ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINES AND AGRICULTURE

DEPARTMENT OF PARASITOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY

TROPICAL VETERINARY PROTOZOOLOGY

REVIEW ON PROTOZOAN PARASITE OF NEOSPORA AND BESNIOTIA

By:

MORKA AMANTE

May 3 , 2015

Bishoftu, Ethiopia

I

TABLE OF CONTENT

Contents page TABLE OF CONTENT.................................................................................................................I

AKNOWELEDGEMENT............................................................................................................II

1. INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................1

2. NEOSPORA...............................................................................................................................2

2.1 Etiology and life cycle..........................................................................................................2

2.2 Host range.............................................................................................................................2

2.3 Epidemiology........................................................................................................................3

2.3.1 prevalence reported in Ethiopia.................................................................................................3

2.4 Transmission.........................................................................................................................4

2.5 Risk factor of the diseases...................................................................................................4

2.6 Pathogenesis..........................................................................................................................5

2.7 Clinical findings...................................................................................................................5

2.8. Economic importance of the diseases................................................................................6

2.8.1 Effects on production.................................................................................................................6

2.9 Diagnosis...............................................................................................................................7

2.10 control and prevention of niosporiosis...........................................................................7

3. BESNOITIA...............................................................................................................................8

3.1 Etiology and life cycle.........................................................................................................8

3.2 Epidemiology.......................................................................................................................9

3.3 Pathogenesis.........................................................................................................................9

3.4 Clinical findings.................................................................................................................10

3.4.1 Bovine besnoitiosis...................................................................................................................10

3.4.2 Caprin besnoitiosis...................................................................................................................10

I

3. 5 Transmission of besnoitiosis............................................................................................10

3.6.1 Seasonality factors....................................................................................................................11

3.6.2 Age factors................................................................................................................................11

3.6.3 Sub-clinical carriers as factor..................................................................................................12

3.7 Economic and welfare impact of besniotiosis..................................................................12

3.8 Diagnosis of besnotiosis....................................................................................................12

3.9 treatment and control of besniotiosis...............................................................................13

4. REFERENCES........................................................................................................................14

II

AKNOWELEDGEMENT

I wish to sincerely express my profound thanks to Dr. Hagos Ashenafi for his motivate me to do

on this topic and explore more idea regard to the neospora and Besnoitia protozoa which are most

important protozoa of domestic animal.

III

1. INTRODUCTION

The apicomplexan protozoan Neospora spp. is an obligate intracellular parasite ( Anderson et al.,

2000), closely related to Toxoplasma gondii and Sarcocystis spp. It is a globally distributed

protozoan capable of infecting a wide variety of hosts ( Dubey, 2003). Neospora caninum is a

protozoan parasite infecting primarily dogs and cattle. Neospora caninum was first recognized in

dogs in Norway in 1984. Infection in cattle was first recognised in 1988 as causing abortion and

infertility in cattle and it is now recognised as an important cause of reproductive problems and

abortion in cattle worldwide (Haddad et al., 2005). In addition,Neospora caninum infection has

been reported as causing neurological signs in calves and dogs.

In Ethiopia, brucellosis in cattle herds has been monitored since the 1970s and abortions and

stillbirths in cattle have generally been believed to be caused by this disease. But Brucella cannot

be the only explanation for the high incidence of abortions and stillbirths, particularly in

intensively managed livestock production. To date, there has been limited knowledge about other

possible infectious agents causing reproductive disorders. Kassahun (2014) shows that the

protozoan parasite, N. caninum, is a more frequent cause of abortion and stillbirth in intensive

and semi-intensive dairy production in Ethiopia than the BVD virus and the Brucella bacterium.

The parasite was detected in brain tissue from four aborted foetuses and one calf with

congenitally defects, all born of seropositive dams. Oocysts (thick-walled spores) from N.

caninum were found in 4% of dogs living on the farms(Kassahun 2014).

