Upload
others
View
1
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Natural Resource Usage Constraints and their Temporal Change in
Bale Eco-Region, Southeast Ethiopia
Submitted by:
Elsabet Takele
Advisor:Dr. Wolde Mokuria
Co adviser: Mr. Lema Tiki
Submitted to
School of Graduate Studies
Department of Ecotourism and Biodiversity Conservation
Madda Walabu University
January, 2016
Bale-Robe, Ethiopia
i
Declaration
I declare that this research was my own work and all sources of materials used for this
proposal have been duly acknowledged. I honestly declare that this proposal is not
submitted to any other institution anywhere for the award of any academic degree,
diploma or certificate.
Name: Elsabet Takele
Signature: ______________
Date: ________________________
This proposal has been submitted for examination with approval as a researcher
supervisor
Name: Wolde Mokuria(phd)
Signature: ______________
Date: ________________________
Name: Dejene Nigatu(Msc)
Signature: ______________
Date: ________________________
Name. Lema Tiki (Msc)
Signature: ______________
Date: ________________________
ii
SUMMARY
There is problem of wise use of natural resources usage and limited scientific studies on
constraints and temporal change in Bale Eco Region southeast Ethiopia.
The purpose of the study was to investigate the natural resource usage constraints and
their temporal change in Bale Eco Region, Southeast Ethiopia. Both qualitative and
quantitative study designs were employed. This study was use questionnaires, depth
interview from households, focus group discussion and field observation, based cross-
sectional study. As the method of data analysis, descriptive and inferential statistics was
implemented by using SPSS software version 20. Chi-Square, frequencies and percentage
was used to compare differences among variables with respect to agro-ecology at 0.05
significance status. Qualitative data was transcribed, categorized into themes and narrate
based on the focus of the study. The information obtained from quantitative and
qualitative sources were triangulated to ensure the relevance of the results of the study.
Finally, this study was come up with identified constraints in utilization of natural
resources and possible solution that ensure sustainable utilization of natural resources in
the eco-region. The Budget required to conduct this study is 40,000 Ethiopian Birr.
Therefore, depending on the result, it is recommended that concerned bodies should
minimize natural resource usage constraints and their temporal change in Bale Eco
Region.
Key words: constraints, natural resource, temporal change and usage of natural
resource
Commented [BWM(1]: Will work on the abstract after revision.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am highly indebted to my advisor, Dr. Wolde Mokuria for his encouragement, guidance,
and professional suggestion while writing this proposal. My special appreciation also
goes to my supervisors, Mr. Dejene Nigatu and Mr. Lema Tiki for their encouragement
and support in providing valuable comments and suggestions on the proposal.
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
iv
ABRDP Arsi-Bale Rural Development Project
AR Assessment Report
BERSMP Bale Eco-Region Sustainable Management Programme
BER Bale Eco Region
FARM/SOS FARM Africa and SOS Sahel
FGD Focus Group Discussion
NR Natural resource
NRM Natural Resource Management
SERI Sustainable Europe Research Institute
SSI Small scale irrigation
v
TABLE OF CONTENT
Contents
Page SUMMARY ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS iiiiv
1. NTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Background of the study 1
1.2. Statement of the problem 3
1.3. Significance of the study 4
1.4. Objectives of the study 54
1.4.1. General objective 54
1.4.2. Specific objectives 54
1.5. Research questions 54
1.6. Scope of the Study 5
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1. Concept and Definition of Natural Resource 6
2.2. Type of Temporal Change 6
2.2.1. Man Made Temporal Change 6
2.2.2. Nature Cause Temporal Change 7
2.3. Definition of Constraints 7
2.4. Types of constraints 7
2.4.1. Agricultural land constraints 7
2.4.2. Physical Constraints 8
2.4.3. Biological Constraints 8
2.4.4. Financial Constraints 8
2.4.5. Human Resource Constraints 9
2.4.6. Social and Cultural Constraints 9
2.4.6.1. Governance and Institutional Constraints 10
2.6. Trends of natural resources 10
3. METHODOLOGY 11
3.1. Study area 11
3.1.1. Vegetation 12
3.1.2. Climate 12
vi
3.2. Methods 13
3.2.1. Preliminary Study 13
3.2.2. Materials 13
3.2.3. Study design 13
3.2.4. Study population and subject 13
3.2.5. Sampling technique and sample size 14
Data Analysis Method 17
3.3. Expected output 17
3.4. Ethical consideration 1817
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION 18
4.1. Description of study participants 18
4.1.1. Education status and occupation 19
4.1.2. Livelihood mechanisms 2019
4.2. Major natural resources in Bale Eco-region 20
4.3. Temporal Trends of natural resource status in Bale Eco-region 21
4.4. Natural resource utilization in bale eco region 26
4.5. Natural resources use constraints in Bale Eco-Region. 26
4.5.1. Constraints to use Land 27
4.5.2. Constraints to use Water 3031
4.5.3. Constraints to use Forest 3435
4.5.4. Constraints to use Wildlife 3637
4.5.5. Constraints to use Soil 3637
4.5.6. Common constraints to show in the three agro ecology of bale eco region 3839
4.5.7. Different constraints to show in the three agro-ecologies 3940
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 4041
5.1. CONCLUSION 4041
5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS 42
REFERENCE 4344
APPENDIXS- I 4849
vii
List of Figures
page
Figure 1: Map of the study area----------------------------------------------------------------------
-16
Figure 12: Sampling procedure for the study -----------------------------------------------------
--22
Fig 2. Degraded area at lowland---------------------------------------------------------------------
--22
Fig 3. During key informant interview -------------------------------------------------------------
-23
Fig, 4. During focus Group Discussion -------------------------------------------------------------
-34
List of Tables
Table 1, al population number of each wareda-----------------------------------------------------
-14
Table 2, Sex, age, family size Education status of HH and occupation ------------------------
-18
Table 3. Major natural resources of Bale Eco-region --------------------------------------------
--20
Table 4. Trends of natural resource status in Bale Eco-region ---------------------------------
--21
Table 5. Biophysical Constraints of land resources utilization by agro ecology --------------
-27
Table 6. Economic Constraints of land resources utilization by agro ecology ----------------
-28
viii
Table 7. Lack of technology and input Constraints of land resources utilization by agro
ecology --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-29
Table 8. Lack of knowledge and law implementation Constraints of land resources
utilization by agro ecology ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------30
Table 9, Biophysical Constraints of Water resources utilization by agro ecology -----------
--30
Table 10, Economic Constraints of Water resources utilization by agro ecology ------------
-31
Table 11, Constraints of Water resources utilization by agro ecology -------------------------
-33
Table 12, Constraints of forest resources utilization by agro ecology -------------------------
--35
Table 13, Constraints of forest resources utilization----------------------------------------------
-36
Table 14, iophysical Constraints --------------------------------------------------------------------
37
Tables 15, Constraints of Soil utilization-----------------------------------------------------------
-38
1
1. NTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the study
Natural Rresources are described as resources or inputs to production (Peteraf, 1993). People’s
livelihood is based on natural resources. Without the constant use of natural resources, neither
our economy nor our society could function. Nature provides humans with all resources
necessary for life including: energy for heat, electricity and mobility; wood for furniture and
paper products; cotton for clothing; construction materials for our roads and houses; food and
pure water for a healthy diet (SERI, 2000).
In Africa, natural resources were effectively nationalized. Much land was set aside for
conservation; move and marginalizing local people and alienate them from traditional resource
areas (Colchester, 1994). For rain-fed agriculture are considered severely constrained for crop
production (Mugagga et al., 2011). In most of the African countries, land use/cover change is
the main deriver of land degradation; and its effect even Most African region show that land use
changes result in high levels of land degradation by suggest that these landscape
transformations account for the exponential increase in slope failures. Land use and cover
change are more pronounced in highland and mountainous landscapes (Mohammad and Adam,
2010). Lack of finance and capacity constrained the ability of local government to manage the
changing pressure and reverse the degradation of natural resources caused by human activities ,
natural resources transport about by new roads, increased logging and mining, designed oil
palm plantations, high in-migration rates, many new economic opportunities, and shifts in the
center of power (Campbell et al., 2003).
Constraints to execute proper natural resources management may could be physical,
technological, economic, institutional, legal, cultural, or environmental in nature. For example,
challenges of natural resources management such as urbanization and pollution can influence
systems directly and indirectly through their effects on climate variables such as albino and soil-
moisture regimemoisture regime.
Socio-economic processes, including land-use change (e.g., forestry to agriculture; agriculture
to urban area) and land-cover modification (e.g., ecosystem degradation or restoration) can also
result on temporal change. Due to the strong influence of non-climate factors on agriculture
and, to a lesser extent, on forestry, especially management practices and technological changes,
as well as market prices and policies related to subsidy result in change in species composition
Commented [BWM(2]: General comment: Need improvement: see the specific comments given.
Commented [BWM(3]: This sentence looks incomplete. Please put proper definition of NR
Commented [BWM(4]: Not related with the above sentence. Please delete it.
Commented [BWM(5]: Not clear, not linked
2
specious canges (Easterling,
2003). Land use and land cover plays an important role in global environmental change and
sustainability, including response to climate change, effects on ecosystem structure and function, species
and genetic diversity, water and energy balance, and agro-ecological potential are also change (Codjoe,
2007). Constraints may limit the range of available adaptation options creating the potential for
residual damages for actors, species, or ecosystems associated with specific regions or sectors.
Under some circumstances, the risk of residual damage may be viewed as an aunacceptable or
acceptable exchange (Stern et al., 2006).
Besides climate affecting species, there are many different types of non-climate driving forces,
such as invasive species, natural disturbances (e.g., wildfires), pests, diseases and pollution
(e.g., soluble-nitrogen deposition). Influencing the changes exhibited by species, animal and
plant populations have been under pressure from agricultural intensification and land-use
change in the past 50 years, causing many species to be in decline (Warren et al., 2001).
Non-climate drivers such as urbanization and pollution can influence systems directly and
indirectly through their effects on climate variables such as albino and soil-moisture regime.
Socio-economic processes, including land-use change (e.g., forestry to agriculture; agriculture
to urban area) and land-cover modification (e.g., ecosystem degradation or restoration) can also
result on temporal change. Due to the strong influence of non-climate factors on agriculture
and, to a lesser extent, on forestry, especially management practices and technological changes,
as well as market prices and policies related to subsidy result specious canges (Easterling,
2003). Land use and land cover plays an important role in global environmental change and
sustainability, including response to climate change, effects on ecosystem structure and function, species
and genetic diversity, water and energy balance, and agro-ecological potential are also change (Codjoe,
2007).
Natural resource use changes have been linked to changes in air quality and pollution that affect
the greenhouse process itself (Pielke et al., 2002). Forests covered about 50% of the earth’s land
area 8000 years ago, as opposed to 30% today. Agriculture has expanded into forests, savannas,
and steppes in all parts of the world to meet the demand for food and fiber (Lambin et al.,
2003).
The change of natural resource can be expected to modify the ecosystem services provided by
natural and managed ecosystems to rural people, such as the amount of food produced, the
availability of water supplies, or the climatic, disease and nutrient regulation functions of
Commented [BWM(6]: Repetition! … if you can merge with the above paragraph.
3
ecosystems. Whether these changes will be positive or negative for human well-being is thus far
difficult to foresee, particularly because different regions are expected to experience
dramatically different impacts. With respect to agriculture, for example, yield and productivity
impacts in many temperate regions are expected to be increasepositive, while those in many
tropical regions will be decreasednegative, although there is still considerable uncertainty about
how projected changes will play out (IPCC, 2007).
