universities of =edical

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and =anagerial 3ciences has clearly demonstrated that total dependence on the government is notthe only choice available to us.

4/ $ere is a lack of resources for education

4lthough Pakistan ranks amongst the countries devoting the smallest share of resources foreducation$ it is important to note that a lack of financial resources is not the basic cause of thehigh rate of illiteracy here.

(uring most of the Pakistan?s +conomic Plan period we have not spent more than 6 percent ofthe resources allocated for primary education. 2nly during an / year interval between 98-8/were up to 97 percent of resources allocated for primary education actually spent. ,3ee Table .

4 critical review of available financial and physical resources shows that it is not the availabilitybut proper utilization of resources which constitutes the basic problem in spreading masseducation in Pakistan. 4lthough there are around 7isting capacity of theschooling system ,3iddiqui$ 99@ :0.

a3le . Plan (llocation and E%enditure on Primar Education

Plan 4llocation forPrimary +ducation,=illion #s.

4ctual +>penditure

,=illion #s.

Dtilization

,Percentage

966-


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Firstly$ community participation introduces the elements of relevance and accountability to oureducation system. This makes education meaningful and interesting for students$ helps to lower thedropout rate and improves the quality of education.

3econdly$ community run home schools$ mosque schools or other similar models would check theleakage of resources and provide a low cost alternative to the traditional government run primaryschools. ,3ee Table 0

Further the establishment of home schools requires a tiny fraction of the total resources requiredcompared to the traditional alternative and strengthens community control over education and itsinitiative for undertaking other development activities. This is another fact which needs to be broughtto the public?s attention$ thereby strengthening the 1%2?s initiative for mass literacy.

7/Education can 3e s%read 3 increasing t$e num3er of sc$ools

The final and perhaps most powerful myth which needs to be e>plored is that there is only one viable

form of education and form of pedagogy. 3preading education to many simply means increasing thenumber of schools rather than improving pedagogical techniques to made education more useful andattractive for students. 4 detailed review of an alternative system is given below.

Ne6 ision of education

. There e>ists two divergent views on educationA participatory or authoritarian. The spread ofliteracy and its impact on socio-economic development depend on which view of education oneaccepts and upholds. (oes one consider education a mere means of control or the realization offreedom and latent creative energies of the studentsE 4ccording to the participatory or active learningprinciple$ learning can be facilitated by creating situations and undertaking activities in which

individuals acquire knowledge by working on the solutions themselves. ;ere$ the teacher only directsthe students toward the solution by asking specific questions or posing problems 3tudents are activein describing$ analyzing$ suggesting$ deciding and planning.

a3le 1 $e cost of esta3lis$ing and running different t%es of sc$ools 8&n Rs 9

3choolTypes

Ten #oom3chool

Two #oom3chool

=osque3chool

;ome3choolG

)tems@3tart-upHBuilding

$6$ 06$ 86$ :$

TeacherIs 3alary $6J $6J : 6

1o. of Teachersneeded

0

+nrollment "apacity 7 Dnder Dnder 6

=inistry of +ducation$ 9/9$ pp.: G Field 3urvey

1ational +ducation "onsultants$ 99 pp.7/ 4shraf$ 99$ pp.96

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1/ &n traditional education aut$oritarian model$ the teacher is seen as possessing all the essentialinformation$ and the pupils are seen as empty vessels to be filled in with knowledge ,;ope$ pp 9Dnder active learning$ education is considered as a process of location and reconstruction ofe>perience. 4 teacher?s *ob$ instead of indoctrinating the students$ is to help students learn throughasking appropriate questions and posing problems and build their capability to solve problems insteadof blindly following instructions. This type of education whether for children or adults serves as anentry point for social change instead of being limited to a set of uninteresting rituals. )t works likemagic. 4mong the 1%2s contacted by T!2 only Teachers? #esource "enter ,T#"$ The Book%roup ,TB%$ and 4urat =uaven 4urat ,4=4 are practicing the participatory approach other1%2s are not even aware that this is a pedagogical issue at all. )n government run institutions even ifcertain individuals have this awareness they are unable to do anything about it.

