Natural Gas Joint StatementMotion:“Natural gas found in shale formations and coal bed methane formations is a cheap, clean and abundant source of energy that should be a cornerstone of our energy portfolio for the next several decades.”

Arguing for the motion:Brooke Schultheis, Josh Giersch, Bri Peterson

Arguing against the motion:Shannon Etz, Kyla Husted, Taylor Roster

Table of Contents:Processes of Horizontal Drilling and Hydraulic Fracturing- Robin AustinPieces of a Power Plant - Shannon EtzUsing up the Dollars- Shannon EtzShale and coal methane gas formation-Josh GierschWhat is Natural Gas?-Taylor RosterEnvironmental Impact of Hydraulic Fracturing and Horizontal Drilling - Brooke SchultheisNatural Gas and Climate Change - Kyla Husted

Processes of Hydraulic Fracturing and Horizontal Drilling-Robin Austin

Hydraulic fracturing is a method of extracting oil and gas from existing wells and pockets. It is not a drilling method. The drilling is much like what you would think it would be. A hole between 5 to 50 inches is drilled into the ground. Metal casing is placed into the hole, and concrete is filled in around the outside of the casing to provide more structural integrity. This process is repeated, with a smaller drilled hole, and smaller casing, as the drill descends through the layers (Oil Well). When the drill has reached an appropriate depth, a new drill is added which is flexible. This drill can rotate so that it is parallel to the layer containing the oil or gas deposit. It can snake along within the layer, and dramatically increase the production of a well. New technology has been created that also allows the well to be drilled at almost a right angle, which allows the drillers to turn the drill as soon as the drill hits an oil rich layer (Horizontal Drilling Animation).

Once a well has been drilled, the fracturing process allows more oil and gas to be removed from the pockets in the rock. Basically, the process is as follows: water containing a small amount of acid (such as hydrochloric) is injected into the well, washing away any debris from the wellbore, dissolving any carbonates, and beginning to open fractures in the rock. Next, highly pressurized water is injected into the well. This water usually contains a friction reducing element, such as potassium chloride or polyacrylamide-based compounds. This solution is usually referred to as “slickwater”. This forces open more cracks in the rock ,and clears the piping for the proppant material. This is what is injected next. The proppant material is a solution carrying a sandy material that is used to “prop” open any fissures that were created in the rock, allowing more oil/gas to be extracted. This proppant is necessary in order to prevent the pressure from resealing the fissures, and trapping the natural gas. It holds the fissures open longer. Because of the size and shape of the proppants, the gas or oil can escape around the sides of the grains.The grain size of the proppant varies, and will generally go from smaller to larger throughout the proppant part of the drilling. Finally, the well is flushed to remove and excess proppant. There are other additives used throughout the process, depending on the conditions the well is in. Disinfectants are used to prevent the growth of bacteria in the well. Scale inhibitors are used to prevent the formation of carbonate and sulfate minerals in the piping. Iron control agents are used to keep the iron compounds in solute form, so that they do not precipitate. Corrosion inhibitors are used to stop the steel casing from degrading. The exact composition of the solutions depends on where the oil is being accessed, how deep the oil/gas layer is, how much pressure it will take to fracture, and many other environmental factors. (Hydraulic Fracturing: The Process)

The goal of hydraulic fracturing, at the most basic level, is to access previously inaccessible pockets of oil and gas. It increases the production capability of an existing well, and is a method of accessing all of the gas or oil available in a particular formation or layer of rock. Natural gas can also be accessed through the extraction from shale. This has risen in prominence, from providing only one percent in 2000, to providing over 20% in 2010. (Stevens, page 2) Shale gas, as this type of natural gas is called, cannot be easily extracted without the use of hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling. The properties of shale are such that most of the oil contained cannot be extracted without fracturing the layer. Before the advent of hydraulic fracturing, the natural gas in these formations was mostly extracted from fractures occurring naturally in the rock. Now this fracturing can be artificially induced, through the uses of water and the solutions mentioned above. (Shale Gas)

Coal bed methane is natural gas trapped within a different formation, and so it is accessed differently than shale gas. Generally, it is trapped because of the pressure in coal seams. It is extracted by releasing this pressure. The pressure is released by pumping water from the coal bed, among other things (Coal Bed Methane Extraction). The gas is then free to travel up the piping and be removed for processing (Unconventional Gas- Shale Gas and Coal Bed Methane).