Therefore bovine neosporosis can be a major explanation for the disappointing results and low

productivity of Ethiopian dairy production. In order to combat this parasite, there should be

improvements in farm level biosecurity, dog population control and waste disposal practices

(Kassahun, 2014).

1

Besnoitia spp are a protozoan blood parasite which causes skin disease in cattle. Bovine

besnoitiosis (also referred to as bovine elephantiasis and bovine anasarque) is a protozoal disease

of cattle. The first recorded cases of bovine besnoitiosis were described in southern France by

Cadéac (1884) and by Besnoit and Robin (1912) (both cited by Pols, 1960) in cattle from the

Pyrenees. Bovines act as the intermediate host in the life cycle of the causative agent: the

cystforming apicomplexan parasite Besnoitia besnoiti (Marotel, 1912). Bovine besnoitiosis is

either a severe but usually non-fatal disease of cattle, or a mild clinical disease

The severe form of besnoitiosis the is characterized during the acute phase by fever, inappetence,

hyperaemia of the skin and orchitis, which is associated with parasite proliferation (endozoytes

or tachyzoites) in endothelial cells of blood vessels. This is followed by a chronic phase,

characterized by scleroderma, hyperkeratosis, alopecia, loss of necrotic epidermis, and atrophy

and induration of the testes of bulls. This phase is associated with the development of cystozoites

(bradyzoites) in tissue cysts in the skin, mucosal membranes and the sclera and conjunctiva

(Bigalke, 1981). The mortality rate4 is low (less than 10%) but a significant percentage of

affected animals suffer loss of productivity and bulls are frequently rendered permanently

infertile (Fernandez-García et al., 2009a).

2

2. NEOSPORA

2.1 Etiology and life cycle

Niosporiosis is diseases of protozoan neospora spp which is an obligate intracellular parasite

( anderson et al., 2000), closely related to toxoplasma gondii and sarcocystis species. most

common species of veterinary importance are Neospora caninum and Neospora hughesi

Fig. 1. Life cycle of Neospora caninum.

2.2 Host range

N. caninum have dogs, coyotes and dingoes as definitive hosts, (King et al., 2010 ), and several

species of mammals, including cattle and other ruminants, canines and horses as intermediate

hosts ( Dubey et al., 2007). Additional hosts ofNeospora caninum also include other wild canids

such as foxes, with evidence of infection in goats, sheep, horses and deer, such that wildlife may

be a potential reservoir of infection (Gondim et al., 2004). However, the life cycle of Neospora

3

hughesi is not yet fully clarified, its definitive host and other intermediate hosts, besides horses,

are still unknown ( Hoane et al., 2006). Thus, it is not entirely clear how horses become infected

by this kind of Neospora.

Horses can be infected by both species of Neospora: Neospora caninum which is associated with

reproductive disease, such as abortion and neonatal mortality ( Pitel et al., 2003) andNeospora

hughesi, mainly related to cases of Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis (EPM) ( Vardeleon et

al., 2001). The occurrence of Neospora sp. infection in horses has already been described in

America ( Hoane et al., 2006 ), Asia ( Gupta et al., 2002), and Europe ( Ciaramella et al., 2004 ).

2.3 Epidemiology

The protozoa Neospora caninum is an important parasite that cause abortion in cattle, sheep and

goats (Gumber et al., 2002). The majority of N. caninun- positive cattle prenatally infected via

their dams. Transplacental transmission is considered the major route of transmission of N.

caninum in cattle (Schares and Conraths, 2007). In nonfatal infection in the fetus, the fetus is

born with neurologic disorder (Smith and George, 2009). N. caninum has a worldwide

distribution, the prevalence of infection in cattle and sheep approaches 100% with a lower

((Radostits et al., 2008).