The Bale eco-region, southeast Ethiopia, is a priority area for the conservation of ecosystems.
forest area. In the centre is the Bale mountain national park, the largest area of Afro alpine in
Africa. The Harrana forest covering the southern part of the mountain is the second largest
moist tropical forest in Ethiopia. However, the Harrana forest is degrading due to land
conversion processes related to the internal population growth and povertychanging livelihood
strategies and socioeconomic expectations of the resident population. This section of the Bale
eco-region presents the key changes in terms of land cover that have taken place over the past
two decades for each of the two woredas, focusing on the integrity and connectivity of the
Harenna Forest, and the area’s key natural resource and conservation values. In Harenna Buluk,
significant temporal changes have taken place over the past two decades in terms of land cover
(UNESCO, 1984).
1.2. Statement of the problem
In Ethiopia, clearing of forests due to , over-grazing and expansion of agricultural land other
reductions in the vegetation of the country has increased considerably during recent years. This
has led to Iincreased silt and nutrient load of the watercourses and due to increasing populations
and the above-stated negative environmental products have posed serious socio-economic and
environmental problems. The episodes that encourage soil erosion (depleted forest, inadequate
plant cover, poor soils, improper farming methods etc.), and inappropriate management systems
of water resources (at micro-level) have alarmingly taken place and most of the water systems
and the environment have suffered from the consequences of the linked processes (Zinabu,
1998).
The livelihood of the people in Bale-Eco region, in the study area, is directly or indirectly
dependent on natural resources. Using natural resources to meet the demands of human has an
impact on the global environment. The problem of population growth coupled with economic
Commented [BWM(7]: After this paragraph, you need to give brief description on how the different challenges affecting NR resources management in Ethiopia. Then you proceed to the description of the situation in bale eco-region.
Commented [BWM(8]: Which Weredas that you are mentioning. Before this sentence you did not mention anything about wereda. So it is not well linked.
Commented [BWM(9]: This quite old reference. You are discussing about the situation in the last two decades, but the citation does not reflect that. Please update your reference.
Commented [BWM(10]: This section should end by highlighting the objectives of the study. Please add here the overall objective of the study.
Commented [BWM(11]: General comment Need improvement: see the specific comments given below.
Commented [BWM(12]: Cite a reference.
Commented [BWM(13]: Cite a reference
Commented [BWM(14]: Please update this reference. It is too old.
4
pressure has resulted in a high rate of natural resource degradation. Due to the small land area
owned by most farmers in forest areas, they have encroached forest reserves for agricultural
activities which may result in excessive destruction of tree cover or vegetation. Warren et al.,
(2001) also confirmed that temporal change in land uses result in effects on natural resources.
Lack of environmental awareness concerning the linkage between environment and
development in general, weak participation of the people and community based organization in
environmental management activities are some of the environmental challenges that the Bale
eco-region and Ethiopia facing now days (Girma, 2001). Lack of professionalism and technical
standards: Another very important constraint, not only among policy makers but also among
many experts, is that construction of physical soil and water conservation measures is
considered as the main solution to halt land degradation (Geta et al., 2010).
As a result, even though the researcher expects lots of research on this related problem, to the
investigator knowledge, there was scarcity of research conducted related to the natural resource
usage constraints and their temporal change in Bale Eco Region, Southeast Ethiopia, especially
in the study area of Bale Eco Region. Therefore, the purpose of this research will be to fill a gap
that is observed on the stated problem.
1.3. Significance of the study
The findings of this study serves as further intervention/development indicator for
SHAREAFRICA for designing the next phase of the project for sustainable utilization and
management of natural resources in the Eco-region about the factors that limit/hinder utilization
of natural resources by local communities, the similarities and differences of limiting factors in
the three agro-ecologies in the Eco-region and natural resource conditions vary over time in the
study area. The study will also illustrate natural resource usage constraints that limit the
inhabitants to increase productivity of their livelihood mechanisms. It also comes up with
possible solution that minimizes the effect of constraints in the Eco-region. Moreover, the result
of this study will serve as source of information and reference for scholars who are conducting
researches in the area.
Commented [BWM(15]: Not linked, not clear. Please revise this sentence.
Commented [BWM(16]: This section should be concluded by discussing how the existing challenges/constraints are affecting the management of natural resources. Then in the next section, you discuss how you support to address those changes through your research. The other option is stamen of the problem and significance of the study/justification can be merged and presented in one section.
Commented [BWM(17]: See the above comment and try to revise this section.
5
1.4. Objectives of the study
1.4.1. General objective
The aim of this study was to investigate the natural resource usage constraints and their
temporal changes in Bale Eco Region, Southeast Ethiopia.
1.4.2. Specific objectives
To identify factors those limit/hinder utilization of natural resources by local communities.
To investigate the similarities and differences of limiting factors in the three agro-ecologies in
the Eco-region.
To assess how natural resource conditions vary over time in the study area.
1.5. Research questions
What are the factors those that limit/hinder utilization of natural resources by local
communities?
What are the similarities and differences of limiting factors in the three agro-ecologies in the
Eco-region?
How natural resource conditions vary over time in the study area?
1.6. Scope of the Study
The study was limited to Dinsho and Adaba Wereda from high land areas, Harena Buluk
Wereda from mid-land areas and Berbere & Dello Mena Weredas from low land areas. The
study was delimited to investigate natural resource usage constraints with their temporal change
in the indicated area starting from the commencement of FARM AFRICA still the present day.
6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Concept and Definition of Natural Resource
Natural resources vary in the degree to which they are naturally available versus being altered
by human actions. Resource quality and quantity are heavily influenced by human behavior and
the sustainability – or lack of sustainability – of management practices. Current concerns about
global climate change address some of the most basic aspects of ecosystem processes and
regulation and thus are of particular concern. Land quality is affected by degradation, or
enhancement, as a function of prior use and current management patterns. Water availability is
highly influenced by irrigation infrastructure and management in many regions, while water
quality is affected by human actions which may lead to soil erosion and sedimentation, and
pollution by agricultural, industrial and human waste. Agricultural genetic resources have been
influenced by genetic selection and manipulation by both farmers and scientists over many
generations (David, 2009).
Natural resources are things that come from nature, such as plants, animals, soil, minerals,
energy sources (e.g., sunlight, fossil fuels), air, and water. These natural resources are used to
meet the needs of all living things, including people. The term natural resources can include
agricultural and mineral assets, as well as resources associated with water and forests. Among
these, certain types of natural resources such as oil and minerals have a tendency to lead to
production and revenue patterns that are concentrated, while revenue flows from other types of
resources such as agriculture are more diffused throughout the economy (Auty, 1997).
2.2. Type of Temporal Change
2.2.1. Man Made Temporal Change
Habitat destruction and fragmentation from farming and deforestation is the root cause of most
biodiversity loss in northern and central Sudan (UNEP, 2007). Vast areas of savannah and dry
land pasture have been replaced with agricultural land, leaving only limited shelter belts or
other forms of wildlife refuge. The intensity of mechanized agricultural development has forced
pastoralists to use smaller grazing areas and less suitable land, leading to the degradation of the
rangelands and increased competition between livestock and wildlife. The result is that most
7
forests have essentially disappeared from most of northern and central Sudan, and can cause
change the area and leading to remote desert regions (UNEP, 2006).
The felling of a tree, for example, is a disturbance event similar to the natural fall of senescent
trees. A distinction can be made, however, between the immediate removal of the felled tree
from the habitat, and the remaining of the fall tree. While tree fall is a changeable event that
allows for natural resource to takes place (Grime, 1979).
2.2.2. Nature Cause Temporal Change
The internal microclimate near forest edges, particularly where they meet non-forest vegetation,
is frequently hotter, drier and brighter these changes negatively affect typical forest species and
can lead to increased tree mortality forest (Turner and Corlett, 1996). The loss of certain
species within fragments may have knock-on effects on other species. The widespread
decimation of seed dispersers by over-hunting or habitat degradation can have devastating long-
term consequences on the plant species that depend on them (Howe, 1990).
2.3. Definition of Constraints
Constraints are defined as factors that make it harder to plan and implement adaptation actions
a number of factors constrain planning and implementation of adaptation options very (Adger et
al., 2007). More recent studies have documented an expanded range of constraints in a diverse
array of contexts (Biesbroek et al., 2013). Note that there is no consensus definition of
constraints or a consistent framework for their assessment. Although constraints are often
discussed in the literature as discrete determinants of adaptive capacity, they rarely act in
isolation (Smith et al., 2008). Rather actors are challenged to navigate multiple, interacting
constraints in order to achieve a given adaptation objective (Dryden et al., 2007).
2.4. Types of constraints
2.4.1. Agricultural land constraints
Limited land area and quality, lack of agricultural techniques, lack of irrigation water, low
yielding crop varieties, pests and diseases), and lack of market access. From the farmers’
perspective, lack of capital is the major constraint they have little access to credit and therefore
have to continue using limited production techniques (GoV, 2001). The establishment of new
reclamation areas for agriculture from the 1960s to 1980s has led to a serious decline in natural
forest and an increase in land degradation (Vien et al., 2005).
8
2.4.2. Physical Constraints
The capacity of human and natural systems to adapt to a changing climate is linked to
characteristics of the physical environment including the climate itself. Recent studies have
suggested that the effort required to adapt to an increase in global mean temperature of 4°C by
2010 may be significantly greater than adapting to lower magnitudes of change (Fung et al.,
2011). A variety of non-climatic physical factors also can constrain adaptation efforts of natural
systems. For example, migration can be constrained by geographical features such as lack of
sufficient altitude to migrate vertically or barriers posed by coastlines or rivers (Clark et al.,
2011 ) water quality and soil quality can constrain agricultural activities and therefore the
capacity of agricultural systems to adapt to a changing climate (Delgado et al., 2011).
2.4.3. Biological Constraints
Biological factors can constrain the adaptation options for humans, nonhuman species, and
ecological systems more broadly. In particular, biological characteristics influence the capacity
of organisms to cope with increasing climate stress in situ through acclimation, adaptation, or
behavior (Jensen, 2009). The biological capacity for migration among nonhuman species is
linked to characteristics such as fecundity, phenotypic and genotypic variation,
dispersal rates, and inter specific interactions (Aitken et al.,2008). The degradation of
environmental quality is another source of constraints with multiple studies including natural
capital as a foundation for sustainable livelihoods (Paavola, 2008).
Soil degradation and desertification can reduce crop yields and the resilience of agricultural
and pastoral livelihoods to climate stress (Iglesias, 2011). Ecosystem constraints can also arise
from non-native species, including pests and disease, which compete with endemic species and
reduce the effectiveness of current control mechanisms for invasive species (Hellman et al.,
2012).
2.4.4. Financial Constraints
In addition to broader macroeconomic constraints on adaptation existing livelihoods, economic
structures, and economic mobility the implementation of specific adaptation strategies and
options can be constrained by access to financial capital. Financial capital can manifest in a
variety of forms including credit, insurance, and tax revenues, as well as earnings of individual
households or private entities. The AR concluded that the global costs of adaptation could be
quite substantial over the next several decades (Adger et al., 2007).
9
Pricing constrains consumer choices in use natural resource and products in several ways. First,
is the cost to generating more sustainable power at a residential level; second, is the cost of
purchasing “green power” and how that is explained to consumers; lastly, is the difficult
choices consumers make in purchasing new products (Melea and Eric ,2009).
2.4.5. Human Resource Constraints
Human resources are one of the factors influencing adaptive capacity (Adger et al., 2007).