The horizontal drilling aspect of production has been a massive leap forward. Previously, a well had to be drilled straight down, any oil extracted, and then another well would be drilled as close as 200 ft away. Horizontal drilling decreases the number of wells that must be drilled to hit the oil layer in one area (Hydraulic Fracturing: The Process). In this sense, horizontal drilling is decreasing the footprint of these natural gas extraction methods (Drilling Sideways).

The safety of humans and the environment are being debated in the public forums, but there are safeguards in place intended to protect both. They include basic worker safety, such as ladders and railings, and have recently been expanded to include masks for the workers, due to the high levels of silica they are exposed to on the job. In addition, blow out valves must be installed to prevent pressurized gas from becoming a problem, especially in natural gas extraction from coal beds. These systems also often include various pumps designed to separate gas and water, to prevent break downs in the machinery. The other environmental effects cannot be discounted. One of the largest issues with hydraulic fracturing today is that many argue that it will allow oil and chemically laden water to escape through natural and unnatural fissures into groundwater supply. The EPA is doing a study, but thus far, not conclusive evidence has been collected on how far drilling operations should be from groundwater supply. Another aspect of water contamination could be problematic is the water discharge from coal bed methane mining operations. The water removed from those operations can be contaminated and highly saline, and is often let of as runoff, injected back into the ground, or kept in surface ponds. In each of these situations, the possibility for usable water contamination is rather high.

On the surface, the impact on the final state of the land is generally small. Infrastructure has to be built so that the drilling operation can take place, and there is also damage to the water supply. Issues having to do with water are the most widespread, because of the chemicals used in the process and the possibility for drinking water contamination is there.

Pieces of a Power Plant-Shannon EtzTurbines:There are two types of turbines that can be used in natural gas powered electric generation. Some power plants use only steam turbines and some use only gas turbines and some use a combination of the two. The first diagram is a diagram of an electric generating system that is run solely on a gas turbine. The second diagram is of an electric generating system that is run solely on a steam turbine. The third and final diagram is of an electric generating system that utilizes both a steam and gas turbine.One type is a gas turbine or a combustion turbine. In this type of a turbine, air is compressed and pumped into a combustion chamber where gas is added and the mixture is combusted, which creates a high temperature flow. The high pressure, high temperature mixture pushes

itself, because of the expansion of the substance during combustions, into the turbine to make it spin, thus allowing the generator to function and create electricity.The other type of turbine is a steam turbine. In a steam turbine, natural gas is combusted and the heat that is released is used to heat water into steam which pressurizes the chamber and directs the steam through the turbine causing the blades of the turbine to spin and power the generator that creates electricity.Boiler/ Combustion Chamber:In the boiler or combustion chamber the natural gas is mixed with air and combusted to release the energy from the bonds of the natural gas and thus heat the chamber and the contents inside the chamber. The boiler/ combustion chamber can be found in all of the above diagrams and is a major component of all natural gas electric generating stations.Generator:When the turbines turn, they cause large coils of wire to which create an electromagnetic field and forces electrons to move and cause the formation of electricity. The generator is the key part of an electric generating system and is virtually the last step before electricity reaches the grid.Compressor:The compressor is a chamber or tank in which gas is stored prior to being combusted where it is pressurized so that more gas can be combusted in the combustion chamber at one time and allow for more interaction between particles. The compressor is not seen on the above diagrams but is found before the combustion chamber or the boiler.Coolant:A coolant is used in cycles that use steam to turn turbines. The coolant is typically cold water that is run through or past the hot steam in order to cool the steam down and allow it to resume its liquid form so that it can be reheated in the boiler and reused to create more steam and power the steam turbines.Heat Exchanger:In a combined cycle the heat exchanger is the exhaust chamber where the hot exhaust from the combustion of the natural gas is used to heat water into steam and power a steam turbine. In the combined cycle and the simple cycle using steam turbines another heat exchanger is the coolant, which allows the heat to be exchanged from the surroundings to the hot steam, allowing it to change phases back to water.