2.3.1 prevalence reported in Ethiopia

This case-control study was conducted to assess the relative association of Neospora caninum

and Brucella species exposure with reproductive disorders in 2011-2011 on 731 dairy cows

sampled from 150 dairy farms in selected 17 conurbations of Ethiopia. Two hundred sixty-six of

the cows were categorized as cases based on their history of abortion or stillbirth while the

remaining 465 were controls. The presence of antibody to N. caninum was screened using

indirect ELISA, while Brucella spp. exposure was assayed serially using Rose Bengal Plate Test

and Complement Fixation Test. Exposure to N. caninum was more frequently observed among

cases (23.8%) than controls (12.7%), while no significant difference was noted for Brucella

exposure between the two groups. Moreover, the proportion of cows with disorders like retention

of fetal membrane, endometritis and increased inter-calving period were significantly higher

among Neospora seropositive cows. the finding discloses the strong association of N. caninum

4

with reproductive disorders compared to Brucella spp. exposure. However, neither N. caninum

nor Brucella spp. could explain the majority (73.2%) of the reported abortions and stillbirths in

cattle. Hence, this observation underscores the need for more intensive investigation on the

identification of causes of the aforementioned disorders in dairy cattle of

Ethiopia(Asmare ,2014).

2.4 Transmission

N. caninum infection can occur both horizontally, by the ingestion of oocysts excreted by the

definitive host, or vertically by transplacental route ( Dubey et al., 2007). In cattle, it is known

that vertical transmission is the major route of Neospora caninum transmission ( Hietala and

Thurmond, 1999), while in horses, despite the supposition that transplacental infection occurred

(Toscan et al., 2010), only recently this route of infection by Neospora hughesi has been proved (

Pusterla et al., 2011). . Experimental infection of calves by artificially contaminated milk has

also been demonstrated (Davison et al., 2001). However, the frequency, the consequences and

the importance of vertical infection in maintaining the agent in the equine population are still

unknown ( Locatelli-Dittrich et al., 2006).

As a result of the immune response generated, the tachyzoites can transform into bradyzoites (a

slowly dividing ‘dormant’ stage). They remain latent until the immune system of the cow is

suppressed, when infection then can recrudesce (Haddad et al., 2005). Bradyzoites in tissue cysts

can be consumed by dogs and then complete the life cycle of the parasite. Neospora caninum

DNA has been reported in bovine semen, which may act as another route of infection into herds

(Ferre et al., 2005).

2.5 Risk factor of the diseases

The risk factors for infection are largely unknown, although evidence suggests that close contact

of cattle with dogs and high stocking densities may be a risk factor (Schares et al., 2004). Whilst

transmission by dogs has been considered of relatively minor importance, a Dutch study showed

that seropositivity toNeospora caninum in farm dogs was strongly correlated with a high

prevalence ofNeospora caninum antibodies in the cattle. (Wouda et al., 1999). Dogs that have

close contact with cattle and that are fed raw bovine meat are at greater risk of being seropositive

5

(Kramer et al., 2004) with dairy or beef farm dogs having a much higher seroprevalence of

Neospora caninum infection compared to urban dogs (Basso et al., 2001; Antony). Management

factors or concurrent diseases that lead to immunosuppression may also be important (Reichel

and Ellis, 2002).

2.6 Pathogenesis

Definitive host: Dogs are the final host and sexual phase occur in them but, they are also

intermediate host in prenatal infections (; Matthews, 2009)

Intremediate host: Cattle are the major intermediate hosts and asexual reproduction phase occur

in them (Matthews, 2009 ). Infection can be transmitted from dam to calf in utero and

lactogenically. Infection of cattle can also occur from the ingestion of food or water

contaminated with dog feces containing Neospora caninum oocysts (Taylor et al., 2007).

Neospora caninum is a major cause of abortion in cattle, however, sporadic abortions can occur

in beef cows that have been infected congenitally (Radostits et al., 2008;).

Asexual phase has 2 stages:

1. Tachyzoites: Tachyzoites penetrate host cell like central nervous system, muscles,

macrophages and other cells, where they divide rapidly. Tachyzoites can also be transmitted

either with contaminated food and water or transplacentally to the fetus in pregnant animals.

Tissue cyst containing bradyzoites that these are found only in the nervous system. After the

asexual phase, sexual phase occur in definite host. It results in production of oocysts, which is

shed in the dog feces.

