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V O L U M E 4 7 N U M B E R 1 / fall 2020

Jesus’ Triumphal Procession | By Paul N. Jackson • Zion | By Wayne VanHorn

Merchantsand TradersBy Jeff Anderson

BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR

from the editor

ONE OF MY FAVORITE SAYINGS IS,

“We all enjoy the shade of trees that

we did not plant.” It’s a reminder that

we get the benefit of the work of those who

have gone before. We didn’t have to invent

paper—somebody else did that long before we

came on the scene. The same applies to wrist watches, cars, air condi-

tioning, eye glasses, dental fillings, the computer, pencils, pens, erasers,

remote controls, stadiums and footballs, airplanes and radar—and the

seemingly endless list goes on and on.

Each quarter, readers of Biblical Illustrator benefit from the hard work

of men and women who have keen minds and a passion for God’s Word

and the church. We “sit in their shadows.” They have spent countless

hours reading, studying, and researching. Because of their hard work,

they know the intricacies of ancient languages, the details of historical

events, and about how tired muscles feel at the end of a day of digging at

an archaeological site. They know the land of the Bible, its peoples and

their customs. How blessed we are to enjoy the shade of their hard work!

I have benefited from those who have come before me in this role,

those who have served as editors: Nobel Brown, Bill Stephen, Michael

Mitchell, and James McLemore. Again, these are good and godly men

who love the Lord, His Word, and the church.

How thankful I am for each writer and photographer who faithfully

contributes to Biblical Illustrator. Beyond that, I am so grateful to get to

work with my team at LifeWay—Ken Braddy, Brandon Hiltibidal, Dwayne

McCrary, Brent Bruce, and Tim Lynch. To be able to work with these

gentlemen on this wonderful resource—I am of all men, most blessed!

The exciting news is that we are “planting another tree.” For the last

couple of years, we have been working with B&H to develop a new study

Bible based on the articles and images from Biblical Illustrator magazine.

This will introduce Biblical Illustrator to a whole new group of readers.

The Holy Land Illustrated Bible is available this fall. It offers a visual exploration of the people, places, and things of Scripture.

Who all will benefit? It is impossible for us to know. But persons will

pick up the Bible themselves or maybe receive it as a gift. Suddenly,

they understand Bible customs and culture in a whole new way. They

are benefitting from the shade of a new tree. I am honored, humbled,

and excited to be part of this work. You are going to love the Holy Land Illustrated Bible; check it out today at LifeWay.com.

BOOK REVIEW

THE CANAANITES OFFERS

a concise yet thorough

overview of the land and

people known as Canaan and

the Canaanites. The first chapter

examines the possible etymolo-

gy of “Canaan” and the geogra-

phy of the land. Events in chapter

two relate to the Early and Middle

Bronze Ages (3150–1550 BC);

chapter three, Late Bronze Age

(1550–1200 BC); chapter four, the

Iron Age (1200–586 BC); and chap-

ter five, after the fall of Jerusalem

to the Babylonians. Each chap-

ter includes details of how the

Canaanites were influenced by the

of surrounding peoples as they

came into the land, traded goods

and services, and rose or declined in strength and prominence.

Buck includes information about language development, migra-

tions, and even weather, and how each affected the Canaanites.

The book includes well-placed four-color maps and pho-

tos throughout plus a few charts that present an abundance

of information in a concise format—such as dates for ancient

archaeological periods (p. xi) and a timeline for the Neo-

Assyrian Empire (71). The book also has footnotes and a bibliog-

raphy, both of which are helpful rather than intimidating. Buck

consistently ties her information to what we read in Scripture.

The book contains current information. Buck included

Khirbet Qeiyafa (biblical Shaaraim) in her list of sites with

multi-chambered gates (81). Plus, she explains genetic research

that shows Canaanite connections to peoples, both ancient

and modern.

A couple of issues may cause concern. First, Buck men-

tions the Hebrew Bible being redacted (15). Second, some

of the wording in one of the maps (32) is difficult to read

due to the small type. You will find the book, though, to be

a welcome addition to your Bible study resources. I

G. B. Howell, Jr. is the content editor of Biblical Illustrator

magazine at LifeWay in Nashville, Tennessee.

Cover: Etruscan pyxis fashioned to imitate import-ed Phoenician luxury goods. The 7th–6th centu-ries BC were a prosperous era of international trade.CREATIVE COMMONS LICENSE/ WALTERS ART MUSEUM/ BALTIMORE

On a scale of 1-10, this book receives a rating of 9.

The Canaanites: Their History and Culture from Texts and Artifacts; Mary Ellen Buck, Cascade Books; 2019; 100 pages; softback; ISBN 978-1-5326-1804-8.

