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Neurophysiology II
Synapses, neurotransmitters and neuromodulators
Boris Mravec 2020
Signals transmission
• coordination of cells activities
• transmission of signals from internal environment
• transmission of signals from external environment
autocrine paracrine
endocrine synaptic
Signals transmission
Transmission of signals in the nervous systemFunctions
Transmission of signals in the nervous systemFunctions
Transmission of signals in the nervous system
Transmission of signals in the nervous systemDysfunctions
depression
drugs addiction
schizoprenia
Alzheimer’s disease
Parkinson’s disease
...
Transmission of signals in the nervous system
History
• model of brain activity always reflected current dominant technology of certain period
of time
Transmission of signals in the nervous systemChronology of research
Transmission of signals in the nervous systemChronology of research
Year Discovery Researcher
1866 blockade of neuromuscular transmission by curare Vulpian
1877 suggestion of partial chemical transmission on
neuromuscular junction
Du Bois Reymond
end of the 19th century concept of neural theory Ramón y Cajal
1904 suggestion of chemical transmission in nervous system T. R. Elliott
1914 chemical transmission in autonomic nervous system Dale
1926 confirmation of chemical transmission of the vagus nerve Otto Loewi
Proof of chemical basis neurotransmissionAcetylcholine
Schema of experiments confirming release of "vagus substance" (acetylcholine) from nerve endings of the vagus
nerve. Otto Loewi, 1921
In the year 1936 he received Nobel price for physiology or medicine ("for their discoveries relating to chemical
transmission of nerve impulses").
Electrochemical principle of signal transmission
Electrochemical principle of signal transmission
Electrochemical principle of signal transmission
Electrochemical principle of signal transmission
Electrochemical principle of signal transmission
Electrochemical principle of signal transmission
Electrochemical principle of signal transmission
Electrochemical principle of signal transmission
Electrochemical principle of signal transmission
Debanne et al., 2013
Electrochemical principle of signal transmission
Transmission of signals between neurons
Transmission of signals in nervous system
Transmission of signals in nervous systemDifferent Types of Intercellular Communication in the Central Nervous System
Transmission type source/target
ratio
source/target
distance
source/target
delay
Gap-junction 1:1 2-3 nm msec
Membrane juxtaposition (ephapsis) 1:1 10 nm msec
Closed synaptic transmission 1:1 20-50 nm msec
Paracrine transmission
Open synaptic transmission 1:n, n>1 – n >>1 100 nm-mm msec-min
Non-synaptic source 1:n, n >>1 1 µm-mm sec-min
Endocrine-like transmission
Nerve-bundle-associated 1:n, n >>1 mm min
Paravascular fluid circulation 1:n, n >>1 mm min
Transmission in cerebro-spinal fluid 1:n, n >>1 mm-cm min
(Zoli and Agnati, 1996)
Transmission of signals in nervous systemDifferent Types of Intercellular Communication in the Central Nervous System
Electrical synapse Chemical synapse
Transmission of signals in nervous system
Electrical synapse
• width of synaptic cleft: ~ 3,5 nm
• synaptic delay: ~0,1 ms
Chemical synapse
• width of synaptic cleft: ~ 20-40 nm
• synaptic delay: ~1-5 ms, seconds to minutes
(Felten and Shetty, 2009)
Composition of chemical synapses
Processing of signals at chemical synapses
Nonsynaptic chemical transmission in nervous system
• distance of varicosities from target membrane: ~ 2-100 µm
• „synaptic“ delay: from ms to minutes
Nonsynaptic chemical transmission in nervous system
Nonsynaptic chemical transmission in nervous systemMediators of transmission
• norepinephrine
• dopamine
• serotonin
• acetylcholine ?
• NO ?