Simple Cycle: Gas Turbine:

Simple Cycle: Steam Turbine

Combined Cycle:

Using up the Dollars- Shannon EtzWhen evaluating the different production methods of electricity it is vital to understand the financial cost for a certain amount of energy. The average cost per kilowatt hour is $0.089.According to nuclearfissionary.com the purely financial cost of 1 kilowatt hour for a natural gas powered power plant is $0.081. However this is the cost to just run a plant that is already built, where construction costs are not factored in.The cost according to Wikipedia is $0.15 per 1 Kilowatt hour.

According to Forbes.com the cost is $0.037 per kilowatt hour.When you factor in the cost of the construction into the cost per kilowatt hour you have a levelized cost. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration the levelized cost per kilowatt hour is $0.0158. The Energy Information Administration or the EIA is considered the authority on energy and thus is the most accurate average cost per kilowatt hour for the production of electricity with natural gas. It is also important to factor in the financial cost of building or constructing a natural gas power plant. According to The EIA it costs approximately $929 per kilowatt to construct a natural gas fired power plant.

Shale and coal methane gas formation- Josh GierschDescribe the shale formation and coal bed methane formations and how the natural gas is contained with these formations?

Shale gas is a natural gas in a shale formation. The shale formation process is compacted and shale is formed in the rock cycle. In this process, there is fine and dense particles. The fine particle which forms shale remains suspended in water once the dense particles of sand get deposited. Shale gets deposited in very slow moving water which can be found in different lakes or floodplains. Organic material in high concentrations of rock can form a hydrocarbon source rock for oil and gas to be contained. Fine grained sedimentary rock characterized by layers of clay and organic shale has a wide variation of production mechanisms. 50% of sedimentary rock is classified as shale. Shale often gets deposited inside low energy deposit environments where fine grain particles fall from suspension. Shale often contains free and adsorbed gas. Not much absorbed gas is commercially produced. The major contributor to production is free gas. While organic natural gas has high production rates, a quick decline in production will result in long term steady production. Due to the shale having low matrix permeability, finding economically sound gas or oil production remains a challenge. Obtaining commercial production rates requires rich organic shales to be hydraulic fractured. This is needed to create a reservoir system for maximizing contact and connectivity to a shales natural fracture system. Some shale called black shale turns black due to the shale being rich in lots of oxidized carbon. Different black shale can contain heavy metals such as uranium and zinc. Coal bed methane formation occurs through natural and industrial processes. Some of these formation processes include decomposition of organic material and industrial emissions. Coal bed methane is also a greenhouse gas that emits twenty times more heat in the atmosphere then C02. Coal bed methane refers to methane that has been produced in association with coal. Coal bed methane reserves are located wherever large deposits of coal are. The methane is formed through organic decomposition that coheres to the many surfaces of coal until it gets released through manmade or natural processes. The way gas is stored in a coal reservoir is different than a conventional reservoir. The methane will stick to the coals surface in the reservoir through absorption throughout various micropores. The micropores that the methane gets absorbed through have vast amounts of surface area resulting in the ability to store extremely large volumes of gas. A pound of coal has the surface area equivalent to 55 football fields. Coal bed methane also is different from conventional reservoirs by coals gas diffusion.