Book reviews are limited to those the Illustrator staff feels confident to recom-mend, based on ease of reading, qual-ity of content, and doctrinal viewpoint. Each book is reviewed within LifeWay’s doctrinal guidelines. The 1 to 10 scale reflects overall quality and usefulness.

G. B. Howell, Jr.Content Editor

Dwayne McCraryTeam Leader

Ken BraddyDirector, Adult Ongoing Curriculum

Brandon HiltibidalDirector, Group Ministry

Send questions/comments to Team Leader by email to: Dwayne.McCrary@lifeway.comby mail to: Team Leader, Biblical Illustrator, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234-0175 Or make comments on the Web at lifeway.com @B_Illustrator visit lifeway.com/biblicalillustrator

Biblical Illustrator (ISSN 0195-1351, Item 005075109) is published quar-terly by LifeWay Christian Resources, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234, Ben Mandrell, President. © 2020 LifeWay Christian Resources. For ordering or inquiries visit lifeway.com, or write LifeWay Resources Customer Service, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234-0113. For bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address, fax 615.251.5933, email orderentry@lifeway.com, or write to the above address. Annual individual or gift subscription, $29.00. Bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address when ordered with other literature, $6.99 each per quarter, plus shipping. Please allow six to eight weeks for arrival of first issue. Biblical Illustrator is designed to support the Bible study sessions in the student and adult Bible Studies for Life, the Explore the Bible, and The Gospel Project curriculum series. Bible background articles and ac-companying illustrative material are based on the passages studied in these curriculum series. We believe that the Bible has God for its author; salvation for its end; and truth, without any mixture of error, for its matter and that all Scrip-ture is totally true and trustworthy. To review LifeWay’s doctrinal guide-line, please visit lifeway.com/doctrinalguideline. Scripture quotations marked CSB® are taken from the Christian Standard Bible®, Copyright 2020 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Scripture quotations marked (ESV®) are from the English Standard Version® (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®), copyright 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (NASB) are from the New American Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. (www.lockman.org) Scripture quotations marked (NCV) are from the New Century Ver-sion®. Copyright © 2005 by Thomas Nelson. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (NIV) are from the Holy Bible, New In-ternational Version®, NIV®. Copyright 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc.® Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com The “NIV” and “New International Version” are trademarks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.® Scripture quotations marked (NLT) are taken from the Holy Bible, New Living Translation, copyright ©1996, 2004, 2007, 2013, 2015 by Tyndale House Foundation. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Carol Stream, IL 60188. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (TLB) are taken from The Living Bible copyright © 1971. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Carol Stream, IL 60188. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America 1105

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CONTENTSDEPARTMENTS

2 BI Lines

3 BI the Book: The Canaanites: Their History and Culture from Texts and Artifacts by Mary Ellen Buck Book review by G. B. Howell, Jr.

InSites (between pages 66-67) Parables of Jesus Kings of Judah

58 QuickBites: Isaiah Foretold: Jesus Fulfilled

98 Issues Gone BI

BIBLE STUDIES FOR LIFE

94 The Law: God’s Gracious Gift by E. LeBron Matthews September 6 // Session 1

26 Taking His Name in Vain by T. J. Betts September 13 // Session 2

72 Adultery: A Biblical Overview by Todd Borger October 4 // Session 5

14 Theft in the Ancient Near East by Francis X. Kimmitt October 11 // Session 6

60 Jesus and the Wealthy by Jerry Batson October 25 // Session 2

FA L L 2 0 2 0

V O L U M E 4 7 N U M B E R 1

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TO SUBSCRIBE TOBIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR, GO TO

LIFEWAY.COM/BIBLICALILLUSTRATORSEE RELATED B IBLE STUDY RESOURCES:

