NEAR EAST UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences

Department Of International Relations

Master Thesis

TerrorismThe New World War

Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Jouni Suistola

Submitted By: Hussam Ibrahim Mayas (20053582)

Nicosia 2008

Near East University

Faculty of Economics and Administrative SciencesDepartment of International Relations

Master Thesis

TERRORISMThe New World War

Supervisor:

Proffessor Dr. Jouni Suistola

Submitted By: Hussam Ibrahim Mayas

(20053582)

Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus2008

Hussam Ibrahim Mayas: Terrorism, The New World War

Approval of Director of the Graduate School of Social Sciences

Prof. Dr. Aykut Polatoğlu

We certify that this is satisfactory for the award of degree of Master of Arts in International Relations

Examining Committee in Charge:

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zeliha Khashman Department of International Relations (Chairman of the Jury)

Prof. Dr. Jouni Suistola Department of International Relations

Dr. Dilek Latif Department of International Relations

Near East UniversityFaculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences

Department of International RelationsJURY REPORT

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2007-2008

Student Information

Full Name: Hussam Ibrahim Mayas Nationality: JordanianInstitution: Near East University Department: International Relations

Thesis

Title Terrorism “The New World War”Description This thesis is a part of an important discussion

about a significant issue in the field of international relations. The first chapter introduces the history of terrorism and the international terrorism in general. Chapter two discusses the beliefs of terrorists and solving the problem of whether terrorism is connected with a religion or not. Chapter three discusses international security and terrorism in the Middle East. The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is the case study of this thesis; the case study is talking about the Jordanian Foreign Policy and the Global War on Terrorism and The Jordanian Policy and Counter-Terrorism.

Supervisor Prof. Dr. Jouni Suistola

Jury’s Decision

The Jury has decided to accept the student’s thesis.The decision has been taken unanimously.

Jury Members

Number Attending: 3 Date 03.07.2008Name: Signature:Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zeliha KhashmanProf. Dr. Jouni SuistolaDr. Dilek LatifApprovals

Date:03.07.2008

Chairman of the DepartmentAssoc. Prof. Dr. Zeliha Khashman

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all I would like to thank my Almighty God who gave me the abilities and helped me to do

anything that was possible by me.

I am then very much thankful to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Jouni Suistola who has contributed in

the preparation of my thesis to complete it successfully as he gave me full support toward the

completion of my thesis.

I would like to thank my parents who gave their lasting encouragement in my studies and

enduring these all expenses and supporting me in all events, so that I could be successful in my life time.

I specially thank to my mother whose prayers have helped me to exceed all problems that I faced.

Special thanks to my father who helped me to make my future brighter.

I am also very much thankful to my best friend Kezban Alpan and Mr. Mohammad Dalloal who

gave me their precious time to help me and giving me their devotion and valuable information which I

really need to complete my thesis.

Furthermore, I am thankful to Near East University academic staff and all those persons who

helped me or encouraged me incompletion of my thesis.

Hussam Ibrahim Mayas3-7-2008.

ABSTRACT

A definition of terrorism and a review of the theory of terrorism are first provided. It is stated

that the objectives of terrorism are not those of conventional combat, but are instead to gain specific

concessions, to gain publicity, to cause widespread disorder, to provoke repression, or to punish certain

groups or individuals, it is stressed that the actual amount of violence carried out by terrorists has been

greatly exaggerated. Terrorism has not yet had a major impact on the international order. Also discussed

are the new targets and new capabilities of terrorists, the use of terrorism by some nations as a means

of waging surrogate warfare against other nations, and future directions of terrorism. A chronology of

recent terrorist organizations is appended.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………………...1

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………....2

Table of Contents……………………………………………………..………………… ..3

Introduction ……………………………………………………………………...…….....5

Chapter I

Terrorism: The Tackled Issue

1.1 A Brief History about Terrorism…………………………………………...……….10

1.1.1 Terrorism since World War II…………………………………………....14

1.1.2 Modern Terrorism since 1960s…………………………………………...15

1.1.3 Terrorism and the Future………………………………………...……….16

1.2 The Differences between Terrorism and a Struggle………………………………..18

1.3 Terrorists and Community………………………………………………………….20

1.3.1 The Mind of Terrorists……………………………………………………20

1.3.2 The Threat of Terrorism…………………………………………………..22

1.4 Causes of Terrorism………………………………………………………………...24

1.5 Terrorists Goals and Motivations……………………………………………….…..26

1.6 Media and Terrorism………………………………………………………………..28

1.7 Common Types of Terrorist Tactics………………………………………………..29

1.7.1 Bombings…………………………………………………………………29

1.7.2 Kidnapping and Hostage-Taking…………………………………………31

1.7.3 Armed Attacks and Assassinations……………………………………….31

1.7.4 Hijacking and Skyjacking…………………………………………...……32

Chapter II

Terrorism: Islam and Terrorism

2.1 Islam and Terrorism……………………………………………………………...…34

2.2 The Threat that Causes the Unrest to the U.S.A (Osama bin Laden)………………39

2.2.1 Al-Qaeda………………………………………………………………….41

2.2 Is Suicide Terrorism Religiously Motivated?............................................................43

2.3 How Many Arab Youth have been Recruited by Al-Qaeda Lately and Why?..........46

Chapter III

The American Perspective and Terrorism in the Middle East

3.1 The American Perspective and the Middle East……………………………….…..49

3.2 The International Security and Terrorism in the Middle East……….……………..54

3.3 The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Case Study)………………………………….60

3.3.1 A Brief History about the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan……………….61

3.3.2 Kings of Jordan and Political Events…………………………………......62

3.3.3 The Jordanian Foreign Policy and the Global War on Terrorism………...63

3.3.4 The Jordanian Policy and Counter-Terrorism…………………………….66

3.3.5 Terrorist Attacks in Jordan………………………………………………..68

CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………….…….70

BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………..75

APPENDEXIS………………………………………………………………...…………79

Introduction

he threat of terrorism has increased gradually over the last 30 years. With advances in

technology, terrorist acts have become much more destructive and the perpetrators of those acts

are more elusive. Few parts of the world have been untouched by the current wave of terrorism that

began in the late 1960’s.

TFor many politicians the new world war is the suitable name for Terrorism; in other words we

can say that terrorism nearly became the only thing that is spreading fear among the rulers as kings and

presidents. For most politicians terrorism is considered as a forerunner of a new world war, for others it

is more dangerous than a world war as you do not really know who your enemy is or whom you are

dealing with.

Before a discussion of terrorism is possible, everyone has first to understand the meaning of the

word “Terrorism“. For more illustration, what is the difference between a terrorist and a freedom-

fighter or a revolutionary? And what exactly constitutes a state terror?

A terrorist is an individual or group who uses acts of violence and intimidation to achieve a

desired social, political, or religious outcome. In American society, a terrorist is also defined as any

group or individual that uses violence to oppose the US domestic or foreign policy. What this definition

of terrorism fails to recognize is the revolutionary or guerilla force that is combating an unresponsive or

oppressive government.

Hostage-taking, hijacking, assassination, bombing and killing civilians are some types of

terrorism that we are facing in every single day. In order to understand terrorist motivations, one should

first determine the political, social, or religious goals of the terrorist organizations.

We could say that terrorism in the modern sense is violence or other harmful acts committed or

even threatened against civilians for political or other ideological goals. Most definitions of terrorism

include only those acts which are intended to create fear or "terror", are perpetrated for an ideological

goal (as opposed to the attacks), and deliberately target or disregard the safety of non-combatants.

Many definitions also include only acts of unlawful violence which already causes the unrest in the

place. According to the Longman word wise dictionary the definition of terrorism is:

“The use of violence such as bombing, shooting, or kidnapping to obtain political demands

such as making a government do something”.1

There is a critical difference between a revolutionary group that is trying to overthrow a

dictator, and a terrorist organization that is using intimidation and force to enforce its view of the world

on an unwilling society. It is only through understanding what the terrorist is trying to accomplish and

1 Longman. World wise dictionary, 639.

why, that their actions and motivations can be understood. Yasser Arafat2 said in the 1974 UN General

Assembly in order to distinguish between a terrorist and a freedom-fighter:

“The difference between the revolutionary and the terrorist lies in the reason for which each

fights. For whoever stands by a just cause and fights for the freedom and liberation of his land

from the invaders, the settlers and the colonialists can not possibly be called terrorists”.3 He

continued: “And yet, I, as chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization, hereby once more

declare that I condemn terrorism in all its forms, and at the same time salute those sitting before

me in this hall who, in the days when they fought to free their countries from the yoke of

colonialism, were accused of terrorism by their oppressors, and who today are the faithful

leaders of their peoples, stalwart champions of justice and freedom."4

Defining terrorism is difficult and controversial, since its tactics overlap those of conventional

military. Consequently, the line between terrorism and other forms or kinds of violence tends to be

blurred. Terrorism is a conspiratorial style of violence calculated to alter the attitudes and behavior of

multiple audiences. It targets the few in a way that claims the attention of the many. Thus, a lack of

proportion between resources deployed and effects created, between the material power of actors and

the fear their actions generate is typical. Among systematic and organized modes of civil or international

violence, terrorism is distinguished by its high symbolic and expressive value. The discrepancy between

the secrecy of planning and the visibility of results gives it even more shock value.

2 Yasser Arafat in that time was the Palestinian Chairman; he passed away on November, 11, 2004, to move everything to the new Palestinian Chairman Mahmoud Abbas.

3 Lloyd Pettiford, David Harding, Terrorism: The New World War, (Arcturus Publishing Limited, 2003), 30.

4 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_terrorism [01.03.2008].

Terrorism is a fact considered as a virtually inconceivable to many people who are under the

threat of terrorism. It is also an unimaginable destructive power for any person or place. As a result, we

are asked to understand and explain what terrorism means and in what shapes it exists in order to take

the first step in a long-term program for reducing terrorism in the whole world for a safe life for all

humans, for our children’s life, laments of mothers on their sons, to get rid of inside horror and to erase

memories which are full of victim scenes without finding anyone somehow to atone for the loss of life

and suffering of innocents. As a conclusion and after reading and reading we can say that terrorism is

the cruelest crime as it has totally innocent victims. Furthermore, if the personal suffering is not enough

while experiencing terrorism, terrorism frogmarches governments into actions that abandon hard-

earned freedoms of modern civilization.

Terrorism is a simple blinding format hate which has been created in order to change a policy of

a country because there are many ways to change a political system in a peaceful, rational and logical

ways. We can negotiate and ask for our political requests and rights in a political diplomatic way instead

of making terror attacks and killing innocent people.

Every country in the world has to fight terrorism (Counter Terrorism) as terrorist organizations

are threatening our lives and properties in every day we are living: Ultimately, I have to say that we

don’t have to wait until it is too late.

The questions about this thesis will be about describing terrorism, giving a brief history about

terrorism and how did it start, the terrorist organizations, the relationship between religions and

terrorism, the mind of terrorists, the American perspective in the Middle East as it is full of terrorism

and the connection between Osama bin Laden and Al-Qaeda terrorist organization.

My special question is if the Jordanian foreign policy supports terrorism or is it an active policy in

fighting terrorism (counter terrorism) as the Jordanian Government had been attacked by many painful

terror attacks during the last few years.

Chapter One

Terrorism: The Tackled Issue

Chapter : Terrorism: The Tackled IssueІ

1.1 A Brief History of Terrorism

here is no doubt that the International Terrorism nowadays has became one of the most

important factors that are threatening our international community and our social lives. The

history of terrorism, resolving its contradictions is not an easy subject; it is a messy case but also a moral

maze. The last updated statements assure that there are more than 170 active terrorist organizations

which are some how applying the roles that they are required to do.5

T

There are many definitions of terrorism but all have a common point of departure. Terrorism is

characterized first and foremost by the use of violence. This violence includes hostage taking, hijacking,

5http://www.aljazeeratalk.net/forum/showthread.php?t=71218, trs. [05.06.2008].

bombing, and other indiscriminate attacks which usually are targeting at civilians. However, the purpose

of violence and motivation behind it are the issues where most of the disagreements related to

terrorism begin.

Traditionally, terrorism has been separated from criminal acts on the basis of political

legitimacy. According to those sympathetic to terrorist causes the violence undertaken is the only way

to draw attention to the plight and grievances of a specific group as opposed to an individual. With little

recourses for change, other than violence, some view terrorism as an acceptable method of righting

injustice while others see it as egregious act. Historically such causes have included ideological, ethnic

and religious exclusion or persecution.6

Terrorism has been used by a broad array of political organizations in furthering their objectives;

they include both right-wing and left-wing political parties, nationalistic, and religious groups,

revolutionaries and ruling governments. The presence of non-state actors in widespread armed conflict

has created controversy regarding the application of the laws of war. For the US the Talibanis and

members of al-Qaeda have been “illegal enemy combatants”, and thus, outside of the Geneva

Convention7 dealing with the treatment of prisoners -of-war.

6 John Baylis, Steve Smith, The Globalization of World's Politics, An Introduction to International Relations, 3rd Ed. (Oxford University press, 2005), 480.

7 The Geneva Conventions which were adopted before 1949 were concerned with combatants only, not with civilians. Some provisions concerning the protection of populations against the consequences of war and their protection in occupied territories are contained in the Regulations concerning the laws and customs of war on land, annexed to the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. During World War I The Hague provisions proved to be insufficient in view of the dangers originating from air warfare and of the problems relating to the treatment of civilians in enemy territory and in occupied territories. The International Conferences of the Red Cross of the 1920's took the first steps towards laying down supplementary rules for the protection of civilians in time of war. The 1929 Diplomatic Conference, which revised the Geneva Convention on wounded and sick and drew up the Convention on the treatment of prisoners of war, limited itself to recommending that "studies should be made with a view to concluding a convention on the protection of civilians in enemy territory and in enemy occupied territory. http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/INTRO/380?OpenDocument . [23.03.2008].

An International Round Table on Constructing Peace, Deconstructing Terror (2004) hosted by

Strategic Foresight Group recommended that a distinction should be made between terrorism and acts

of terror. While acts of terror are criminal acts as per the United Nations Security Council Resolution

1373 and domestic jurisprudence of almost all countries in the world, terrorism refers to a phenomenon

including the actual acts, the perpetrators of acts of terror themselves and their motives. There is

disagreement on definitions of terrorism. However, there is an intellectual consensus globally, that acts

of terror should not be accepted under any circumstances. This is reflected in all important conventions

including the United Nations counter terrorism strategy, the decisions of the Madrid Conference on

terrorism, the Strategic Foresight Group and ALDE Round Tables at the European Parliament.8

It is nearly impossible to ascertain when what we nowadays call terrorism traces was first time

used, but some say that its roots Go back at least by some 2,000 years. Terrorism has been practiced

throughout history and throughout the world; terrorism has been practiced without referring at the

term of terrorism. Roman emperors used many ways of terrorism. Tiberius (reigned AD 14–37) and

Caligula (reigned AD 37–41) are two examples of Roman emperors who used banishment, expropriation

of property and execution as means to discourage opposition to their rule.9

Sicarii was a highly organized religious sect which consisted of men of lower orders who were

active in the Zealot struggle in Palestine (AD 66–73), they were attacking their enemies by daylight, and

also they preferred to attack on holidays when crowds of people were gathering in Jerusalem. Sica (a

short sword) was their favorite weapon; they were hiding this weapon under their coats.10

The victims of the Sicarii included Jonathan the High Priest, though it is possible that his murder

was orchestrated by the Roman governor Felix. Some of their murders were met with severe retaliation

8 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism. [23.03.2008].9 http://www.terrorismfiles.org/encyclopaedia/terrorism.html. [25.03.2008].

