Native americans

The Native The Native AmericansAmericans

DiversityDiversity

CultureCulture LanguageLanguage Kinship systemKinship system Political - economicPolitical - economic In 1500 Native American population stood at In 1500 Native American population stood at

10,000,000 and by 1900 declined to less than 10,000,000 and by 1900 declined to less than 250,000250,000

Eurocentric Eurocentric and Native and Native American American Views of Views of

ExpansionismExpansionism

Government Actions toward Native AmericansGovernment Actions toward Native Americans

1778 - Continental Congress: Reaffirms 1763 British 1778 - Continental Congress: Reaffirms 1763 British policy (tribes accorded independent nation status; lands policy (tribes accorded independent nation status; lands west of the Appalachian mountains are Native American; west of the Appalachian mountains are Native American; royal government must approve all land purchases).royal government must approve all land purchases).

1787 - Northwest Territory Ordinance: Opens the 1787 - Northwest Territory Ordinance: Opens the Midwest for settlement; declares U.S. government Midwest for settlement; declares U.S. government responsible for Native American property rights and responsible for Native American property rights and liberty.liberty.

1824 - Bureau of Indian Affairs is created under the 1824 - Bureau of Indian Affairs is created under the jurisdiction of the secretary of war.jurisdiction of the secretary of war.

1830 - Indian Removal Bill: Mandates all Indians must 1830 - Indian Removal Bill: Mandates all Indians must move west of the Mississippi.move west of the Mississippi.

Government Actions toward Native AmericansGovernment Actions toward Native Americans

Indian Removal Act (1830)Indian Removal Act (1830) This act called for the expulsion of all Native This act called for the expulsion of all Native

Americans from southeastern states and their Americans from southeastern states and their relocation to the territory west of the Mississippi.relocation to the territory west of the Mississippi.

Combining two Supreme Court Cases (1832), the court Combining two Supreme Court Cases (1832), the court ruled that the Cherokee were a “domestic dependent ruled that the Cherokee were a “domestic dependent nation”.nation”.

1830–1880 - As forced segregation becomes the new 1830–1880 - As forced segregation becomes the new Native American reality most reservations are established.Native American reality most reservations are established.

1871 - Appropriations bill rider: ended federal recognition 1871 - Appropriations bill rider: ended federal recognition of Native American tribes as independent or as “domestic of Native American tribes as independent or as “domestic dependent nations”dependent nations”

Government Actions (continued)Government Actions (continued) made tribes wards of the government, no longer made tribes wards of the government, no longer

independent nations; legislation, not independent nations; legislation, not negotiation, is to determine any new negotiation, is to determine any new arrangements.arrangements.

1887 - Dawes Act: Reservations divided in tracts, allotted 1887 - Dawes Act: Reservations divided in tracts, allotted to individual tribal members; surplus land sold.to individual tribal members; surplus land sold.

1898 - Curtis Act: Terminates tribal governments that 1898 - Curtis Act: Terminates tribal governments that refuse allotment to individual tribal members; surplus refuse allotment to individual tribal members; surplus land sold.land sold.

1906 - Burke Act: Eliminates Native Americans’ right to 1906 - Burke Act: Eliminates Native Americans’ right to lease their land, with the intent to force Native Americans lease their land, with the intent to force Native Americans to work the land themselves.to work the land themselves.

Government Actions (continued)Government Actions (continued)

1924 - Indian Citizenship Act: Grants US citizenship 1924 - Indian Citizenship Act: Grants US citizenship 1934 - Indian Reorganization Act: Ends allotment, 1934 - Indian Reorganization Act: Ends allotment,

encourages tribal self-government; restores freedom of encourages tribal self-government; restores freedom of religion; extends financial credit to the tribesreligion; extends financial credit to the tribes gave preference in BIA employment to Native gave preference in BIA employment to Native

AmericansAmericans permitted consolidation of Native American lands split permitted consolidation of Native American lands split

up through inheritance, and up through inheritance, and promotes revival of Native American culture and promotes revival of Native American culture and

crafts.crafts. 1952 - Relocation Program: Moves Native Americans at 1952 - Relocation Program: Moves Native Americans at

government expense to urban areas for better jobs.government expense to urban areas for better jobs.

Government Actions (continued)Government Actions (continued)

1953 - Termination Act: Elimination of reservation 1953 - Termination Act: Elimination of reservation systems, ends federal services and tax immunity.systems, ends federal services and tax immunity.

From 1953-1954 a series of bills sought to end federal From 1953-1954 a series of bills sought to end federal responsibility for welfare and administration of Native responsibility for welfare and administration of Native Americans.Americans.