www.BibleStudiesForLife.com • goExploreTheBible.com • www.GospelProject.com

84 Oh How Blessed! by Ken Cox November 1 // Session 3

42 To Seek Revenge, or Not? by George H. Shaddix November 8 // Session 4

54 Zion: A Location and a Metaphor by W. Wayne VanHorn November 22 // Session 6

EXPLORE THE BIBLE

InSites: Kings of Judah September 6 // Session 1

58 QuickBites: Isaiah Foretold: Jesus Fulfilled September 6 // Entire Quarter

22 Throne Guardians in the Ancient Near East by Seth M. Rodriquez September 13 // Session 2

10 Merchants and Traders by Jeff S. Anderson September 27 // Session 4

46 Banqueting in the Ancient Near East by John L. Harris October 4 // Session 5

67 Sennacherib, King of Assyria by Joseph R. Cathey October 18 // Session 7

87 Idols: From Production to Veneration by Tom Goodman November 1 // Session 9

80 God as “Redeemer” in Isaiah by Harry D. Champy November 8 // Session 10

35 The Promise of Paradise by Robert D. Bergen November 29 // Session 13

THE GOSPEL PROJECT

64 Jesus’ Use of Parables by R. D. Fowler September 6 // Session 1

InSites: Parables of Jesus September 6 // Session 1

6 Women and Wealth in the First Century by Bill Patterson September 13 // Session 2

76 The Synagogue in First-Century Judaism by Dale “Geno” Robinson September 20 // Session 3

91 Jesus’ Use of Miracles by Argile A. Smith, Jr. September 27 // Session 4

30 Jesus’ Triumphal Procession by Paul N. Jackson October 4 // Session 5

17 Jewish Law and Jesus' Trial by Garry D. Graves October 25 // Session 8

50 He Really Is Alive! by Charles A. Ray, Jr. November 15 // Session 11

39 “Authority” as a Theme in Matthew by Darryl Wood November 29 // Session 13

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WOMENWEALTH

I N T H E F I R S T C E N T U R Y

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Women and Wealth in the First Century

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salary and then found it, she

would rejoice but probably would

not throw a party. The woman of

Luke 15 found the lost drachma, a

silver coin equal to a denarius or a

quarter of a silver shekel.1 A denarius

equaled a day’s wage according to anoth-

er of Jesus’ parables (Matt. 20). She then

threw a party to celebrate, which empha-

sized how precious a woman of that day

could considered a single day’s wage (Luke 15:9).

In the parable, the woman used a lamp to

search for the lost coin (v. 8). Most floors in the

simple homes of that day were hard-packed dirt,

although some were made of basalt slabs. A slab

floor would have had many seams where a coin

could have rolled. In the case of a dirt floor, the

darkness combined with the darkened silver coin

could have concealed it. People would have had

great difficulty spotting a lost coin unless the

room had ample light. The home being dark

would have been common, especially among the

first-century poor.

The coin that dropped may have come from a

headdress or necklace of ten coins her father had

given her as a dowry. Ladies regarded these as

precious monetarily and emotionally. Although

the ten coins represented only a third of a month’s

salary in that day—enough to buy ten small sheep

CAN YOU REMEMBER A TIME WHEN YOU were unsure if you would have anything to eat the next day? Poverty caused most Middle Easterners of the first century to live with

that uncertainty.

IN FIRST-CENTURY CULTUREFinancially, women fared no better—and often

worse—than men. The wealthy formed only

one to two percent of the population. Poverty

and lack of opportunity cloaked the rest.

What we know today as the middle

class was almost nonexistent in

first-century Israel.

Women in Israel had

extremely limited opportuni-

ties, far less than women in

the rest of the Roman world.

The women in Roman cities

throughout the empire could do

almost every type of work that men

did, except to serve as soldiers or politi-

cians. Women could take care of the family

farm, work in the fields, and watch the herds.

Some bought, sold, rented, and owned prop-

erty. They ran businesses, employed staff, and

owned slaves. They enjoyed working as artists and

shop owners and were able to sell their products.

Israelite women, on the other hand, primar-

ily depended on their fathers until married and

on their husbands afterwards. They could not

inherit property from their parents if they had

brothers. Some, however, considered the dowry a

father gave his daughter to be a woman’s inher-

itance. Sons received their inheritance portion

after their parents’ deaths, but daughters received

theirs upon marriage. The husband controlled

those funds but could spend them only for the

family’s good. A man also had to give the dowry or

its equivalent to his former wife in case of divorce.

Often a new bride kept her dowry and used it as a

buffer to keep her new family from starvation.

IN LUKE 15Today, if a lady lost the equivalent of a day’s

B Y B I L L P A T T E R S O N Left: Woman’s headdress for sale in the market in the Old City of Jerusalem, made of coin-like medallions.

Lower left: Roman era ter-ra-cotta lamp; the woman depicted in the center medal-lion is playing a harp or a lyre. In Jesus’ para-ble, the woman lit lamps to search her house for her lost coin.

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ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ DEBORAH CANTRELL (221/0590)

Of course,

not all wealthy

women of the first

century came to know Christ.

Acts 24:24 mentions Drusilla, a

Jewish princess. Drusilla mar-

ried Felix, the Roman gover-

nor of Judea from AD 52-59.

Acts 25:13,23–26:31 mentions

Bernice. Herod Agrippa I had

fathered both of these women.

Their wealth came from their

birth family.