10 Walter Laqueur, Terrorism, (The Chaucer Press, 1980), 18.

by the Romans on the entire Jewish population of the country. On some occasions, they could be bribed

to spare their intended victims. If the narrative of Barabbas is not an invention to create a parable, even

convicted Sicarii were occasionally released on promising to spare their opponents, though there is no

evidence for this practice outside the Gospels, which are largely in accord on this point. Once, Josephus

relates, after kidnapping the secretary of Eleazar, governor of the Temple precincts, they agreed to

release him in exchange for ten of their captured comrades.11

The English word ‘terrorism’ comes from the “regime de la terreur” that prevailed in France

from 1793-1794.12 Some say that the phenomenon of terrorism was started during the French

revolution in France in 1789, which finished the rule of King Louis the 16th.13 Before 1789 terrorism was

considered as a kind of vandalism but since terrorism has been to be considered as a political case with a

political motivation.

The Russian Narodnaya Volya (NV), or according to Walter Laqueur, the father of the

modern revolutionary terrorism, launched a terror campaign against the autocratic regime of the

Czar. Narodnaya Volya’s Program was a mix of democratic and socialist reforms, its program

contained convocation of the Constituent Assembly (for designing a Constitution); introduction

of universal suffrage; permanent people’s representation, freedom of speech, press, and

assembly; communal self-government; exchange of the permanent army with a people’s

volunteer corps; transfer of land to the people; gradual placement of the factories under the

control of the workers; and granting oppressed peoples of the Russian Empire the right to self-

determination.14

11 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicarii. [01.06.2008].12Mark Burgess, “a brief history of terrorism”, Center for Defense Information, (2003).

13 Dr.Mohammad Moa’nis Mohib Al-Deen. “Terrorism in the Criminal Law,” trs. Doctoral Dissertation. Al-Mansoura University, Faculty of Law, (1983), 7.14 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narodnaya_Volya. [ 01.06.2008].

Between 1878 and 1881 the NV assassinated government officials and attempted to

assassinate the Czar himself, first the NV tried to blow up a train in which the Czar was traveling

by, after that he tried to assassinate the Czar by detonating a mine in the Romanovs’ winter

palace. Finally, the NV was crushed by the Russia’s secret police.15

In the second half of the 19th century, terrorism was adopted by adherents of anarchism in

Western Europe, Russia, and the United States as revolutionary movements as they believed that the

best way of a political change is the revolution or the assassination of persons in positions of power, as a

response and during the few years (1865 to 1905) a number of kings, presidents, prime ministers,

politicians and government officials were killed by anarchists' guns or bombs.16

Religious, nationalist and political roots are the main parts or catalysts that switched-on the new

era of terrorism. Terrorism started first as a religious reflection in order to defense religion by killing the

apostate. In his book “Fear and Trembling: Terrorism in Three Religious Traditions”, David C. Rapoport

claims:

“Before the 19th century, religion provided the only acceptable justifications for terror.”17

1.1.1 Terrorism since World War II

In the wake of the World War II, when many terrorism movements emerged, the main focus for

such terrorist activities mainly shifted from Europe itself to that continent’s various colonies. After the

defeat of the Axis powers and through the Middle East, Asia and Africa many nascent nationalist

15 Ann G. Gaines, Terrorism, (Chelsea house publishers, 2001), 46.16 http://www.terrorismfiles.org/encyclopaedia/terrorism.html. [29.03.2008].17 Mark Burgess, “a brief history of terrorism”, Center for Defense Information, (2003).

movements raised up to resist the European attempts to resume colonial business as usual, these

terrorist activities tried to dispelling the myth of European invincibility.18These groups or terrorist

activities were known as nationalistic and anti-colonial groups as they conducted guerilla warfare.

Excellent examples are the Jewish Irgun Zvai Leumi and the Cypriot EOKA.

1.1.2 Modern Terrorism Since 1960s

Terrorism, the war of small groups against states, is on the rise since the end of the cold war and

the collapse of communism. The new war is not anymore mostly between states, but mostly against

states.

In our modern time, terrorism planted in us to be an essential part which can not be separated

of our daily lives. Many terrorist groups improved themselves and became powerful terrorist

organizations. During the 1960s and 1970s, the number of those groups that might be described as

terrorist groups swelled and spread out to include not only nationalists, but also those motivated by

ethnic, religious and ideological considerations.

The Palestinian Liberation Organization, the Basque ETA and the Provisional Irish Republican Army are

some examples on such groups.19

18 Ibid.19 Ibid.

1.1.3 Terrorism and the Future

Terrorists have shown unbelievable ability to adapt to the techniques and methods of counter-

terror agencies and intelligence organizations over the long term. Terrorist organizations also try always

to apply any available means of technology in order to ease and increase the accuracy of achieving their

goals. Often they use a network organization, which also complicates the tasks of security forces and

reduces the predictability of operations. Terrorists have improved and are improving their sophistication

and abilities in all aspects of their operations. The aggressive use of modern technology for information

management, communication and intelligence has increased the efficiency of these activities.20

Terrorism threat is not so much about what actually happens or what will happen, but rather

about what might have happened, or what might happen in the future. In the meantime, crimes on

much bigger scale are actually being committed around the world. What we are scared of now is what

might be coming next. And that, in its turn, depends very much on the spectacularisation of the event

through the media, by politicians, etc.

20 http://www.terrorism-research.com/future/. [01.04.2008].

As explained by Derrida21, terrorism is not about "what is presently happening or what has

happened in the past but the precursory signs of what threatens to happen. It is the future that

determines the unappropriability of the event, not the present or the past. Or at least, if it is the present

or the past, it is only insofar as it bears on its body the terrible sign of what might or perhaps will take

place, which will be worse than anything that has ever taken place".22

Furthermore, the globalization has improved the technical capabilities of terrorists and given

them global reach but has not altered the fundamental fact that terrorism is the weakest form of

irregular warfare and represents the extreme views of a limited minority of the global population. In

other words, the globalization has changed the scoop of terrorism but not its nature. Although

globalization has improved the technical capabilities of sub-state groups and individuals, it has not

conveyed one-sided or absolute benefits to terrorist. The same technologies and processes which offer

terrorism its global reach also enable more effective means of states to combat them.

No one could expect what future will bring to us.23 Edmund Burke, the Eighteenth century

philosopher, said: “You can never plan the future by the past”,24 on the other hand, Abba said about the

same case: “The history book on the shelf is always repeating itself”,25 ultimately, and as a conclusion,

we can recognize that no one in the world we are living in can suppose or expect what is the exact

future for terrorism.

21Jacques Derrida, an Algerian-born French philosopher, known as the founder of deconstruction. His voluminous work has had a profound impact upon literary theory and continental philosophy. His best known work is Of Grammatology.22 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Derrida. [23.05.2008].23 No one can predict if terrorist organizations will use the nuclear weapons in their terror attacks or not.24 Lloyd Pettiford, David Harding, Terrorism: The New World War, (Arcturus Publishing Limited, 2003), 180.

25 Ibid.

1.2 The Differences between Terrorism and a Struggle

ur argument will be about one of the most important disagreements between the countries in

all over the world as some groups are using power against other groups, the vagueness here is

as both of these groups are calling himself in the right way and the other is a terrorist. Perhaps that is

what is going on in the world politics nowadays. For example, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the

United States of America became the only superpower in the world.26 It tries to claim that the American

point of view is the only view which is true without paying attention to any other point of view. As a

result, you can notice and realize that the American hegemony has been spread to cover nearly all the

world.27 At the same phase, the way of using force became the only ideology which can be used in this

time not just inside the terrorist’s minds but also in the minds of the state.

O

26 The USA and after the collapse of the USSR became the only massive power which can control the whole world, in other words we can say that the world we are living in after the collapse of the USSR became a uni-polar world (the American Hegemony). For more information read about the Realism Theory and the Neorealism Theory which are related to international relations field. 27 T.V.Paul, John A. Hall, International Order and the Future of World Politics, (Cambridge University press, 1999), 123-141.

The Neorealism sees the power as a possibly useful means which already most countries in all

over the world are seeking to have in order to improve their armies (Kenneth Waltz). Kant said about

war, that the nature of the state is the state of war. Bruce Russett believes that with enough

democracies in the world, it "may be possible in part to supersede the 'realist' principles”.28

However, the international community is still mixed between the two idioms (terrorism-

struggle) and until now it is not easy to distinguish between them; but the idea is that countries are

looking to violence according to their interests. In other words, violence is acceptable if it’s suitable with

the interests of the state; such as the War in Iraq, but if it’s unsuitable it would be, of course, a terrorist

action. We could take a look over what has been going on in Palestine under the Israeli occupation since

1948. The Israeli military instrument has attacked against civilian people until now. Yet, the Israeli

leadership calls the fighting of the Palestinian people terrorism! At the same time the world did not

accept the creation of the state of Palestine.29

When the winners of the Second World War decided to establish the United Nations the goal

was to keep the peace and further the cooperation between the nations and also protect the human

rights and support the independency of the nations.

The main idea here is that every nation is looking at any action which helps its interests as an

acceptable action; but in the same time the actions are not be acceptable for the other nations, which

call them a terrorism. Here we face the complicated problem of how to find a common definition which

should be universal.

28 Kenneth Waltz. Structural Realism after the Cold War: International security, (2000), 5-41.29 David W. Lesch, The Middle East and the United States, 3rd Ed. (West view press, 2004), 191-203.

1.3 Terrorists and Community

hat is the main goal of terrorists? How can terrorists change government’s policy? What is

our duty as civilians in counter-terrorism? What terrorists want from us as civilians? What is

the main factor that serves terrorists against us as civilians? All of these questions are considered as a

clue in order to learn what terrorism and terrorists mean.

WThe principle goal of terrorists is to terrify civilians and governments into acquiescing to their

political demands as it is the only way that they have to achieve their interests. The only way that they

can achieve this is by creating a huge or substantial amount of fear and horror to make people believe

that their life is significantly under danger and threatened by potential terrorism.

Our duty as civilians is to prevent the fear that terrorists plant in the bottom of our hearts

because terrorists lose their power over us when they lose what they want us to feel and believe. If we

could achieve this, then terrorists would lose the control on our behaviors. Finally, we have to know that

being afraid means that you are facilitating the goals of terrorists.

1.3.1 The Mind of Terrorists

Terrorism is considered as a political problem. It is true but also terrorism is considered as a

human behavior30 as terrorists are humans who have their own psychology and way of thinking. The

psychology of terrorists is still considered as a vague case as knowing or even guessing what they exactly

want or how do they commit their terrorist attacks of killing innocent victims, as women and children,

bombing buildings and cars, hijacking airplanes, assassinations and kidnapping. Their targets are still a

blurred case, which according to many scientists is not related with policies but with psychology.

Terrorists believe that they have a right legitimate grievance. If most terrorists do not meet

diagnostic criteria for a major mental illness or for sociopathy, should one conclude that they are

rational? This is absolutely right, terrorists are humans like us. If one terrorist is out of his mind or has a

psychological problem then the others have to think in a pure rational way. This raises the question of

the explanatory power of rational choice theory the theory that terrorist action derives from a

conscious, rational, calculated decision to take this particular type of action as the optimum strategy to

accomplish a sociopolitical goal.

30 Jeff Victoroff, “the Mind of the Terrorist”, Journal of Conflict Resolution, (2005).

A distinction should be made between rational choice theory and other individual or group

psychological theories of terrorism. The latter try to explain why people are inclined toward a type or

style of behavior (e.g., to be a terrorist), while rational choice theory, derived from economics, assumes

this behavioral proclivity as a given and attempts to explain how changes in policy—the rules of the

“game” that is played between terrorists and governments—might predictably alter behavior. Since

rational choice theory considers both policy and individual behavioral responses to policy, it combines

the top-down and bottom-up approaches.

1.3.2 The Threat of Terrorism

In these days, you would have to be living on moon in order not to have heard about bin Laden,

al-Qaeda or other terrorist groups; it seems to be impossible not to find anyone who can not tell nearly

everything about four, five or even more terrorist groups.

In the world we are living in, we have many terrorist groups; some of the most successful terrorist

groups were the vast array of guerilla, partisan or resistance movement s . Every terrorist group is trying

to be the best as if they were in a race. Being a famous terrorist group depends on how many victims

you enlisted in your criminal file, how many trading centers you bombed, how many airplanes did you

hijack.

Terrorist organizations are different from each other according to their power, armors,

technology, the way of organization and their beliefs. There are two general categories of organization;

hierarchical and networked. The main factor that determines whether a terrorist organization adopts

the hierarchical or the networked structure as a main system depends on the age of that organization. In

other words, the newer terror organizations tend to adapt and adopt the network model. Terrorist

organizations that are associated with political activities or other organizations tend to adapt the

hierarchical structure in order to coordinate terrorist violence with political action.31

Since the start of the twentieth century, many terror attacks took place on the soil of many

worlds’ countries, In the terrorists illogical quest for accomplishing their unjustified and vague demands,

most of these terror attacks were painful and left hundreds or thousands victims behind, and those

victims have no mistake except being in the same place where the terror attacks took place.

Although the first decade of the twenty-first century did not finish yet, I can say that this decade

is full of painful terror attacks, victims and fear. The Red Brigade Leader Renato Curci said:

“It is necessary to kill today to live tomorrow”.32 For more illustration, this section will tackle

briefly these terror attacks that took place in the twentieth and the twenty-first centuries.