There has been little attention given specifically to human resources as a constraint on
adaptation by adaptation researchers. Rather the literature mentions human resources in two
principal contexts. First, it highlights the linkages between the development of human resources
and adaptive capacity more broadly (Ebi and Semenza, 2008). Treat human resources as part of
the portfolio of resources that can be harnessed to facilitate adaptation in the public health arena
(Nelson et al., 2010).
Use human capital as one indicator of the capacity of rural communities to cope with climate
impacts. In addition, a number of recent studies call attention to the role of leadership in
enabling or constraining organizational adaptation (Termeer et al., 2012). The emergence of
institutions: to build human resources in the climate change arena, including expanded higher
education opportunities to build climate expertise as well as professional societies (Murphy et
al., 2009). The literature highlights the finite nature of human resources as a need to prioritize
adaptation efforts including the extent of engagement in participatory processes (van Aalst et
al., 2008).
2.4.6. Social and Cultural Constraints
Support Adaptation can be constrained by social and cultural factors that are linked to societal
Social norms, identity, place attachment, beliefs, worldviews, values, awareness, education,
social justice, and social values, world views, and cultural norms and behaviors (Moser and
Ekstrom, 2010; Nichols, 2011). These social and cultural factors can influence perceptions of
risk, what adaptation options are considered useful and by whom, as well as the distribution of
vulnerability and adaptive capacity among different elements of society (Grossmann and Patt,
2005; Kuruppu, 2009). Social and cultural constraints on adaptation have not been well
researched; more recent literature has significantly expanded their understanding. As a case in
point, the erosion of traditional knowledge among the Arctic Inuit is the consequence of a long-
term process of changing livelihoods, technology, and sources of knowledge (Pearce et al.,
2011).
10
2.4.6.1. Governance and Institutional Constraints
Institutions & Policy: existing laws, regulations, procedural requirements, governance scope,
effectiveness, institutional arrangements, adaptive capacity, and absorption capacity;
Constraints associated with governance, institutional arrangements, and legal and regulatory
issues. Adaptation to climate change will necessitate the mobilization of resources, decision
making, and the implementation of specific policies by societal institutions (Huang et al.,
2011). Yet, these processes may be most effective when they are aligned to the given context
and group of actors (Berkhout, 2012; Garschagen, 2013). The adaptation literature provides
extensive evidence that institutional capacity is a key factor that can potentially constrain the
adaptation process very high confidence (Lesnikowski et al., 2013). Policy and regulation
constraints come in four main forms. The first is a lack of oversight in the sale of alternative
power; the second is related to the interplay between regional and national policy; the third is
national energy policy; and, the fourth is environmental policy issues (Ebi and Smenza, 2009).
2.6. Trends of natural resources
To gain an impression of the changes and environmental impacts of resource use in the
Netherlands we must first identify three trends, Volume changes in the consumption of goods in
the Netherlands, · Environmental efficiency of Dutch production · Environmental efficiency of
Dutch imports and other sustainability aspects. Trends are still the wrong way, reflecting
continuing growth in consumption. The improvements in environmental efficiency per unit of
production are mainly being made within the Netherlands. The environmental efficiency and
the social and economic conditions of foreign production for consumption in the Netherlands –
of great significance for timber, meat and metals production – have hardly improved at all
(Vringer, 2000).
There is no reliable figure on the trends of forest cover in Ethiopia. However, as some historical
sources indicate high forests might have once covered about 35–40% of the total land area of
the country. Deforestation accelerated towards the beginning of the 20th century and in 1960,
closed natural forest was estimated to cover only about 3.37%. It is believed that, in Ethiopia,
agricultural activities must have started about 5000 years ago and wide spread deforestation
started about 2500 years ago (Hurni, 1988).
11
3. METHODOLOGYMaterials and Method
3.1. Study area
1The Bale Mountains Eco-region was one of the two highland divisions in Ethiopia, separated
from the larger called western plateau of the Ethiopian highlands by the Great African Rift
Valley, one of the longest and most profound chasms in Africa and the world. The main central
area of the Bale Eco-region is a high plateau, much of which is over 3000 m a.s.l with several
peaks rising from it. The highest peak in the eco-region is Tullu Dimtu (43 77m), the second
highest point in Ethiopia. South of the plateau, the land falls steeply to the Harenna Escarpment
and further into the Somali and Borana lowland plains, and further into the Indian Ocean. The
northern area was composed of high ridges and broad valleys that gradually descend to the
extensive Arsi-Bale plateaus and further into the Central Rift Valley lowlands. The mountains
chain and topography with its broad flat plateau has given the Bale eco region spectacular
scenery. The diversity of the Bale eco region spectacular scenery hence diverse ecosystems and
rich flora and fauna diversity. Moreover, the mountains massive of the eco-region play a vital
role in climate control of the region by attracting large amount of aerographic rainfalls
(BERSMP, 2006).
The Bale Mountains Eco-Region covers fourteen politically defined zones (called woredas) in the
Oromia state of south-eastern Ethiopia and covers a land area of contains 576,856 hectares (ha) of
tropical dry and moist forest (Figure 1). The moist forest comprises the second largest stand in
Ethiopia, a quarter of which is found within the Bale Mountains National Park. Both moist and dry
forests are threatened by the largely unregulated subsistence livelihood needs of the population,
with forest being cleared to procure land for crops and livestock grazing, as well as for timber and
firewood (BERSMP, 2006). Between 2001 and 2009 the average annual deforestation rate in the
eco-region ranged from 1 to 8% with a mean value of was 3.44% , ranging from 1 to 8% (Dupuy,
2009). To address the decline in forest area, the Oromia Regional State Forest and Wildlife
Enterprise (OFWE) has been implementing are developing a Reduced Emission from Deforestation
and Forest degradation (REDD) project in the Bale Mountains Eco-Region. A semi-autonomous
agency, OFWE is supported in REDD project development by BERSMP; a joint NGO programme
between FARM-Africa and SOS Sahel Ethiopia. Covering more than 900,000 ha, the project area
consists of the dry and moist tropical forest as well as the southern woodlands. Of this area, only
area change in the tropical dry and moist forest will generate emission reductions with area changes
in woodland set-aside to account for emissions that may be relocated rather than reduced. This risk
that emission generating activities will move to other areas, termed ‘leakage’, must be taken into
Commented [BWM(18]: Organize this section like this: 3. Material and Methods 3.1 Study area 3.2 Research design (here you can discuss how you delineated the total population and target population 3.3 Sampling (discuss the sampling for household survey, key informant interviews and FGDs) 3.4 data collection (discuss how you collected data: discuss about the questionnaires, content of questionnaires, etc .. 3.5 data analyses
Commented [BWM(19]: Please write this in full.
Commented [BWM(20]: Please check this figure. Compare with the figure above.
12
consideration. If emission generating activities are dislocated rather than reduced there will be
fewer, or even no, net emission reductions resulting from REDD project activities (Sohngen and
Brown, 2004).
3.1.1. Vegetation
Bale eco region possesses one of the highest incidences of animal and plant endemicity of any
terrestrial habitat in the world afro alpine areas of altitude >3400 m. a.s.l. It has a vegetation
composition of Erica arborea, Helichrysum spp., Alchemilla spp., and giant Lobelia (Lobelia
rhyncopetalum). The mountains are one of the centers of faunal diversity and endemicity, which
generate numerous natural processes vital to human existence and support an important
reservoir of genetic resources (Fishpool and Evans, 2001).
Figure 1.Map of the study area
3.1.2. Climate
13
Ethiopia's climate in general was extremely varied and despite its location within the tropical
region and being close to the equator the country doesn't follow the typical tropical climate
pattern. Its local climates were modified by its landforms, i.e. altitude-induced climatic
conditions prevail over the, country, which is typical also for the Bale eco-region. The vast
highland plateau and associated mountains of the eco-region was characterized by a cool
temperature and high rainfall, and the high peaks like the Sanetti plateau and Tullu- Dimtu
could experience snowfalls in winter. Further south of the mountains and down in the lowlands
a tropical warm and dry climate prevails (OFWE, 2014).
3.2. Methods
3.2.1. Preliminary StudyReconnaissance survey
A reconnaissance preliminary survey was in the study area was carried out before starting actual
data collection to gather relevant information about the area from concerned government
authorities and local communityies and thereby support the design of the research. of the area.
This helped to identify the boundaries of the areas and to identify the parts/kebeles. Very
important data for this research will be collected from secondary and primary sources from
January 2016 to February 2016.
Materials
GPS, bags, Digital photo Camera, Rain coat, Flash disk and CD and Stationery (papers, pens,
slides, etc) will were be used.
3.2.2. Study design
Cross sectional household survey was used in BER to collect relevant information that
addresses specific objectives. Among qualitative research approach, Focus Group Discussion
(FGD), field observation and in-depth interview were used.
3.2.3. Study population and subject
The populations of this study were all household heads in Bale eco- region. , house hold heads
in the study kebeles in the eco-region. Target population was those households which were
living in the study kebeles during the study period and whose livelihood was dependent on
natural resources in the study area.
Commented [BWM(21]: In this section, you should provide rainfall amount, minimum and maximum temperature and discuss about rainfall pattern.
Commented [BWM(22]: Put this under the section: data collection.
Commented [BWM(23]: Please describe the type of data that you collected during the reconnaissance survey.
Commented [BWM(24]: Put this at the end
Commented [BWM(25]: The information included in this section is methods of data collection.
Commented [BWM(26]: Please select one of the two … not clear
14
3.2.4. Sampling technique and sample size
In this study, multi-stage random sampling technique was employed (Figure 2). Firstly, the
woredas in BER that were pilot areas for SHARE project were stratified into highland, midland
and lowland agro-ecologies. Out of the total highland and lowland woredas of BER, five
weredas (two from highland weredas, two from lowland weredas and one from midland) were
selected by simple random sampling technique using lottery method from their strata.
Accordingly, Adaba and Dinsho from highland weredas, and Dello Menna and Berbere from
lowland weredas were selected. As Harena-Buluk weredas was the only middle altitude
weredas, it was considering in the study purposely. Secondly, from each wereda two kebeles
that best represents agro-ecology were selected purposively. The criteria used to select kebeles
from each wereda was being the kebele under intervention of share and kebeles in which natural
resource and livelihoods of inhabitants are strongly linked. Lastly, the sample households from
the kebeles were drawn by systematic random sampling techniques (i.e. using complete
household lists) after the sample size had been proportionally allocated to each kebele based on
the household number.
TABLE. 1. Total population number of each wareda
Adaba Dinsho HarenaBulk
Dolo mena Berbere Total
M 68,775 19,252 41,382
44100 46,445 222314
F 69,942 f 19,872 40,115
45570 44,197 218969
T 138,717 39,124m 81,497 89,670 90,642 441283
Sample
size
121 35 71 78 79 384
15
\The sample size is calculated using a standard formula of (Freund and Williams, 1983):
=
Where: n is sample size, z is statistical certainty usually chosen at 95% confidence level (z =
1.96), p is proportion of population are using natural resources in the study area (p = 0.5), q=
(1- natural resource conditions vary over time in the study area p-0.5) and d is error accepted by
researcher (5%). The sample computed by the above formula is 384.
Figure: 12. sampling procedure for the study
Purposive sample
Dinsho
Adaba
aa
adaba
16
NB: from 10 Kebeles 423 number of household were selected for Questionnaires by systematic random
sampling techniques and 60 key informants were purposefully was selected for in-depth interview. The
composition of the key informants include by purposive sample including kebele leaders, natural
resource expert, and elders. because, the researcher expects they know about trends of natural
resource .
3.2.1. Data Collection Tools
Socio-economic data were gathered using household survey, key informants interview and
focus group discussions. For the household survey, a total of …households (.. men headed; …
women headed households were selected.