The New Testament mentions

Julia in Romans 16:15 and Claudia

in 2 Timothy 4:21. Families of wealth

and aristocracy in Rome commonly bore

these names. We do not know that these women

were rich—but we do know that wealthy women

helped Jesus and the church at levels that far sur-

passed others. For instance, Mary, the mother of John

Mark, possibly owned the house where Jesus and the

disciples ate the last supper. Mary Magdalene helped

support Jesus and His disciples in their Galilean

ministry (Luke 8:1-3) and followed Him to Jerusalem.

Mary, sister of Martha and Lazarus, anointed

Jesus with costly perfume (John 12:1-7). Her ample

funds purchased an expensive perfume imported

from India. The container of perfume likely rep-

resented a year’s wage. Except for the few whose

fathers had given such an expensive gift as a dowry,

most women in Israel could not have afforded such

an extravagance. Yet Mary gave it freely.

or to provide ten large meals—they were more

than that; the coins represented the family savings

and formed the buying power guaranteed to keep

her family from abject poverty.

IN THE NEW TESTAMENTThe Roman Empire boasted some women of

wealth. Acts 17:4 states, “a number of the leading

women” of Thessalonica became believers (NASB).

Additionally, many honorable (Greek, euschemon,

meaning high-standing or noble) Greek women in

Berea became believers (Acts 17:12). Also mentioned

is a woman named Damaris who became a believer,

alongside a member of the Areopagus, Dionysius

(v. 34). One scholar explained, “Damarius must have

been a woman of distinction or she would not have

been singled out with Dionysius, one of the judges

of the great court.”2 Although a small number when

compared with the poor people of the day, some

wealthy women became Christians and helped

support their churches. Indeed, the New Testament

spotlights “some women [who] were capable of

theological discussion and had the means to spon-

sor the group. We should expect that Jesus, Paul,

and the traveling missionaries (which included

women) met educated women with strong business

acumen and effective community influence.”3

Wealthy Lydia came to Christ as the first

recorded convert in Europe. She sold expensive

purple cloth that only the ruling class wore. She

owned a home in Philippi, a Roman city. Her

home was large enough to accommodate Paul,

Silas, Luke, and Timothy (16:15).

Left: Woman sell-ing leafy vegeta-bles on the street in the Old City of Jerusalem.

Below: A Jewish widow’s mite from the time of Tiberias. The obverse side shows a simpu-lum, a vessel for pouring libations. The Greek inscription reads: TIBERION KAICAROS LIS, which means “of Tiberius, year 16.” This indi-cates the coin was struck the year that Julia Augusta died (AD 29). It was found at Herod’s fortress palace, the Herodium, near Bethlehem. Reverse shows a double cornu-copia.

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ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ (11/15/19)

questioned their treating these women followers

with anything but respect and dignity. These ladies

gave of their means and provided food and perhaps

other supplies for Jesus and the disciples.

Although some wealthy women existed, the

vast majority lived in poverty. The Jerusalem

church chose seven men to help distribute food

to poor Greek widows (Acts 6:1-6). At the Temple

a widow gave two mites (lepta), one of the small-

est of coins in circulation, perhaps equal to two

dimes. Jesus recognized her, saying she gave

more than all the rich because she had given all

she had (Luke 21:1-4). The Father who owns the

cattle on a thousand hills is less interested in

the amount we give than the heart of commit-

ment with which we give. Many women through

the years, first century and twenty-first, rich

and poor, have shown hearts of commitment to

Jesus and have supported His work. I

1. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 3.8.195 in The Works of Josephus: New Up-dated Version, trans. William Whiston (Peabody, MA: Henderickson, 1987), 91.

2. Edith Deen, “Damaris,” in All of the Women of the Bible (New York: Harper, 1955), 259.

3. Lynn H. Cohick, Women in the World of the Earliest Christians (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2009), 326.

4. Ibid., 311.

Bill Patterson is Director of Missions of the Green

Valley Baptist Association, Henderson, Kentucky

and a freelance writer.

Further, Jesus Himself had a group of somewhat

wealthy women followers (Luke 8:1-3). We do not

read of them in the main group of disciples.

Yet, Scripture says they helped sustain Jesus and

the disciples. We know little about these ladies

except that the wife of Zebedee (her husband

owned a fishing business and had employees;

Mark 1:19-20) had funds to assist Jesus and to

go with His entourage to Jerusalem. Joanna’s

husband, Chuza, served as steward in Herod’s

household and earned enough to enable his wife

to support Jesus and the disciples financially.