The effectiveness of participatory learning is confirmed by the observation that there is a tremendousgap in the level of achievement of a ma*ority of children in learning spoken and written language. Thereason for this is simple$ the elements of free e>pression$ encouragement$ free choice of sub*ect ofmatter and the immediate connection of the sub*ect of conversation in learning a spoken language are

conspicuously missing when a child learns the written language. 4 complete reversal of thepedagogical method in teaching written language and other sub*ects leads to lower rate ofparticipation and learning among children as well as adults ,=ustafa n.p..

2/$e teac$er student relations$i%

The dominant approach to education also determines the teaching methods and pattern of studentteacher relationship which strengthens the common lack of interest and apathy toward educationThis practice$ instead of selecting appropriate ideas and tools for generating productive dialoguebetween teachers and students$ reduces education to the Pavlovian practice of using fear as aconditioning device for evoking desired response from students. +ducation therefore becomes a

means of institutionalizing dependence rather than an instrument of social change.

This becomes a ma*or block in the way of promoting mass literacy. 4mnesty )nternational is workingtoward educating teachers and students on human rights in schools at present. "oordination of thiswork with other efforts to design new reading materials and training programs for teachers canproduce valuable results.

4/eac$ers' training

Teacher?s training is the weakest link in the chain of our education system. Training on sub*ect as wellas teacher-student communication is weak and irrelevant and does not provide any back up facility tothe teachers when they start functioning in the schools.

The T#" has started providing meaningful training to school teachers in Karachi but it is serving avery narrow urban base$ does not provide training in the field$ and has not institutionalized anycontinuous training programme. TB% is also providing teachers? training especially for the use ofreading materials created by them. They are interested in having a wide outreach and should besupported in building their training programme.

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Field based training at the district level in Pun*ab would be the strong point of 4li )nstitute of+ducation ,4)+. Teachers training centres -Beaconhouse #esource "enter ,B#"L and Karachi%rammar 3chool 3taff (evelopment "enter ,K%3(" have recently been set up by the Karachi%rammar 3chool and Beaconhouse 3chool system also. 3pecialized training for teaching +nglishlanguage is provided by +nglish 'anguage #esource Dnit ,+'#D$ #enewal and )mprovement of3chools ,#)3+$ 3ociety of Pakistan +nglish 'anguage and Teachers ,3P+'T and Pakistan4merican "ultural "enter ,P4"". There is no programme offering continuous follow- up of initialtraining given and providing interactive training for helping teachers in solving problems arising fromevery day teaching activities. Training for teachers of adult literacy classes is provided by 4dult Basic+ducation 3ociety ,4B+3 and 'ocal %overnment Training )nstitute ,'%T). There is noprofessional training available for teachers of working children?s schools. "omponents of a vitaltraining programme are scattered at different locations. 4 better awareness on part of the users andthe training of trainers through a combined programme could help to meet training needs efficiently.(etails of general$ specialized and continuous training programs for school teachers run by 1%2sare given in Table : below.

a3le 2 %e and Ca%acit of teac$ers training 3 NGOs

Type of Training )nstitution 2ffering Beneficiaries peryear ,4vg

Total Beneficiaries

&orkshopH3eminar T#" 7 /$79:

Field Based 4)+ Planning 3tage 1.4.

;ome schools Busti - :7

4dult 'iteracy 4B+3$ '%T) $ 0$

Field Based )+( 7 9C teachers in1orthern 4reas

3ource@ 1%2 (ocuments$ personal "ontact

5/Education as an end or a means

The social impact of education land especially adult literacy cannot be fully realized if its connectionwith the process of development is not understood. 4s an instrument of social change opening thecommunication horizon through literacy should move hand in hand with the opening up of creativeenergy in the form of social action for change. 'iteracy and education do not have a neutral socialimpact. They are acts that reveal social reality in order to transform it. ,;ope$ pp.


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From Freire?s point of view literacy becomes an agent of change only if it is considered a means andnot an end of the work in the communities. )n Pakistan most of the organizations involved in adultliteracy do not link their literacy work with community development and thus lose a potentialopportunity for building social institutions and initiating a process of sustainable development. 2nlyone organization 4=4 of 3argodha has followed a combined strategy and established : literacycenters which have undertaken development activities based on self- reliance. 4B+3 and FamilyPlanning 4ssociation of Pakistan ,FP4P have also shown interest now in e>perimenting with theirmethod in selected areas. =ore coordination for this purpose needs to be encouraged. There is also aneed to visit and evaluate the 4=4 programme and assist the trainers in documenting the lessonslearnt from the : years e>periment in 3argodha.