Characteristics of neurotransmitters
• synthesis in neuron
• localization in presynaptic nerve ending
• release from presynaptic nerve ending to synaptic cleft evoked by action
potential
• binding on postsynaptic (sometimes also on presynaptic) receptors evoke
specific response
• neuronal or synaptically localized mechanisms removing or inactivating
neurotransmitter
• exogenously applied neurotransmiter elicits identical response as its
endogenous release
Characteristics of neurotransmitters
Transmission of signals by chemical synapse
• transsynaptic signalization
• transmembrane signalization
• transcytoplazmatic signalization
• transnuclear signalization
Transmission of signals by chemical synapse
Transmembrane signalization
ionotropic receptor metabotropic receptor
Transcytoplazmatic signalization
Transcytoplazmatic signalization
Transnuclear signalization
Classification of neurotransmitters
Chemical group Example
Small molecule neurotransmitters
Ester of choline acetylcholine
Monoamines
Catecholamines dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine
Indols serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)
Imidazols histamine
Amino acids
Acidic glutamate
Basic γ-aminobutiric acid, glycine
Purines adenosine triphosphate, adenosine
Steroids pregnenalone, dehydroepiandrosterone
Gas NO, CO
Eicosanoids prostaglandins
Large molecule neurotransmitters
Peptides enkephalins, endorphins, cholecystokinin, substance P
Neurotransmitters with small molecule
Amino acids
Neurotransmitters of „fast“ transmission of signals
Excitatory
- glutamate
(aspartate ?)
Inhibitory
- GABA
- glycine
(taurine, proline, ß-alanine ?)
Glutamatergic system
Glutamatergic systemBasic facts
• 1963: incorporation of glutamate between neurotransmitters (K. Krnjevic and
Phillips)
• 1971: demonstration of high-affinity reuptake of glutamate – basis for methods of
glutamatergic neurons identification (Wofsey)
• main excitatory neurotransmiter in almost all regions of CNS
• approximately 50-60% neurons of CNS are glutamatergic
• via binding on ionotropic receptors increase transmission of cations
Glutamatergic systemSynthesis of glutamate
Glutamín
Glutamát
Glutamináza
HOOC CH2
CH2
CH COOH
NH2
C CH2
NH2
O
CH2
CH COOH
NH2
NH3
HOOC CH2
CH2
CH COOH
NH2
Glutamatergic systemReceptors for glutamate
Ionotropic
NMDA AMPA Kainate
Metabotropic
Class I Class II Class III
mGlu R1 mGlu R1 mGlu R4
mGlu R5 mGlu R3 mGlu R6
mGlu R7
mGlu R8
Glutamatergic systemSynaptic transmission
Glutamatergic systemLocalization of glutamatergic neurons
Cortico: -spinal, -striatic,
-subthalamic, -thalamic, -nigral, -rubral, -
pontinne, -bulbar,
-cortical (commisural)
Hippokampo: -septal, -mamillar
Bulbo: -cortical, -thalamic
Subthalamo: -pallidal, -nigral
Olivo: -cerebellar (climbing fibers)
Cerebellar intrinsic connections: from
granular cells to Purkyne cells
Spino-thalamic
Thalamo: -cortical, -striatic
Glutamatergic systemLearning and memory
Glutamatergic systemLearning and memory
xx
Ions
accumulation
Gene
expression
Glutamatergic systemIschemia in CNS
GABA-ergic system
GABA-ergic systemBasic facts
• increases transmission of Cl-ions to the cell ⇒ induces hyperpolarization
• is the main inhibitory neurotransmiter in brain, spinal cord and retina
• approximately 30-40% neurons synthesize GABA as primary neurotransmiter
GABA-ergic systemSynthesis of GABA
Glutamát
GABA
Glutamát dekarboxyláza
HOOC CH2
CH2
CH COOH
NH2
CO2
HOOC CH2
CH2
CH2 NH
2
GABA-ergic systemReceptors for GABA
HOOC CH2
CH2
CH2 NH
2
Ionotropic
GABAA GABAC
Metabotropic
GABAB
GABA-ergic systemSynaptic transmission
GABA-ergic systemEffect of GABA on membrane potential of neuron depending of maturation
GABA-ergic systemLocalization of GABA-ergic neurons
Striato: -pallidar, -nigral
Pallido: -reticular, -thalamic
Nigro: -tectal, -thalamic
Septo: -hippocampal
Intrinsic: cerebello-nuclear (Purkyne cells -
nuclei)
Intracortical
Intrathalamic
Brain stem
Spinal cord
GABA-ergic systemEpilepsy
Glycinergic system
Glycinergic systemBasic facts
• increases transmission of Cl- ions to the cell - induces hyperpolarization
• inhibitory neurotransmiter of interneurons:
- pons
- medulla
- spinal cord
• inhibitory neurotransmiter of Renshaw neurons in anterior horns of spinal
cord – regulation of spinal reflexes
Glycinerergic systemSynthesis of glycine
Serín
Glycín
Serín transhydroxymetyláza
CO2
HOOC CH2
NH2
HOOC CH COOH
NH2
Glycinergic systemReceptors for glycine
HOOC CH2
NH2
Ionotropic
Glycin R
Glycinerergic systemSynaptic transmission
Glycinergic systemLocalization of glycinergic neurons
Pons
Medulla
Spinal cord (Renshaw neurons)
Acetylcholine and biogenic amines
Neurotransmitters of „slow“ transmission of signalsAcetylcholine and biogenic amines
• Acetylcholine
• Dopamine
• Norepinephrine
• Epinephrine
• Serotonin
• Histamine
Sensory
information
Motor
response
Co
gn
itiv
e p
roc
es
se
s
Cerebral
cortex
ADR
NA
DA
Hist
5-TH
ACh
Neurotransmitters of „slow“ transmission of signalsModulator functions
Central nervous system
Neurotransmitters of „slow“ transmission of signalsModulator functions
Cholinergic system
Cholinergic systemBasic facts
• 1929: izolation of acetylcholine from hourse spleen (Dale and Dudley)
• 1936: proof of acetylcholine synthesis by neurons in CNS (Quastel et al.)