Explained one writer:

Coming from an elite family meant that

Joanna had access to education that many

women (and not a few men) were unable to

access. In all likelihood, she met important

political and religious figures, was up-to-

date on important news throughout the

Roman Empire, and had opportunities to

display leadership, even if it was to staff in

preparing a banquet.4

Ladies of means supported Jesus and the disciples

with their gifts. Men followed capable teachers in

that day but women did not, as a rule. Yet, Jesus and

His disciples lived with such integrity that none ever

Above: Houses in modern Berea, in Macedonia. This is the city to which Paul

escaped after the Jews of Thessalonica rioted. After hearing Paul’s

message, some of the prominent women of Berea became believ-ers (Acts 17:12).

WEALTHY WOMEN TO THE RESCUE

“AT THE BEGINNING OF THE second century BCE, the city of Kopai in Boeotia [a region in central Greece] concluded an agreement

with two women, Kleuedra and Olympicha,

so that they might loan money to the city.

The city was having difficulty paying its

debts, so the two women covered the total-

ity of Kopai’s debts in exchange for grazing

rights, on the city’s land, for their 400 heads

of cattle.”

Source: Anne Bielman, “Female Patronage in the Greek Hellenistic and Roman Republic Periods,” in A Companion to Women in the Ancient World, ed. Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2015), 241.

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Merchants and Traders

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and Beersheba. Jeremiah 10:9

mentions beaten silver brought

to Jerusalem from Tarshish

and gold from Uphaz (location

unknown, possibly Ophir in the

Arabian Peninsula).

Because of the surrounding

deserts, land routes were obvious-

ly important—maritime trade was

also popular in the Late Bronze and

Iron Ages. Various markets spread

out from major Mediterranean

ports to even the smallest vil-

lages.3 Remains of ancient ship-

wrecks in the Mediterranean,

many of which were remarkably

preserved largely intact, have

given us a window into expan-

sive cargoes of lucrative treasures

including ceramics, copper, grain,

ivory, oils, glass beads, ostrich egg

shells, tortoise shells, and lavish

gold and silver jewelry.

In comparison to its neighbors,

however, Israel was a relatively

allowed for

both long-

and short-dis-

tance trade. Long-distance trade

catered primarily to the wealthy

by way of political and religious

institutions like palaces and tem-

ples. Such trade typically required

vast networks, many intermedi-

aries, and month-long journeys.

Shorter trade routes catered to

the more mundane necessities

of life. Controlling these trade

routes was essential for Israel and

Judah’s success. The Israelite cit-

ies of Gezer, Megiddo, and Hazor

commanded strategic positions

along the main north-south

trade routes, connecting Israel

with Phoenicia and Damascus.2

Proliferation of foreign pottery in

cities from Greece, Crete, Cyprus,

and Phoenicia as well as Anatolia,

Egypt, and Mesopotamia shows

extensive overland trade. Judah

also hosted important trade routes

through Jerusalem, Hebron,

ISAIAH 23 IS THE LAST OF several of the prophet’s blunt warnings against for-eign nations (Isa. 13–23). Many

Old Testament prophets uttered

“Oracles against the Nations” to

denounce the idolatrous and

unethical practices of Israel’s

neighbors. This particular oracle

is directed against Tyre and Sidon,

two renowned cities in Phoenicia,

north of Israel. Isaiah’s oracle pre-

dicts the demise of a vibrant trade

industry these two cities enjoyed

with Cyprus, Egypt, Tarshish

(probably Tarsessus in southern

Spain), and Canaan. An important

parallel passage in Ezekiel 27–28

also describes and denounces the

legendary wealthy merchants of

Tyre in exacting detail.

The eighth century BC

witnessed the rapid political

and commercial expansion of

Phoenicia, where Tyre and Sidon

were located. Lucrative interna-

tional trade caused much of that

nation’s wealth to flourish. Trade

is what the Phoenicians did best.

Plenty of foreign products had

been carried long distances for

centuries, but international com-

merce really peaked in the Late

Bronze and Iron Ages. Israel and

Judah’s proximity to Phoenicia

nurtured their own flourishing

trade markets during the Iron

Age II (1000–586 BC).1

Robust trade was not limited

to Phoenicia alone. International

routes connecting Mesopotamia,

Egypt, Asia Minor, the Aegean,

and southern Arabia ran direct-

ly through the land of the Bible.

These important trade routes

BY JEFF S. ANDERSON

Above: Plaque that

once decorated the Hall of Honor in the Palace of Sargon II shows ships being used

to transport cedar wood from Lebanon. Solomon purchased and used cedar for his building projects in Jerusalem.

Below: Handle of a lamelek jar stamped with a winged symbol. The Hebrew word lamelek translates “of the king.” Jars displaying this royal seal were used to collect taxes of grain, wine, and oil, among other things, for the king. The stamp assured an hon-est measure.