The threat of terrorism rose in the 1990s, and the former CIA counter-terrorist head, Paul Pillar

said:

"The long history of terrorism is reason enough to expect that it will always be a problem and

usually a significant one. It is a product of such basic facts of human existence as the discontent

that it is sometimes strong enough to impel people toward violence, the asymmetries of the

31 http://www.terrorism-research.com/groups. [04.04.2008].32 Lloyd Pettiford, David Harding, Terrorism: The New World War, (Arcturus Publishing Limited, 2003), 109.

weak confronting the strong, and the vulnerability of almost every facet of civilization to physical

harm at the hands of those who find a reason to inflict harm. If there is a ‘war’ against terrorism,

it is a war that cannot be won. Counterterrorism, even though it shares some attributes with

warfare, is not accurately represented by the metaphor of a war. Unlike most wars, it has neither

a fixed set of enemies nor the prospect of coming to closure, be it through a ‘win’ or some other

kind of denouement."33

1.4 Causes of Terrorism

errorism has occurred throughout history for a variety of reasons. Causes of terrorism can be

historical, cultural, political, social, psychological, economic, and religious or any combination of

these.

TDemocratic countries usually have provided more fertile ground for terrorism as the nature of

these democratic societies is open. In such societies citizens have equal and fundamental rights, civil

liberties are legally protected and government control and constant surveillance of its citizens and their

activities is absent.

33 Columnist Sultan Ahmed, “the roots of terrorism”, defense journal, (2006).

In the other hand, repressive societies34 have often provided more difficult environments for

terrorists. But even police-states such as People's Republic of China, Myanmar, and Laos have not been

immune to terrorism, despite limiting civil liberties and forbidding free speech and rights of assembly.35

To understand how the terrorism penetrates our societies we should take a deep look on the

reasons which perhaps create the terror. The main reasons are as follows:

High population growth rates (so-called “youth bulges”),

High Unemployment (poverty),

Lagging economies,

Political disenfranchisement,

Extremism,

Ethnic conflicts,

Religious conflicts,

Territorial conflicts.

A global research report An Inclusive World prepared by an international team of researchers

from all continents has analyzed causes of present day terrorism. It has reached the conclusions that

34 Repressive societies are the societies in which the government closely monitors citizens and restricts their speech and movement, so we can say that almost everything is controlled by the government.35 http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761564344_2/Terrorism.html#s5. [14.05.2008].

terrorism all over the world functions like an economic market. There is demand for terrorists placed by

greed or grievances. Supply is driven by relative deprivation resulting in triple deficits-developmental

deficit, democratic deficit and dignity deficit. Acts of terror take place at the point of intersection

between supply and demand. Those placing the demand use religion and other denominators as

vehicles to establish links with those on the supply side. This pattern can be observed in all situations

ranging from Colombia to Colombo and the Philippines.36

1.5 Terrorists Goals and Motivations

36 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism. [13.05.2008].

he objectives of terrorist operations are always influenced by the terrorists’ ideologies and

motivations. Terrorist organizations with secular ideologies and non-religious goals often attempt

to achieve highly selective and discriminate acts of violence to achieve a specific political aim. These

organizations are considered as highly dangerous as their targets symbols of authority: government

offices, banks, national airlines and multinational corporations with direct relation to the established

order. Also they conduct attacks on representative individuals whom they associate with economic

exploitation, social injustice, or political repression to make these devastating attack to create a huge

shock and panic.37

T

On the other hand, religiously oriented groups typically attempt to strike and cause as many

casualties and victims as possible. The apocalyptic frame of reference (as the Bible or the Koran) they

use is the main motivation for them for such acts. Here the loss of life is irrelevant: the more casualties

the better.38

The main goal of terrorism to produce widespread fear and disrupt the public's sense of safety

by creating feelings of vulnerability and fear, intimidate and coerce civilians, obtain worldwide and

national or local recognition for their cause by attracting the attention of the media, harass and weaken

or embarrass government security forces so that the government overreacts and appears repressive.

Stealing money and equipments, especially weapons and ammunition, is vital to the operations of their

group. Also they destroy facilities or disrupt lines of communication to create doubt that the

government can provide for and protect its citizens, discourage foreign investments, tourism, or

assistance programs that can affect the target country’s economy and support of the government in

power, Influence government decisions, legislation, or other critical decisions, free prisoners or Satisfy

vengeance, and attract the government to a guerrilla war by forcing government security forces to

37 http://www.terrorism-research.com/goals/. [04.05.2008 ].38 Ibid.

concentrate their efforts in urban areas. This allows the terrorist group to establish itself among the

local populace in rural areas.39’40

39 Ibid.40 http://www.redcross.org/preparedness/cdc_english/factsThreats.html. [04.05.2008]..

1.6 Media and Terrorism

major segment of the global media is behaving in a manner that makes terrorism

and mass killings more likely rather than less likely. They enable and encourage

terrorist slaughter of innocents by supplying providing a propaganda bonanza for the terrorist

cause. Without the gain, there would be less incentive for the horrific behavior”.41 By these

words Rachel Neuwirth started his article about how the media enable terrorism.

“A

Media or televised news coverage play a significant role to spread terrorism by expanding and

increasing the number of audience who could watch or witness what James D. Kiras also the “theatre of

terrorism” as nowadays one can watch the theatre of terrorism live through television.

41Rachel Neuwirth , “how the media enable terrorism”, American thinker, (2006).

The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) is a living example about how media

supports and expands terrorism as nearly most of the world did not hear about Palestine or the

Palestinian case before 1970s. The PFLP did many terrorist attacks using media as a means in order to

spread their own political case, the Palestinian case. Excellent examples are the triple-hijacking and

blowing up of airliners by the PFLP in 1970, and live coverage of hostage-taking by the Black September

terror organization in Munich Olympics in 1972. During these terror attacks, terrorist used media to

spread their political case and their opinions as they believed that media could be considered as the

oxygen that sustains terrorism.42

1.7 Common Types of Terrorist Tactics

n order to achieve their unannounced goals, terrorists are always using different kinds of terror

tactics. These tactics have different styles and goals; one of these goals is to generate a substantial

amount of fear; these tactics are:

I

1.7.1 Bombings

Bombing is considered as the most common kind of terrorist acts. To produce a bomb or an

explosive device is easy and cheap. This kind of terrorist act also plants fear in the hearts of citizens and

leave many victims and injured people.

42 John Baylis, Steve Smith, The Globalization of World's Politics, An Introduction to International Relations, 3rd Ed. (Oxford University press, 2005), 483.

Many terrorists are well trained to make explosives and bombs as they are inexpensive and easy

to make. For example, in his confession about bombing the U.S. Embassy in Jordan, the Jordanian prime

minister's office and the headquarters of Jordanian intelligence, Azmi Jayyousi said:

“I took explosives courses, poisons high level, then I pledged allegiance to Abu Musab al-Zarqawi,

to obey him without any questioning”.43

Nowadays bombs have become more effective and useful for terrorists: They are more lethal,

smaller and harder to detect. The bombing of the two American embassies in Africa on August 7, 1998 is

a clear example of the destructive power that bombs have: 200 people died and 5000 civilians were

injured.44

Suicide bombing is a common tactic of terrorist attacks. The main question here is a

controversial subject. To be more precise, we have to ask ourselves if suicide bombings are related to

Islam or not as we always hear? In order to answer this question, let’s read and analyze the next

paragraph carefully.

In October, 2005, Dr. Pape was interviewed at a roundtable discussion sponsored by the Pew

Forum on Religion and Public Life about his research conclusions on whether Islamic extremism

motivates terrorism. Pape discussed his findings with is interviewer:

“The conventional wisdom is that suicide terrorism is motivated by religious fanaticism religious

hatred combined with the promise of a martyr's paradise in the hereafter. What does your own

research suggest? The conventional wisdom is mostly wrong. Suicide terrorism is not mainly the

43 http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/04/26/jordan.terror/ . [18.04.2008].

44 http://www.terrorism-research.com/incidents/. [18.04.2008].

product of Islamic fundamentalism or any other evil ideology independent of circumstance. I

have studied 462 suicide terrorists; over half are secular. The world leader in suicide terrorism is

the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka - they're a Marxist group, a secular group, a Hindu group. The Tamil

Tigers have committed more suicide terrorist attacks than Hamas or Islamic Jihad. Instead, what

more than 95 percent of all suicide terrorist attacks since 1980 have in common is not religion,

but a specific secular goal: to compel modern democracies to withdraw military forces from the

territory the terrorists view as their homeland. From Lebanon to Chechnya to Kashmir to Sri

Lanka to the West Bank, every suicide terrorist campaign since 1980 has had as its main

objective to compel a democratic state to withdraw combat forces from territory that the

terrorists prize”.45

1.7.2 Kidnapping and Hostage-Takings

Kidnapping is nearly the most difficult act for a terrorist group to be accomplished; terrorists are

using kidnapping to establish a bargaining position for ransom or to secure their way to their next point

or to release jailed comrades and to elicit publicity.46Unlike kidnapping, hostage-taking provokes a

confrontation with authorities. Terrorists usually use such a terror act in order to force the authorities to

listen to them or to comply with their demands.47

1.7.3 Armed Attacks and Assassinations

45 http://terrorism.about.com/od/causes/f/SuicideBombFAQ.htm . [18.04.2008].

46 Ibid.47 Ibid.

Armed attacks include, for example, raids and ambushes. Assassination is the act of murdering

an important person48 or the killing of a selected victim, usually by bombings or small arms. Drive-by

shootings is a common technique employed by unsophisticated or a simple organized terrorist groups.

Historically, terrorists have assassinated many well-known politicians for many reasons. Also terrorists

have assassinated other individuals or politicians for a psychological effect, for example, Anwar Sadat,

Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria.49

1.7.4 Hijacking and Skyjacking

Hijacking is the use of violence or threat to take control of a plane, vehicle or

ship.50Furthermore, Skyjacking is the taking of an aircraft, which creates a mobile hostage barricade

situation. Skyjacking often provides the terrorists by the mobility to relocate the aircraft to a country

that supports their cause and provides them with a human shield, making retaliation difficult.51

48 Longman Dictionary, Contemporary English, 74.49 http://www.terrorism-research.com/incidents/. [18.04.2008].50 Longman Dictionary, Contemporary English, 768.51 http://www.terrorism-research.com/incidents/. [18.04.2008].

Chapter Two

Islam and Terrorism

Chapter ІІ: Islam and Terrorism

2.1 Islam and Terrorism

slam is the religion of forgiveness, peace and mercy. Many people who do not know the exact

meaning of Islam have called Islam a religion of loot, pillage, plunder, rape, torture and murder in

order to further the interests of Islam, and they are calling the Holy Book of the Muslims, the Koran, as

specific instruction manual of terrorism.52

IAs a fact, during the Nineteenth and the Twentieth centuries terrorism in the Muslim and Arab

world was not as we know it nowadays as a real terrorism or international terrorism because terrorism

during these two centuries was an internal and local phenomenon. It was also not that complex case

52 http://www.flex.com/~jai/satyamevajayate/koran.html. [11.05.2008].

that causes sleeplessness in the American administration. Terrorism in the Muslim and Arab world was

not really a predominant case.

There is a scientific rule which says that nothing in this world can stay stable; everything has to

change. We were born as infants, then became babies, children, teenagers, young men, men, old men

and finally we die. This rule can be applicable on anything. As a result, as terrorism in the Muslim and

Arab world exists, it changed from an internal and local phenomenon to be the most prominent

component of world terrorism.53

Objectivity means being logical in telling the truth as it is without changing any statement or any

idea in order to use it for your own benefit. Consequently, I will try to analyze the truth from all angles in

order to be objective.

“Praise be to Allah, we seek His help and ask for his pardon. We take refuge in Allah from our

wrongs and bad deeds. Who ever been guided by Allah will not be misled, and who ever has been

misled, he will never be guided. I bear witness that there is no God except Allah no associates

with Him and I bear witness that Muhammad is His slave and messenger”.54

By these words, Osama bin Laden started his speech in which he explicitly announced the war

on the United States of America (he called it the “Declaration of War”). These and other words were the

start for violent development that changed the course of our world until these days. It should be noticed

that nearly all Muslims have suffered from aggression and injustice which were imposed by the Zionist-

Crusaders alliance and their collaborators. This aggression reached the climax in our life to the point that

Muslim blood became cheap and our wealth became treated as a loot in the hands of the enemies.

53 Walter Laqueur, No End to War, Terrorism in the Twenty-first Century, (The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc. 2003), 30. 54 http://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html. [11.05.2008].

Although we as Muslims know that bin Laden has nothing to do with Islam, we can not blame

the West for believing that all Muslims are terrorists. Hoffman claims that to consider terrorism as a

religious one the perpetrators or the terrorist must use religious scriptures, as the Koran or the Bible, to

justify or explain their violent acts or to gain recruits.55 Furthermore, there must be some sort of clerical

figures involved in some leadership roles.56

On the other hand, we have to remind that what is happening to us nowadays is the logical

reaction of what bin Laden is doing. Nevertheless, he calls himself a Muslim who is fighting the enemy of

God- as he claimed - in order to spread peace all over the world.

Ancient seeds and bitter harvests are the facts that nearly all Muslims are facing everyday all

over the world. Muslim blood is spilled in Palestine and Iraq without even paying attention to what is

going on there. Muslims’ rights as humans are hammered down and exposed by the massacres that took

place in every part of the world as a payback of what bin Laden and his terrorist group did and are still

doing.

As we can clearly see bin Laden’s group al-Qaeda - is actively committed to the acts of terrorism

in many parts of the world and justifies them with the Koran. In fact, they use Koran as a curtain to hide

their criminal actions. As a result, al-Qaeda is killing people, raping, torturing and murdering in order to

fulfill their own interests and we –as Muslims- have to payback for every single terrorist action that they

have committed, just because we are Muslims.

We as Muslims have to condemned all terrorist acts in all over the world especially the ones that

been made by Muslims groups, Yusuf al-Qaradawi, a well known Muslim scholar and preacher

commented on such Muslim terrorist organizations by saying:

55 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_terrorism.html. [11.05.2008].56 Ibid.

“Islam, the religion of tolerance, holds the human soul in high esteem, and considers the attack

against innocent human beings a grave sin, this is backed by the Qur'anic verse which reads:

Who so ever kills a human being for other than manslaughter or corruption in the earth, it shall

be as if he has killed all mankind, and who so ever saves the life of one, it shall be as if he had saved the

life of all mankind," (Al-Ma'dah:32). He added: “The Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, is

reported to have said, 'A believer remains within the scope of his religion as long as he doesn't kill

another person illegally'".57

Nowadays, we are living in a unipolar world, and the United States of America is the most

powerful country in the world. The Americans can do and control anything or any country they want,

spread fear of the immense power of the United States. Consequently, the fear of the United States

turns to a hate.58’59

To prove that bin Laden and al-Qaeda are using Islam as a curtain, let’s take a look of an

interview on 23 December 1998 in the Time Magazine about if al-Qaeda has the intention to have a

chemical or nuclear weapons bin Laden said:

“Acquiring weapons for the defense of Muslims is a religious duty. If I have indeed acquired these

weapons, then I thank God for enabling me to do so. And if I seek to acquire these weapons, I am

carrying out a duty. It would be a sin for Muslims not to try to possess the weapons that would

prevent the infidels from inflicting harm on Muslims”.60

57 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yusuf_al-Qaradawi. [03.07.2008].58 VOLL O. JOHN, “Understanding Terrorism”, a Harvard Magazine Roundtable, (2002).