• present in almost all levels of CNS
• approximately 10% of all neurons are cholinergic
• neurotransmiter of all efferent neurons sending their axons from CNS:
- neurotransmiter of motor neurons
- neurotransmiter of preganglionic neurons of autonomic nervous system
- neurotransmiter of postganglionic neurons of parasympathetic system
Cholinergic systemSynthesis of acetylcholine
Acetyl CoA
Cholín
Acetylcholín
Cholín acetyl transferáza
CH2
CH2
CH3
C
O
O N
CH3
CH3
CH3
+
S C
O
CH3
CoA
CH2
CH2
OH N
CH3
CH3
CH3
+
+
CoA
Cholinergic systemReceptors for acetylcholine
CH2
CH2
CH3
C
O
O N
CH3
CH3
CH3
+
Metabotropic
(muscarine)
M1 subtype M2 subtype
M1 M2
M3 M4
M5
Ionotropic
(nicotine)
n ACh
Cholinergic systemSynaptic transmission
Cholinergic systemLocalization of cholinergic neurons
CH 1, 2
CH 3CH 4
CH 5, 6
CH1-3: septum and diagonal region
CH4: ncl. basalis Meynerti
CH5: ncl. pedunculo-pontinus
CH6: ncl. latero-dorsalis
Cholinergic systemCholinergic transmission in PNS
Cholinergic systemFunctions of cholinergic neurons
• attention and sleep
• motivation and reward
• memory and learning
• autonomic functions
• motor functions
• pathological alteration of cholinergic system:
- Alzheimer's disease
- myasthenia gravis
Cholinergic systemNeuro-immune interactions – Cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway
Tracey, 2007
Tracey, 2007
Cholinergic systemNeuro-immune interactions – Cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway
Cholinergic systemAlzheimer's disease
Cholinergic systemMastenia gravis
Catecholaminergic system
• Dopaminergic system
• Noradrenalinergic system
• Adrenalinergic system
Catecholaminergic systemSynthesis of dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine
OH CH2 CH
NH2
COOH
OH CH2
OH
CH
NH2
OH CH2
OH
CH2
NH2
OH CH
OH
CH2
NH2
OH
OH CH
OH
CH2
NH
OH
CH3
Tyrozín
Dihydroxyfenylalanín (DOPA)
Dopamín
Noradrenalín
Adrenalín
Tyrozínhydroxyláza (TH)
Dekarboxyláza L-aromatických aminokyselín (AADC)
Dopamín-ß-hydroxyláza (DBH)
Fenyletanolamín-N-metyltransferáza (PNMT)
COOH
Dopaminergic system
Dopaminergic systemBasic facts
• 1951: proof of dopamine presence in mammals tissues (Goodall)
• 1959: involvement of dopamine in extrapyramidal functions (A. Carlsson)
• 1962: histofluorescent method of catecholamine and serotonin detection in nervous
tissues (Falc et al.)