The gas diffusion is related to the methane gradient across different micropores. Once the fracture has been entered, gas flow is related to the pressure gradient in as done in a conventional reservoir. Generally, coal bed methane isn't produced until huge amounts of water get removed from the formation. The water is removed because it lowers the reservoir pressure which results in methane being released in order for the methane to be captured.

How did natural gas form and how did this formation process lead to it being trapped within shale or coal bed formations?

Natural gas has formed over a process of thousands of years. Buried layers of plants and animals exposed to the sun from natural gas, this is a type of fossil fuel. Shale gas generally has low permeability (the measure of how easily fluid can move through something) allowing a sufficient amount of fluid to go to a well bore. Due to shale having low ground mass (mass of material where large crystals are embedded) permeability. Due to this, large amounts of permeability need to be provided for commercial quantities. Coal bed methane is methane that gets absorbed into a solid matrix of coal. There is more coal bed methane in La Plata County then regular shale gas. Coal bed methane (CH4) is methane found in coal seams. The methane gas is produced by non-traditional methods. While it's solid, it used as the same traditional natural gas, the production is different. The methane is generated from biological processes due to microbial action from increased heat within the depth of coal. A coal seam is saturated by water. The methane is held in coal by water pressure. Of the total natural gas production, coal bed natural gas makes up 7% of the entire natural gas production. Coal bed methane travels with ground water in different coal seams. In the process of extraction, water is pumped from the available seams to reduce water pressure in the seam that holds gas. Since the methane has a very low solubility in water, the methane separates as pressure decreases. Due to this, the methane is pumped out of a well separately from the water. When the water moves from the coal steam to the well, this encourages gas migration to the well. Whenever any natural gas is going to be fractured, magnetic measurement of the magnetic field of the base rock is used to determine how much sediment is above it. Satellite imagery is also used to identify structures and patterns for hydrocarbon deposits.

Extraction to combustion: the process, properties, and contaminantsDescribe the general process the natural gas undergoes after extraction to prepare it for combustion. Describe several of the general chemical and physical properties used to refine the gas and you should list the main contaminants being removed.Natural gas is an energy resource that you can find deep beneath the earth. After drilling the well and pumping the Natural gas out of the ground you have to process it before it can be taken out to consumers. To do this you first have to put it through a separator which removes the oil and water that is entwined within it. The oil that is removed is moved on to a refinery to be processed but the water is pumped back into the ground. After the separator it is taken to a gas processing plant. This plant removes the other chemicals and additives that are naturally in the gas: methane, a colorless, odorless, flammable hydrocarbon gas as well as some petroleum gases. These are all from crude oil refining/ natural gas fracking. This plant consists of lots of compressors to extract the extra additives

and make what is known as “dry gas”. The process to turn “wet gas” into “dry gas” is known as dementhanizing. The extracted chemicals are moved to fractionation plants to have further processing and become important components in fuels and petrochemicals. This is a lot of petroleum type liquids; approximately 80 million gallons of petroleum every day. The natural gas is then transported to the central plant to be sent off to consumersHow has the drilling technology associated with horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing been developed, improved and what are future projections for technological advance?The United States now has a large number of reserves of natural gas ready to go now because of the advances that we have made in horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing (fracking). This allows us to be able to access more gas than we ever had before. The EPA has and is still undergoing a national study on hydraulic fracturing. Their main goal is to find a better understanding of the potential impacts of it on, mainly, our drinking water. This study will allow them to make it possible to learn how to ensure that this process will not come with a large cost.

What is Natural Gas?- Taylor RosterMethane is the main portion of natural gas. Natural gas contains about 75% CH4, 15% ethane (C2H6), and 5% other hydrocarbons, like propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10). Natural gas is the cleanest burning fossil fuel because coal and oil, the other fossil fuels, are more chemically complicated than natural gas, and when combusted, they release a variety of potentially harmful chemicals into the air. Burning methane releases only carbon dioxide and water. Since natural gas is mostly methane, the combustion of natural gas releases fewer byproducts than other fossil fuels.