59 T.V.Paul, John A. Hall, International Order and the Future of World Politics, (Cambridge University press, 1999), 123-141.60 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/who/edicts.html. [12.05.2008].

As a conclusion, and according to me, it is a fact that almost anyone in the world could recognize

Osama bin Laden just from his picture. It is because bin Laden is considered as the most-wanted guy in

the world on the American’s terrorists list.

It is not a complex case to comprehend that al-Qaeda group or bin Laden are not fighting the

enemy of God, as they claim, but they are spreading terrorism to achieve their own objectives using

Islam and the Koran as an alibi. For more evidence and more illustration, let us read the following

quotations for bin Laden:

"I have benefited so greatly from the jihad in Afghanistan that it would have been impossible for

me to gain such a benefit from any other chance and this cannot be measured by tens of years

but rather more than that. ... Our experience in this jihad was great, by the grace of God, praise

and glory be to Him, and the most of what we benefited from was that the myth of the

superpower was destroyed not only in my mind but also in the minds of all Muslims. Slumber and

fatigue vanished and so was the terror which the U.S. would use in its media by attributing itself

superpower status or which the Soviet Union used by attributing itself as a superpower".61

2.2 The Threat that Causes the Unrest to the U.S.A (Osama bin Laden)

is full name is “Osama bin Muhammad bin 'Awad bin Laden”. He was born on 10 March 1957.

Officially he is usually called as “Osama bin Laden” or “Usama bin Laden”, "bin" means "son" in H61 http://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html. [12.05.2008].

Arabic, thus, his name also tells his genealogy. Osama is the son of Muhammad, who was the son of

Awad, and so forth. Bin Laden is considered to be an Islamic militant, and also he is considered to be the

founder of the Jihadist organization Al-Qaeda.62

Bin Laden nowadays is considered as one of the ten most wanted fugitives on the US Federal

Bureau of Investigation's (F.B.I) list as for his involvement in the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings in Dar es

Salaam, Tanzania and Nairobi, Kenya and the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on 11 September

2001. In conjunction with several other Islamic militant leaders, as they are completing each other, bin

Laden issued two fatwas / fatawa (an official order made by an important Islamic religious leader). 63 The

first fatwa was in 1996 and the second one was in 1998. These two fatwas order Muslims to kill civilians

and military personnel from the United States and allied countries until they withdraw military forces

from Islamic countries (such as: Iraq and Afghanistan) and withdraw support from Israel.64

Bin laden, asked every Muslim who can fight for Jihad to do it, he said:

"We declared jihad against the US government, because the US government is unjust, criminal

and tyrannical. It has committed acts that are extremely unjust, hideous and criminal whether

directly or through its support of the Israeli occupation". He continued: "For this and other acts

of aggression and injustice, we have declared jihad against the US, because in our religion it is

our duty to make jihad so that God's word is the one exalted to the heights and so that we drive

the Americans away from all Muslim countries.As for what you asked whether jihad is directed

against US soldiers, the civilians in the land of the Two Holy Places (Saudi Arabia, Mecca and

Medina) or against the civilians in America, we have focused our declaration on striking at the

soldiers in the country of The Two Holy Places. The country of the Two Holy Places has in our

62 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden. [12.04.2008].

63 Longman Dictionary, Contemporary English, 576.64 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden. [12.04.2008].

religion a peculiarity of its own over the other Muslim countries. In our religion, it is not

permissible for any non-Muslim to stay in our country. Therefore, even though American civilians

are not targeted in our plan, they must leave. We do not guarantee their safety, because we are

in a society of more than a billion Muslims."65

Bin Laden is viewed as a giant terrorist monster who appears and disappears as an illusion. No

one can know where he is. The US government has tried to capture him, but we believe that the British

and Americans are chasing a phantom enemy.

Constantly, any reader who is interested in political issues can recognize that the most powerful

regime in the world (the USA) was humbled by one man Bin Laden who lives most of his time in a cave.

2.2.1 Al-Qaeda

Al Qaeda was founded in 1988 by Osama bin Laden. Al-Mujahideen, Muslim fighters who fought

the Soviets following their 1979 invasion of Afghanistan, were Al-Qaeda's original primary membership

base. Furthermore, Al-Qaeda has no home base or no stable accommodation location, but maintains

cells in different countries in Europe, the Middle East and Southeast Asia.66 Al- Qaeda’s goals are to

65 http://www.pbs.org/newshour/terrorism/international/fatwa_1996.html. [12.05.2008].66 http://terrorism.about.com/od/groupsleader1/p/AlQaeda.htm. [12.05.2008].

establish a pan-Islamic Caliphate throughout the world by working with allied Islamic extremist groups

to overthrow regimes it deems "non-Islamic" by using terrorism as a tool for spreading their goals and

for the expelling Westerners and non-Muslims from Muslim countries (as they claimed).

Al-Qaeda has conducted many terror attacks in the world, the bombings of the US Embassies in

Nairobi, Dar Es Salaam and Kenya, Tanzania that killed at least 301 persons and injured more than 5,000

others, the three bombings targeted against the US troop presence in Aden, Yemen in December 1992 67

and the attacks of September, 11, 2001 on the World Trade Center (Twin Towers) in New York City and

the Pentagon68 are some of the terror attacks that were conducted by Al-Qaeda to spread terror all

around the world.

George W. Bush, the President of the United States of America said about the aims of al Qaeda

in Iraq:

"As to al Qaeda in Iraq, al Qaeda is going to fight us wherever we are. That's their strategy. Their

strategy is to drive us out of the Middle East. They have made it abundantly clear what they

want. They want to establish a caliphate. They want to spread their ideology. They want safe

haven from which to launch attacks. They're willing to kill the innocent to achieve their

objectives, and they will fight us. And the fundamental question is, will we fight them? I have

made the decision to do so. I believe that the best way to protect us in this war on terror is to

fight them,"69

67 Lloyd Pettiford, David Harding, Terrorism: The New World War, (Arcturus Publishing Limited, 2003), 133-136.68 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11%2C_2001_attacks. [13.05.2008].

69 Paul Watson & Steve Watson, “U.S. Government Uses Al-Qaeda to Attack Iran”, (2007).

2.3 Is Suicide Terrorism Religiously Motivated?

redible researchers agree that religion neither causes nor explains suicide terrorism. There are

several reasons for agreeing with these researches. Not all suicide terrorists are religious. In fact,

the secular Sri Lankan Tamil Tigers (LTTE) have committed more suicide attacks since the 1980s than any

other group.70

CWhen we look closely at the context in which suicide attacks take place, there are always

particular grievances or perceived grievances in play that also explain the decision to use the tactic, an

excellent example is Hamas, an Islamist Palestinian group, it has a clearly Islamic identity. But their goal

as they claim is to establish an Islamist state in the West Bank and Gaza, their goal cannot be divorced

from the political conflict between Israel and Palestine from which it springs. As a result, Hamas’s goal

for committing suicide attacks is not a pure Islamic goal as it is interfered with policy.

When we are thinking about the possible relationship of religion to suicide terrorism, it is useful

to distinguish between the group and individual suicide bombers.

As Robert Pape, who has comprehensively studied patterns in suicide terrorism, points out,

“individual attackers may be motivated by religion, but groups have strategic military goals”. Also he

added that “nearly all suicide terrorist attacks have in common is a specific secular and strategic goal: to

compel modern democracies to withdraw military forces from territory that the terrorists consider to be

their homeland".71

70 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Tigers. [01.06.2008].71 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Pape#On_suicide_terrorism. [01.06.2008].

In October, 2005, Dr. Pape was interviewed at a roundtable discussion sponsored by the Pew

Forum on Religion and Public Life about his research conclusions on whether Islamic extremism

motivates terrorism. Pape discussed his findings with is interviewer:

“The conventional wisdom is that suicide terrorism is motivated by religious fanaticism - religious

hatred combined with the promise of a martyr's paradise in the hereafter. What does your own

research suggest? The conventional wisdom is mostly wrong. Suicide terrorism is not mainly the

product of Islamic fundamentalism or any other evil ideology independent of circumstance. I

have studied 462 suicide terrorists; over half are secular. The world leader in suicide terrorism is

the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka - they're a Marxist group, a secular group, a Hindu group. The Tamil

Tigers have committed more suicide terrorist attacks than Hamas or Islamic Jihad. Instead, what

more than 95 percent of all suicide terrorist attacks since 1980 have in common is not religion,

but a specific secular goal: to compel modern democracies to withdraw military forces from the

territory the terrorists view as their homeland. From Lebanon to Chechnya to Kashmir to Sri

Lanka to the West Bank, every suicide terrorist campaign since 1980 has had as its main

objective to compel a democratic state to withdraw combat forces from territory that the

terrorists prize”.72

72 http://terrorism.about.com/od/causes/f/SuicideBombFAQ.htm. [01.06.2008].

Anne Marie Oliver, an American academic who has spent years studying the suicide bombing

phenomenon in the West Bank and Gaza claims:

"The motives are diverse: religion, nationalism, grievance, fame, glory and money, and, last of all

and most important of all, they have to have an entire system that supports their actions

(sympathetic groups round the world)".73

As a result we can notice that bombing suicide has no religion, in other words, the bombing

suicide is not completely related with religious goals, it is a combination of many factors, such as

poverty, ignorance and psychological illness.74

73 http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2005/jul/14/israel.july7. [01.06.2008].74 Scott Atran, “genesis of suicide terrorism”, Science Magazine, (2003).

2.4 How Many Arab Youth have been recruited by Al Qaeda lately and why?

id anyone ask before how many Arab and Muslim youth enlisted and still enlisting in al-Qaeda?

Why Arab and Muslim youth are enlisting in al-Qaeda? Why hundreds of Arab Youth are

being mainstreamed into the Qaeda and fundamental organizations? Why all of the guys who are

enlisted in al-Qaeda were youth?

DAs the Israeli destruction of Lebanon continues, and the horrific images of killed children and

other civilians are aired throughout the Arab World and as the Arab regimes prove again how

"impotent" they are in face of the Israeli crimes, we can easily expect a massive new wave of

recruitment for Al-Qaeda and other religious fundamentalist organizations.

Arab youth are us. Those youth guys are angry, humiliated, feel depressed, full of hatred for

Israel and the USA, but the difference is that everyone can take a different route. As I belief that Israel is

the root cause of all problems in the Middle East, and it is organically supported by the USA. Both Israel

and the USA compose a package of twins who represent evil and destruction in the Arab mind.

Some of the Arab Youth, especially Palestinians, have been watching their families, lineages,

cities of origin and countries destroyed by the Israeli aggression. They need a mechanism to do

something, and the most effective mechanism is fundamental organizations.

Only a few Arab youth will chose to fight Israel and the USA democratically, in peaceful ways

and among national and global networks for justice and peace. Others will go for the direct impact

with retaliating in violence.

Routes for violence are abundant. Organizations like Al Qaeda are ready to exploit this anger,

not only against the USA and Israel but also against the Arab countries, communities and regime

themselves. This is a twisted response but it is a natural result of the Israeli and American action.

Chapter Three

The American Perspective

And

Terrorism in the Middle East

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan "Case Study"

Chapter ІІІ: The American Perspective and Terrorism in the Middle East

3.1 The American perspective and the Middle East 75

ccording to the American perspective the most important area in the world for planting their

interests is placed in the Middle East which is considered as a Muslim’s region,76 the United

States of America is trying to maintain superiority, control and influence the Middle East region to

control access to important resources such as oil.77 The American leadership believes that the global

terror is rooted in the Muslim and the Arab countries. In the other hand, democracy should be

introduced to this region because the religious regimes, such as Iran and Saudi Arabia, or the

authoritarian regimes, such as Syria, that feed, support and facilitate terror.

A

75 Mohammad Dalloal, “The Order in International Relations, after the Cold War” (Unpublished Master’s Thesis, NEU School of Social Sciences, Department of IR, 2006-2007), 60 -64.

76 Philip. E. Auerswald, “The American Interest Online”. http://www.the-american- interest.com/ai2/article.cfm?Id=269&MId=1. [07.07.2008]. 77 Anup Shah, “Global Issues”. http://www.globalissues.org/Geopolitics/MiddleEast.asp. [08.07.2008].

Terror channels will be blocked to the extent that these countries are democratized and integrated

into the democratic world. The Greater Middle East (GME) project can not totally be regarded as a tool

to further the American interests which are related to Muslim resources, such as oil. Yet, the GME is one

central part in the American World order in the Middle East. Ultimately, the US leadership views the

Muslim world as a great target to make good business for the American companies.

The United States uses much of its moral power to spread its worldview desires and to achieve its

goals with the consideration of paying the least amount of cost. America’s moral hegemony is not the

goal of its massive military power, or its great economy. It is the outcome of the images of democracy,

good life and human rights according to the American style. But these basics are contradicted by

America’s efforts to spread its values by force if needed.78

America’s use of force to spread its values is leading to deterioration of its moral domination; this

reason stands behind the fast and furious growing of the world’s crisis which causes an increasing

instability in international relations.

However, and about this project we can say that the Arab world, with all of its political, cultural,

official and popular components, has never agreed on any of such decisions as much it has on rejecting

the Greater Middle East project proposed by the United States administration as a tool for democratic

reform and modern society in Arabic and Islamic countries.

There are three elements of motivation for rejecting the American project led by three political and

cultural entities in the Arab and Islamic world:79

78 Few parts of the world have been untouched by the American forces to achieve the American’s interests withdraw what the American leadership will do. 79 Report about the Greater Middle East Initiative. March 2004. www.Globalsecurity.org. [08.05.2008].

The first stance stems from a cultural-ideological rejection of the concept of democracy and

political pluralism and respect for the opinions of others. It is based on the illusion of knowing

the truth and having supremacy of opinions, and it is represented by Islamic parties, nationalists

and some other leftist groups that

are opposed to all proposals put forth by the United States.

The second stance is that of the official Arab regime is afraid for its political gains and privileges

from foreign pressures and wants to defend oppression and the absence of freedoms and

pluralism by pretending to defend so-called “Arab distinctiveness” from foreign change basically

from the US as the biggest state.

The third stance is that of the neo-liberal democratic groups in the Arab world, who believe that

democracy, pluralism, public freedoms, justice and development are the only way to bring

reform to the Arab world, but who are confident that the United States could never be a

credible leader on this path. Rejecting the reform from this perspective is the right thing to do.

Also many people are of the opinion that project will further more protection to the American

and Israeli interests in the Middle East.