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Hattusa

Babylon

Athens

On

Beersheba

Raamses

Cyrene Megiddo

Ur

MariQatna

Petra

Troy

Nineveh

Susa

Ugarit

Aleppo

CarchemishHaran

Emar

Tema

Ezion-geber

Damascus

Dor

Joppa

Tyre

Timna

Hazor

Gulfof Aqaba

Gulfof Suez

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

AEG

EAN SEA

B L A CK S E A

REDSEA

River

Euphrates

Tigris River

Nile River

Syro-ArabianDesert

S a h a r a D e s e r t

CyprusCrete

Me s o p o t a m

i a

EGYPT

ELAM

MIDIAN

EDOM

GREECE ANATOLIA

0 300 Miles100 200

100 2000 300 Kilometers

CityInternational Coastal HighwayKing’s HighwaySea routes

INTERNATIONAL ROUTES

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HOLMAN BIBLE PUBLISHERS

for producing it. Some believed

that copper even had religious

significance. Ramesses II sent

expeditions to Timna, in what is

now southern Israel, to search for

copper to bring back to Egypt.

Recent archaeological evidence

from Timna, Israel, and Faynan,

Jordan, demonstrate copper pro-

duction peaked there during the

tenth century BC, the time of David

and Solomon. New settlements

appeared along these copper trade

routes. History does not indicate

ships there, but for some unex-

plained reason, his ships never set

sail (1 Kings 22:48).

Scholars have suggested that

“control of copper production was

perhaps the single most important

factor in the birth of the Edomite

state.”4 Mixing copper with tin

produced bronze, a coveted alloy.

Ore was smelted into ingots,

which were valuable objects of

trade. Egyptians and Assyrians

both craved copper because their

own countries lacked the deposits

minor operator in maritime trade.

The Bible mentions three port cit-

ies: Dor, Joppa (Jaffa), and Ezion-

Geber. Archaeologists have found

many Phoenician artifacts scat-

tered at these port cities, demon-

strating the broad reach that Tyre

and Sidon enjoyed during the

Iron Age.

Tel Dor, the only natural harbor

on Israel’s coast, was a thriving

port city (1 Kings 4:11). A minor port

in Joppa played a role in transfer-

ring materials from Phoenicia to

Jerusalem for Temple construc-

tion. Tyre’s King Hiram said, “Now

let my lord send his servants the

wheat and barley and the olive oil

and wine he promised, and we

will cut all the logs from Lebanon

that you need and will float them

as rafts by sea down to Joppa.

You can then take them up to

Jerusalem” (2 Chron. 2:15-16, NIV).

Solomon also built an entire fleet

of ships at a surprising loca-

tion—near Elath at Ezion-Geber

along the Red Sea’s Gulf of Aqaba.

This was to take advantage of the

lucrative southern Arabian spice

trade (1 Kings 9:26; Job 6:19).

Jehoshaphat also built a fleet of

Right: Smelting area at ancient Timna in south-ern Israel. Timna had some of the first-known cop-per mines in his-tory. The charred remains date to the Bronze Age.

Lower right: From Ur and dated about 2600 BC, an ostrich egg shell jar, pottery rim and foot, with linear pattern on body and inlay of mother of pearl and red paste in bitumen.

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very little foreign pottery in either

city.5 Why? Restricting foreign

goods was one way of possibly

erecting an ancient “firewall”

against pagan cultures.

Sometimes the Bible refers to

those who engaged in interna-

tional trade with the derogato-

ry term “Canaanites” (Job 40:30;

Prov. 31:24; Isa. 23:8; Hos. 12:8;

Zeph. 1:11). International trade

continued, though, in spite of

social complexities. Merchants

and traders were willing to work

within these vast social net-

works because doing so could be

immensely profitable. I

1. Eric H. Cline, “Trade and Exchange in the Levant,” in Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader, ed. Suzanne Richard (Winona Lake, IN; Eisenbrauns, 2003), 365.

2. Carol Meyers, “Kinship and Kingship,” in The Oxford History of the Biblical World, ed. Michael Coogan (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1998), 252–56.

3. Daniel M. Master, “Economy and Exchange in the Iron Age Kingdoms of the Southern Levant,” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 372 (2014): 89.

4. Thomas Levy and Mohammad Najjar, “Edom and Copper: The Emergence of Ancient Israel’s Rival,” Biblical Archaeology Review 32, no. 4 (2006).