Process of CombustionFor the combustion process of natural gas, it starts as Air come in the Air intake spout, then the compressor forces air to the combustion chambers where it is burned along with oil and gas(chemical energy). The thermal energy generates turbine as heat expands and heat of combustion makes energy and pressure to moves turbine.

CO2 and water vapor goes out the exhaust and mechanical/ kinetic energy into Generator (low voltage high current), from kinetic to electrical energy to the transformer (high voltage low current) Never is there a 100% efficient transfer of energy, There is always some loss of energy. Heat rate tells the amount of energy lost.

C H 4+2O2→2H 2O+CO2

When natural gas burns, the primary products are carbon dioxide and water, with some carbon monoxide. In a balanced equation, the products are 2H2O and CO2, the reactants are CH4 and 2O2. In order to break bonds it takes a certain amount of energy. When the CH4 and the 2O2 bonds are broken they released energy and form new bonds on the product side.It takes a certain amount of energy to break bonds and then the formation of new bonds releases energy.

According to my calculations below, It takes 4,040 moles of CH4 to produce one kilowatt-hour of energy!

1Kw /hr× 1000watt1kw

× 1 j /s1watt

× 1000 j1 s

× 3600 s1hr

=3,600,000 joules /hr

3,600,000 joules×1mole CH❑4

891K / j per mole=4040moles of CH❑4

○ How much of the products are made per kilowatt-hour?

You can calculate the amount of CO2 produced per kWh for specific fuels and specific types of generators by multiplying the CO2 emissions factor for the fuel (in pounds of CO2 per million Btu) by the heat rate of a generator (in millions of Btu per kWh generated) Heat Rate of Natural Gas Plant : 8,152 Btu/kWh of electrical energy.

C H 4+2O2→2H 2O+CO2

In order to show the mass conserved in this process, the chemical equation must be balanced. Meaning when you start with a certain mass of reactants, you want to end up with the same mass in the products as the reactants. For example, In this equation you start out with 4 hydrogen atoms bonded with a carbon atom reacting with 2 O2 molecules. In the reaction The carbon is separated and the hydrogen atoms from the methane molecules bond with oxygen atoms from the O2 molecules, making 2H2O on the product side of the reaction. Then you are left with 1 carbon and 2 oxygen giving you a carbon dioxide emission. In total there is two water molecules and one carbon dioxide molecule on each side!

○ Demonstrate that energy conserved in the process

One molecule of methane combined with two oxygen atoms, react to form a carbon dioxide molecule, two water molecules and 891 kilojoules (kJ) of energy.

Environmental Impact of Hydraulic Fracturing and Horizontal Drilling-Brooke Schultheis What are local environmental consequences to horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing?“Natural gas, as the cleanest of the fossil fuels, can be used in many ways to help reduce the emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere. Burning natural gas in the place of other fossil fuels emits fewer harmful pollutants, and an increased reliance on natural gas can potentially reduce the emission of many of these most harmful pollutants”.

“The combustion of natural gas emits almost 30 percent less carbon dioxide than oil, and just under 45 percent less carbon dioxide than coal”.

“One issue that has arisen with respect to natural gas and the greenhouse effect is the fact that methane, the principal component of natural gas, is itself a potent greenhouse gas. Methane has an ability to trap heat almost 21 times more effectively than carbon dioxide. According to theEnergy Information Administration, although methane emissions account for only 1.1 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, they account for 8.5 percent of the greenhouse gas emissions based on global warming potential”.

However a study concluded that, “[an] increased natural gas use strongly outweighs the detrimental effects of increased methane emissions”.

“Natural gas emits virtually no particulates into the atmosphere: in fact, emissions of particulates from natural gas combustion are 90 percent lower than from the combustion of oil, and 99 percent lower than burning coal. Thus increased natural gas use in place of other dirtier hydrocarbons can help to reduce particulate emissions in the U.S.”