In addition, political and cultural reform, which we understood as inclusive part of political

pluralism, launching public freedoms, combating corruption, educating society and strengthening the

self-making abilities of the Arab world, is demanded by the Arab world. It also includes the rebuilding of

their societies as modern societies according the American model as the Arab and Islamic countries

claim that they are rejecting the American Project in the Middle East but they are trying to imitate the

American policy.

Many American diplomatic sources in Washington say that the aims behind the Greater Middle East

Initiative are:

Deviate attention away from the Arab-Israeli conflict towards reform and democracy in Arab-

Islamic countries. The problem is that many political analysts are rethinking the conflict.

Consequently, they might stop to continue the American project in the Middle East and also the

American friends in Arabic World might stop advising American leadership to find solutions to

this conflict. This might challenge the stability in this world and stability-that is the Order the

Americans are aiming at- in this part of the World.

Establish a new mechanism for partnership between the U.S. and Arab countries. The decision

not to consult with Arab countries over the Greater Middle East Initiative might have been

deliberate in order to place the Arab countries in a defensive position and, consequently, get

approval on all projects that are in the Americans interests. This is anyway typical for Bush’s

administration, which has many times applied a unilateral approach in the actions of the

American foreign policy.

Keep the Middle East area under the American order and exploit the natural sources, especially

the oil, and the territory and benefit the population of the region a big market for the American

production.

In addition, the concept of the Middle East has always been subject to change from the roots. In

general, it includes all the Arab countries and Iran, Turkey and Israel. Geographical, religious, and ethnic

factors help to make the Middle East the world’s most unstable area. Situated at the crossroads of three

continents, with abundant amounts of oil, the region has experienced many internal conflicts and

foreign interventions. At the same time, the US greater Middle East initiative, based upon Arab human

development reports, sponsored by the American President George W. Bush and adopted by G8 summit

in June 2004, is centered on three main axes: promoting democracy and good governance according to

liberalism theory, building an information society and make the people there educated, and expanding

the economic opportunities. At the same time, this may be what the American neo-cons want. In this

line the attack against Iran might be the next logical step if the American order in the Middle East is not

reached through the other means.

Consequently, Iran was originally designated as part of the (axis of evil) ever since the war in Iraq

started Iran has been under a steady attack. Supposedly, Iran was letting the Iraqi opposition fighters to

cross the borders to prevent the American success. The western American claim is also that Iran is

developing nuclear weapons.

They are a threat to American interests and the stability in the region. When William Kristol, one of

the leading neo-conservatives commuted on Bush’s speech held 1 May 2003 aboard the USS Abraham

Lincoln, he claimed:

“Any outlaw regime will be confronted. That is Iran, above all” .80 On the outcome of the confrontation

with Tehran, more than any other, rests the future of the Bush Doctrine and, quite possibly, the Bush

presidency and prospects for a safer world.

80 Lindley D. Young, “the use of American power to set a course for the 21st Century”, 2004. http://www.themoderntribune.com. [08.05.2008].

3.2 The International Security and Terrorism in the Middle East

n the other phase, the Terrorism could be the main thing that can result the instability in the

international arena, as long as the leaderships trying to stop the growing of any terrorist group

which might in the future create unrest.

ILet us try to describe how the terrorism became an international issue through our

understanding of the IR. We could say that any terrorist movements must be related with some

problems or a difficult situation in its society; that is to say, that the groups which finally decide to make

an action against the security must first have some kind of justification, independently of our acceptance

or non-acceptance of the justification.

The idea is that the violence should not be the way to get the rights back, especially if the

civilians are the main target. In addition, these terrorist movements and after accomplishing their

terrorist actions they decide to go in a different way out side of their original societies, such terrorist

actions form a vital danger for the international community as these actions threat the peace and the

security in the international community, an excellent example is the 11 September attack, it was the

strongest action in the American History by some groups against the biggest power of the world, and the

consequence was a huge war against the international terrorism.

The American choice was to use the military power to solve the crisis. As such this was a big

problem, because it creates more instability. The fight against terrorist should be a police operation not

a military operation.

The War on Terrorism (also known as the War on Terror) is a campaign initiated by the United

States government under President George W. Bush and followed by many countries in the world which

includes various military, political, legal and personal actions taken to "curb the spread of terrorism,"

following the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States. The War on Terrorism was authorized by

the United States Congress under the Authorization for Use of Military Force against Terrorists passed

on September 18, 2001.

In addition, both the phrase “War on Terrorism” and the policies it denotes have been a source

of ongoing controversy, as critics argue it has been used to justify unilateral preemptive war, perpetual

war, human rights abuses, and other violations of international law. Opponents have also heavily

criticized the Iraqi War, and the USA PATRIOT Act. Criticism of the War on Terrorism addresses the

issues of moral, ethics, efficiency, economics, and other questions surrounding the War on Terrorism.

Arguments are also made against the phrase itself, calling it a misnomer.

Just as there are many possible outcomes of conflict, many wars, and varied propensities for

violence among different states, so too is there great diversity in how force is used if conflict leads to

violence. States develop a wide array of military forces which vary tremendously in their purposes and

capabilities having in common only that they are instruments used to apply violence in some form. It is

these military force that we now turn.81

We will be focusing on a core problem of security policy (International Terrorism, PKK as a case

study), a problem that can be tackled effectively only if the Turkish leadership and its military arm will

work together with a common purpose.

Modern terrorism is a global threat as much as the PKK is a local threat of Turkey! To combat it

national and also regional efforts remain necessary, but they are clearly not sufficient. Only if the

transatlantic partners join forces and act together can our security and hence also peace and prosperity

be guaranteed.

The PKK is a core case to be studied in order to elaborate further the basic idea of the order in

International Relations and how this issue still has important reflections in our world. The basic idea

here is to show the connection between Global, Regional and local orders: the USA furthering its own

view of Global order and Terrorism opposing the American attempts to maintain the Global Order also in

the Middle East. At the same time PKK of course is trying to build up a regional framework, where PKK

itself would be the core.

The PKK is one of the most important terrorist movements which became very influential, which

also could cause unrest in a very important state in the Middle East. There is also a very controversial

question of the right way to deal with this group. 81 Joshua S. Goldstein, International Relations, 8th Ed. (2007), 206.

Consequently, some thinkers have considered the PKK in Turkey in the framework of minority

conflict and the others have looked at them as a terrorist organization. Some would give them the right

to act inside the Turkish Community and allow them to achieve their target, an autonomous position to

the Kurdish minority of Turkey. Nevertheless, the Turkish government and the Turkish majority consider

them as a terrorist group and they have no right to divide Turkey and cause instability inside the Turkish

community.

However, the Kurdistan Workers Party (Kurdish: Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan or PKK, Turkish:

Kürdistan İşçi Partisi, also called KADEK, Kongra-Gel, and KCK) is a militant group 82 founded in the 1970s

and led by Abdullah Öcalan83 until his capture in 1999. The PKK's ideology was founded on revolutionary

Marxism-Leninism and Kurdish nationalism. The PKK's goal has been to create an independent socialist

Kurdish state (lately only autonomous) in a territory which it claims as Kurdistan, an area that comprises

parts of south-eastern Turkey, north-eastern Iraq, north-eastern Syria and north-western Iran; those

states oppose any such change. It is an ethnic secessionist organization that uses force and the threat of

force against both civilian and military targets for the purpose of achieving its political goal.

Furthermore, the PKK is listed as a terrorist organization internationally by a number of states

and organizations, including the USA, NATO and the EU. More than 37,000 people have been killed in

the Turkey-PKK conflict since 1984.84

82Turkey's ethnic-Kurdish citizens have never been subject to any sort of apartheid, segregation or statute-based discrimination. They have taken and continue to take part in every segment of political, economic and social life, including the Parliament, military, and private sector. Indeed, three of Turkey's eight Presidents have been of Kurdish origin. Unhappy Kurds would include those who have not been able to free themselves from oppressive feudalism, which has a stranglehold on the southeast. Indeed, many have become the tools of Kurdish overlords, crime syndicates and the PKK terrorist organization, which make their living from drug smuggling, cigarette smuggling, and human trafficking.

83Abdullah Ocalan the chief of PKK was arrested as he was exiting the Greek Embassy in Kenya.84 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PKK. [17.05.2008].

In addition, the PKK could cause a strong headache in the mind of the Turkish leadership during

their actions in over the years and that’s exactly the reason which makes the government of Turkey to

try to finish the Turkey-PKK crisis in a military way.

There are certain reflections of the PKK being a self-styled revolutionary left-wing organization.

The PKK has claimed that there was a "mass violence by Turkish state on the Kurdish identity" to justify

its activities. The main goal of its activities was to alienate the people from the state by pushing security

forces into more and more overt and repressive counter-measures. The Political-Justice section extends

the results of this ideology and methods of the democratic processes and the justice system in Turkey.

In a democratic system, an ideology that questions the state's legitimacy of its population and its

security apparatus was difficult to be accepted as a political view. Turkish government authorities did

not negotiate with the organization. Consequently, there were no communication channels between the

sides. The ill-formed language ban of 1983 and Terrorism Act of 1991 were significant events. Also,

amnesties were interesting events during the conflict time, as each amnesty gave more human

resources to the organization. The prison as a rehabilitation concept was a failure.

The people who were jailed for non-violent activities were becoming militants during their jail

time. Government's military operations against the prisons were the highest point in this failure.

As a revolutionary left-wing organization, the PKK perceived Turkish society as one that was

deformed by capitalism and imperialism. The PKK unleashed its aggression on enemies spanning all

classes (farmers, business, etc.) and those that it considered puppets of the state. The costs of the PKK’s

actions are significant. The PKK had drastic effects on regional economy, as it targeted infrastructure of

the region. Regions' inability to join the economical activities were associated with the workforce, costs

(insurance premiums, facility costs, loss of trained personnel etc.), and productivity (loss of work time,

travel restrictions, inability to move rapidly etc). The region has got a very high historical tourism

potential and it has been dormant because of the terrorism threat for many years.

The integration into social and economical activities is developed within the education system.

Educational activities were targeted by the PKK. Because the majority of the people are very resilient to

the effects of political violence, young people form a high risk group because of their undeveloped

personalities. The effects of political violence on the newer generations is an important issue because, at

the moment, the new generation in areas affected by the conflict have no experience living under what

would be considered normal conditions.

According to a July 1998 article by Le Monde diplomatique, the conflict has weighted heavily on

the Turkish state's budget. In 1993, a sum of $70m was allocated from the prime minister’s secret funds.

According to Mr Savas, this sum was used mainly for buying weapons and anti-terrorist equipment from

Israel and for external operations. Irregular units in the conflictual zones have had to find ways to

finance themselves, including racketeering and secret funding. Sedat Bucak has been alleged by the

French newspaper to have under his orders 20,000 men, while the village guards pro-government

Kurdish militias created in the mid-1980s would number to a total of 64,000.85

However, the PKK organization got a strong power which could react well against the Turkish

community and the government of Turkey. It could stand up in front of Turkish force which is a strong

power and make many victims among the Turkish civilians as well as the soldiers and that’s why the

Turkish leadership started to care well about this organization which maybe in the future will not be

able to stop them.

85http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdistan_Workers_Party. [17.05.2008].

3.3 The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Case Study)

his section will be for discussing the difficult times that the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan passed

by, in addition, I will mention the political and geographical importance of Jordan which push

terrorists to think seriously about accomplishing and achieving their terrorist’s goals within this country.

Furthermore, I will mention briefly the terrorist attacks that took place in the Hashemite Kingdom of

Jordan and clarify the main terrorist reasons for every terrorist attack.

T

This thesis main question will be about whether the Jordanian Foreign Policy is supporting

Terrorism or anti-terrorism with giving some useful evidences in order to prove the point of view.

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is considered one of the most peaceful countries of the

world; Jordan firmly stands in the top half regionally and globally when comparing the worldwide

peacefulness of nations, according to the Global Peace Index (GPI).86The Kingdom ranked 8th in the

region and the 65th most peaceful country in the world.87

As the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan has a historical, geographical, touristic and religious

importance, many terrorist organizations tried many times to accomplish their terrorist attacks in Jordan

as it is full of tourists twelve months a year. Many terrorists tried and still trying to accomplish their

terrorist attacks against tourists while they are visiting tourist places or holy ones to destroy the

86 http://www.jordanembassyus.org/new/newsarchive/2008/05212008001.htm. [02.06.2008].87 Ibid.

Jordanian economy as tourism is a very important sector of the Jordanian economy, contributing

between 10 percent and 12 percent to the country's Gross National Product in 2006.88

3.3.1 A Brief History about the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

Jordan, or officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a country in the Arab World in

Southwest Asia, bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the north-east, Israel and the West Bank

to the west and Saudi Arabia to the east and south. Jordan shares the coastlines of the Dead Sea,

and the Gulf of Aqaba with Israel, Saudi Arabia and Egypt.89

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is considered as a pivotal state because it has an essential

geographical place as it is placed in the middle of the Middle East and connects the all Arab

countries together.

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a constitutional monarchy90 with representative

government. The reigning monarch –the King- is the head of state, the chief executive and the

commander-in-chief of the armed forces.91 The king exercises his executive authority through the

prime ministers and the Council of Ministers or cabinet. The cabinet, meanwhile, is responsible

before the elected House of Deputies which, along with the House of Notables (Senate),

constitutes the legislative branch of the government. The judicial branch is an independent

88 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan. [02.06.2008].89 Ibid.90 Monarchy is one of the oldest types of government and has been in continuous existence for most of recorded history. In most monarchies, the monarch holds their position for life and passes the responsibilities and power of the position to their children or family when they die.91 Commanders-in-Chief is sometimes referred to as Supreme Commander, which is sometimes used as a specific term. The term is also used for military officers who hold such power and authority, not always through dictatorship, and as a subordinate (usually) to a head of state. The term is also used for officers that hold authority over individual branches or within a theatre of operations.

branch of the government. King Abdullah II is the ruler of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. He

became king of Jordan on February 7, 1999 after the death of his father King Hussein.92

3.3.2 Kings of Jordan and Political Events

King Abdullah I ruled Jordan after the Jordanian independence from Britain.93 After the

assassination of King Abdullah I On July 20, 1951 in Jerusalem,94 his son King Talal ruled briefly.

King Talal's major accomplishment was the Jordanian constitution.95 King Talal was removed

from the throne in 1952 due to his bad health. At that time his son, Hussein, was too young to rule, and

hence a committee ruled over Jordan.