2. Tissue cysts (Taylor et al., 2007). Infection in sheep and goats is infrequently (Radostits et al.,

2008).

2.7 Clinical findings

In cattle, Neosporosis causes stillbirth, fetal resorption, mummification, abortion and decreases

in their milk production(Gumber et al., 2002). Abortions in cows are seen between 5-7 month

gestations (Gumber et al., 2002). Fetus may born alive but congenitally diseased (Radostits et al.,

2008). Neurological symptoms are different because of the widespread distribution of the

6

parasite in the central nervous system. Calves are born with neurological symptoms, which these

symptoms initially are mild but after birth become progress. In calves with neurologic

dysfunction clinical signs are included of unable to stand, unable to suckle, domed skull and

torticollis (Smith and George, 2009).

2.8. Economic importance of the diseases

2.8.1 Effects on production

Abortions in dairy cattle may be attributable to Neospora caninum although some abortions due

to Neospora may be undetected (Boger and Hattle, 2003). Most abortions occur either

sporadically on farms with annual abortion rates of less than 3% or as more frequent abortions on

farms with annual abortion rates of 5 to 10 per cent (Taylor, 2000). Occasionally, abortion

storms may occur, where rates may reach 60% of cows at risk and may be associated with

introduction of infection (horizontal transmission) or by recrudescence of infection in

endemically infected herds (Haddad et al., 2005). It is possible for cattle that have previously

aborted due to Neospora infection to have a repeat abortion with seropositive cows two to 24

times more likely to abort than seronegative cows (Weston et al., 2005). However, the

epidemiology is complex, as the relative risk of aborting may be age dependent and lower in

older animals (Haddad et al., 2005). Additionally, some seropositive cows do not abort (Innes et

al., 2001), with the factors that enhance the likelihood of a seropositive cow aborting remaining

largely unknown, although stress and concurrent disease have been suggested (Haddad et al.,

2005).

Infection is thought to reduce milk production in adult dairy cows through its effects on fertility

as cows which have aborted often produce a lower milk yield and are more likely to suffer

retained fetal membranes (Hobson et al., 2002). Seropositive cows that do not abort may not

have lower yields though. A high abortion incidence in the herd may lead to an increase in

involuntary culling. Neospora infections in young calves have been reported to cause

neuromuscular disease and may affect growth rate of finishing animals (Barling et al., 2001).

7

 The overall economic effect of Neospora infection in a herd is not clear, although direct costs

are due to abortion, infertility, returns to service and loss of milk yield and indirect costs through

replacements.

2.9 Diagnosis

The diagnosis of neosporosis is based on the examination of maternal and fetal sera ideally

combined with the examination of fetal tissues.

Immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent

assay (ELISA) are used for diagnosis. If positive, fixed foetal brain (or cardiac tissue if

brain is unavailable) is examined for lesions. The combination of foetal serology and

lesions is used to make a diagnosis.

Histopathology of fetus: In histopathological examination of brain characteristic

nonsuppurative encephalitis is suggestive of Neospora infection and also the lesions in

the heart are characteristic for diagnosis (Matthews, 2009)

Clinical diagnosis may involve consideration of the whole herd’s health status, with

confirmation of Neospora caninum as the cause of abortion only in the absence of other

agents

2.10 control and prevention of niosporiosis

At present, there is no effective treatment for neosporosis. Control of abortion in infected cattle

depends on saving food and water sources and the grazing environment from feces of any

animal. Aborted fetuses and placentas should be removed or incinerated. The feces of dogs

should be prevented from contaminating animal foodstuffs. Congenitally infected cows are at

high risk for abortion thus seropositive animals should be culling from a herd .