Six FGDs (two FGD of male-headed households and female-headed households from each
agro-ecology) was conducted to supplement data obtained through quantitative study. In each
FGD 8-12 participants were involved. The participants of the in-depth interview were 60 key
informants (6 individuals from each kebele) in the three agro ecology. From each agro ecology:
kebele leaders, natural resource expert, elders were considered.
To get reliable information from the research participants the following instruments were used:-
Questionnaires
Observation checklist
In-depth Interview checklist
Focus group discussion checklist
The detail of each data collection instrument discussed as follows:
Questionnaires, closed and open-ended semi structured questionnaires were used to collect the
data for this respondent. The quantitative data were gathered by using closed ended
questionnaires and open ended questionnaires were gathered through qualitative approach. Part
one will be constructed purposely to provide background information about the respondents
such as sex, age, experience. The questionnaire was originally constructed in English by the
researcher and then was translated into Afaan Oromo to enhance the comfort of every
respondent and after data collected from respondents then translated back to English with help
of experts (see Appendix I).
Commented [BWM(27]: After this, please revise this section following this: For household survey: we used open and close ended questionnaires …continue the discussion … move the discussion under questionnaire here. Then you discuss about key informant interview. Describe the type of questions and other Finally discuss about FGD.
Commented [BWM(28]: This has been already discussed under sampling section. Repetition
17
Focus group discussions (FGD) are formally being organized, groups of individuals brought
together to discuss on the natural resource usage constraint and temporal change in Bale eco
region. The discussion took place among, kebele leaders, natural resource experts, youth, elders
and Agricultural extension workers will be considered for 1 hour (see Appendix II).
In-depth Interview, face-to-face semi-structured interview were conducted with the
respondents of the study. The interview items (Appendix III) are about natural resource usage
constraint and temporal change in Bale eco region southeast Ethiopia. The discussion took place
among, kebele leaders, natural resource experts, youth elders and Agricultural extension
workers will be considered.
Observation, with regard to the practical session, observation was made by the researcher in
the study area for about 10 days. Observation checklist (see Appendix V) was prepared
containing items that check the current status of the natural resources. .
Data Analysis Method
Descriptive and inferential statistics were implemented using SPSS software version 20. Chi-
Square was used to compare differences of agro- ecology at 0.05 significance level.
Qualitative data gathered through FGD, Key-informant interview and, observations were
transcribed, categorized into themes and narrated. Quantitative data collected through
household survey, analyzed and summarized using mean and percentages.
The information obtained from quantitative and qualitative sources was triangulated to detect
consistency of information gathered through different techniques.ensure the relevance of the
results of the study.
3.3. Expected output
The expected outputs of this study was come up with identified constraints in utilization of
natural resources and possible solution that ensure sustainable utilization of natural resources in
the eco-region and constraints that limit the inhabitants to increase productivity of their
livelihood mechanisms. Commented [BWM(29]: This section is not important in thesis. Because you have results and discussion section. Please delete this.
18
3.4.3.3. Ethical consideration
Ethical clearance and permission was obtained from Madda Walabu University. Oral consent to
participate in the study was secured before conducting the interview. For this a consent letter
will be attach to cover page of each questionnaire stating about the general purpose of the
study and issues of confidentiality to be discuss by interviewers before proceeding the
interview. Additionally, participants will be informed that they had a full right to refuse or
discontinue participant.
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Description of study participants
Majority (91.8%) of the respondents were male headed households (Table 2). This is due to
local culture that forces women who lost their husbands marry their husband relatives (usually
brother), even in polygamy style. The majority of the respondents were relatively young or are
at middle age (Table 2). This might affect to understand the dynamics of natural resources
beyond two decades. Hence family size per individual farmers was 96(26.2%), 1-4, 169 (46%)
5-8, 66(9-12%) and 36 (9.8%) had family. The increasing population number and high number
of family size were also forced to encroach natural forest for agricultural expansion. On the
other hand, the respondents mentioned that they have been benefited from this increasing family
size for labor availability.
Table 2. Basic characteristics of the respondents , Sex, age, family size Education status of HH
and occupation
Variable Frequency Percent
Sex
Male 337 91.8
Female 30 8.2
Total 367 100
Age category
18-28 41 11.2
29-38 91 24.8
39-48 151 41.1
Above 49 84 22.9
Total 367 100
Education status of HH
0 (illiterate) 205 55.9
1-4 107 29.2
5-8 55 14.9
9-12 0 0
Commented [BWM(30]: I don’t think that this is important. Please remove this.
Commented [BWM(31]: Always put text description before you present tables. You should first refer tables in text before presenting them. Follow this throughout the document.
Commented [BWM(32]: This is not clear
19
Above 12 0 0
Total 367 100
Occupation government employed 10 2.7
Farmer 234 63.8
Pastoralist 120 32.7
Others 3 5
Total 367 100
Livelihood mechanisms Crop production 220 59.9
Animal husbandry 138 37.6
Beekeeping 6 1.6
Others 3 0 .8
Total 367 100
As shown in table 2, about of the total respondents, the majority 337(91.8%) were males while
30(8.2) % was females. This is due to local culture that forces women who lost husbands by
death to marry the brother of her late husband even in polygamy style.
Moreover, as the respondents said that 41(11.2%) belong to the age group of 18-28, 91(24.8%)
belong to the age group of 29-38,151(41.1%) belong to the age group 39-48 and 84(22.9%)
belong to the age group of 49 and above. The maturity age of the respondents might have more
information about trends of natural resource.
Hence family size per individual farmers was 96(26.2%), 1-4, 169 (46%) 5-8, 66(9-12%) and
36 (9.8%) had family. The increasing population number and high number of family were also
forced to encroach natural forest for agricultural expansion. On the other hand, the respondents
mentioned as they have been benefited from this increasing family size for labor availability.
4.1.1. Education status and occupation
The educational level of majority of respondents 205(55.9%) of household heads were illiterate
or unable to read and write, While 107(29.2) % was at the grade level 1- 4 whereas the
remaining small proportion 55(14.9%) were at the 5 -8 grade level and none were at level of
grade 9-12. The educational level of the respondents were illiterate and at the primary school
level due to this reason it might had increase the level of constraints and trends of natural
resources.
As well as 10(2.7%) were government employed 234(63.8%) were farmer 120(32.7%)
pastoralist 3(5%) were others. The majorities of the respondent’s occupations were farmer so
that these might more have increase the natural resource utilization of constraints and the fast
rate of trend.
Commented [BWM(33]: This should not be a separate section. It is about basic characteristics and should be revised under one sub-section: in this case under 4.1.
Commented [BWM(34]: Please see how I improved the presentation of the above paragraph and revise this following the same style.
20
4.1.2. Livelihood mechanisms
The results of this study showed that mixed farming is the major source of livelihood and
income for local community in the study area which includes: crop production, animal
production, and forest related activities such as extraction of NTFPs and on and off farm
activities. Mixed crop-livestock farming is the main economic activity in study area with cattle
kept as the most important livestock for traction and milk production.
The study findings showed that among the sampled households crop production, animal
husbandry, beekeeping and others were ranked as 1 st (59.9%), 2nd.(37.6%),3 rd (1.6%) and 4th
0.8% ) main sources of livelihood activities respectively.
4.2 Major natural resources in Bale Eco-region
Major natural resources in Bale eco-region were land, water, forest, and soil (Table 3). The
importance of the different natural resources varied among agro-ecologies. For example, local
communities’ dependency on forest was higher at mid and low-land when compared to the level
of decency at highland (Table 3). Local communities As it was show in Table1, based on
highland agro ecology 40(28.78%), 49(35,25%), 10(7.19%) and 40(28.78%), of respondents
has indicated that their livelihood mainly depend on land, water, forest, and soil resources,
respectively. 20(28.17%), 15(2113%), 20(28.17%) and 16(22.53%) based on midland agro
ecology as well as, based on lowland agro ecology 40(25,48%), 38(24.20%), 45(28.66%) and
34(21,66%) of respondents has indicated that their livelihood mainly depend on land, water,
forest, and soil resources, respectively. The result of Focus group discussion also indicated that
the importance of these natural resources vary based on their livelihood mechanisms. Similarly
study conducted by BBB (2009) also confirmed that the livelihood of local community near
natural forest/ forest dwellers was mainly depend on the above mentioned natural resources.
Table 3. Major natural resources of Bale Eco-region
Major Natural
resources
%age of respondents who depend on the different
natural resources based on agro ecology
Total
Highland Midland Lowland
Commented [BWM(35]: Same comment as above.
Commented [BWM(36]: Same comment as above: improve this paragraph following the style of the first paragraph.
Commented [BWM(37]: You don’t have to repeat everything in table. You should choose one way of presenting your result. If you summarized in table, you only highlight the important result and refer the table. This also applies for figures. Please delete the shaded part.
Commented [BWM(38]: Always present the text before tables. See the above comment as well.
Commented [BWM(39]: This has to be revised. The figures show the percentage dependency of respondents on different natural resources
21
Land 40 28.78% 20 28.17% 40 25.48% 100
Water 49 35.25% 15 21.13% 38 24.20% 102
Forest 10 7.19% 20 28.17% 45 28.66% 75
Soil 40 28.78% 16 22.53% 34 21.66% 90
Total 139 100 71 100 157 100 367
4.2.4.1. Temporal Trends of natural resource status in Bale Eco-region
Table 4. Trends of natural resource status in Bale Eco-region
NATURAL
RESOURCE
Trends
No change Decreasing Increasing Total X2, df p value
Land holding 9.3% 84.2 6.5 100 36.517,4 0.00
Land use productivity 6.3% 66.8 27 100 63.464,4 0.00
soil fertility 2.7% 91.6 5.7 100 25.09 ,4 0.00
soil erosion 8.2 24.3 67.6 100 7.97, 4 0.93
forest coverage 9.8 80.1 10.1 100 9.58, 4 0.048
forest fragment 4.4 43.1 52.3 100 16.34,4 0.12
specious diversity 5.4 84.5 10.1 100 32.66, 4 0.000
no of wildlife 5.7 78.5 15.8 100 7.87, 4 0.096
habitat distraction 4.6 40.9 54.5 100 70.48,4 0.000
wildlife specious 2.5 90.7 6.8 100 6.62,4 0.16
stream flow 1.9 94 4.1 100 3.94, 4 0.69
water accesses 2.2 94.6 3.3 100 5.59, 4 0.23
water quality 1.9 96.5 1.6 100 11.17,4 0.025
Majority of respondents (Table 4) mentioned that the status of natural resources are
deteriorating. For example, majority (66-92%) of respondents demonstrated a decreasing land
holdings, land productivity, soil fertility, and forest coverage, while they mentioned an
increasing soil erosion, forest fragmentation and habitat destruction (Table 4). As study
revealed that in table 4, 84.2 % were decrease land holding, 66.8 % were decrease land use
Commented [BWM(40]: Not clear what two variables that you have compared?
22
productivity, 91.6 % were decrease soil fertility. 67.6 % were increase soil erosion at X2=7.97,
df=4 , p= 0.93 there is significance difference, 80.1% were decrease forest coverage at
X2=9.58, df=4 at p= 0.048 there is small significance difference, 52.3% were increase forest
fragment at X2=16.34, df=4 at p= 0.12 there is significance difference, 84.5% were decrease
specious diversity. 78.5% were decrease number of wildlife at X2=7.87, df=4, p= 0.096 there
is significance difference, 54.5% were increase habitat distraction, 90.7% were decrease
wildlife specious at X2=6.62, df=4 at p= 0.16 there is significance difference, 94 were decrease
stream flow X2=3.94, df=4 at p= 0.69 there is significance difference, 94.6% were decrease
water accesses X2=16, df=4 at p= 0.12 and 96.5% were decrease water quality and the others
there is no significance difference. Hence, Temporal Trends of natural resource status in Bale
Eco-region result that was most of the natural resource status highly decrease.