• 1975: description of the first dopamine receptor (Seeman)
• 2000 Nobel price: A. Carlsson: A half-century of neurotransmitters research: impact on
neurology and psychiatry
• only approximately 1 from million of neurons is synthesizing dopamine
• the main accumulation of dopaminergic neurons:
- substantia nigra
- area ventralis tegmenti (Tsai)
Dopaminergic systemReceptors for dopamine
OH CH2
OH
CH2
NH2
Metabotropic
D1 group D2 group
D1 D5 D2 D3 D4
D1A D2S
D1B D2L
Dopaminergic systemSynaptic transmission
Dopaminergic systemLocalization of dopaminergic neurons
A8
A10A9
A12
A15
A16
A11A13
A14
A8: ncl. reticularis pontis oralis
A9: substantia nigra, pars compacta
A10: area ventralis tegmenti (Tsai)
A11: ncl. premamillaris dorsalis
A12: ncl. infundibularis (arcuatus)
A13: zona incerta
A14: area hypothalamica anterior
A15: area preoptica
A16: bulbus olfactorius
A17: dopaminergic cells of retina
Dopaminergic systemPathways of dopaminergic neurons
• motivation and reward
• memory and learning
• motor functions
• pain
• regulation of secretion of hypothalamo-pituitary system
• pathological alteration of dopaminergic system:
- motor dysfunctions (Parkinson’s disease)
- schizophrenia
- depression
- addiction
- attention deficits
Dopaminergic systemFunctions of dopaminergic neurons
Dopaminergic systemSchizophrenia
Noradrenergic and adrenalinergic system
Noradrenergic and adrenalinergic systemBasic facts
• 1895: description of effects of „active component“ of adrenals (Oliver, Schafer)
• 1897: isolation of epinephrine (Abel, Crawford)
• 1901/1902: isolation of epinephrine in crystal form, description of its structure and
introduction of terms adrenalin/epinephrine (Takamine, Abel)
• 1946: description of norepinehrine (von Euler)
• 1948: discovery of adrenergic receptors (Ahlquist)
• 1970 Nobel price: J. Axelrod: Noradrenaline: fate and control of its biosynthesis
• noradrenergic and adrenalinergic neurons are localized in medulla and pons
• the main structure of the brain synthesizing norepinephrine is the locus coeruleus
• in periphery is norepinephrine and epinephrine synthesized in adrenal medulla and
sympathetic ganglia
Noradrenergic and adrenalinergic systemReceptors for norepinephrine and epinephrine
OH CH
OH
CH2
NH2
OH
OH CH
OH
CH2
NH
OH
CH3
Metabotropic
α1 α2 β1 β2 β3
α1A α2A
α1B α2B
α1D α2C
Noradrenergic systemSynaptic transmission
Noradrenergic systemLocalization of noradrenergic neurons
A1: ncl. reticularis lateralis et
parvocellularis
A2: ncl. tractus solitarii
A4: substantia grisea centralis, pars
caudalis
A5: ncl. reticularis parvocellularis, pars
ventralis
A6: locus coeruleus
A7: ncl. reticularis parvocellularis
A1 A2
A4
A6
A5
A7
C2
C1
C3
C1: ncl. reticularis lateralis et
parvocellularis
C2: ncl. tractus solitarii
C3: ncl. prepesitus hypoglossi
Adrenalinergic systemLocalization of adrenalinergic neurons
Noradrenergic systemPathways of noradrenergic neurons
• alertness and sleep
• memory and learning
• motor functions
• stress reaction
• pain
• regulation of secretion of hypothalamo-pituitary system
• pathological alteration of noradrenergic system:
- affective disorders
Noradrenergic and adrenalinergic systemFunctions of noradrenergic and adrenalinergic neurons
Noradrenergic and adrenalinergic systemStress response
Noradrenergic and adrenalinergic systemStress response
Noradrenergic and adrenalinergic systemAffective disorders
Noradrenergic and adrenalinergic systemNeuroplasticity and depression
Noradrenergic and adrenalinergic systemAlzheimer's disease
Serotoninergic system
Serotoninergic systemBasic facts
• 1948: isolation of serotonin (Rapport)
• 1953: proof of presence of serotonin in CNS (Twarog, Page)
• 1957: description of the first serotonin receptor
• in brain is approximately 1 million of serotoninergic neurons
• every serotoninergic neuron influences approximately 500 000 neurons
• peripherally is serotonin localized in platelet cells, mast cells and enterochromafine
cells of GIT, do not cross blood-brain-barrier