8

3. BESNOITIA

3.1 Etiology and life cycle

Besnoitia are protozoan parasite with classified 9 species, which only 2 of these species are

important in livestock animals. Parasites of the genus Besnoitia are classified in the subfamily

Toxoplasmatinae, family Sarcocystidae, phylum Apicomplexa and comprises nine species (B.

besnoiti, Besnoitia benetti, Besnoitia jellisoni, Besnoitia wallacei, Besnoitia tarandii, Besnoitia

darling, Besnoitia caprae, Besnoitia akadoni and Besnoitia oryctofelis). However, uncertainty

exists regarding the differentiation of some of these species because only the life cycles of B.

darlingi, B. wallacei and B. oryctofelis are known (Dubey et al., 2003). Besnoitiosis is a

emergent parasitic disease that caused by Besnoitia besnoiti in cattle, and Besnoitia caprae in

goats. These parasites are in the family Sarcocystidae (Radostits et al., 2008), and they are an

obligate intr acellular apicomplexan protozoan parasites (Majzoub et al., 2010).

table 1. The two common Besnoitia species of animal

Specie Affinity site Intermediate hosts

Definitive host

Besnoitia besnoiti Skin, conjunctiva Cattle Cat, wild cats (Lion, leopard) Besnoitia caprae Skin, conjunctiva Goats Cat, wild cats (Lion, leopard)

Phylogenetic analyses showed Besnoitia to be reproducibly the sister group to a clade containing

Hammondia, Neospora and Toxoplasma (Ellis et al., 2000). B. besnoiti host range includes all

breeds of cattle. Infection by Besnoitia besnoiti-like organisms has also been described in two

species of antelopes (blue wildebeest and impala), although their isolates seem to be

viscerotropic rather than dermatotropic, and are relatively non-pathogenic (Bilgake, 1968). The

relationship of the Besnoitia sp. found in goats and named B. caprae (Cheema and Toofanian,

1979) to B. besnoiti has not been determined, although Besnoitia of cattle, wildebeest and goats

had identical ITS1 rDNA sequences which questions the use of the taxon Besnoitia caprae to

describe the Besnoitia found in goats (Ellis et al., 2000). The relationship between Besnoitia

tarandii found in reindeer, caribou, mule deer and roe deer in North America and Finland

(Dubey et al, 2005) and B. besnoiti remains unexplored.

9

A variety of laboratory rodents such as rabbits, gerbils, hamster and mice and some domestic and

wild bovids (sheep, goats and black wildebeest) have been found to be susceptible to artificial

infection with bovine strains of B. besnoiti (Dubey, 1977). It is suspected that B. besnoiti has a

heteroxenous life cycle. The definitive host (DH) has not been identified, although for other

Besnoitia spp. a role for a carnivorous DH has been suggested (Rommel, 1978). Peteshev et al.

(1974) (cited by Bigalke, 1981) suggested that both, domestic cats and a wild cat (Felis lybica),

shed oocysts after ingestion of cystcontaining tissues. However, these observations have not been

reproducible by others (Diesing et al., 1998) and the DH remains unknown. Two asexual and

infective stages of this parasite develop in cattle, the fast-replicating merozoite-like endozoites

(tachyzoites) that multiply by endodyogeny in endothelial cells of blood vessels and the slow-

dividing cystozoites (bradyzoites), which gather into macroscopic cysts located inside cells of

the subcutaneous connective tissue. Cyst formation starts approximately 1 week after the initial

cycle of proliferation (Basson et al., 1970). The characteristic thick-walled cysts reach a size of

up to about 400 μm and contain approximately 200.000 cystozoites each.

3.2 Epidemiology

Disease occur as outbreaks in tropical and subtropical countries and sporadically in other

countries (Radostits et al., 2008). Bovine besnoitiosis is common in Africa, Asia and in the

South of Euroup ( Jacquiet et al., 2010), Caprine besnoitiosis in Keny a, Uganda, Iran, and

Kazakhastan. In livestock, cattle and goats are intermediate host, and cats are their definitive

hosts (Radostits et al., 2008). It is thought that agent is transmitted mainly by hematophagous

insects (Jacquiet et al., 2010). Many aspects of the epidemiology of bovine besnoitiosis remain

uncertain including prevalence and incidence of infection and disease in endemic areas, routes of

transmission and risk-factors associated to infection and disease.