5. Avraham Faust, “Trade Ideology, and Boundary Maintenance in Iron Age Israelite Society,” in A Holy Community, ed. M. Purthuis and J. Schwartz (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 17–32.

Jeff S. Anderson is professor

of religion at Wayland Baptist

University, Anchorage, Alaska.

Gift giving, particularly greet-

ing gifts, was another way peo-

ple exchanged goods. When the

Queen of Sheba visited Solomon,

she brought a substantial retinue

of spices, gold, and precious stones

as a greeting gift. Solomon, in turn,

also gave from his royal bounty to

the Queen (ch. 10). By the seventh

century BC, bartering waned, as

silver became the widely accepted

standard for payment.

As we saw above, Isaiah, Ezekiel,

Jeremiah, and other prophets

were suspicious of foreign trade.

Exposure to other cultures raised

the risk of idolatry. Archaeologists

now confirm that the people of

Judah were somewhat hesitant to

import foreign pottery. In the lat-

ter part of the Iron Age, Jerusalem

and Beersheba were located

along important trade routes, yet

archaeologists have discovered

which nation-state oversaw the

robust copper smelting indus-

try. Timna and Faynan were both

located in Edom, but 2 Samuel 8:14

states that King David put garri-

sons throughout Edom and all the

Edomites were subject to David.

Perhaps Israel played a role in this

vibrant copper trade.

How did people pay for the

items they received in trade?

Coinage does not appear until

the sixth century BC, but valu-

able commodities such as grain,

lead, copper, tin, bronze, and

particularly silver were used

for purchasing merchandise.

These goods could be bartered

for desired items. For example,

Hiram, exchanged cedar for grain

and oil (1 Kings 5:5-11). He also

exchanged timber and gold in

trade for twenty of Solomon’s cit-

ies, so Solomon could build the

Temple (9:11-13).

Ruins at Dor, which was a port city on the coast of ancient Israel.

Left: Model of an early Phoenician merchant ship.This type of ship was especially built for large cargo capacity and is a proto-type of the later merchantmen ships called “roundships.”

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BSFL: EXODUS 20:15

“YOU SHALL NOT STEAL.”1 THE EIGHTH

commandment consists of two words

in the Hebrew Old Testament, part of

the Ten Commandments (“Ten Words” in Hebrew),

which spell out the foundation of a proper relation-

ship to Yahweh and one’s neighbor. Inherent in this

commandment is the concept of legal possession

and personal ownership of property and material

possessions.2 Stealing damages the relationships

among the community of faith.

Yahweh elaborated on this important horizontal

relationship in several passages in the Torah:

Exodus 22:1-4; Leviticus 6:2-5; 19:11,13; and

Deuteronomy 24:7. These passages reveal that theft

is an assault on the social order; it wreaks havoc on a

family by taking away necessary food, clothing, ani-

mals, or even family members who have been kid-

napped. Theft is such a violation of trust and unity

in the community of faith that the Lord commanded

significant restitution be made to the offended party.

Exodus 22:1 is a prime example: “If a man steals an

ox or a sheep and slaughters it or sells it, he shall pay

five oxen for the ox and four sheep for the sheep.” In

a culture where wealth was measured by a family's

possessions rather than money, a person who stole

a family’s animals was potentially bringing not only

financial ruin to that family but also starvation and

death. Therefore, the substantial restitution for theft

should cause a potential thief to think twice about

his actions. The passage goes on to tell us that a poor

man who cannot pay the restitution will be sold into

slavery for his thievery (Ex. 22:3).

BY FRANCIS X. KIMMITT

IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST

from the Ten Commandments, including, “You shall not murder. You shall not commit adultery. You shall not steal.”

Left: Large stone that functioned as a mezuzah at a doorway in for a Samaritan syn-agogue that was at Kefar Bilu, a farming commu-

nity in central Israel; dated to the 6th cent. AD. The text, written in a script sim-ilar to ancient Hebrew, con-tains excerpts

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parallel law is #14. It addresses someone kidnap-

ping the child of another member of society. In

that Babylonian culture, kidnapping was a capital

offense, punishable by death. So too was its parallel:

Deuteronomy 24:7, “If a man is caught kidnapping

any of his countrymen of the sons of Israel, and he

The prophet Jeremiah in his famous Temple

Sermon (Jer. 7) castigated Judah for their sins against

Yahweh and His people. Jeremiah listed stealing,

murder, adultery, swearing falsely, and offering their

sacrifices to Baal as sins the people were committing.