• serotonin is synthesized from amino acid tryptofan present in food
Serotoninergic systemSynthesis of serotonin
5-Hydroxytryptofán
Serotonín (5-HT)
Dekarboxyláza aromatických L-aminokyselín
CO2
Tryptofán
O2
Tryptofán-5-hydroxyláza
N
OH
H
CH2
CH2 NH
2
N
OH
H
CH2
CH
NH2
COOH
N
H
CH2
CH
NH2
COOH
Serotoninergic systemReceptors for serotonin
N
OH
H
CH2
CH2 NH
2
Ionotropic
5-HT3
Metabotropic
5-HT1 5-HT2 5-HT4 5-HT5 5-HT6 5-HT7
1A 2A 5A
1B 2B 5B
1D 2C
1E
1F
Serotoninergic systemSynaptic transmission
Serotoninergic systemLocalization of serotoninergic neurons
B1: ncl. raphealis palidus
B2: ncl. raphealis parvus
B3: ncl. raphealis magnus
B4: ncl. raphealis palidus
B5: ncl. raphealis pontis
B6: ncl. raphealis dorsalis
B7: ncl. raphealis dorsalis
B8: ncl. cerebralis superior
B9: ncl. reticularis pontis tegmenti
B1B2
B3B4
B5B6
B7
B8B9
Serotoninergic systemPathways of serotoninergic neurons
• alertness and sleep
• pain
• food intake
• sexual behavior
• neurotrophic effects: maturation and development of brain (synaptic plasticity,
length of dendrites, cytoskeleton architecture)
• pathological alteration of serotoninergic system:
- depression
- anxiety
- aggression
Serotoninergic systemFunctions of serotoninergic neurons
Serotoninergic systemAffective disorders
Serotoninergic systemAffective disorders
Serotoninergic systemAffective disorders – alterations of neurogenesis
Serotoninergic systemPain
Histaminergic system
Histaminergic systemBasic facts
• 50’ years of 20. century: study of the effect of antihistaminergic activity of neuroleptics
and antidepressants on behavior
• 2nd half of 70’: description of histaminergic system in the brain
• in CNS are histaminergic neurons localized only in circumscribed region of
hypothalamus
• in periphery is histamine present in mast cells
Histaminergic systemSynthesis of histamine
Histidín
Histamín
Histidín dekarboxyláza
CO2
NNH
CH2
CH2 NH
2
NNH
CH2
NH2
CH COOH
Histaminergic systemReceptors for histamine
NNH
CH2
CH2 NH
2
Metabotropic
H1 H2 H3 H4
Histaminergic systemLocalization of histaminergic neurons
E1: ncl. tuberomamillarisE1
Histaminergic systemPathways of histaminergic neurons
• alertness and sleep
• regulation of body temperature
• memory and learning
• pain
• food intake
• regulation of secretion of hypothalamo-pituitary system
Histaminergic systemFunctions of histaminergic neurons
Histaminergic systemSleep
Purines
Purines
• adenosine three phosphate – ATP
• adenosine
O
OHOH
CH2
OH
N
N
N
N
NH2
O
OHOH
CH2
OPOPOPH
O O
O O O
O
N
N
N
N
NH2
PurinesReceptors for ATP
O
OHOH
CH2
OPOPOPH
O O
O O O
O
N
N
N
N
NH2
Ionotropic
P2X1 P2X2 P2X3 P2X4 P2X5 P2X6 P2X7
Metabotropic
P2y1 P2y2 P2y4 P2y6 P2y11
PurinesReceptors for adenosine
O
OHOH
CH2
OH
N
N
N
N
NH2
Metabotropic
A1 A2 A3
A2A A2B
ATP:
• central regulation of cardiovascular and respiratory functions (RVLM, pre-Bötzinger
region)
• sensory nerves – transmission of nociceptive information
• autonomic nervous system – transmission between pre- and postganglionic neurons
of sympathetic nervous system
• smooth muscles – excitation
Adenosine:
• sleep and waken
• retrograde synaptic transmission
• mechanisms connecting energy expendure with blood flow in brain
• pathological processes:
- neuroprotective effect during hypoxia and ischemia
- epilepsy – anticonvulsive effect
- addiction – ethanol, opioids
PurinesFunctions of purines in nervous system
PurinesFunctions of purines in nervous system
PurinesFunctions of purines in nervous system
PurinesPurines as co-transmitters
Steroid neurotransmitters
Steroid neurotransmittersBasic characterization
• biosynthesis of neurosteroids is present in neurons and glial cells (in cortex and
subcortical areas)
Synthesized by peripheral endocrine glands:
• corticosterone
• aldosterone
• estradiol
• testosterone
Synthesized in periphery and CNS:
• progesterone
• tetrahydroprogesterone, allopregnenolone
Synthesized in CNS:
• dehydroepiandrosterone
Steroid neurotransmittersBasic characterization
Steroid neurotransmittersMechanism of action