1972 - Indian Education Act1972 - Indian Education Act 1973 - Menominee Restoration Act: Revokes termination 1973 - Menominee Restoration Act: Revokes termination

and restores Menominee’s reservation and tribal status.and restores Menominee’s reservation and tribal status. 1974 - Indian Finance Act: Grants and loans for1974 - Indian Finance Act: Grants and loans for Native Native

American enterprises and development projects .American enterprises and development projects . 1975 - Indian Self-Determination and Education 1975 - Indian Self-Determination and Education

Assistance Act: Expands tribal control over reservation Assistance Act: Expands tribal control over reservation programs; provides funding for public schools on/near programs; provides funding for public schools on/near reservations.reservations.

Formerly Terminated Native American Tribes Now Restored

The Termination Act of 1953The Termination Act of 1953

The most controversial governmental policy The most controversial governmental policy toward reservation lifetoward reservation life

It reduced costs and ignored individual needsIt reduced costs and ignored individual needs Federal services were stopped immediatelyFederal services were stopped immediately The effect of the governmental order was The effect of the governmental order was

disastrousdisastrous In 1975, the government resumed the servicesIn 1975, the government resumed the services

Government Actions (continued)Government Actions (continued) 1976 - Indian Health Care Improvement Act: Provides 1976 - Indian Health Care Improvement Act: Provides

funds to build/renovate hospitals, add personnel, scholar-funds to build/renovate hospitals, add personnel, scholar-ships for Native Americans in Indian Health Service.ships for Native Americans in Indian Health Service.

From 1977-1990 most tribes that had been terminated had From 1977-1990 most tribes that had been terminated had their federal recognition restored, but in many cases, not their federal recognition restored, but in many cases, not their land.their land.

1978 - Education Amendments Act: Gives substantial 1978 - Education Amendments Act: Gives substantial control over education programs to Native Americans.control over education programs to Native Americans.

1978 - Tribally Controlled Community College 1978 - Tribally Controlled Community College Assistance Act: Provides grants to tribal community Assistance Act: Provides grants to tribal community colleges.colleges.

Government Actions (continued)Government Actions (continued) 1978 - Indian Child Welfare Act: Restricts placement of 1978 - Indian Child Welfare Act: Restricts placement of

Native American children into non-Native American Native American children into non-Native American homeshomes. .

1978 - American Indian Religious Freedom Act: Protects 1978 - American Indian Religious Freedom Act: Protects Native American religious rights, including peyote use.Native American religious rights, including peyote use.

1988 - Indian Gaming Regulatory Act1988 - Indian Gaming Regulatory Act 1993 - Religious Freedom Restoration Act: Restores 1993 - Religious Freedom Restoration Act: Restores

standards of review for American Indian Religious standards of review for American Indian Religious Freedom Act that were overturned by a Supreme Court Freedom Act that were overturned by a Supreme Court ruling in 1990.ruling in 1990.

1993 - Omnibus Indian Advancement Act: Establishes 1993 - Omnibus Indian Advancement Act: Establishes foundation for gifts to BIA schools; increases economic foundation for gifts to BIA schools; increases economic development opportunities for tribes; improves tribal development opportunities for tribes; improves tribal governance.governance.

1990 - Indian Art & Craft Act1990 - Indian Art & Craft Act

Native American Lands and Native American Lands and CommunitiesCommunities

Ten Largest Ten Largest American IndianAmerican Indian

Tribal Groupings, Tribal Groupings, 20002000

Reservation Life & Federal Reservation Life & Federal PoliciesPolicies

Approximately 25% of the Native American Approximately 25% of the Native American population live on reservations with population live on reservations with approximately 75% living in Urban areasapproximately 75% living in Urban areas

There are slightly over 557 recognized There are slightly over 557 recognized reservations in the United Statesreservations in the United States

Native American Legal ClaimsNative American Legal Claims

From 1836 to 1946 Native Americans could From 1836 to 1946 Native Americans could not bring a claim against the government not bring a claim against the government without an Act of Congresswithout an Act of Congress Only 142 claims were heard during this periodOnly 142 claims were heard during this period

In 1946 Congress established the Indian In 1946 Congress established the Indian Claims Commission to hear claims against the Claims Commission to hear claims against the governmentgovernment

Led to an increase in claimsLed to an increase in claims Commission was extended until 1978 - now Commission was extended until 1978 - now

cases are heard by U.S. Court of Claimscases are heard by U.S. Court of Claims Amount of awards and setoffsAmount of awards and setoffs The case of the Black HillsThe case of the Black Hills

Desire to recover land over financial settlementDesire to recover land over financial settlement