After Hussein reached 18, he ruled Jordan as king from 1953 to 1999, surviving a number of

challenges to his rule, drawing on the loyalty of his military, and serving as a symbol of unity and stability

for both the Bedouin-related and Palestinian communities in Jordan. King Hussein ended martial law in

1991 and legalized political parties in 1992. In 1989 and 1993, Jordan held free and fair parliamentary

elections. Controversial changes in the election law led Islamist parties to boycott the 1997 elections.96

92 The late King Hussein bin Talal was born in 1935, he was the King of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Hussein guided his country in the context of the Cold War, and through four decades of Arab-Israeli conflict, The late King Hussein reigned Jordan from (August 11, 1952 – February 7, 1999). 93 http://www.answers.com/topic/abdullah-i-of-jordan. [02.06.2008].94 http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/kingabdullah.html. [02.06.2008].95The Constitution that was promulgated in 1952 and amended in 1974, 1976, and 1984 remained in force in 1989. It declares Jordan a hereditary monarchy with a parliamentary form of government and defines the people as "the source of all powers." The people are officially stated as being part of "the Arab nation." Islam is the official religion of the state and Arabic the official language. In nearly forty years of experience with the Constitution, adherence to the fundamental law of the land has varied in spirit as well as in practice from time to time, depending upon domestic and external circumstances.

96 http://www.answers.com/hussein%20of%20Jordan. [02.06.2008].

King Abdullah II succeeded his father Hussein following the latter's death in February 1999.

Abdullah moved quickly to reaffirm Jordan's peace treaty with Israel and its relations with the United

States. Abdullah, during the first year in power, refocused the government's agenda on economic

reform.

Jordan's continuing structural economic difficulties, burgeoning population, and more open

political environment led to the emergence of a variety of political parties. Moving toward greater

independence, Jordan's parliament has investigated corruption charges against several regime figures

and has become the major forum in which differing political views, including those of political Islamists,

are expressed. While King Abdullah remains the ultimate authority in Jordan, the parliament plays an

important role.

3.3.3 The Jordanian Foreign Policy and the Global War on Terrorism

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan faced and is still facing a number of threats and targeting that

influence its internal security, stability and sabotaged its economy, due to its moderate political stands,

the nature of its political system and its forgiving approach.

Jordan suffered since its early days from terrorism; the goal of terrorists for accomplishing their

terrorist attacks on the Jordanian soil is to pressure the Jordanian government to change its political

stands which are characterized by moderately and rationality in unstable area torn by extremism.

Nothing can clarify this more than Jordan's loss of its establisher His Majesty King Abdullah I by

terrorism, should had his vision been implemented, the area then would have saved itself from the

agony of wars and thousands of life losses and displaced persons, and also saved itself from huge

economic losses that could have been used for the benefit of reviving the area and directing efforts to

develop it.

Jordan also lost two of its Prime Ministers (Haza'a Al-Majali and Wasfi Al-Tal) 97 as victims of

terrorism, which also targeted Jordanian citizens, internal institutions, embassies, diplomats and

interests abroad.

Jordan was one of the first countries to warn of the danger of terrorism on global security and

stability and called for fighting it as well as participating in formulating relative agreements, on the Arab

and international levels. Jordan stressed and is still stressing on condemning and fighting terrorism in all

its forms, and worked on countering it by all means. It will continue to be committed to fighting it and

not allowing nor ignoring the use of its territory as a base to any terrorist activities no matter their target

or source. In light of all of this, Jordan called for the necessity to take a firm stand against terrorism and

to join efforts to fight it and refuses using it as a mean to achieve political objectives .98

On 28 April 2008, Nawaf Tal who is a member of the Jordanian delegation and in the two-day

meeting which held in Damascus said:

“The Kingdom remains committed to its zero-tolerance policy with regard to any terrorist activity

that would harm Jordanian national security.”99

Jordan's position has been steadfast in denouncing all forms of terrorism. Jordan as Islamic and

Arab country has strongly condemned the eleventh of September terrorist attacks in New York and

97 Wasfi Al-Tal was prime minister of Jordan for several terms. He was assassinated by the Black September unit of the Palestine Liberation Organization on 28 November 1971.98 http://www.gid.gov.jo/en/terrorism.html. [03.06.2008].99 http://www.jordanembassyus.org/new/newsarchive/2008/04152008002.htm. [03.06.2008].

Washington. Jordan as a country, its citizens, officials and interests has been a target of terrorism, all of

this and that is due to its principled position and effort in rejecting and fighting all forms of terrorism.

A cell of Al Qaeda terrorist organization who was trying to carry out terrorist attacks in Jordan

has been captured by the Jordanian General Intelligence Department (G.I.D) and they were sentenced

under the Jordanian law.

The Jordanian Foreign Policy shows that Jordan will continue to fight terrorism and its

perpetrators with all possible means to spread security all over its country’s land as it consider the

Jordanian security and stability are the country's top priority and no terrorist individual or organization

will be tolerated for accomplishing or even trying to achieve any terrorist attack on the Jordanian soil.

Jordan strongly stresses the need to confront all ill motivated attempts aiming at connecting

Islam with terrorism, and at holding Arabs and Muslims responsible for terror attacks or for any other

form of international terrorism In this regard, this stress springs from the strong belief that Jordan

maintains that terrorism is a global phenomenon and that its causes and motivations are religiously and

culturally neutral.

Jordan views Terrorism as defying the teachings of Islam and the culture of modern society.

Islam is not only a religion but also a way of life, where the principles of tolerance and dialogue prevail.

The bond between religion and peace should be strengthened as a key for eradicating fundamentalism

as Islam orders us as Muslims.

His Majesty the Late King Hussein once said:

"Terrorism is not the ultimate sacrifice. The killing of innocent people is not Jihad. Jihad in the

service of faith requires respect for human life, and respect for treaties and charters. Islam

strictly forbids the killing of civilians".100

Jordan takes the view that resorting to military means will not be enough to uproot

international terrorism. Economic and social factors and other root causes for this abhorrent

phenomenon need to be taken into consideration and to be sufficiently addressed in order to fully

eradicate the terrorism.

Jordan has taken concrete steps in fighting terrorism at the national legislative level, practical

security measures, and international conventions and treaties on combating terrorism.

3.3.4 The Jordanian Policy and Counter-Terrorism

As a counter-terrorism step, The National Legislature amended penal law emphasized and

increased the punishment on any act deemed to be an act of terrorism. It penalized individuals that seek

to establish groups and gangs with the aim of conducting criminal and terrorist acts. It also emphasized,

that those who assist these groups financially or with weaponry will receive the same sentence and

punishment by law.

On the Practical Security Measures, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan takes all necessary

measures to prevent the entry of terrorists and those affiliated with terrorist organizations into the 100 http://www.mfa.gov.jo/pages.php?menu_id=679. [05.06.2008].

Jordanian territory. Instructions were delivered to all banks operating in the Kingdom to comply with

UNSC resolutions pertaining to combating terrorism; this step was specifically updated to freeze funds of

terrorist organizations and transactions. Instructions were also issued to check suspicious bank accounts

and freeze them according to the request of the government and in compliance with U.N Security

Council resolution no. 1373.101 Additional instructions were issued to combat money laundering. New

passports and national identity cards were issued in line with international standards in order to prevent

fraud.102

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is party to seven international treaties relevant to combating

terrorism; these treaties are as the following:

- The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally Protected

Persons, Including Diplomatic Agents.

- The International Convention against the Taking of Hostages.

- The Convention on Offences and Certain other Acts Committed Onboard Aircraft.

- The Convention for the suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft.

- The Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation.

- The Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports serving International Civil

Aviation.

- The Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection.

3.3.5 Terrorist Attacks in Jordan

101 You can find the (U.N Security Council resolution no. 1373) in the appendixes.102 http://www.jordanembassy.ro/foreignpolicy/jordan_war_on_terrorism.htm. [05.06.2008].

Jordan's reputation as one of the region's safest countries was dealt a blow in late 2005 when

dozens of people were killed in suicide bomb attacks on hotels in the capital. Iraq-based Islamic militants

claimed responsibility. King Abdullah I said Jordan had been targeted because of its location and its

stances.

In the wake of the November 2005 and on the shadows of Amman’s triple suicide bombing King

Abdullah I declared that security and stability were top priorities and called for a strategy to deal with

the changed circumstances.

Three explosions hit three hotels in the Jordan’s capital Amman on 9 November 2005, these

explosions hit a triangle of hotels in Amman; the Hyatt, Radisson SAS and the Days Inn. 103The blast killed

at least 67 people and wounding more than 150 others.

The three hotels are often frequented by foreign diplomats. The bomb at the Radisson SAS

exploded in the Philadelphia Ballroom, where a wedding hosting hundreds of guests was taking place.104

The blasts occurred first at the Radisson SAS, then at the Grand Hyatt and then at the Days Inn

between 9 p.m. and 10 p.m. in Jordan’s local time. The three hotels are within a few hundred yards of

one another.105 These blasts were accomplished by three Iraqi suicide bombers106.

Another disaster was averted on 26 April 2004 when the Jordanian authorities announced that

they had broken up an alleged al-Qaeda plot, this terrorist cell planned to use chemicals and poison gas

103 http://www.brightandearlyblog.com/2005/11/attack-in-jordan/. [06.06.2008].104 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Amman_bombings. [06.06.2008].105 http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/11/09/jordan.blasts/index.html. [06.06.2008].106 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Amman_bombings. [06.06.2008].

weapons in Amman. The targets of this averted plan were the U.S. Embassy, the Jordanian prime

minister's office and the headquarters of Jordanian intelligence.107

According to chemical experts, they said that such a chemical bomb would have killed as many

as 20,000 people and caused large-scale destruction within a half-mile radius.108As a reason and because

of this averted terrorist attack, several terror suspects arrested in Jordan, they have confessed the plots

were hatched by the well-known Jordanian militant Abu-Musab al-Zarqawi. The family of Abu Musab al-

Zarqawi is al-Khalayleh tribe, they took out advertisements in Jordan's three main newspapers, to

denounce him and his actions. 57 members of the al-Khalayleh family, including al-Zarqawi's brother

and cousin. Al-Zarqawi’s family also reiterated their strong allegiance to King Abdullah I . The

advertisement said "As we pledge to maintain homage to King Abdullah and to our precious Jordan ... we

denounce in the clearest terms all the terrorist actions claimed by the so-called Ahmed Fadheel Nazzal al-

Khalayleh, who calls himself Abu-Musab al-Zarqawi" ... "We announce, and all the people are our

witnesses, that we - the sons of the al-Khalayleh tribe - are innocent of him and all that emanates from

him, whether action, assertion or decision."... "We sever links with him until doomsday".109

Conclusion

107 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Musab_al-Zarqawi. [06.06.2008].108 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4771882/#storyContinued. [06.06.2008].109 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Amman_bombings. [06.06.2008].

ll politics is a struggle for power and the ultimate kind of power is violence, therefore, terrorism

is where politics and violence intersect in the hope of delivering power.AThe fact that it has taken four chapters to cover the highlights of terrorism as it exists today,

helps illustrate why so few people seem to understand the threat or its resolution.

The terrorist attacks of September 11th and more recent atrocities in Russia, Indonesia and

Kenya have demonstrated that terrorism now poses the most dangerous threat to stability, democracy

and prosperity around the world.

According to what is happening nowadays I can say that terrorism is not just a kind of violence

expressed on the spur of the moment, but an organized instrument to achieve political objectives. It has

its own identity and comprising various issues. Therefore, on the basis of all the definitions given in

between this thesis’s lines or given by scholars all over the world and the real issues involved in

terrorism, terrorism could be defined as an act or threat of an act of tactical violence by a group of

trained individuals, having international linkage, to achieve political objective. This group could be

sponsored by non -state or state agencies.

Terrorism is an anxiety inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by clandestine

individual groups or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby -in contrast to

assassination-the direct targets of violence are not the main targets. The immediate human targets of

violence are generally chosen randomly or selectively from a target population, and serve as message

generators. Threat and violence based communication processes between terrorists' victims, and main

targets are used to manipulate the main target, turning it into a targeting of terror, a target of demands

or a target of attention depending on whether intimidation, coercion or propaganda is primarily sought

as terrorists consider the media as the oxygen that sustains terrorism. Media or televised news coverage

play a significant role to spread terrorism by expanding and increasing the number of audience who

could watch or witness the theatre of terrorism live through television.

Terrorism usually placed in democratic countries as these countries usually have provided more

fertile ground for terrorism as the nature of these democratic societies is open. In democratic countries

citizens have equal and fundamental rights, civil liberties are legally protected and government control

and constant surveillance of its citizens and their activities is absent. This does not mean that repressive

countries or societies do not have terrorism within its own layers, as a result and despite the limiting

civil liberties and forbidding free speech and rights of assembly within these societies, terrorism can be

founded there, the best example for such case is People's Republic of China.

Terrorism has many tactics to be accomplished; these tactics are bombing, kidnapping, hostage-

taking, armed attacks, assassinations, hijacking and skyjacking.

An essential question was created since terrorism has been raised up, this question is whether

suicide terrorism or suicide bombing are religiously motivated or not? Many researches and after hard

years of researches to answer this complex questions reached the point which says that suicide

terrorism or bombing suicide has no religion, the bombing suicide is not completely related with

religious goals, it is a combination of many factors and goals.

Terrorism in the Muslim and Arab world exists; it changed from an internal and local

phenomenon to be the most prominent component of world terrorism. As a result Muslim blood

nowadays is spilled in Palestine and Iraq without even paying attention to what is going on there.

Muslims’ rights as humans are hammered down and exposed by the massacres that took place in every

part of the world as a payback of what some terrorist organizations which claim that they are Muslims

and they are fighting the enemy of Islam and the enemy of God, although this and that nearly every

Muslim knows that these terrorist organizations are not Muslims and they have no connection with

Islam but they are using Islam as a curtain to cover their own real aims.

Most of people who are enlisting under the wings of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda

are Arabs, according to the American foreign policy and to the last American foreign terrorist

organizations FTOs that nearly all Palestinian are terrorists, why is that? Because those youth guys are

angry, humilated, feel depressed, full of hatred for Israel and the USA as these guys reached the climax

of watching their families being killed in front of their eyes on the hands of the Israeli’s soldiers, the

destruction of their houses has the same impact in their memories. As a result these guys hate Israel and

USA as the United States of America is the supporter for the Israeli monster to grow up more. As I belief

that Israel is the root cause of all problems in the Middle East, and it is organically supported by the USA.

Both Israel and the USA compose a package of twins who represent evil and destruction in the Arab

mind.

According to the American perspective the most important area in the world for planting their

interests is placed in the Middle East which is considered as a Muslim’s region. The American leadership

believes that the global terror is rooted in the Muslim and the Arab countries. In the other hand,

democracy should be introduced to this region because the religious regimes, such as Iran and Saudi

Arabia, or the authoritarian regimes, such as Syria, that feed, support and facilitate terror.