Steroid neurotransmittersMechanism of action
Steroid neurotransmittersMechanism of action
Steroid neurotransmittersMechanism of action
Steroid neurotransmittersMechanism of action
• modulation of GABA(A), N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA), nicotinic, muscarinic,
serotonin (5-HT(3)), kainate, glycine and sigma receptors
• neuroprotective (17β-estradiol, 3α-reduced pregnane steroids)
• induction of neurite growth, dendritic spines and synaptogenesis
• memory enhancing [pregnenolone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)]
• sedative (progesterone, 3α-reduced pregnane steroids)
• hypnotic (progesterone, 3α-reduced pregnane steroids)
• anesthetic (progesterone, 3α-reduced pregnane steroids)
• anxiolytic (progesterone, 3α-reduced pregnane steroids)
• sleep modulating (progesterone, 3α-reduced pregnane steroids, pregnenolone,
DHEA)
• anticonvulsant (progesterone, 3α-reduced pregnane steroids)
• antipsychotic (progesterone)
• antidepressant (3α-reduced pregnane steroids)
Steroid neurotransmittersFunctions of steroid neurotransmitters in nervous system
Gaseous neurotransmitters
• NO
• CO
• H2S
• do not fulfill al criteria for classical neurotransmitters
• enable both postsynaptic and presynaptic modulation
• very short biological halftime
Gaseous mediatorsBasic characterization
Gaseous mediatorsNO
Gaseous mediatorsNO
Gaseous mediatorsNO
Gaseous mediatorsNO
Gaseous mediatorsCO
• parakrinne modulation of hypothalamo-pituitary system
• modulation of neurohypophysis functions
• modulation of enteric nervous system functions
• memory and learning
Gaseous mediatorsFunctions
Eicosanoids
Eicosanoids
• prostaglandins
• leukotrienes
• thromboxanes
EicosanoidsReceptors for eicosanoids
prostaglandins
Metabotropic
TP IP EP FP DP
TPα TPβ EP1 EP2 EP3 EP4
EP3A EP3B EP3C EP3D
Central nervous system:
• mediators of fever – PGE2
• stimulation of HPA axis – increased secretion of ACTH
• sleep – PGD2 – endogenous inductor of sleep? (released from leptomenings and
plexus choroideus)
Peripheral nervous system:
• inflammatory processes
• pain
• immune reactions
EicosanoidyFunctions of eicosanoids in the nervous system
Other neurotransmitters
Amines:
• tryptamine
• phenyletylamine
• tyramine
• octopamine
• D-serine
• endocanabinoids
Other neurotransmitters
Other neurotransmittersCanabinoids – functions in GIT
Neuropeptides
(neurotransmitters with large molecules)
NeuropeptidesComparison with hormones
• synthesized in body of neurons, where is present necessary synthetic apparatus
(neurotransmitters with small molecule are synthesized in nerve endings),
• are present in tissues in much lower concentrations when compared with classical
neurotransmitters,
• higher frequency of action potentials is necessary for release of neuropeptides from
neuron
• release of neuropeptides and binding on receptors does not evoke fast, but slow effect
on activity and excitability of neurons that continue for longer time (might influence
gene expression in neuron, it might by basis for long-lasting morphological and
functional changes in nervous system)
• can play important role in maturation of nervous system and regeneration of damaged
neurons
NeuropeptidesCharacteristics
NeuropeptidesProcessing
NeuropeptidesSynthesis
• synthesized in body of neurons, where is present necessary synthetic apparatus
(neurotransmitters with small molecule are synthesized in nerve endings),
• are present in tissues in much lower concentrations when compared with classical
neurotransmitters,
• higher frequency of action potentials is necessary for release of neuropeptides from
neuron
• release of neuropeptides and binding on receptors does not evoke fast, but slow effect
on activity and excitability of neurons that continue for longer time (might influence
gene expression in neuron, it might by basis for long-lasting morphological and
functional changes in nervous system)
• can play important role in maturation of nervous system and regeneration of damaged
neurons