Native American Legal ClaimsNative American Legal Claims

Employment Assistance ProgramEmployment Assistance Program

Program led to the relocation from Program led to the relocation from reservations to urban areasreservations to urban areas Provided educational and business assistanceProvided educational and business assistance Impact on the economic development of the Impact on the economic development of the

reservation and the brain drainreservation and the brain drain Return to the reservationReturn to the reservation

SovereigntySovereignty

While collaborative action gathering cannot be While collaborative action gathering cannot be minimized, there continues to be a strong minimized, there continues to be a strong effort to maintain tribal sovereignty or tribal effort to maintain tribal sovereignty or tribal self-ruleself-rule

Collective ActionCollective Action Pan-IndianismPan-Indianism

Intertribal movement and solidarityIntertribal movement and solidarity Emerged out of the effects of internal colonialismEmerged out of the effects of internal colonialism A social movement attempting to establish a

Native American ethnic identity instead of just a tribal identity

has not been completely accepted as many Native Americans prefer to preserve their own tribal identity.

Action occurred at Alcatraz (1969) and at Wounded Knee, SD (1973)

Red PowerRed Power National Congress of American Indians (NCAI), founded in National Congress of American Indians (NCAI), founded in

Denver 1948Denver 1948 Political role of NCAIPolitical role of NCAI

Provides national leadership on issues facing tribal communities throughout the United Provides national leadership on issues facing tribal communities throughout the United States. Services include legislative alerts and lobbying. States. Services include legislative alerts and lobbying.

Founded in response to termination and assimilation policies that the United States forced Founded in response to termination and assimilation policies that the United States forced upon the tribal governments in contradiction of their treaty rights and status as sovereigns. upon the tribal governments in contradiction of their treaty rights and status as sovereigns.

NCAI stressed the need for unity and cooperation among tribal governments for the NCAI stressed the need for unity and cooperation among tribal governments for the protection of their treaty and sovereign rights. protection of their treaty and sovereign rights.

Since 1944, the National Congress of American Indians has been working to inform the Since 1944, the National Congress of American Indians has been working to inform the public and Congress on the governmental rights of American Indians and Alaska Natives. public and Congress on the governmental rights of American Indians and Alaska Natives.

Urban problems and AIM- founded by Clyde Urban problems and AIM- founded by Clyde Bellecourt and Dennis Banks in 1968 at Bellecourt and Dennis Banks in 1968 at Minneapolis, MNMinneapolis, MN

Fishing rights in the Northwest and fish-insFishing rights in the Northwest and fish-ins Takeover of Alcatraz in 1969Takeover of Alcatraz in 1969 Red PowerRed Power Aim and the Ogallala Sioux and Wounded Aim and the Ogallala Sioux and Wounded

KneeKnee

Collective ActionCollective Action

Native Americans TodayNative Americans Today

Economic development - high rate of Economic development - high rate of unemployment and povertyunemployment and poverty

Tourism and the double edged sword Tourism and the double edged sword source of income but also a source of degradationsource of income but also a source of degradation

Cottage industriesCottage industries Income from mineral rightsIncome from mineral rights Casino gamblingCasino gambling

Government employment Government employment BIA subcultureBIA subculture EducationEducation

Federal control of Native American educationFederal control of Native American education BIA schoolsBIA schools

Some tribes formed their own education systemsSome tribes formed their own education systems Educational Attainment - drop out or pushout rate is Educational Attainment - drop out or pushout rate is

50% higher than for Blacks or Hispanics50% higher than for Blacks or Hispanics Testing, schooling and the crossover effectTesting, schooling and the crossover effect

Native Americans TodayNative Americans Today

EducationEducation

Under-enrollment at all levels, from the primary grades Under-enrollment at all levels, from the primary grades through collegethrough college

The need to adjust to a school with values sometimes The need to adjust to a school with values sometimes dramatically different from those of the homedramatically different from those of the home

The need to make the curriculum more relevantThe need to make the curriculum more relevant The under-financing of tribal community collegesThe under-financing of tribal community colleges The unique hardships encountered by reservation-born The unique hardships encountered by reservation-born

Native Americans who later live in and attend schools Native Americans who later live in and attend schools in large citiesin large cities

The language barrier faced by the many children who The language barrier faced by the many children who have little or no knowledge of English have little or no knowledge of English

HealthcareHealthcare

High rate of:High rate of:1. Alcoholism and mortality1. Alcoholism and mortality

2. Under nutrition2. Under nutrition

3. Tuberculosis and death3. Tuberculosis and death

4. High rate of teenage suicide 4. High rate of teenage suicide Lack of access to health care resourcesLack of access to health care resources