The introduction of democracy in the Middle East by the United States of America means more

complexions and more wars within the Middle East region as the United States of America is claiming

that it is coming to spread democracy in the region. According to me the American policy is not that

much far from al-Qaeda’s policy as both of them are claiming something to accomplish and achieve its

own interests, the first one is claiming that it is coming to spread democracy in the Middle East but it is

coming for occupation, taking these countries oil and everything that will help the USA to grow up more.

On the other hand the other one (al-Qaeda) is claiming that they are fighting the enemy of God but

actually they are looking for their own interests.

The War on Terrorism (also known as the War on Terror) is a campaign initiated by the United

States government under President George W. Bush and followed by many countries in the world which

includes various military, political, legal and personal actions taken to "curb the spread of terrorism,"

following the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States. The War on Terrorism was authorized by

the United States Congress under the Authorization for Use of Military Force against Terrorists passed

on September 18, 2001.

Under the name of “The Global War on Terror” the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan strongly

stresses the need to confront all ill motivated attempts aiming at connecting Islam with terrorism, and at

holding Arabs and Muslims responsible for terror attacks or for any other form of international terrorism

In this regard, this stress springs from the strong belief that Jordan maintains that terrorism is a global

phenomenon and that its causes and motivations are religiously and culturally neutral.

As a conclusion I can say that terrorism is a complex problem with many diverse causes.

Consequently no single effective method to counter it exists. To combat terrorism, one must first

understand the underlying motivations for each particular group's actions. Then a strategy needs to be

developed based on those findings. Regardless, it is difficult to fight terrorism without endangering civil

liberties. Ending terrorist threats requires imaginative and fluid thinking, whether to attack the roots of

terrorism or neutralize a particular group.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Lloyd Pettiford, David Harding, Terrorism: The New World War, (Arcturus

Publishing Limited, 2003).

John Baylis, Steve Smith, the Globalization of World's Politics, an Introduction to

International Relations, 3rd Ed. (Oxford University press, 2005).

Walter Laqueur, No End to War, Terrorism in the Twenty-first Century, (The Continuum

International Publishing Group Inc. 2003).

Walter Laqueur, Terrorism, (The Chaucer Press, 1980).

Ann G. Gaines, Terrorism, (Chelsea house publishers, 2001).

T.V.Paul, John A. Hall, International Order and the Future of World Politics, (Cambridge

University press, 1999).

Kenneth Waltz. Structural Realism after the Cold War: International security, (2000).

David W. Lesch, The Middle East and the United States, 3rd Ed. (West view press,

2004).

Joshua S. Goldstein, International Relations, 8th Ed. (2007).

Longman dictionary, Contemporary English.

Longman world wise dictionary.

ARTICLES AND OTHER SOURCES

Mark Burgess, “a brief history of terrorism”, Center for Defense Information, (2003).

Columnist Sultan Ahmed, “the roots of terrorism”, defense journal, (2006).

VOLL O. JOHN, “Understanding Terrorism”, a Harvard Magazine Roundtable, (2002).

Rachel Neuwirth , “how the media enable terrorism”, American thinker, (2006).

Jeff Victoroff, “the Mind of the Terrorist”, Journal of Conflict Resolution, (2005).

Paul Watson & Steve Watson, “U.S. Government Uses Al-Qaeda to Attack Iran”, (2007).

Report about the Greater Middle East Initiative. March 2004. www.Globalsecurity.org.

Lindley D. Young, “the use of American power to set a course for the 21st Century”, 2004. http://www.themoderntribune.com.

Scott Atran, “genesis of suicide terrorism”, Science Magazine, (2003).

Philip. E. Auerswald, “The American Interest Online”. http://www.the-american- interest.com/ai2/article.cfm?Id=269&MId=1.

Anup Shah, “Global Issues”. http://www.globalissues.org/Geopolitics/MiddleEast.asp.

MASTER’S THESIS AND PHD DISSERTATION

Mohammad Dalloal, “The Order in International Relations, after the Cold War” (Unpublished Master’s Thesis, NEU School of Social Sciences, Department of IR, 2006-2007)

Dr.Mohammad Moa’nis Mohib Al-Deen. “Terrorism in the Criminal Law,” trs. Doctoral Dissertation. Al-Mansoura University, Faculty of Law, (1983).

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List_of_designated_terrorist_organizations#searchInput.

Appendix A

U.S.-Designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations. 110

Name and base of

operations Description

Goals

and

targets

Est.strength Year founded

Alleged activities

Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) a.k.a. Fatah; Iraq

Transnational organization, composed of functional committees

Targets U.S., UK, France, Israel, moderate Palestinians, the PLO, Arab countries

A few hundred

1974

Attacks in 20 countries, killing or injuring 900. Leader Abu Nidal died in 2002

Abu Sayyaf Group; Philippines, Malaysia

Separatist group composed of several semiautonomous factions

Aims to create Islamic

state in Philippines;

profit-driven terror 200–500 1991

Kidnappings, bombings, assassinations, and extortion

Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade; West Bank, Gaza Strip, Israel

Small cells of Fatah-affiliated activists

Aims to drive out Israelis and to establish a Palestinian state Unknown 2000

Shootings, suicide operations (first Palestinian female suicide bombing)

110 http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0908746.html. [17.04.2008]..

Ansar al-Islam (AI); Iraqi Kurds and Arabs

Iraqi Kurds and Arabs

Aims to create an Islamic state in Iraq; allied with al-Qaeda

500–1,000 2001

Ambushes

and

attacks

Armed Islamic Group (GIA); Algeria

Islamic extremists

Aims to replace Algerian regime with an Islamic state

Less than 100

1992

Massacred thousands of civilians, targeted foreigners

Asbat al-Ansar; Lebanon

Sunni extremist group associated with Osama bin Laden

Aims to create Islamic state, opposes peace with Israel

300 1990s

Assassinations, bombings of Western targets, failed coup

Aum Shinrikyo (Aum); Japan,

Russia

Cult established

by Shoko Asahara

Claims U.S. will start

WWIII with Japan,

beginning Armageddon

1,950 1987

Chemical attacks on Tokyo subways, no recent activity

Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA); Spain, France

Established to create an independent Basque homeland

Targets Spanish and French government interests, tourists

Unknown 1959

Since 1960, more than 850 killed, hundreds injured

Communist Party of the Philippines/New People's Army (CPP/NPA); Philippines

CPP's military wing that aims to overthrow the government through guerrilla warfare

Targets Philippine security forces, politicians, judges, government informers, NPA rebels

Less than 9,000

1969

Assassinations, murders, attacks on U.S. personnel and interests

Continuity Irish Republican Army (CIRA); Northern Ireland, Irish Republic

Splinter group, also called Continuity Army Council and Republican Sinn Fein

Targets British military, Northern Ireland security forces, Loyalist paramilitary groups

Less than 50 1990s

Bombings, assassinations, kidnappings, hijackings, extortion, robberies

Gama’a al-Islamiyya (Islamic Group); Egypt

Egypt’s largest militant group now split into two factions, one calling for cease-fire.

Aims to replace Egypt's government with an Islamic state

Unknown 1973

1993 World Trade Center bombings, attacks on tourists

HAMAS (Islamic Resistance Movement); West Bank, Gaza Strip, Israel

Outgrowth of the Palestinian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood

Aims to replace Israel with Palestinian Islamic state using political and violent means

Unknown 1987

Large-scale suicide bombings and attacks against Israelis

Harakat ul-Mujahidin (HUM); Pakistan

Islamic militant group aligned with the radical JUI-F faction

Targets Indian troops, Kashmiri civilians, and Western interests

Several hundred

1985

Linked to al-Qaeda, hijacked Indian airliner in 1999

Hezbollah (Party of God); Lebanon, worldwide cells

A radical Shi'ite group with aims for the creation of Iranian-style Islamic republic

Dedicated to eliminating Israel, is anti-U.S. and anti-Israel

A few hundred

1982

Suicide bombings, hijacked 1985 TWA Flight 847; rocket attacks against Israel in 2006

Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU); South Asia, Tajikistan, Iran

Islamic militants opposed to Uzbekistani President Islom Karimov's secular regime

Aims to remove Karimov, establish an Islamic state, and fight anti-Islamic opponents

Less than 500 1991

Car bombs, taking foreign hostages, most active in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan

Jaish-e-Mohammed (JEM) (Army of Mohammed); Pakistan

Islamic extremist group formed after Masood Azhar's release from prison.

Aims to unite Kashmir with Pakistan, targets Indian government and political leaders

Several hundred

2000

Murder of U.S. journalist, Indian Parliament bombing, anti-Christian attacks

Jemaah Islamiya organization (JI); cells span Southeast Asia

Southeast Asian network aims to create an idealized Islamic state

Plotted against tourist spots, foreign diplomatic buildings

Unknown 1990s

Bombings in Indonesia and Philippines

Al-Jihad (AJ); Cairo, Egypt, Yemen, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Lebanon, UK

Egyptian Islamic extremists, merged with al-Qaeda in 2001

Aims to replace the Egyptian government with Islamic state, attack U.S., Israeli interests

Several hundred

1970s

Attacks on Egyptian government personnel, assassinated Anwar Sadat

Kahane Chai (Kach); Israel, West Bank

Jewish extremist group aims to restore the biblical state of Israel

Organizes protests against the Israeli government

Unknown 1994

Threats made to Arabs, Palestinians, and Israeli officials

Kongra-Gel (KGK), a.k.a. Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK); Turkey, Middle East

Marxist–Leninist insurgent group aims to create a democratic Kurdish state

Targets Turkish security forces, officials, and villagers who oppose organization

4,000–5,000 1974

Attacked diplomatic and commercial facilities, bombed tourist sites

Lashkar-e- Tayyiba (LT) (Army of the Righteous); Pakistan

Armed wing of a Pakistan-based Sunni anti-U.S. missionary group

Targets Indian troops and civilians in Kashmir Several

thousand1989

Attacks on border security forces and Indian Parliament

Lashkar i Jhangvi (LJ); Pakistan, Afghanistan

A Sunni sectarian radical group banned in Pakistan in 2001

Anti-Shi'ite group aims to create a Muslim state in Pakistan

Less than 100

1996

Armed attacks, bombings, attempted assassinations

Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE); Sri Lanka

Most powerful Tamil group in Sri Lanka aims to create a Tamil state

Targets key personnel, senior political and military leaders

8,000– 10,000

1976

Assassinations, suicide bombers: “The Black Tigers”

Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG); Libya, United Kingdom, other countries

Libyans who had fought against Soviet forces in Afghanistan and the Qaddafi regime in Libya.

Pledged to overthrow un-Islamic government of Libyan president Muammar al-Qaddafi

Several hundred

1990s

Suicide bombings, assassination attempt against Qaddafi

Real IRA; Northern Ireland, UK, Irish Republic

Armed wing of the 32-County Sovereignty Movement to unify Ireland

Targets civilians, military, police, and Protestant communities

Less than 100

1998

Bombings, assassinations, robberies

Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC); Colombia

Oldest and most–capable Marxist insurgency with ties to narcotics trafficking

Targets Colombian political, military, and economic interests, also foreign citizens

9,000–12,000

1964

Bombings, mortar attacks, kidnappings, extortion, guerrilla warfare, and drug trafficking

Revolutionary Nuclei (formerly ELA); Athens, Greece

Emerged from antiestablishment and anti-U.S./NATO/EU leftist groups

Targets U.S. and European interests and government buildings in Greece

Believed small

1995

Arson attacks, low-level bombings, usually striking in early-morning hours

Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM) -----------

Wishes to create an Islamic state in Morocco Unknown 1990s

2003 terrorist attack on Casablanca; 2004 Madrid bombing

Mujahedin-e Khalq Organization (MEK); Iraq

Marxist–Islamic group expelled from Iran receiving Iraqi support

Largest armed Iranian opposition group advocates a secular Iranian regime

Over 3,000 1960s

Assassinations, terrorist bombings, foreign military- aided assaults

National Liberation Army (ELN); Colombia, Venezuela

Marxist insurgent group inspired by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara

Targets foreign employees from large corporations

3,000 1965

Kidnapping, hijacking, bombing, and extortion

Palestine Islamic Jihad (PIJ); Israel, West Bank, Gaza Strip

Militant Palestinians committed to destroying Israel through holy war

Targets Israeli military and civilians, opposes secularism

Unknown 1970s

Suicide bombings, attacks on Israeli interests

Palestine Liberation Front (PLF); Iraq

Broke away from PFLP-GC and split into pro-PLO, –Syrian, and –Libyan factions

Known for aerial attacks against Israel

Unknown 1970s

Attacked Italian ship Achille Lauro, murdered a U.S. citizen

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP); Syria, Lebanon, Israel, West Bank, Gaza Strip

Marxist-Leninist group that broke away from the Arab Nationalist Movement

Targets Israel's “illegal occupation” of Palestine and opposes negotiations with Israel

Unknown 1967

International terrorist acts in the 1970s, attacks against Israel and moderate Arab targets since 1978

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine–General Command (PFLP-GC); Syria

Split from the PFLP to focus on fighting, opposes Arafat's PLO

Attacks in Europe and the Middle East. Targets Israel, West Bank, and Gaza Strip

Several hundred

1968

Unusual attacks: hot air balloons, hang gliders, Lebanese guerrilla operations

Al-Qaeda; Afghanistan until 2001, Southeast Asia, Middle East, worldwide cells

Osama bin Laden's network of Arabs who fought against the Soviet Union. Goal to establish a worldwide pan-Islamic Caliphate

Targets “non-Islamic” regimes and U.S. citizens Several

thousand1980s

Bombings of embassies and USS Cole; September 11, 2001, U.S. attacks

Al-Qaeda in Iraq

-----------

Targets U.S. soldiers and Iraqi citizens; leader Abu Musab al-Zarqawi killed by U.S. in 2006

c. 1,000 2003

Major and numerous terrorist attacks in Iraq

Revolutionary Organization 17 November; Athens, Greece

Radical leftist group named for student uprising in 1973

Seeks removal of U.S. bases, Turkish military, and the severing of NATO and EU ties

Believed small

1975

Assassinations, bombings, improvised rocket attacks, supported by bank robberies

Revolutionary People's Liberation Army/Front (DHKP-C); Turkey

Marxist-Leninist group: “Party” refers to its political activities, “Front” refers to its militant operations

Anti-U.S., anti-NATO, and anti-Turkish establishment group

Unknown 1978 Attacks on U.S. interests, suicide bombings

Shining Path

(Sendero

Luminoso, SL);

Peru

Based on Maoist

teachings, aims to

destroy Peruvian

institutions

Aims to build

communist

regime, targets

political

enemies

300 1960s

30,000 dead,

assassinations,

bombings,

village raids

Tanzim Qa'idat

al-Jihad fi Bilad

al-Rafidayn

(QJBR) a.k.a. Al-

Zarqawi

Network and Al-

Qaeda in Iraq;

Established soon

after start of

Operation Iraqi

Freedom to bring

together jihadists

and other

insurgents; merged

Aims to expel

Coalition forces

and establish

Islamic state in

Iraq, then move

to Syria,

Lebanon, Israel,

Unknown 2003

Many bombings,

killing hundreds;

assassination of

key Iraqi political

figures;

beheadings of

Iraq with al-Qaeda and Jordan Americans

United Self-

Defense Forces

of Colombia

(AUC); Colombia

Umbrella

organization that

consolidates

paramilitary groups

Targets

“insurgents”

from FARC and

ELN

8,000–

11,000

1997

Assassinations,

guerrilla

warfare, and

drug trafficking

List of Terrorist Organizations111 Appendix B

Islamic Terrorist Organizations

111 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_designated_terrorist_organizations#searchInput. [04.04.2008].