“Since natural gas emits virtually no sulfur dioxide, and up to 80 percent less nitrogen oxides than the combustion of coal, increased use of natural gas could provide for fewer acid rain causing emissions”.

“Natural gas is becoming an increasingly important fuel in the generation of electricity. As well as providing an efficient, competitively priced fuel for the generation of electricity, the increased use of natural gas allows for the improvement in the emissions profile of the electric generation industry. According to the National Environmental Trust (NET), now Pew Charitable Trusts (PEW), in their 2002 publication entitled 'Cleaning up Air Pollution from America's Power Plants', power plants in the U.S. account for 67 percent of sulfur dioxide emissions, 40 percent of carbon dioxide emissions, 25 percent of nitrogen oxide emissions, and 34 percent of mercury emissions. Coal fired power plants are the greatest contributors to these types of emissions. In fact, according to World Watch Report 184, natural gas combined cycle power plants emit half as much carbon dioxide as modern super critical coal plants”.For Hydraulic Fracturing environmental impact see: How is groundwater affected by horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing

http://www.naturalgas.org/naturalgas/extraction_directional.asphttp://www.naturalgas.org/environment/environment.asp

How is groundwater affected by horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing?

Water Use“In 2010, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimated that 70 to 140 billion gallons of water are used to fracture 35,000 wells in the United States each year. This is approximately the annual water consumption of 40 to 80 cities each with a population of 50,000. Fracture treatments in coalbed methane wells use from 50,000 to 350,000 gallons of water per well, while deeper horizontal shale wells can use anywhere from 2 to 10 million gallons of water to fracture a single well. The extraction of so much water for fracking has raised concerns about the ecological impacts to aquatic resources, as well as dewatering of drinking water aquifers. It has been estimated that the transportation of a million gallons of water (fresh or waste water) requires200 truck trips. Thus, not only does water used for hydraulic fracturing deplete fresh water supplies and impact aquatic habitat, the transportation of so much water also creates localized air quality, safety and road repair issues”.

Sand and ProppantsConventional oil and gas wells use, on average, 300,000 pounds of proppant, coalbed fracture treatments use anywhere from 75,000 to 320,000 pounds of proppant and shale gas wells can use more than 4 million pounds of proppant per well.Frac sand mines are springing up across the country, from Wisconsin to Texas, bringing with them their own set of impacts. Mining sand for proppant use generates its own range of impacts, including water consumption and air emissions, as well as potential health problems related to crystalline silica.

Toxic Chemicals“chemicals typically make up just 0.5 and 2.0% of the total volume of the fracturing fluid. When millions of gallons of water are being used, however, the amount of chemicals per fracking operation is very large. For example, a four million gallon fracturing operation would use from 80 to 330 tons of chemicals”.[ 1 ] http://www.earthworksaction.org/issues/detail/hydraulic_fracturing_101#.UW72b7WR-QkHow is surface water affected by natural gas extraction via horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing?“Stress on surface water and ground water supplies from the withdrawal of large volumes of water used in drilling and hydraulic fracturing;Contamination of underground sources of drinking water and surface waters resulting from spills, faulty well construction, or by other means”....http://www2.epa.gov/hydraulicfracturingHow are local ecosystems affected by natural gas extraction via horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing?Because of our diminishing water resources we need to keep in mind how this might affect ecosystems.How is air quality affected by the natural gas extraction process?“One issue that has arisen with respect to natural gas and the greenhouse effect is the fact that methane, the principle component of natural gas, is itself a potent greenhouse gas. Methane