Religious ExpressionReligious Expression

American Indian Religious Freedom Act passed by American Indian Religious Freedom Act passed by Congress in 1978Congress in 1978

Act contains no penalties and enforcement provisionsAct contains no penalties and enforcement provisions Native American Church - ritualistic use of peyote Native American Church - ritualistic use of peyote

and marijuanaand marijuana In 1994, Congress amended the Indian Religious In 1994, Congress amended the Indian Religious

Freedom Act to allow Native Americans the right to Freedom Act to allow Native Americans the right to use, transport, and possess peyote for religious use, transport, and possess peyote for religious purposespurposes

EnvironmentEnvironment CERT was formed in 1976 - Council of Energy Resource CERT was formed in 1976 - Council of Energy Resource

TribesTribes Consisted of twenty-five of the West’s largest tribes Consisted of twenty-five of the West’s largest tribes Other tribes were added laterOther tribes were added later Purpose to protect and develop tribal natural resources such Purpose to protect and develop tribal natural resources such

as natural gasas natural gas Environmental justiceEnvironmental justice Continued land disputesContinued land disputes Environmental justiceEnvironmental justice Balance between environmental and economic needsBalance between environmental and economic needs Spiritual needsSpiritual needs

Native Americans - Still ExploitedNative Americans - Still Exploited Today, many people in the U.S. are oblivious to Native Today, many people in the U.S. are oblivious to Native

Americans’ problems and consider them quaint relics of Americans’ problems and consider them quaint relics of the past; others find them undesirable and some want the past; others find them undesirable and some want their land and will use almost any means to secure it. their land and will use almost any means to secure it.

Native Americans still encounter discrimination in stores, Native Americans still encounter discrimination in stores, bars, and housing, particularly in cities and near the bars, and housing, particularly in cities and near the reservations. They have been beaten or killed and their reservations. They have been beaten or killed and their property rights infringed on.property rights infringed on.

Of all the minorities in the United States, according to Of all the minorities in the United States, according to government statistics on income, Native Americans are government statistics on income, Native Americans are the “poorest of the poor.”the “poorest of the poor.”

Present-Day Native American LifePresent-Day Native American Life

By 2002 the Native American and Alaska native population was 2.8 million.– The Native American birth rate is almost twice the national

average.

– Half the population of Native Americans live on reservations that provide inadequate economic support.

Chronic unemployment is a serious problem. Some tribes have succeeded through their own

efforts.


The average life span in some tribes is 45 years.– Nationally, the average life span is about 10 years

less than the average. Deaths by suicide among Native American

males aged 15 to 24 is 50% greater than among the general population’s youth.

The most serious problem facing Native Americans today is alcohol abuse.

Still Exploited (continued)Still Exploited (continued) Encroachment on Native American land continues. Encroachment on Native American land continues.

Water and energy needs have led government and Water and energy needs have led government and industry to look covetously at reservation land once industry to look covetously at reservation land once considered worthless.considered worthless.

Poor, but with large tracts of isolated land, Native Poor, but with large tracts of isolated land, Native Americans in recent years have seen their reservations Americans in recent years have seen their reservations recommended as toxic-waste dumping grounds.recommended as toxic-waste dumping grounds.

Urban sprawl and agribusiness have prompted whites to Urban sprawl and agribusiness have prompted whites to sink deep wells around reservations in Arizona, sink deep wells around reservations in Arizona, siphoning off the water reserves of several tribes.siphoning off the water reserves of several tribes.

A growing number of sacred Native American sites are A growing number of sacred Native American sites are under threat from housing developments and industrial under threat from housing developments and industrial plants.plants.


The Educational Amendments Act of 1978 gave substantial control over school programs to the Native American communities.

Bilingual Native American language programs in 17 states help preserve ancestral language and teach English to children who were raised in homes where only their tribal language was spoken.

One of the most visible signs of Native Americans’ economic deprivation is reservation house.

Urban Native AmericansUrban Native Americans About 70 percent of all Native Americans live in

urban areas or away from the reservations. Twice as many urban Native Americans live in

poverty compared to all other racial and ethnic groups combined.

Although urban Native Americans are more likely to be employed than those who remain on the reservation, they do not achieve any improved income earnings, on average, until after five years of residence in the city.

Social Indicators About Native American Progress(in percentages)

Socioeconomic Characteristics of Native Americans, 2000

The CourtsThe Courts

In the late 20th century legal efforts to force the government to honor tribes’ treaty rights were more numerous and successful.– Legal action occurred in

South Dakota Maine

Washington Wyoming

Colorado New Mexico

New York

Intergroup Relations ContinuumIntergroup Relations Continuum

Documents

Native americans