7/ Contents and materials

=ost of the reading materials used in our primary schools and some of the adult literacy programsare made with complete disregard for the level of students? e>posure and interaction with reality.&hat little reading material is available$ is not systematically scrutinized for appropriate thoughtprocesses or interest level of children. The stories do not relate to children? world in any form.

(ifficult ideologies are presented which are beyond a child?s capability level and have no relationshipto the child?s thought process ,1ational Book "ouncil$ pp.7


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Publication Publication serials "opiesHtitle

The Book %roup BooksTeachersI %uides

Book series forschool children

< isted before. Table 6 gives asummary of some of the programs run by 1%2s on these lines. Time management needs to be usedas an important tool for educational planning at all levels.

a3le 5 +uration of Courses and class timings in different literac %rogrammes

1ame of 1%2 "ourse 2ffered (uration "lass Time 'iteracy 'evel

4B+3 Basic 'it.Funct. 'it.

< months< months

4ft. H +ve Basic +d.;ealth etc

;3T&2 Primary +d. : years Fle>ible Primary

O";# Primary +d. : years =orH +ve Primary

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2P( Primary +d. : years Fle>ible Primary

3ource@ 1%2 documents

hibitions$ and sciencecaravan display are being used now by organizations as diverse as 4n*uman Bara-e-Taleem ,4BT$3ociety for 4dvancement of +ducation ,34;+$ 4n*uman Behbood-e-=ehnat Kash 4tfal ,4=B4$Oouth "ommission for ;uman #ights ,O";#$ and Pakistan 3cience Foundation. They have beenused to provide working children a respite from the drudgery of work$ induce the involvement ofparents and community in educational work$ stimulate interest in the study of science and use oflogical thinking among students$ and introduce liveliness in otherwise regimented education system.3ome school children groups and 1%2s have used theater$ puppet shows$ skits and otherperformance art forms as a means of education itself. Prominent among these are #osary ;ospital$"hildren-to-"hildren ,"T" health education groups in "hitral and Baluchistan and numerous otherlittle known missionary groups. 'atent possibilities e>isting in these art forms and e>tra curricularactivities need to be used more systematically specially for encouraging reading habits ,see Table tra curricular activities employed by 1%2s for educational purposes.

a3le 7 ,nconentional educational actiities

1ame of1%2

+ducational4ctivity

Purpose TargetBeneficiary

4rea

4BT 3cience =ela$ !isit=useum$Planetarium$ +ssay

"ontest

Promotescientificthinking

3chool"hildren

Pun*ab

4'BB3 ;obby "lubs ;elp learntechnology

same 'ahore

"T" (rama %roup ;ealth +d. same Baluchistan$"hitral

P3F =oving +>hibitionPlanetarium

Knowledge ofnature$ science

same Pakistan

#; (rama %roup ;ealth$ +nv "hild$Hcomm %u*rat

34;+ (rama %roup 4wareness "hildHcomm 'ahore

T4F Bo> 'ibraries "ultural 'iteracy "ommunity Pakistan

3ource@ Personal visits$ Press reports P3F is not an 1%2 but is using unconventionalmeans of education

4lif 'aila Book Bus 3ociety 4'BB3 has chosen to emphasize e>tracurricular activities as the basicthrust of its education programme. )n doing so it has formalized these activities$ brought into usetheir educational content and introduced a functional$ income generating and skill building

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component into primary education which would make it more meaningful and relevant. "hildrenIslibrary established by them also falls in the same category and cultivate reading$ socializing andresearch habits among little children. For encouraging reading habits among adults The 4siaFoundation ,T4F distributed bo> libraries to 70 Dnion "ouncils. The collection of books anddistribution of libraries were successfully completed but the programme ran into problems at theutilization stage. This was a very forceful initiative and its adaptation after small pilot e>periments isworth considering.

=/ )undamental relations$i%s

There is increasing awareness among 1%2s working for all types of literacy programs that theformation of parentIs committees and their involvement in monitoring the progress of students andeducational institutions$ interaction with the school administration and participation in decisionmaking and responsibility sharing is vital for the progress of literacy work at the community level.Their involvement in planning and implementation of educational activities introduces an element ofaccountability in the system. )n the district of Kohat community involvement in the administration ofgovernment run schools is also being e>perimented with. )nstitutionalization of such committees

would provide a very firm basis for community involvement in education as well as developmentactivities.