Trends of natural resource in highland Eco-region 97.8% of soil fertility was highly decreased,
93.5% were specious diversity 90% of wildlife specious, 94.2% were water accesses and 97.1%
were water quality was highly decreased, respectively. Trends of natural resource in midland
Eco-region 78.9% soil fertility highly decreasing, 90.1% wildlife specious, 91.5% stream flow,
90.1% water accesses and 91.5 water quality highly decreasing respectively.
Therefore, the reduction of natural resource were caused by the effect of overpopulation of the
community that is already fragile (steep and mountainous) and mismanagement of the land
itself, decline in soil fertility causes continuous cropping ,decline in manure application, little
or no agronomic management, particularly cropping systems decline in inorganic fertilizer use.
Trends of natural resource lowland Eco-region 91.7% soil fertility, 81.5% specious diversity,
88.5% wildlife specious, 94.3% stream flow, 96.8% water accesses and 98.1% water quality
were highly decreasing respectively.
Therefore, the reduction of natural resource was caused by the effect of overpopulation of the
livestock, less use of fertilizer, degradation, no implementations of management.
Commented [BWM(41]: Please move this above Table 4.
Commented [BWM(42]: This is not how you highlight information summarized in table. You just indicate major ones and refer the table. Please the first four sentences in this paragraph as an example and revise the results and discussion section.
Commented [BWM(43]: Please revise this based on the above example. You should refer Table 5 here.
23
Fig 2. Degraded area at lowland
Human demand for food and energy plays a key role in driving many environmental change,
especially through conversion of natural ecosystems to farming and overexploitation of natural
resources due to population growth . The pressure from human food and economic demand on
biodiversity resources is intimately link with climate change. Demographic change, land use
change, in particular deforestation of forest ,lack of water management and water pollution in
dry regions lead to land degradation. Loss of biodiversity and ultimately cause temporal change.
The study revealed that the major trends in the bale eco region during the key informant
interview and formal household survey people confirmed that vegetation cover changes have
happened through time. In the previous time the vegetation cover of the area was dense and had
large land coverage. These large and dense vegetation covers had been declining with time and
were gradually reduced to only scattered trees on the farm land and disturbed natural forest.
One of the key informants who is which are living in low land (Berbere woreda serima kebele)
mentioned that had to say this about the vegetation cover change of the area as in the following
context:
“I was borne during the end of Hilesilase regime and I have been living here for more
than 35 years. It is not only of the information that I have heard about the dense
vegetation cover of the area from my parents, but during the Derg regime I myself used
to collect fuel wood from Olea africana tree and make beehives from Polyscias
ferruginea tree species at the nearby site of our residence. This time, however, it is not
easy to get remnants of Olea africana in the farm and I should travel 6 hours to get
Polyscias ferruginea for mounting beehives”.
Commented [BWM(44]: Not referred in the text.
Commented [BWM(45]: Pleas cite a reference
Commented [BWM(46]: Mention the date and year at the end.
Commented [BWM(47]: This is good.
24
Fig 3. During key informant interview
Other key informant informants who are living in high land (Dinsho woreda 02 kebele)
discussed the vegetation cover changes of the area by comparing the past and the recent years as
in the following:
“I have lived over the past two government regimes and am living in the third one.
During these times I have observed vegetation cover changing from wide and dense
coverage to only scattered trees on the farm land and a few patches of remnant natural
forest. During the period of Hayilesilase land was under the control of land lords.
Because of this reason cutting a single tree for any purpose and forest encroachment for
agricultural expansion as well as use of forest products was strictly forbidden. As a
result of this, there was no serious deforestation and vegetation cover was better than
recent times. During the Derg regime land was taken from the land lords and
distributed to the farming community following the proclamattillage. Consequently, the
land distribution opened the loophole and a way for forest encroachment and
agricultural expansion. The event guaranteed the start of the destruction of vegetation.
During the period of the downfall of the Derg govern`ment, people used the opportunity
of the weak law enforcement as to fasten the clearance of vegetation for different
purpose. Similar trend has been continued on the remnant natural forest until now”
weak law enforcement as to fasten the clearance of vegetation for different purpose.
Similar trend has been continued on the remnant natural forest until now”
Similar to the evidence about the evolution of reduction in vegetation cover over time was
given from the key informants, The major cause of reduction in vegetation cover through these
periods was agricultural expansion due to population growth followed by fire, expansion of
coffee management and seasonal grazing in the natural forest.
Commented [BWM(48]: Not referred in the text
Commented [BWM(49]: Repetition
Formatted: Font: Italic
Formatted: Font: Italic
25
Table 5, Trends of natural resources by agro ecology
Natural resource
trend indicators
Highland Midland Lowland
No
ch
an
ge
Dec
rea
sin
g
Incr
easi
ng
To
tal
No
ch
an
ge
Dec
rea
sin
g
Incr
easi
ng
To
tal
No
ch
an
ge
Dec
rea
sin
g
Incr
eain
c
rea
sin
g
T
To
tal
Land holding 7.9 85.6 6.5 100 7 71.8 21.1 100 11.5 88.5 0 100
Land use
productivity 10.1 51.8 38.1 100 2.8 49.3 47.9 100 4.5 87.9 47.9 100
soil fertility 1.4 97.8 0.7 100 4.2 78.9 16.9 100 1.4 91.7 5.1 100
soil erosion 4.2 97.8 0.07 100 2.8 29.6 67.6 100 7 26.1 66.9 100
forest coverage 14.4 77 8.6 100 7 76.1 16.9 100 7 84.7 8.3 100
forest fragment 1.4 52.2 46 100 4.2 29.6 62.2 100 7 40.8 52.2 100
specious diversity 3.6 93.5 2.9 100 1.4 73.2 25.4 100 8.9 81.5 9.6 100
no of wildlife 3.6 82 14.4 100 2.8 74.6 22.5 100 8.9 77.1 14 100
habitat distraction 6.5 79.9 13.7 100 5.6 42.3 52.1 100 2.5 37.6 59.9 100
wildlife specious 3.6 93.5 2.9 100 1.4 90.1 8.5 100 1.9 88.5 9.6 100
strem flow 1.4 90 3.6 100 4.2 91.5 4.2 100 1.3 94.3 4.4 100
water accesses 1.4 94.2 4.3 100 4.2 90.1 5.6 100 1.9 96.8 1.3 100
water quality 2.9 97.1 0 100 4.2 91.5 4.2 100 0 98.1 1.9 100
Table 5, generally, as the study revealed that the following different trend to show in the three
agro ecology was as follows:
On the highland agro ecology, the trends of natural resource observed that was lack soil
fertility, soil erosion, Forest specious diversity wildlife specious, stream flow, water accesses
and water quality (97.8%,97.8%, 93.5%, 93.5%,90.0%, 94.2% and 97.1%) respectively. On the
midland agro ecology, the trends of natural resource observed that was wildlife specious,
stream flow, water accesses and water quality (93.5%, 90.0%, 94.2% and 97.1%) respectively.
Even though, on the lowland agro ecology the trends of natural resource observed that was soil
fertility, stream flow, water accesses and water quality (91.7%, 94.3%, 96.8%, and 98.1%)
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"
26
respectively in addition to this forest fragment was 94.3% of lowland agro ecology highly
increases.
4.3.4.2. Natural resource utilization in bale eco region
During the key informant interview and as the researcher observed livelihoods in the midland
woredas are closely joined to forest resources. Traditionally, livelihoods across the case study
area largely depended on a pastoralist transhumance system known as godantu. The system
revolves around seasonal forest grazing, with some members of pastoralist communities in the
lowland areas south of Harenna Forest moving into the forest with their livestock cattle in
particular—during the dry season (January to March) in search of shade and livestock fodder.
Today, considerable amounts of semi-wild coffee are harvested in the Harenna Forest,
providing a significant source of income for the local community.
People in the lowland area do extract timber and non-timber forest products from
the forest. Construction wood, fuel wood, medicinal plants and softwoods for traditional
beehives are some of the forest products that are usually collected from the wild and in some
area water are used as irrigation.
4.4.4.3. Natural resources use constraints in Bale Eco-Region.
The major natural resource constraints are predominantly primitive nature of the
overall existing production systems, shortage of agricultural inputs and credit systems, limited
access to improved irrigation technologies and inadequate research support, lack of trained
manpower and frequent staff turnover, and unstable institutional set up and inadequate
extension services and limited availability of capital. Social factors such as demographic
pressure, land shortage, and social and cultural aspirations affect the utilization of natural
resources. These socially driven forces lead to several activities with major changes in
utilization NR and environmental characteristics such as deforestation, and new land
development. Some may argue that trees increase evapotranspiration during the dry season
thereby reducing the amount of water received by the soil, but in a steeping slope like in many
parts of the Ethiopian highlands, trees can reduce the velocity and increase infiltration
contributing to the more ground water recharge.
Limited land area and quality, lack of agricultural techniques, lack of irrigation water, low
yielding crop varieties, pests and diseases), and lack of market access.. The reduction of natural
resource was caused by the effect of overpopulation of the livestock, less use of fertilizer,
degradation, no implementations of management.
Commented [BWM(50]: You have started discussing on this above. Please merge and revise & avoid repetition.
27
4.4.1.4.3.1. Constraints to use Land
Table 5. Biophysical Constraints of land resources utilization by agro ecology
Biophysical factors
Agro ecology
Midland Lowland Highland
Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total
Scarcity of rain 53.5% 46.5% 100 7.6% 92.4% 100 20.0% 80.0% 100
Climate variability 78.8% 21.2% 100 77.1% 46.9% 100 76.4% 23.6% 100
Soil fertility 36.6% 63.4% 100 83.4% 16.6% 100 52.1% 47.9% 100
Limited land area 33.8% 62.2% 100 15.3% 84.7% 100 79.2% 20.79% 100
Low productivity land 36.6% 66.4% 100 76.4% 23.6% 100 35.0% 65.0% 100
Crops /livestock
damage by Wildlife
26.8% 72.2% 100 87.9% 12.1% 100 80.6% 19.4% 100
Drought 50.7% 49.3% 100 89.2% 10.8% 100 36.4% 63.6% 100
Shortage of gazing
land
64.8% 35.2% 100 28.7% 71.3% 100 98.6% 1.4% 100
Lack of water sources 35.2% 64.8% 100 63.1% 36.9% 100 15.0% 85.0% 100
Topography 38.8% 66.2% 100 35.0% 65.0% 100 32.9% 67.1% 100
As shown in the above table 56, on the midland agro ecology more constraint of the utilization
of land revealed that 78.8% of climate variability and 64.8% of Shortage of gazing land as well
as, the lowland agro ecology more constraint of the utilization of land revealed that Climate
variability, Soil fertility, Low productivity land, Crops /livestock damage by Wildlife, Drought
and Lack of – water sources of (77.1%, 83.4%, 76.4%, 87.9%, 89.2% and 63.1%) respectively.
On the other hand on the highland agro ecology more constraint of the utilization of land
observed that Climate variability, Limited land area, Crops /livestock damage by Wildlife and
Shortage of gazing land of (76.4%, 79.2%, 80.6% and 98.6%) respectively.
Commented [BWM(51]: Table 6?