NeuropeptidesCharecteristics
NeuropeptidesRelease
• synthesized in body of neurons, where is present necessary synthetic apparatus
(neurotransmitters with small molecule are synthesized in nerve endings),
• are present in tissues in much lower concentrations when compared with classical
neurotransmitters,
• higher frequency of action potentials is necessary for release of neuropeptides from
neuron
• release of neuropeptides and binding on receptors does not evoke fast, but slow
effect on activity and excitability of neurons that continue for longer time (might
influence gene expression in neuron, it might by basis for long-lasting morphological
and functional changes in nervous system)
• can play important role in maturation of nervous system and regeneration of
damaged neurons
NeuropeptidesCharecteristics
one neuron = one neurotransmiter
NeuropeptidesColocalization
Main neurotranmiter Co-transmitter
Acetylcholine VIP
substance P
GABA somatostatin
cholecystokinin
Dopamine cholecystokinin
neurotensin
Norepinephrine somatostatin
enkephalin
neuropeptid Y
neurotensin
Serotonin substance P
enkephalin
CRH vasopressin
Neuropeptides
Group NeuropeptideHypothalamic releasing factors CRH: corticotropin releasing hormone
GHRH: growth hormone releasing hormone
GnRH: gonadotropin releasing hormone
Somatostatin
TRH: thyrotropin releasing hormone
Pituitary hormones ACTH: adrenocorticotropic hormone
αMSH: α-melanocyte stimulating hormone
β-endorphin
GH: growth hormone
PRL: prolactin
FSH: follicle stimulating hormone
LH: luteinizing hormone
TSH: thyrotropin [thyroid stimulating hormone]
Neurons only? Galanin
Neuromedin K
NPY: neuropeptide Y
PYY: peptide YY
Opiate peptides β-endorphin
Dynorphin
Leu-enkephalin
Met-enkephalin
GI and brain peptides CCK: cholecystokinin
Gastrin
GRP: gastrin releasing peptide
Motilin
Neurotensin
Substance K; substance P (tachykinins)
Neuronal and endocrine ANF: atrial natriuretic peptide
CGRP: calcitonin gene-related peptide
VIP: vasoactive intestinal peptide
Neurohypophyseal peptides Oxytocin
Vasopressin (Siegel et al., 2006)
NeuropeptidesRegulation of food intake
NeuropeptidesRegulation of food intake
NeuropeptidesClinical applications and trials
Interactions of neurotransmitters systems
Interactions of neurotransmitters systemsStriatum
Interactions of neurotransmitters systemsHistaminergic neurons
Interactions of neurotransmitters systemsAfferent innervation and autoregulation of histaminergic neurons
Interactions of neurotransmitters systemsTransnuclear signalization
Interactions of neurotransmitters systemsTransnuclear signalization
Interactions of neurotransmitters systemsTransnuclear signalization
Interaction of chemical and electrical synapsesHippocampus
Monographs
• Basic Neurochemistry. Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects. Sixth
Edition. Siegel GJ. (Ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006 (web1 – sixth
edition)
• Neuroscience. Third Edition. Purves, D., Augustine, G.J., Fitzpatrick, D., Hall
WC, LaMantia, AS, McNamara, J.O., Williams, S.M. (Eds). Sinauer Associates,
Sunderland, 2004 (web1 – second edition)
• Neuropsychopharmacology: The Fifth Generation of Progress. Kenneth L.
Davis, Dennis Charney, Joseph T. Coyle, and Charles Nemeroff (Eds.), Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2002 (web2)
• Neurotransmitters, drugs and brain function. Webster RA (Ed). John
Wiley&Sons, Ltd, Chichester, 2001
• web1: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books
• web2: http://www.acnp.org/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=39
References
• Felten DL, Shetty A. Netter's Atlas of Neuroscience: Saunders, 2009, 464 pp.
• Siegel GJ, Albers RW, Brady ST, Price DL. Basic neurochemistry: Molecular, cellular, and medical
aspects. San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press, 2006, 1016 pp.
• Zoli M, Agnati LF. Wiring and volume transmission in the central nervous system: the concept of closed
and open synapses. Prog Neurobiol 1996; 49: 363-80.
References