He called these sins “abominations.” The Hebrews,

having committed these abominations, would go

to the Temple, trusting that their prayers and sac-

rifices to Yahweh would cover all their wickedness

(vv. 9-10). But Yahweh would never accept ritual

worship from a people whose hearts and actions

were far from Him. They believed that as long as

the Temple stood, they could come to worship Him

and pray: “We are delivered!” Wrongly believing they

could continue to disobey God’s commandments

and worship false gods, the people committed these

abominations without fear of punishment.3

ANCIENT NEAR EAST LAW CODESHow did other peoples in the ancient Near East deal

with theft? Perhaps the most famous legal code of

Israel's neighbors is the Law Code of Hammurabi. He

was the sixth of eleven kings of the Old Babylonian

Dynasty and ruled 1792 –1750 BC.4 Several laws of

Hammurabi’s code closely parallel the laws Yahweh

gave to Moses. Hammurabi’s Article #8 deals with

the theft of an ox or sheep or donkey or pig or boat

and the restitution to be made if the stolen article

belonged to a god or state (thirty-fold) or a pri-

vate citizen (ten-fold). One significant difference

was that a poor thief would be put to death if he

could not make restitution. This law is simi-

lar to the stipulations in Exodus 20:5;

22:1-4; Deuteronomy 5:19; and

Leviticus 19:11,13. Another

Right: The Hammurabi Code is inscribed on a black basalt stone, which stands about 6½ feet tall. It was discovered near ancient Susa (bib-lical Shushan) and dates from about 1750 BC. The Code, which con-tains 282 laws, is divided into three parts: the prologue, laws, and epilogue. The Code is the most extensive legal document prior to classical times. Hammurabi was the king of Babylon 1792-1750 BC.

Below: Plain of Er-Rahah, which is at the foot of Mount Sinai. The children of Israel would have camped here while Moses ascended the mountain.

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them out of slavery to Mount

Sinai. He had given them the

Torah so they could know

Him and know how to be in

right relationship with Him and

with each other. He was establish-

ing a covenant with a people who

were already redeemed.6

The Ten Commandments are

the foundation of the entire Law,

and the first commandment

is the foundation of the Ten.

Therefore, the heart of the Ten

Commandments was to show

Israel how to live a healthy,

vibrant life with their God and

with each other. These laws, including the prohibi-

tion against stealing, would give them direction for

this healthy, vibrant, covenant living. I

1. Writer’s translation; all other Scripture quotations are from the New American Standard Bible (NASB).

2. Douglas K. Stuart, Exodus, vol. 2, The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 2006), 465.

3. F. B. Huey, Jr., Jeremiah-Lamentations, vol. 16, The New American Commen-tary (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1993), 106.

4. James B. Pritchard, ed. The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, vol. 1 (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1958), 138.

5. Ibid., 133.6. Peter C. Craigie, The Book of Deuteronomy, The New International Commen-

tary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976), 151.

Francis X. Kimmitt is a freelance writer living in

Dahlonega, Georgia.

deals with him violently or sells him, then that

thief shall die; so you shall purge the evil from

among you.”

A second legal code demonstrates some parallels

and some differences with the laws of the Torah; it

is the Laws of Eshnunna, from a kingdom located

east of modern Baghdad. Eshnunna thrived around

2000 BC.5 Laws 12 and 13 reference the thief who is

caught either in the field or in the home of a per-

son connected to either the palace or the temple.

If the thief were caught in the daytime, he would

pay a fine of ten shekels of silver. If, however, he

were caught at night, the penalty would be death.

Exodus 22:2-3 is a statute detailing the penalty

for the robber caught breaking in by night or day.

But the death penalty is not a consequence for this

crime. The thief would make restitution if he was

able or would be sold if he could not.

DISTINCTIVENESS OF OLD TESTAMENT LAWWe have seen that Israel’s neighbors had similar laws

with respect to theft: prohibitions and punishments.

What feature of Old Testament law made it unique

among the laws of the ancient Near East? Why are

the Ten Commandments the foundation on which

the entire Law stands? The first commandment pro-

vides the answer (Ex. 20:2-3; Deut. 5:6-7). Yahweh

identified Himself to Israel as their God. He had

redeemed them from bondage in Egypt and brought

Left: Assyria’s King Sennacherib completely destroyed Babylon in 689 BC. This relief, from Sennacherib’s Southwest Palace at Nineveh, shows a procession of captive Babylonian women being led as prisoners under the unsympathetic gaze of Assyrian soldiers.

Lower left: Standing male

worshiper discovered

at the Square Temple of the god Abu, which was excavated at Tell Asmar (ancient Eshnunna). The figure made of ala-baster and inlaid with shell and black limestone dates to about 2750–2600 BC. The law code of Eshnunna carried a specific penalty for someone who stole from the home of someone connected to the palace or the temple.

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