Commented [BWM(52]: Please revise this paragraph based on the above comments and example revisions
28
Table 6. Economic Constraints of land resources utilization by agro ecology
Economic factor
Agro ecology
Midland Lowland Highland
Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total
Lack of
infrastructures
49.3% 50.7% 100 87.9% 12.1% 100 10.7% 89.3% 100
Education about NR 43.7% 56.3% 100 87.9% 12.1% 100 39.3% 60.7% 100
Inaccessibility of
market
67.6% 32.4% 100 80.9% 19.1% 100 56.4% 43.6% 100
Table 6 above also indicates that, on the midland agro ecology more constraint depend on
economic factors was 67.6% of Inaccessibility of market. Even though on the lowland agro
ecology more constraint depend on economic factors was Lack of infrastructures, Education
about NR and Inaccessibility of market (87.9%, 87.9% and 80.9%) respectively.
Table 7. Lack of technology and input Constraints of land resources utilization by agro
ecology
Lack of technology and
input
Agro ecology
Midland Lowland Highland
Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total
Agricultural machinery 74.9% 23.1% 100 94.9% 5.1% 100 14.3% 83.7% 100
Lack of inputs (Seed, 40.8% 59.2% 100 98.1% 1.9% 100 45.7% 54.3% 100
Commented [BWM(53]: Table 7?
Commented [BWM(54]: Same comment; revise it based on the above comments.
Commented [BWM(55]: Table 8?
29
Fertilizer and pesticide)
Shortage of irrigation 87.6% 12.4% 100 49.0% 51.0% 100 24.3% 75.7% 100
Lack of information 38.0% 62.0% 100 89.2% 10.8% 100 33.6% 64.4% 100
Table 7 above also indicates that, on the midland agro ecology more constraint depend on Lack
of technology and input, 74.9% of Agricultural machinery and 87.6% Shortage of irrigation. In
other way, Agricultural machinery, Lack of inputs (Seed, Fertilizer and pesticide) and Lack of
information were (94.9%, 98.1% and 82.2%) respectively.
Table 8. Lack of knowledge and law implementation Constraints of land resources utilization
by agro ecology
Lack of knowledge and
law implementation
Agro ecology
Midland Lowland Highland
Yes No Tot
al
Yes No Tota
l
Yes No Total
Lack of scientific
knowledge
56.3
5%
43.7% 100 98.7% 1.3% 100 21.1% 72.9% 100
Governance and
Institutional
Constraints
62.0
%
38.0% 100 77.1% 22.9
%
100 2.1% 97.9% 100
NR use limiting laws and
Regulations
26.8
%
73.2% 100 61.8% 38.2
%
100 89.3% 10.7% 100
Table 8 above also indicates that, on the midland agro ecology more constraint depends on
Lack of knowledge and law implementation, 56.35% lack of scientific knowledge and 62.0%
Commented [BWM(56]: Please revise table numbers and refer in text.
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"
30
of Governance and Institutional Constraints . Whereas, on the lowland agro ecology more
constraint depends on Lack of knowledge and law implementation, 98.7% lack of scientific
knowledge, 77.1% of Governance and Institutional Constraints and 61.8% NR use limiting
laws and Regulations. In small manner, on the highland agro ecology more constraint depends
on Lack of knowledge and law implementation was 89.3% of NR use limiting laws and
Regulations.
In general, Problems of technology generation, manufacturing and multiplication are among
the constraints identified to use Land. As a result, very often many inputs such as improved
seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation systems, etc. The main inputs for distribution are: micro-
irrigation equipment. With reference to credit, though essential for irrigated crop production, it
is either totally absent or used in only limited number of schemes. The problem is the
reluctance of most farmers to use any credit for irrigation. This results in a much slower rate of
production increase from an area than is economically desirable from the institutional
viewpoint. Overall, the input supply and credit systems are not designed for the irrigation and it
is being managed through the existing system established for rain fed farming.
4.4.2.4.3.2. Constraints to use Water
Table 9, Biophysical Constraints of Water resources utilization by agro ecology
Biophysical factors
Agro ecology
Midland Lowland Highland
Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total
Scarcity of rain 47.9%
52.1% 100 90.4 9.6 100 18.0% 82.0% 100
Climate variability 46.5% 53.5% 100 70.7% 29.3 100 76.3% 18.0% 100
Drought 54.9% 45.1% 100 79.1% 27.4% 100 23.0% 43.2% 100
Shortage of gazing land 45.1% 54.9% 100 29.3% 70.7% 100 37.4% 68.9% 100
Lack of – water sources 47.9% 52.1% 100 72.0% 28.0% 100 84.2% 62.6% 100
Topography 47.7% 52.3% 100 29.9% 70.1% 100 66.0% 34.0% 100
31
As shown in the above table 9, on the lowland agro ecology more constraint of the utilization
of water revealed that scarcity of rain, Climate variability, Drought and Lack of – water sources
of (90.4%, 70.7%, 79.1% and 72.0%) respectively. on the highland agro ecology more
constraint of the utilization of water revealed that 76.3% of climate variability, 84.2% lack of –
water sources and 66.0% of Topography.
Table 10, Economic Constraints of Water resources utilization by agro ecology
Economic factor
Agro ecology
Midland Lowland Highland
Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No To
tal
Lack of infrastructures 63.4% 36.6% 100 31.2% 68.8% 100 49.4% 50.
6%
100
Education about NR 53.5% 46.5% 100 78.3% 21.7% 100 41.7% 58.
3%
100
Table10 above also indicates that, on the midland agro ecology more constraint the utilization
of water was 63.4% of Lack of infrastructures. Even though on the lowland agro ecology more
constraint depends on economic factors 78.3% of Education about NR.
Commented [BWM(57]: Revise based on the above examples/comments
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"
32
Table 11, Constraints of Water resources utilization by agro ecology
Constraints
Agro ecology
Midland Lowland Highland
Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total
Agricultural
machinery
54.9% 45.3% 100 82.8% 16.6% 100 56.4% 43.6% 100
Lack of inputs (Seed,
Fertilizer and
pesticide)
58.9% 41.1% 100 25.5% 74.5% 100 10.8% 3.6% 100
Shortage of irrigation 77.6% 22.4% 100 51.0% 49.0% 100 74.8% 25.2% 100
Lack of information 38.0% 62.0% 100 94.1% 8.3% 100 35.3% 64.7% 100
Lack of scientific
knowledge
56.3% 43.7% 100 91.7% 8.3% 100 67.6% 32.4% 100
33
Table 11 above also indicates that, on the midland agro ecology more constraint depend on
Lack of technology and input, 54.9% of Agricultural machinery and 77.6 % Shortage of
irrigation. In other way, Agricultural machinery, 58.9% of Lack of inputs (Seed, Fertilizer and
pesticide) whereas, on the lowland agro ecology more constraint depend on Lack of technology
and input, 82.8% of Agricultural machinery, 94.1% Lack of information and 56.4%
Agricultural machinery and 74.8% Shortage of irrigation on the highland agro ecology more
constraint depend on Lack of technology and input.
In other ways, on the three agro ecology more constraint depend on Lack of knowledge at
midland, lowland and highland show that (56.3%, 91.7%, and 67.6%) respectively.
Fig, 4. During focus Group Discussion
similarly, from FGD and in-depth interview result revealed that, Technologies for water
pumping and lifting devices are not available on time and at reasonable prices. It is very rare to
observe an organized input distribution system or estimation of input requirement. The SSI
users do not have market structure for their productions. Prices are fixed by traders while
Commented [BWM(58]: Not referred in text
34
farmers have little or no power to bargain on. Storage of farm products and quality control
systems are not available that have significantly and negatively affect farmers as a result of
high post-harvest losses. The farmers do not know how to build proper furrows or how to
properly control water flows in the skilled and motivated Development Agent’s (DA) and in
others, not so much so. The skill of development agents in general is low in the area of on-farm
water and crop management practices and they are not in a position to effectively assist
farmers. Poor linkages and limited capacities were identified to exist in agricultural research
centers and water users’ associations. The need to improve the human resources is also
highlighted. Limitations in budget to expand SSI are also indicated as one of the main
constraints.
4.4.3.4.3.3. Constraints to use Forest
Table 12, Constraints of forest resources utilization by agro ecology
As shown in the above table 12, on the lowland agro ecology more constraint of the utilization
of forest revealed that scarcity of rain, Climate variability, Soil fertility, Drought and Lack of –
water sources of (88.5%, 99.7%, 75.8% ,52.9% and 75.8%) respectively.
Biophysical factors
Agro ecology
Midland Lowland Highland
Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total
Scarcity of rain 45.1% 54.9% 100 88.5% 11.5% 100 68.3% 31.7% 100
Climate variability 47.9% 52.1% 100 99.7% 30.6% 100 64.7% 35.3% 100
Soil fertility 22.5% 77.5% 100 75.8% 24.8% 100 2.9% 97.1% 100
Drought 54.9% 45.1% 100 52.9% 47.1% 100 97.8% 87.1% 100
Lack of – water sources 28.2% 71.8% 100 75.8% 24.2% 100 26.6% 73.4% 100
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.5"
35
Table 13, Constraints of forest resources utilization
Constraints
Agro ecology
Midland Lowland Highland
Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total
Education about NR 50.0% %50.0 100 80.9% 19.1% 100 25.
2%
74.
8$
100
Lack of information 35.2% 64.8% 100 91.7% 8.3% 100 35.
3%
64.
7%
100
Lack of scientific
knowledge
69.0% 31.0% 100 96.2% 3.8% 100 66.
2%
33.
8%
100
Governance and
Institutional
Constraints
53.5% 11.8% 100 87.3% 12.7% 100 94.
2%
5.8
%
100
NR use limiting laws and
Regulations
67.6% 32.4% 100 87.3% 20.1% 100 97.
1%
2.9
%
100
36
Table 13 above also indicates that, on the lowland agro ecology more constraint the utilization
of forest was 80.9% of Education about NR depends on economic factors, 91.7% of Lack of
information depend on Lack of technology and input, depend up on Lack of knowledge and
law implementation respectively, midland, lowland and highland agro ecology more constraint
the utilization of forest were (69.0%, 96.2% and 66.2%) revealed that Lack of scientific
knowledge. on the lowland and highland agro ecology more constraint respectively, 87.3%
and 94.2%of Governance and Institutional Constraints . whereas, (67.6%,87.3% and 97.1% ) of
NR use limiting laws and Regulations on the midland, lowland and highland agro ecology
more constraint the utilization of forest were respectively.
4.4.4.4.3.4. Constraints to use Wildlife
From FGD and in-depth interview respondents revealed that the fast rate of logging or loss of
tree cover is relatively high. The current use of logging practices is often unsound and
unnecessarily destructive. Forest areas are cleared for farming. Consequently, there is
increasing soil erosion. In the study area especially lowland where the forest resources are
already fragile, the destruction of forests is serious. There is little sound forest development or
reforestation Habitat distractions, specious of wildlife are also decline.