According to their declarations these organizations have demanded the introduction of the sharia

law( Ruling according to Islam as a religion and Islamic beliefs) in all Muslim countries and the

fight against other religions as they are infidels ( not Muslims) and they see the other religious

groups as the "enemies of Islam”. These groups are:

Abu Sayyaf : this group was activated in 1991 and it is still active; Philippines.

Aden-Abyan Islamic Army;Yemen.

Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya: this group was activated in the late 1970s and still active;

Egypt.

Armed Islamic Group: this group was activated in 1992 and it is still active; Algeria.

Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades: this group was activated in 2000 and it is still active;

Palestine.

Ansar al-Islam: it means “Supporters of Islam” also know as “Partisans of Islam or

Helpers of Islam”: this group was activated in 2001 and still active; Iraq.

Al-Qaeda: it means “the foundation”, “the base”, also known as Also known as”

Qa‘idat al-Jihad”, “Islamic Army for the Liberation of the Holy Places”,” World

Islamic Front for Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders”, “Islamic Salvation Foundation”

and “Osama bin Laden Network”. This group was activated in 1988 and it is still

active; Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq and worldwide.

Asbat al-Ansar: it means the “League of the Followers” also it is an Acronym for

“Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiya” or “Islamic Resistance Movement”, this group

was activated in the early 1990s and it is still active; southern Lebanon.

Jama'at al-Tawhid wa'al-Jihad/Al-Qaeda in Iraq: it is Abu Musab al-Zarqawi's

group112; Iraq.

Eastern Turkestan Islamic Movement: al-Qaeda linked separatist UIGUR group;

China.

Egyptian Islamic Jihad: this group was activated since the late 1970s; Egypt.

112 Abu Musab Al Zarqawi, his real name is Ahmad Fadeel al-Nazal al-Khalayleh, he died on 07 June 2006.

Fatah al-Islam: al-Qaeda inspired group which took over Nahr el-Bared refugee

camp in 2007, before being defeated by the Lebanese Armed Forces; Lebanon.

Hamas: This group was activated in 1987 and it is still active; West Bank, Gaza

Strip.113

Harakat ul-Mujahidin, (HUM); Pakistan and Kashmir.

Hezbollah; Lebanon.114

Hizbul Mujahideen; Pakistan and Kashmir.

Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan; Uzbekistan.

Jemaah Islamiyah, Southeast Asia.

Lashkar-e-Jhangvi; Pakistan.

Lashkar-e-Toiba; Pakistan.

Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group; Morocco and Spain.

Palestinian Islamic Jihad; Israel, West Bank, Gaza Strip.

People against Gangsterism and Drugs; South Africa.

Rajah Solaiman Movement (RSM); Philippines.

Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan; Pakistan.

Takfir wal-Hijra; Egypt, Sudan and Algeria.

Taliban; Afghanistan.

Turkish Hezbollah; Kurdish organization operating in Turkey.

Christian Terrorist Organizations:

113 Listed as a terrorist organization by Australia, Canada, the European Union, Israel, and the United States.114 Listed as a terrorist organization by Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, Israel, and the United States.

Army of God: this group was activated in the early 1990s and it is still active; United States of America.

The Lambs of Christ: this group was activated in 1998; United States of America. ASALA: Armenia.115

CARLOS the JACKAL.116

Jewish Terrorist Organizations:

Lewi: 1940-1948. Kach and Kahane Chai: 1973; Israel. Irgun: 1936-1948.

Sikh Terrorist Organizations:

Babbar Khalsa: 1978; India. International Sikh Youth Federation. Khalistan Zindabad Force: this group was activated in 1990s and it is still active;

India.

Other religious terrorism:

Aum Supreme Truth or Aum Shinrikyo; Japan. Lord's Resistance Army; northern Uganda.

115 ASALA means the Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia.116Carlos was one man not an organization, his real name was ILLICH RAMIREZ SANCHES, he was the most famous terrorist all over the world from 1970s-1990s. PETTIFORD and HARDING, TERRORISM: THE NEW WORLD WAR, Arcturus Publishing Limited, (2003), 62.

Appendix C

28/09/2001

Press ReleaseSC/7158

Security Council

4385th Meeting (Night)

SECURITY COUNCIL UNANIMOUSLY ADOPTS WIDE-RANGING ANTI-TERRORISM RESOLUTION;

CALLS FOR SUPPRESSING FINANCING, IMPROVING INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Resolution 1373 (2001) Also Creates Committee to Monitor Implementation

Reaffirming its unequivocal condemnation of the terrorist acts that took place in New York, Washington,

D.C., and Pennsylvania on 11 September, the Security Council this evening unanimously adopted a wide-

ranging, comprehensive resolution with steps and strategies to combat international terrorism.

By resolution 1373 (2001) the Council also established a Committee of the Council to monitor the

resolution’s implementation and called on all States to report on actions they had taken to that end no

later than 90 days from today.

Under terms of the text, the Council decided that all States should prevent and suppress the financing of

terrorism, as well as criminalize the wilful provision or collection of funds for such acts. The funds,

financial assets and economic resources of those who commit or attempt to commit terrorist acts or

participate in or facilitate the commission of terrorist acts and of persons and entities acting on behalf of

terrorists should also be frozen without delay.

The Council also decided that States should prohibit their nationals or persons or entities in their

territories from making funds, financial assets, economic resources, financial or other related services

available to persons who commit or attempt to commit, facilitate or participate in the commission of

terrorist acts. States should also refrain from providing any form of support to entities or persons

involved in terrorist acts; take the necessary steps to prevent the commission of terrorist acts; deny safe

haven to those who finance, plan, support, commit terrorist acts and provide safe havens as well.

By other terms, the Council decided that all States should prevent those who finance, plan, facilitate or

commit terrorist acts from using their respective territories for those purposes against other countries

and their citizens. States should also ensure that anyone who has participated in the financing,

planning, preparation or perpetration of terrorist acts or in supporting terrorist acts is brought to

justice. They should also ensure that terrorist acts are established as serious criminal offences in

domestic laws and regulations and that the seriousness of such acts is duly reflected in sentences

served.

By further terms, the Council decided that States should afford one another the greatest measure of

assistance for criminal investigations or criminal proceedings relating to the financing or support of

terrorist acts. States should also prevent the movement of terrorists or their groups by effective border

controls as well.

Also by the text, the Council called on all States to intensify and accelerate the exchange of information

regarding terrorist actions or movements; forged or falsified documents; traffic in arms and sensitive

material; use of communications and technologies by terrorist groups; and the threat posed by the

possession of weapons of mass destruction.

States were also called on to exchange information and cooperate to prevent and suppress terrorist acts

and to take action against the perpetrators of such acts. States should become parties to, and fully

implement as soon as possible, the relevant international conventions and protocols to combat

terrorism.

By the text, before granting refugee status, all States should take appropriate measures to ensure that

the asylum seekers had not planned, facilitated or participated in terrorist acts. Further, States should

ensure that refugee status was not abused by the perpetrators, organizers or facilitators of terrorist

acts, and that claims of political motivation were not recognized as grounds for refusing requests for the

extradition of alleged terrorists.

The Council noted with concern the close connection between international terrorism and transnational

organized crime, illicit drugs, money laundering and illegal movement of nuclear, chemical, biological

and other deadly materials. In that regard, it emphasized the need to enhance the coordination of

national, sub regional, regional and international efforts to strengthen a global response to that threat

to international security.

Reaffirming the need to combat by all means, in accordance with the Charter, threats to international

peace and security caused by terrorist acts, the Council expressed its determination to take all necessary

steps to fully implement the current resolution.

The meeting, which began at 10:50 p.m., adjourned at 10:53 p.m.

Resolution

The full text of resolution 1373 (2001) reads as follows:

“The Security Council,

“Reaffirming its resolutions 1269 (1999) of 19 October 1999 and 1368 (2001) of 12 September 2001,

“Reaffirming also its unequivocal condemnation of the terrorist attacks which took place in New York,

Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania on 11 September 2001, and expressing its determination to prevent

all such acts,

“Reaffirming further that such acts, like any act of international terrorism, constitute a threat to

international peace and security,

“Reaffirming the inherent right of individual or collective self-defense as recognized by the Charter of

the United Nations as reiterated in resolution 1368 (2001),

“Reaffirming the need to combat by all means, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations,

threats to international peace and security caused by terrorist acts,

“Deeply concerned by the increase, in various regions of the world, of acts of terrorism motivated by

intolerance or extremism,

“Calling on States to work together urgently to prevent and suppress terrorist acts, including through

increased cooperation and full implementation of the relevant international conventions relating to

terrorism,

“Recognizing the need for States to complement international cooperation by taking additional

measures to prevent and suppress, in their territories through all lawful means, the financing and

preparation of any acts of terrorism,

“Reaffirming the principle established by the General Assembly in its declaration of October 1970

(resolution 2625 (XXV)) and reiterated by the Security Council in its resolution 1189 (1998) of 13 August

1998, namely that every State has the duty to refrain from organizing, instigating, assisting or

participating in terrorist acts in another State or acquiescing in organized activities within its territory

directed towards the commission of such acts,

“Acting under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations,

“1. Decides that all States shall:

“(a) Prevent and suppress the financing of terrorist acts;

“(b) Criminalize the wilful provision or collection, by any means, directly or indirectly, of funds by their

nationals or in their territories with the intention that the funds should be used, or in the knowledge

that they are to be used, in order to carry out terrorist acts;

“(c) Freeze without delay funds and other financial assets or economic resources of persons who

commit, or attempt to commit, terrorist acts or participate in or facilitate the commission of terrorist

acts; of entities owned or controlled directly or indirectly by such persons; and of persons and entities

acting on behalf of, or at the direction of such persons and entities, including funds derived or generated

from property owned or controlled directly or indirectly by such persons and associated persons and

entities;

“(d) Prohibit their nationals or any persons and entities within their territories from making any funds,

financial assets or economic resources or financial or other related services available, directly or

indirectly, for the benefit of persons who commit or attempt to commit or facilitate or participate in the

commission of terrorist acts, of entities owned or controlled, directly or indirectly, by such persons and

of persons and entities acting on behalf of or at the direction of such persons;

“2. Decides also that all States shall:

“(a) Refrain from providing any form of support, active or passive, to entities or persons involved in

terrorist acts, including by suppressing recruitment of members of terrorist groups and eliminating the

supply of weapons to terrorists;

“(b) Take the necessary steps to prevent the commission of terrorist acts, including by provision of early

warning to other States by exchange of information;

“(c) Deny safe haven to those who finance, plan, support, or commit terrorist acts, or provide safe

havens;

“(d) Prevent those who finance, plan, facilitate or commit terrorist acts from using their respective

territories for those purposes against other States or their citizens;

“(e) Ensure that any person who participates in the financing, planning, preparation or perpetration of

terrorist acts or in supporting terrorist acts is brought to justice and ensure that, in addition to any other

measures against them, such terrorist acts are established as serious criminal offences in domestic laws

and regulations and that the punishment duly reflects the seriousness of such terrorist acts;

“(f) Afford one another the greatest measure of assistance in connection with criminal investigations or

criminal proceedings relating to the financing or support of terrorist acts, including assistance in

obtaining evidence in their possession necessary for the proceedings;

“(g) Prevent the movement of terrorists or terrorist groups by effective border controls and controls on

issuance of identity papers and travel documents, and through measures for preventing counterfeiting,

forgery or fraudulent use of identity papers and travel documents;

“3. Calls upon all States to:

“(a) Find ways of intensifying and accelerating the exchange of operational information, especially

regarding actions or movements of terrorist persons or networks; forged or falsified travel documents;

traffic in arms, explosives or sensitive materials; use of communications technologies by terrorist groups;

and the threat posed by the possession of weapons of mass destruction by terrorist groups;

“(b) Exchange information in accordance with international and domestic law and cooperate on

administrative and judicial matters to prevent the commission of terrorist acts;

“(c) Cooperate, particularly through bilateral and multilateral arrangements and agreements, to prevent

and suppress terrorist attacks and take action against perpetrators of such acts;

“(d) Become parties as soon as possible to the relevant international conventions and protocols relating

to terrorism, including the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism of

9 December 1999;

“(e) Increase cooperation and fully implement the relevant international conventions and protocols

relating to terrorism and Security Council resolutions 1269 (1999) and 1368 (2001);

“(f) Take appropriate measures in conformity with the relevant provisions of national and international

law, including international standards of human rights, before granting refugee status, for the purpose

of ensuring that the asylum seeker has not planned, facilitated or participated in the commission of

terrorist acts;

“(g) Ensure, in conformity with international law, that refugee status is not abused by the perpetrators,

organizers or facilitators of terrorist acts, and that claims of political motivation are not recognized as

grounds for refusing requests for the extradition of alleged terrorists;

“4. Notes with concern the close connection between international terrorism and transnational

organized crime, illicit drugs, money-laundering, illegal arms-trafficking, and illegal movement of

nuclear, chemical, biological and other potentially deadly materials, and in this regard emphasizes the

need to enhance coordination of efforts on national, subregional, regional and international levels in

order to strengthen a global response to this serious challenge and threat to international security;

“5. Declares that acts, methods, and practices of terrorism are contrary to the purposes and principles

of the United Nations and that knowingly financing, planning and inciting terrorist acts are also contrary

to the purposes and principles of the United Nations;

“6. Decides to establish, in accordance with rule 28 of its provisional rules of procedure, a Committee of

the Security Council, consisting of all the members of the Council, to monitor implementation of this

resolution, with the assistance of appropriate expertise, and calls upon all States to report to the

Committee, no later than 90 days from the date of adoption of this resolution and thereafter according

to a timetable to be proposed by the Committee, on the steps they have taken to implement this

resolution;

“7. Directs the Committee to delineate its tasks, submit a work programme within 30 days of the

adoption of this resolution, and to consider the support it requires, in consultation with the Secretary-

General;

“8. Expresses its determination to take all necessary steps in order to ensure the full implementation of

this resolution, in accordance with its responsibilities under the Charter;

“9. Decides to remain seized of this matter.”

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