3.3 Pathogenesis

Following infection in cattle or in goats, the tachyzoites proliferate in macrophages, fibroblasts,

and endothelial cells and causing vasculitis. Subsequently they develop to form bradyzoite cysts

in fibroblasts in the derm is, subcutaneous tissues, fascia, nasal and laryngeal mucosa (Taylor et

al., 2007; Radostits et al., 2008). After developing cysts in the skin, painful subcutaneous

10

swelling, thickening of the skin, alopecia, and necrosis can be occur (Taylor et al., 2007).

Sterility in males is caused by a necrotizing orchitis. Death may occur in both the anasarca and

scleroderma stages of the disease, regardless of the sex of the animal

3.4 Clinical findings

3.4.1 Bovine besnoitiosis

Clinical signs occur in two stages: acute and chronic. the acute anasarca stage, which is mainly

associated with proliferation of endozoites in blood vessels. In this clinical signs include fever,

increase in pulse and respiratory rates, painful swelling on the ventral aspects of the body,

edema of the skin, sometimes diarrhea, lacrimation and nasal discharge. the chronic scleroderma

stage, which is mainly associated with cyst formation In chronic stage, there is a severe

dermatitis over most of the body (Radostits et al., 2008). The severity of the disease may vary

between mild and severe and even death of seriously affected animals. Many infected animals

remain asymptomatic and the only sign of the disease is the presence of cysts in the sclera and

conjunctiva and/or the vulval area in cows (Fernandez- Garcia et al., 2009a).

3.4.2 Caprin besnoitiosis

Thickening of the skin over the lower limbs , around the eyes, nose, face and scrotum, alopecia

in all of these areas, and white granul ar cysts in the sclero-conjunctiva can be seen (Oryan and

Azizi, 2008).

3. 5 Transmission of besnoitiosis

Horizontal transmission is probably the main method of transmission of infection, given the

significant association between the disease prevalence and the animals' age (Fernandez-Garcia et

al., 2009a). It is likely that horizontal transmission occurs as a consequence of direct contact

among animals with wounds or lacerations, since subcutaneous tissue cysts can be located very

superficially. A role for transmission through infected bulls in natural mating herds has been

suggested (Castillo et al., 2009). The emergence of clinical signs coincides with summer, when

mixed herds share pastures. However, some authors have associated this phenomenon with the

11

period when blood-sucking arthropods, such as horseflies and deer flies, become active, and they

may play a role by transmitting B. besnoiti mechanically from chronic or asymptomatic infected

cattle. The role of a carnivorous definitive host in the epidemiology of bovine besnoitiosis

remains to be elucidated. Wild ruminants and probably rodents should not be disregarded as

reservoirs of the parasite (Melhorn et al., 2009).

3.6 Risk factors for besnoitiosis

3.6.1 Seasonality factors

In South Africa the majority of new cases occur during the warmer, moister months of the year

(Bigalke, 1981). Based on limited observations from two outbreaks in Europe, it was noted that

the emergence of clinical signs coincided with the summer period, when mixed herds shared

pastures (Alzieu, 2007) and blood-sucking arthropods, such as horseflies become active. Breed.

All breeds of cattle seem to be susceptible to besnoitiosis. In South Africa most cases occur in

the Africander, a Bos indicus breed, which is the most common in the endemic region (Bilgake,

1981). The infection has been described both in dairy and beef cattle and in a high variety of

breeds.

3.6.2 Age factors

Bigalke (1981) reported that there is a relationship between the age of the animal and the

epidemiology of the disease. In this report, a statistically significant increase in seroprevalence

and morbidity, evidenced by typical clinical signs, was associated with age. The highest

incidence of infection was detected in adult animals on a farm where the disease was present, but

was rarely encountered in calves under 6 months of age. A significant association has been found

between the prevalence of the disease and the age of the animal in a recent outbreak in central

Spain (Fernandez-Garcia et al., 2009a).