4.4.5.4.3.5. Constraints to use Soil
Table 14, Biophysical Constraints
Biophysical factors
Agro ecology
Midland Lowland Highland
Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total
Scarcity of rain 43.7% 56.3% 100 77.7% 23.3% 100 65.7% 36.7% 100
Climate variability 43.7% 56.3% 100 66.9% 33.1% 100 61.2% 38.8% 100
Soil fertility 43.7% 56.3% 100 77.7% 56.3% 100 64.7% 35.3% 100
Crops /livestock
damage by
Wildlife
36.65% 28.2% 100 66.9% 33.1% 100 66.9% 33.1% 100
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.5"
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.5"
37
Drought 71.8% 28.2% 100 72.6% 27.4% 100 39.4% 60.6% 100
Lack of – water
sources
40.8% 60.6% 100 89.2% 10.8% 100 44.6% 55.4% 100
Topography 39.4% 83.1% 100 10.2% 89.8% 100 79.9% 20.1% 100
As table 14 above depicts, on the midland agro ecology more constraint of the utilization of
soil revealed that 71, 8% of Drought. While on the lowland agro ecology more constraint of the
utilization of soil revealed that scarcity of rain, Climate variability, Soil fertility, and Crops
/livestock damage by Wildlife, Drought and Lack of – water sources of (77.7%, 66.9%, 77.7%,
66.9%, 72.6% and 89.2%) respectively. while on the highland agro ecology more constraint of
the utilization of soil revealed that scarcity of rain, Climate variability and Soil fertility sources
of (65.7%, 61.2%, 64.7% and 79.9%) respectively.
Tables 15, Constraints of Soil utilization
Constraints
Agro ecology
Midland Lowland Highland
Yes No Total Yes No Total Yes No Total
Education about NR 15.5% 84.5% 100 77.1% 22.9% 100 25.9% 74.1% 100
Lack of inputs (Seed,
Fertilizer and pesticide)
36.6% 59.0% 100 86.3% 13.7% 100 77.7% 22.3% 100
Shortage of irrigation 62.0% 46.5% 100 50.0% 50.0% 100 65.0% 35.0% 100
Lack of scientific
knowledge
53.5% 81.7% 100 89.8% 10.2% 100 59.7% 40.3% 100
Governance and
Institutional
18.3% 94.4% 100 11.5% 88.5% 100 65.0% 35.0% 100
Commented [BWM(59]: Don’t list all figures in text. Please revise according to the above comments.
38
Table 15 above also indicates that, on the lowland agro ecology more constraint the utilization
of soil was 77.1% of Education about NR depends on economic factors, from Lack of
technology and input respectively, 86.3% and 77.7% of Lack of inputs (Seed, Fertilizer and
pesticide) on the lowland and highland agro ecology more constraints. Even though, 62.0% and
65.0% Shortage of irrigation on midland and highland. depend up on Lack of knowledge and
law implementation respectively, midland, lowland and highland agro ecology more constraint
the utilization of soil were (53.5%, 89.8% and 59.7% in that order revealed that Lack of
scientific knowledge.
From FGD and in-depth interview respondents revealed that The unique topography, type of
soil, deforestation, intensive rainfall and low level of land management and the land use type
practiced have resulted in heavy runoff that induced soil erosion particularly in the lowland
and highlands. Soil erosion and lack of soil fertility is taking place all over the country but
because of the effect of overpopulation on land that is already fragile (steep and mountainous),
and mismanagement of the land itself, decline in soil fertility causes continuous cropping,
decline in manure application, little or no agronomic management, particularly cropping
systems decline in inorganic fertilizer use and, soil erosion. Diversity in the social,
topographic, agro-ecological and watershed setups adoption rate is slow. Erosion negatively
affects soil resources, lowers soil fertility and aggravates siltation of reservoirs, while
mechanisms for upland erosion are generally well understood (Haile et al., 2006).
.
4.4.6.4.3.6. Common constraints to show in the three agro ecology of bale eco region
Generally, as the study revealed that the following similar constraints to show in the three agro
ecology were as follows:
Poor market structure and information
Constraints
Commented [BWM(60]: Same comment. Revise.
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.5"
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.25"
39
The lack of access to market in close proximity has greatly reduced the income that farmers
could have gained otherwise. Price information is random, some farmers get it from neighbors
or friends visiting the markets and some do not get it at all.
Lack of scientific knowledge
Limited knowledge of marketing to produce high value crops production facilities; inadequate
knowledge on utilization of natural resource, Inadequate knowledge base and low level of
knowhow of technical personnel on irrigation technologies (irrigation pumps, drip irrigation
system, fertilizer, post- harvest technologies, market opportunities and constraints, etc);
Inadequate baseline data and information on the development of water resources; Lack of
experience in design, construction and supervision of construction activities of constraints of
natural resource.
Governance and Institutional Constraints
The gaps identified in this regard include: lack of clarity in mandates, poor collaboration and
networking and poor handing over of irrigation systems. At all levels, there exists low
institutional capacity which is critical to enhance development of SSI with respect to
development planning, design, implementation and operation and maintenance including
irrigation advisory services.
4.4.7.4.3.7. Different constraints to show in the three agro-ecologies
Generally, as the study revealed that the following different constraints to show in the three
agro ecology were as follows:
On the midland agro ecology, about utilizing of land resource constraints was lack of
irrigation system observed and also at the lowland agro ecology, about utilizing of land
resource constraints was lack of knowledge and input where as at the highland agro ecology,
about utilizing of land resource constraints was lack of infrastructure and crops/livestock
damage by wild animal. Whereas, On the midland agro ecology; about utilizing of water and
forest resource constraints was lack of irrigation and NR use limiting law and regulation
implementations respectively. While, on the lowland and highland agro ecology; about
utilizing of water resource constraints was scarcity of rain and lack of irrigation. In other way,
on the midland and highland agro ecology; about utilizing of forest resource constraints was
NR use limiting law and regulation implementations respectively. Even though, on the
lowland agro ecology; about utilizing of soil resource constraints were drought or degradation,
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.25"
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.38"
40
lack of soil fertility and erosion. As well as on the highland agro ecology was erosion and step
mountain farming was the main constraints.
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This Chapter is devoted to make short Conclusion and recommendation based on the
findings of this Study. As has been said to collect the required data, Questionnaires ,
Observation, In-depth Interview and Focus group discussion were used .The data Obtained
were organized analyzed and interpreted using total mean score and variance .
5.1. CONCLUSION
The main objective of this study was to investigate the natural resource usage constraints and
their temporal change in Bale Eco Region, Southeast Ethiopia. Besides this, the target
populations of the study were all household heads in Bale eco- region, house hold heads in the
study kebeles in the eco-region. Target population is those households which are living in the
study kebeles during the study period and whose livelihood was dependent on natural resources
in the study area. . The cross sectional design was used, however, it is worth mentioning that
these findings might limit because of over a short period data collection. Despite these
limitations, the study came up with the following important findings.
The results support that natural resources such as forest, water and soil in the Bale Eco-region
are degrading. study revealed that the major trends in the bale eco region during the key
informant interview and formal household survey people confirmed that vegetation cover
changes have happened through time. In the previous time the vegetation cover of the area was
Commented [BWM(61]: Not important. Delete it
Commented [BWM(62]: This is not a conclusion but a repetition of what you discussed in the above section.
41
dense and had large land coverage. These large and dense vegetation covers had been declining
with time and were gradually reduced to only scattered trees on the farm land and disturbed
natural forest.
As study revealed that the Trends of natural resources over time in bale eco region were land
holding, soil fertility, erosion land use productivity, forest coverage , specious diversity,
number of wildlife, wildlife specious, stream flow, water quality and water accesses as study
revealed that there was significance difference or change. Whereas, trends of natural resources
like forest fragment and habitat distraction had been small significance difference.
Natural resource utilization in bale eco region
Compared to the low- and highland agro-ecologies, Llivelihoods in the mid agro-ecology of
the Bale eco-region land woredas strongly dependent on forest products. This indicates that
forest degradation has a strong negative effect on the livelihood of local communities living at
mid-altitude. Similarly, the decline in land productivity and soil fertility strongly influence
communities living in the highland areas. are closely joined to forest resources. Traditionally,
livelihoods across the case study area largely depended on a pastoralist transhumance system
known as godantu. The system revolves around seasonal forest grazing, with some members of
pastoralist communities in the lowland areas south of Harenna Forest moving into the forest
with their livestock cattle in particular—during the dry season (January to March) in search of
shade and livestock fodder. Today, considerable amounts of semi-wild coffee are harvested in
the Harenna Forest, providing a significant source of income for the local community. as well
as, Livelihoods in the highland woreda classily joined with farming or crop production.
The major natural resources utilization constraints in the three agro ecology
The major natural resource constraints are predominantly primitive nature of the overall
existing production systems, shortage of agricultural inputs and saving and credit systems,
limited access to improved irrigation technologies and inadequate research support, lack of
trained manpower and frequent staff turnover, and unstable institutional set up and inadequate
extension services and limited availability of capital. Social factors such as demographic
pressure, land shortage, and social and cultural aspirations affect the utilization of natural
resources. These socially driven forces lead to several activities with major changes in
Commented [BWM(63]: All these are already mentioned in the above section. In the conclusion section, you just mention major finding and the implication for natural resources management and livelihood. All these can be summarized in one sentence (see the example).
Commented [BWM(64]: Please see the example: how I summarized the key results and implication. Follow that example and revise the whole conclusion section. No sub-section under conclusion. The conclusion should be summarized as one paragraph (10-15 sentences maximum).
42
utilization NR and environmental characteristics such as deforestation, and new land
development. Some may argue that trees increase evapotranspiration during the dry season
thereby reducing the amount of water received by the soil, but in a steeping slope like in many
parts of the Ethiopian highlands, trees can reduce the velocity and increase infiltration
contributing to the more ground water recharge.
Limited land area and quality, lack of agricultural techniques, lack of irrigation water, low
yielding crop varieties, pests and diseases), and lack of market access. From the farmers’
perspective
The reduction of natural resource was caused by the effect of overpopulation of the livestock,
less use of fertilizer, degradation, no implementations of management.
5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the finding of the natural resource usage constraints and their temporal change in
Bale Eco Region, Southeast Ethiopia, the following possible solutions are suggested in hopes
that the problems would be resolved.
The management system that has been employed to protect natural resource from threat could not
prevent the NR from community interference. Therefore, revision on natural resource management plan
has to be considered.
Demands on natural forest are not only from the communities living around the forest but also
from pastoralist in the low lands of adjacent districts. Therefore, integrated rural development
intervention like, appropriate range land management, access to water etc should be carried
out.
Natural resource expert/ stakeholders have to encourage and facilitate the implementation wise
usage of natural resource to concerned community.
Finally, detailed research is necessary to identify the natural resource usage constraints and
their temporal change in Bale Eco Region, Southeast Ethiopia.
Commented [BWM(65]: Revise this following the above example and merge and present in one paragraph.
Commented [BWM(66]: I think it is difficult to state these kinds of recommendations based on your study. Please look at your results, understand their implication. Then, you can suggest recommendations that can be supported by evidence generated by your study. In sum, your recommendations need revision.
43
REFERENCE
Adger, W.N., Agrawala, S., Mirza, C., Conde, K. and Takahashi, K. (2007). Assessment of adaptation
practices, options, constraints and Adaptation and Vulnerability. pp. 717-743.
Aitken, S.N. (2008). Adaptation,migration or extirpation: climate change outcomes for tree
populations.Evolutionary Applications. 1(1): 95-11.
Auty, R. M. (1997). Natural Resources, the State and Development Strategy. Journal of
International Development. 9 (1997):651–63.
Berkhout, F. (2012). Adaptation to climate change by organizations. Wiley Interdisciplinary reviews.
3(1): 91-106.
BERSMP, (2006). Land Use Change Analysis. A presentation made at the Land Tenure Workshop.
Goba
44
Biesbroek, G.R., Klostermann, C., Termeer, J. and Kabat, P. (2013). On the nature of barriers
to climate change adaptation. Regional Environmental Change. 13(5): 1119-1129.
Clark, J.S., Bell, D.M., Hersh, M.H. and Nichols, L. (2011) Climate change vulnerability of
Forest biodiversity: climate and resource tracking of demographic rates. 17: 1834-1849.