.0/ -odels of education

4 variety of models with a lower cost component$ increased community participation and focus onlow income and working children and adults are functioning at present. 4lthough materials andmethods of teaching used here are old or have been imported from the formal sector and teachershere have little or no training yet these models offer the possibility of financial sustainability andreplication on a large scale.

;ome schools for children in low income areas and male and female adult literacy centers in ruralareas are run in teachers home. 4t present these schools are functioning in Baldia of Karachi$2rganization for Participatory (evelopment 2P( of %u*ranwala$ ;afizabad 'iteracy PromotionProgramme ;'PP of ;afizabad$ 4B+3 of %u*ranwala and O";# of 'ahore. Table 8 gives thedetails of targets achieved by different 1%2s working for literacy.

a3le ; Num3er of literac centres>$ome sc$ools run 3 NGOs and estimate of 3eneficiaries

1%2 Pro*ect 4rea Target%roup

1o.enrolled

Total no.educated

1o. of centres

4B+3 %u*ranwala

)slamabad

4

4


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Busti Karachi "


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../ )inancial su%%ort

=ost of the non-formal school models have emphasized the need for and attained financialindependence ,3ee Table /.

a3le < )inancial management of different models of education

Type of)nstitution

1ame of1%2

"ost of setup ,#s.

"ost per3tudent ,#s.

TeacherIsstipendHm,#s.

3alary basedon fee

3treet3chools

'yari "B2s Dnder$

1one 1one Free 3ervice

;ome3chools

Busti :$ 1one 6 C

'iteracy"entres

4B+3 0$6J


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.2/ Eisting 6ork in t$e NGO sector

Table 9 describes the pattern of activities carried out for education by various 1%2s in different partsof Pakistan. &e see that different organizations have worked for developing different components ofpresent education system in the country. "oordination of these efforts by these organizations andindividuals can lead to a breakthrough in the quality and scale of +ducation in Pakistan.

a3le = Pattern of education 6ork in NGO "ector

Pro*ect Focus 1%2H#esource Person &ork done

'iteracy F+"T$ FP4P$ BD3T)$ 4B+3$ 3%4$;+4'$ P4#($ 4'3T$ ;'PP$ 2P($P'PP$ O";#$ )F$ B''F$ F&"3$4=B4$ =&3$ Boy 3couts$ %irl%uides

'iteracy centres established.

Teacher Training 4B+3$ '%T)$ TB%$ T#"$ 4)+$;3T&2$ 34;+$ "P$ 3P+'T$ #)3+$P4""

%eneral and special trainingprovided

#eading =aterials TB%$ &&F$ 4B+3$ '%T)$ 4=4 Books$ comics

4ctive 'earning TB%$ T#"$ ;+4' =odules developed

Publications T#"$ &&F$ "P 1ewsletter$ =agazines

4wareness )'=$ 4) Publicity campaigns

Book "ollection and(istribution

T4F$ #"=) (istributed books

3upporting +ducation 4K+3$ D1+3"2$ D1)"+F$ D1(P$2RF4=$ 34P$ 3P2$ ")(4$ 2(4$&B$ T!2$ D34)(

Provided funds$ sponsoredprogrammes

Dnconventional+ducation

4'BB3$ 4=4$ 4BT$ "T"$ 3P(4

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RE)ERENCE"

. 4ction for the &orking "hild #eport of the 3ymposiumA 0$00 M 0: 4pril 990$ 'ahore. D1)"+F0. 4ll 4bout Teachers? #esource "entre ,T#" brochure$ n.d.:. 4n 2verview of 4ctivities of Basti@ (o it Oourself$ 4 &orkshop held at (awood %oth$ ;ub #iver #oad.

Sanuary 0-0$99. Busti7. 4shrafA 4sif$ =osque Feeder 3chool - 4 Pilot Pro*ect of P4#( 9perts. 8th

to /th 2ctober. 9/th 4nnual #eport 99.:. T#". Primary +ducation =anagement. 1&FP and Balochistan$ T#"$ Karachi$ 9/9. ,#eport presented to

D34)(.

:0. Ousufi$ 3ham. Kiya Khandagl aruri ;ay$ (aily Sang$ #awalpindi$ 3eptember /. 990.

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Documents

NGOs Role in Education