3.6.3 Sub-clinical carriers as factor

A higher seroprevalence has been observed in subclinical animals in some outbreaks in Spain

(Fernandez-Garcia et al., 2009a); this agrees with observations made by other authors in South

12

Africa (Bigalke, 1968). Vectors and reservoirs. The existence of blood-sucking flies could be a

risk factor for the rapid spread of the disease (Zacarias, 2009). Mechanical transmission by

Glossina, Stomoxys and tabanids has been demonstrated (Bigalke, 1968). The potential role of

wildlife reservoirs of disease, e.g. wild ruminants and rodents, has also been suggested (Bigalke,

1981; Castillo et al., 2009; Mehlhorn et al., 2009).

3.7 Economic and welfare impact of besniotiosis

The disease causes a serious illness both during the acute and chronic phases that could

compromis animal welfare. Bovine besnoitiosis leads to significant economic losses by a decline

in milk production, sterility, transient or permanent infertility of bulls, skin lesions and increase

of mortality in affected cattle population. It is a disease with a high prevalence in tropical and

subtropical regions and re-emerging in Europe.

3.8 Diagnosis of besnotiosis

Besnoitiosis can be diagnosed by demonstration of B. bradyzoites in skin biopsy smears or

scleral conjunctival scrapings (Radostits et al., 2008). A number of diagnostic tests such as

cytology (Sanussi, 1991), histopathology (Bigalke, 1968), serology (Alvarez- Garcia et al., 2009)

and PCR testing (Cortes et al., 2007) are available. During the first weeks following infection,

acutely infected animals may be difficult to be accurately clinically diagnosed due to non-

specific signs. The characteristic clinical signs appear with the development of tissue cysts

during the chronic stage; when the clinical inspection is very useful to detect affected animals.

Skin biopsies to confirm the existence of tissue cysts, examining the sample by trichinelloscopy

plates or even histopathology are good methods to confirm the disease. However they are not

suitable for the detection of chronic and subclinical infections, where the number of cysts in

cattle overall may still be relatively high, but too low to detect cysts on a histological skin slide.

Serological tests – ELISA and Western blot – could be useful tools to detect asymptomatic/sub-

clinical cattle for control purposes.

13

3.9 Treatment and Control of besniotiosis

Concerning control, there are not any effective drugs(no known treatment) for this disease

(Taylor et al., 2007) or vaccines available, although in South Africa and Israel a live-attenuated

vaccine has been used (Basson et al., 1970). In South Africa, in an extensive field trial on farms

where the disease was severe, Bigalke et al. (1974) found that 100% of the cattle were protected

from the clinical form of the disease over an observation period of 1 to 4 years when inoculated

with a blue wildebeest strain of B. besnoiti vaccine. only reliable diagnosis together with herd-

management measures are available to avoid that non-infected herds acquire the infection due to

trade with infected animals. Control is effected by the elimination of infected animals and

carriers, and early diagnosis ( Antonio Castillo et al., 2009 ).

4. REFERENCES

14

Agosti, M., Belloni, A., Morini, M., Vacirca, G., 1994. Segnalazione di un focolaio di

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Alvarez-García, G., Fernandez-García, A., Aguado-Martínez, A., Schares, G., Basso, W.,

Gollnick, N.S., Ortega-Mora, L.M., 2009. Serological diagnosis of bovine besnoitiosis:

development of an indirect ELISA and a comparative study with a commercial ELISA.

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Alzieu, J.P., 2007. Re-emerging cattle besnoitiosis (Besnoitia besnoiti) in France: update on

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Bigalke, R., Schoeman, J.H., McCully, R.M., 1974. Immunization against bovine besnoitiosis

with a live vaccine prepared from a blue wildebeest strain of Besnoitia besnoiti grown in

cell cultures. 1. Studies on rabbits. Onderstepoort J.Vet. Res. 41, 1-6.

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may reveal fetal neosporosis. Veterinary Parasitology... 113: 1, 1-6. bovine abortion- a

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