Campbell, B., Gunarso, K., Kartawinata, P., and Rhee, D. (2003). Empowering forest Dwellers and
managing forests more sustainably in the landscapes of Borneo. Pp. 79-96.
Codjoe, S.N. (2007). Integrating Remote Sensing, GIS, Census, and Socioeconomic Data in Studying
the Population–Land Use/Cover Nexus in Ghana: A Literature Update Africa Development. 4(
2):197–212.
Colchester, M. (1994). Slave and enclave: the political ecology of equatorial Africa. World
Rainforest Movement, Penang, Malaysia.
David, R. (2009). Rural Poverty and Natural Resources: Improving Accessand Sustainable
Management .pp.3.
Delgado, J.A. (2011). Conservation practices to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Journal of Soil and
Water Conservation. 66(4): 118-129.
Dryden, S., Smithers, R., and Kreutzwiser, R.(2007). An Evaluation of Options for Responding
To Agricultural Droughts and Water Shortages in Canada. Final Report. pp. 68.
Easterling, W.E. (2003). Observed impact of climate change in agriculture and
forestry. IPCC Workshop on the Detection and Attribution of the Effects of Climate Change,
GISS, New York, 54-55.
Ebi, K. and Semenza, J. (2008). Community-based adaptation to the health impacts of climate
change. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 35(5): 501-507.
Ecoregion newslatter, (2016),no-1
Fishpool, J. and Evans, M.I. (2001). Important Bird Areas in Africa and Associated Islands;
Priority Sites for Conservation.Piscus Publishers, Cambridge.
Fung, F., Lopez, A. and New, M. (2011). Water availability in +2°C and +4°C worlds.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A. 369(1934): 99-116.
Freund. JE, and Williams, FJ. (1983). Modern Business Statistics. London: Pitman.
Garschagen, M. (2013). Resilience and organizational institutionalism from a cross-cultural
45
Perspective: an exploration based on urban climate change adaptation in Vietnam. 67(1): 25-
46.
Gete, Z. (2010). A Study on Mountain Externalities in Ethiopia: Final report. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Grime, J.P. (1979). Plant strategies and vegetation processes. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK
Girma, T. (2001). Land degradation: A challenge to Ethiopia Environmental Management. 22(6):815-
824.
GoV, (2011). Government of Vietnam. National Poverty Line in Period.
Grothmann, T. and Patt, A. (2005). Adaptive capacity and human cognition: the process of
individual adaptation to climate change. Global Environmental Change. 15: 199-213.
Hellmann, J.J. (2012). The influence of species interactions on geographic range change under
Climate change. Academy of Sciences. 1249(1): 18-28.
Howe, H.F. (1990). Seed dispersal by birds and mammals: implication for seed17:191-218.
Huang, C., Vaneckova, P., Wang, X., FitzGerald, G., Guo, Y. and Tong, S.
(2011).Constraint and barriers to public health adaptation to climate change. A review of the
literature. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 40(2). 1 83-1 90.
Hurni, H. (1988). Degradation and conservation of the resources in the Ethiopian highlands. Mountain
Research and Development. 8(2/3):123–130.
Iglesias, A. (2011). Towards adaptation of agriculture to climate change in the Mediterranean. Regional
Environmental Change. 11(1): 159-166.
IPCC, (2007) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Chapter 5, Fourth Assessment Report.
Working,
Jensen, K.J. (2009). Climate change and rural communities in the U.S. Draft
briefig paper. Rural Policy Research Institute. Climate_Chang.
Kuruppu, N. (2009). Adapting water resources to climate change in Kiribati: the importance of
Cultural values and meanings. Environmental Science & Policy. 12(7): 799-809.
Lambin, E.F., Geist, H.J., and lepers, E. ( 2003). Dynamics of land-use and land cover change in tropical
regions, annual review of environmental resources. 28:205–41.
Lesnikowski, A.C., Ford, J.D. Berrang-Ford, L., Barrera, M. and Heymann, S.J. (2013). National-level
factors affecting planned, public adaptation to health impacts of climate change. Global
Environmental Change. 23(5): 1153-1163
Melea, P. and Eric, J. (2009). Constraints on Sustainable Energy Consumption: Market System
And Public Policy Challenges and Opportunities. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing.
46
28 (1):102–113.
Mwendera, E. J., Mohamed Saleem, M. A., and Dibabe, A.,(1997). The effect of livestock grazing on surface
runoff and soil erosion from sloping pasture lands in the Ethiopian highlands, Australian Journal of
Experimental Agriculture, 37: 421–30.
Mohammad, AG. and Adam, MA. (2010). The impact of vegetative cover type on runoff and soil
erosion under different land uses. 81:97–103.
Moser, S.C. and Ekstrom, J.A. (2010). A framework to diagnose barriers to climate change
Adaptation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America, 107(51): 22026-22031.
Mugagga, F. Kakembo, V. and Buyinza , M. (2011). Land use changes on the slopes of Moun Elgon
and the implications for the occurrence of landslides. 90:39–46.
Murphy, C.F., Allen, D., Allenby, B. and Matthews, H.S. (2009). Sustainability in engineering
education and research. Environmental Science and Technology. 43(15): 5558-5564.
Nelson, R., Kokic, P., Crimp, S., Martin, P. and Howden, S.M. (2010). The Vulnerability of Australian
rural communities to climate variability and chang conceptualizing And measuring
vulnerability. Environmental Science and Policy. 13(1): 8-17.
Nicholls, R.J., Marinova, N., Lowe, J.A. and Gusmao, (2011). Sea- Level rise and its possible impacts
given a beyond 4°C world in the twenty-first Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.
369(1934): 161-181.
OFWE, (2014). Bale Mountains Eco-region REDD+ Project, Bale Mountains Eco-region
Reduction of Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation. 3.1(26):1-145
Paavola, J. (2011). Climate Change: The Ultimate Tragedy of the Commons. Centre
for Climate Change Economics and Policy Working Paper. PP. 32.
Pearce, T., Wright, H., Notaina, R. and Kudlak, B (2011). Transmission of environmental knowledge
and land skills among Inuit men in Ulukhaktok, Northwest Territories, Canada. Human
Ecology. 39(3) 271 -288.
Peteraf, M. A. (1993). The cornerstones of competitive advantage: A resource-based view.
Strategic Management Journal. 14: 179-191.
Pielke, R.A., Rubiera, J. Landsea, C., Fernandez, M.L. and Klein, R. (2003). Hurricane
vulnerability in Latin America and the Caribbean: normalized damage and loss
potentials. Natural Hazards Review. 4: 101-114.
Sekhar, NU. (2007). Traditional versus improved agro forestry systems in Vietnam. A
Comparison. Land Degradation & Development. 18:89–97.
SERI, (2000). Sustainable Europe Research Institute. Overconsumption? Our use of the world’s
47
natural resources.
Sohngen, B., and Brown.S. (2004). Measuring leakage from carbon projects in open economies: a stop
timber harvesting project in Bolivia as a case study. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research
34:829–839.
Smith, T.F., Carter, R.W., Daffara , P. and Keys, N. ( 2008). The Nature and Utility of Adaptive
Capacity Research. National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility. Pp. 68.
Stern, N., Peters, S., Bakhshi, V., Edmondson, N. and Garbett, S. (2006). Stern Review on the
Economics of Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 579 pp.
Timber Harvesting Project in Bolivia as a Case Study. 34(4): 829–839.
Termeer, C., Biesbroek, R. and van den Brink, M. (2012). Institutions for adaptation to climate
Change:comparing national adaptation strategies in Europe. 11:41-53.
Turner, I.M. and Corlett, R.T. (1996). The conservation value of small, isolated fragments of
lowland tropical rain forest. 11(8): 330-333.
UNEP,(2007).United Nations Environmental Program.
UNESCO, (1984). Action plan for biosphere reserves. Nature.pp.20.
Van Aalst, M.K., Cannon, T. And Burton, I. (2008). Community level adaptation to climate
Change: the potential role of participatory community risk assessment. Global Environmental
change. 18: 165-179.
Vien, T.D., Quang, N.V. and Thanh , M.V. (2005). Classification in Forestry Resource
Management and People’s Livelihood. Hanoi, Vietnam: Agricultural Publishing
House.
Vringer, K.(2000). Long-term trends in direct and indirect household energy intensities: a
factor
in dematerialisation. Energy Policy. 28: 713-727.
Warren, M.S.; Asher, J.; Fox, R.; Huntley, B. Thomas, C.D. (2001). Rapid response of British
Zinabu, G. (1998). Human interactions and water quality. In.(American Association for the
Advancement of Science) symposium on emerging water management issues, USA.
butterflies to opposing forces of climate change and habitat Change. Nature. 414: 65–
69
48
\
APPENDIXS- I
The purpose of this study is designed to gather data on the natural resource usage constraints
and their temporal change in Bale Eco Region, Southeast Ethiopia. Since the success of the
study depends upon the responses that you provide, I will ask your genuine and accurate
response to each of the items. I would like to assure you that your response and answers remain
strictly confidential.
Thank you in advance!
Questionnaires HH
Please, don’t write your name
PART ONE: Background information of the household.
Instruction: - Please respond to the following questions by circling the number of your choice
Sex: 1. Female 2. Male
49
Age: 1. 18-28 2. 29-38 3. 39-48 4. 49 and above
Family Size: 1. 1-4 2. 5-8 3. 4. 9-12 5. 12 and above
Occupation: 1. government employed 2. Farmer 3. Pastoralist 4. Others
Education level: 1. 0 (illiterate) 2. 1-4 3. 5-8 4. 9-12 5. 12 and above
Livelihood mechanisms: 1. Crop production 2. Animal husbandry 3. Beekeeping 4. others
Instruction two: - Please respond to the following questions
1. What are the natural resources used to diversify your livelihood mechanisms?
2. Do you have the right to utilize NR?
3. What limits you to utilize the natural resources to increase your income?
Instruction three: Indicate your consensus by ticking √ mark on factors limiting you to
diversify your livelihood mechanisms. Make tick mark, if there is no level writes 0 in front of
the constraints.
Table1. Constraints in natural resource utilization
1. Biophysical
constraints
Level of effect of constraints on natural resources utilization
Land Water Forest wildlife Soil
Yes
No
Tota
l
Yes
No
Tota
l
Yes
No
Tota
l
Yes
No
Tota
l
Yes
No
Tota
l
.Scarcity of /heavy
rainfall
Climatic
condition(high/low
temperature)
Soil fertility
Limited land area
Low productivity land
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.25"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"
50
Crops /livestock
damage by Wildlife
Drought
Shortage of gazing
land
Lack of – water
sources
Topography
2. Economic factors
Lack of
infrastructures
Education about NR
Lack of credit and
saving facilities
Inaccessibility of
market
3. lack of technologies
and inputs
Lack of technologies
Agricultural machinery
Lack of inputs
Shortage of irrigation
. Lack of information
Shortage of labor
4. Lack of knowledge
and law
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.25"
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.25"
Formatted: Indent: Left: -0.25"
51
implementation
Lack of scientific
knowledge
Governance and
Institutional
Constraints
NR use limiting laws
and
Regulations
2 . How do you observe the temporal trend of natural resources in the Ecoregion?
Natural
resourc
es
Parameters of
trends
During SHARE intervention (Current Situation
)
Decrease No change Increasing
Land Holdings
Land use
change
Soil Fertility
Erosion
Forest Coverage
Fragmentation
Species
diversity
Wildlife Population
Habitat
destruction
Species
Wa
ter Stream flow
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"
Formatted: Indent: Left: 0"
52
Accessibility
Quality