has an ability to trap heat almost 21 times more effectively than carbon dioxide. According to theEnergy Information Administration, although methane emissions account for only 1.1 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, they account for 8.5 percent of the greenhouse gas emissions based on global warming potential”.How is the local geology affected by horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing? Is there an increased risk of seismic events in areas where horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing are practiced?Recent seismic activity in Ohio and Oklahoma is drawing attention to a possible link between earthquakes and deep wells used to dispose of hydraulic fracturing wastes. For instance, the Oklahoma Geological Survey is examining the possibility of induced seismicity from hydraulic fracturing.15 Pending S.B. 6903 in New York would require a seismological impact study related to hydraulic fracturing. According to http://www.mde.state.md.us/programs/Land/mining/marcellus/Documents/Halliburton_Response_to_Allegations_Concerning_Hydraulic_Fracturing(2010).pdf, Durango Nurse - Media reports have suggested that exposure to frac fluids caused an emergency room nurse in Durango, Colorado to become seriously ill and that the company that produced the fluids refused to assist the woman’s physician by providing information on the chemical constituents in the fluid because the information was proprietary”.

Natural Gas and Climate Change- Kyla HustedWhat is the greenhouse effect?

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that allows for the Earth to be livable by creating a temperate climate. The sun powers life on Earth by radiating energy at Earth in very short wavelengths (ultraviolet). About one third of this energy is reflected off of clouds, snow, and the ocean going back into space and some is absorbed by ozone in the atmosphere or dispersed by particles in the air. The remaining two thirds of the energy from the sun passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by Earth. In order to balance the energy that is absorbed the Earth must radiate about the same amount of energy back into the atmosphere. However, the Earth is much cooler than the sun and thus radiates this energy at much longer wavelengths, primarily in the infrared part of the spectrum. Much of this thermal radiation emitted by Earth is trapped by the atmosphere and radiated back at Earth, warming it and allowing life to thrive. A small amount of the heat escapes through the atmosphere and into space. A simplistic diagram of the greenhouse effect can be seen in the image below.

What are greenhouse gases and what about their structure makes them greenhouse gases?Greenhouse gases are gases in the atmosphere that absorb and emit radiation within the thermal infrared range. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur dioxide, and tropospheric ozone are the most common greenhouse gases. There are also man-made greenhouse gases that have begun to accumulate in the atmosphere; they are fluorinated gases such as hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexfluoride.

Greenhouse gases allow sunlight to enter the atmosphere, but then trap infrared radiation in the atmosphere, allowing only a little heat to escape into space. Greenhouse gases come from both natural and man-made sources. In the last century the industrial revolution has dramatically increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gas emissions come from every sector of our economy, our homes, cars, and energy production. Increasing amounts of water vapor in the atmosphere does not cause as much worry as increasing amounts of carbon dioxide. This is because water vapor will eventually condense into clouds. However, carbon dioxide causes more worry because humans have altered the natural carbon cycle and increased the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere and the degree to which carbon dioxide can be absorbed out of the atmosphere. By burning coal, oil, natural gas, and wood humans have increased the amount of carbon dioxide emissions, and by cutting down more trees and destroying other habitats and ecosystems humans have decreased the amount of carbon dioxide that can be absorbed from the air by trees and other plants. How is the combustion of fossil fuels related to global climate change?The burning of fossil fuels is related to climate change because when burned they emit greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This increases the concentration of greenhouse gases, which allows less of the thermal radiation (heat) reflected from Earth to escape into space. The

increased amount of greenhouse gases trap more heat that is then reflected back at Earth increasing the temperature of Earth. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been steadily increasing since the 1950’s. Around 1957 the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide was below 320 ppm (parts per million). Now, as of March 2013, the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide is at 397 ppm. The graph below shows the steady increase of carbon dioxide concentrations.

How do the emissions of natural gas combustion compare to that of coal and of nuclear? Burning natural gas produces nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide, as well as methane if the natural gas is not completely burned. However, burning natural gas produces much less of these things that coal does. Natural gas produces half as much carbon dioxide as coal and less than one third as much nitrogen oxide. Nuclear power plants do not emit carbon dioxide or nitrogen oxides.

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