Nasca Culture and Art

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Nasca Culture and Art


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Contents

ArticlesNazca culture 1

Pottery 8

Polychrome 24

Slip (ceramics) 29

Slipware 30

Slipcasting 31

Stoneware 31

Ceramic 34

Paracas textile 40

Pre-Columbian art 42

Porcelain 45

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 56

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 58

Article LicensesLicense 60


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Nazca culture 1

Nazca culture

Nazca Female Effigy Figure, made of sperm

whale tooth, shell and hair

The Nazca culture (also Nasca ) was the archaeological culture thatflourished from 100 BCE to 800 CE beside the dry southern coast of Peru in the river valleys of the Rio Grande de Nazca drainage and theIca Valley (Silverman and Proulx, 2002). Having been heavilyinfluenced by the preceding Paracas culture, which was known forextremely complex textiles, the Nazca produced an array of beautifulcrafts and technologies such as ceramics, textiles, and geoglyphs (mostcommonly known as the Nazca lines). They also built an impressivesystem of underground aqueducts, known as puquios , that still functiontoday. The Nazca Province in the Ica Region was named for thispeople.

History

Time frame

Nazca society developed during the Early Intermediate Period and isgenerally divided into the Proto Nazca (phase 1, 100 BCE 1 CE), theEarly Nazca (phases 2 4, 1 450 CE), Middle Nazca (phase 5,450 550 CE) and Late Nazca (phases 6 7, 550 750 CE) cultures(Vaughn, 2006).

Decline and fall of the civilizationFrom 500* CE, the civilization started to decline and by 750 CE thecivilization had fallen completely. This is thought to have occurred when an El Nio triggered widespread anddestructive flooding. Evidence also suggests that the Nazca people may have exacerbated the effects of these floodsby gradually cutting down Prosopis pallida trees to make room for maize and cotton agriculture. These trees play anextremely important role as the ecological keystone of this landscape: in particular preventing river and winderosion. Gradual removal of trees would have exposed the landscape to the effects of climate perturbations such as

El Nio , leading to erosion and leaving irrigation systems high and dry (see Beresford-Jones et al. 2009).

Society

Social structure

Early Nazca society was made up of local chiefdoms and regional centers of power centered around Cahuachi, anon-urban ceremonial site of earthwork mounds and plazas (Valdez, 1994). Scholars have developed theoriesresulting from various excavations at Cahuachi and suggest that the site was the center for rituals and feastingrelating to agriculture, water, and fertility. This may have been as a result of environmental deterioration; theeventual collapse of the center may have also been a result of that decline (Valdez, 1994). Cahuachi lies in the lowerportion of the Nazca Valley and was initially occupied during the late Paracas phase. It is unique among all otherNazca sites in the region and it is the most important site for the study of ancient Nazca culture (Valdez, 1995). Thepeople modified the natural 'huacas(hills) into pyramid mounds for ceremonial and religious purposes.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huacashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pyramidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huacashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paracas_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nazca_Valleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fertilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Urban_areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cahuachihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chiefdomshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irrigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1ohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aeolian_processeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aeolian_processeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Keystone_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prosopis_pallidahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=El_Ni%C3%B1ohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ica_Regionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nazca_Provincehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Puquioshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aqueduct_%28water_supply%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nazca_Lineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geoglyphhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paracas_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ica_Valleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nazcahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archaeological_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ANazca_-_Female_Effigy_Figure_-_Walters_2009207.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sperm_whalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sperm_whale


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Nazca culture 2

Bowl with fish (Victoria and Albert Museum)

Excavations at Cahuachi have given archaeologists key insights intothe culture. The material remains found at the site included largeamounts of polychrome pottery, plain and fancy textiles, trace amountsof gold and spondylus shell, and an array of ritual paraphernalia. Theremains of pottery found at Cahuachi led archaeologists to believe that

the site was specifically non-urban and ceremonial in nature. The ratioof plain, utilitarian pottery to fine, polychrome pottery was 30% to70% (Silverman, 1988). If it was an urban center, for example, theamount of utilitarian ceramics would have probably been higher.Among the foodstuffs found were the Three Sisters: maize, squash, andbeans; as well as peanuts, and some fish.

Construction at Cahuachi ceased. It appears that the site was abandoned at the very end of Nazca 3/early Nazca 4.Although there are many possible reasons for the collapse of Cahuachi, most scholars believe that the cessation of ceremonial use of the site is associated with the pan-Andean drought (Valdez, 1994). Later (post-Cahuachi) Nazcasociety was structured in a similar fashion as it had been before, but less of an emphasis was made in constructinglarge architectural complexes like those at Cahuachi (Silverman and Proulx, 2002).

Religion

Likely related to the arid and extreme nature of the environment, Nazca religious beliefs were based upon agricultureand fertility. Much of Nazca art depicts powerful nature gods, such as the mythical killer whale, the harvesters, themythical spotted cat, the serpentine creature, and the most prevalent of worshiped figures, the anthropomorphicmythical being. Much as in the contemporary Moche culture based in northwest Peru, shamans apparently usedhallucinogenic drugs, such as extractions from the San Pedro cactus, to induce visions. The use of such substances isalso depicted in art found on pottery related to the Nazca (Silverman and Proulx, 2002). Religious events and

ceremonies took place in Cahuachi. The people worshiped the nature gods to aid in the growth of agriculture.

Nazca burials at the Chauchilla Cemetery

Nazca burial place

During this time, all members of the society in surrounding villageswould migrate to the center and participate in feasting as well.Non-elites could obtain highly valued goods, such as fancypolychrome pottery, through feasting. In exchange, the elites couldenhance their political power and status while co-opting thecommoners into labor and construction of the site (Silverman, 1988).

"Trophy Heads"

The debate over the purpose of trophy heads continues to this day,whether they were trophies of war or objects of ritual. Visualdepictions of decapitations often associate the decapitators withweapons and military-like dress, but such garments could have beenworn in purely ceremonial circumstances as well (DeLeonardis, 2000).The term 'trophy head' was coined by the archaeologist Max Uhle, whoconsidered the depiction of severed heads in ancient Peruvian art tocorrespond to trophies of warfare (Silverman and Proulx, 2002).Researchers noted that all the heads had one modification in common-a hole in the forehead through which a rope could be affixed,presumably so that the severed head can be displayed or carried. This
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Nazca culture 3

added to the consensus that these were trophy heads (Browne, Silverman, and Garcia, 1993).Many burials of Nazca individuals are what is known as 'partial burials'. Partial burials typically include bundles of limbs, caches of severed heads, or bodies that are missing several parts (DeLeonardis, 2000). Several burials havebeen discovered in which the head of the skeleton is missing and is replaced with what is most commonly referred toas a 'head jar'. The head jar is a ceramic vessel with a human head painted on it, along with trees and plants sprouting

from the head.During the Middle Nazca period, the number of severed heads appeared to have increased dramatically, judging fromthe remains. In the late Nazca period, the number tapered off, although the practice of decapitation remained apopular one in this period (DeLeonardis, 2000). Late Nazca iconography suggests that the prestige of the leaders of Late Nazca society was enhanced by successful headhunting (Browne, Silverman, and Garcia, 2003).

Economy

Killer Whale , Nazca Culture, pottery, LarcoMuseum. Lima, Per

Nazca subsistence was based largely on agriculture. Iconography onceramics and excavated remains indicate that the Nazca people had a

varied diet, composed of maize, squash, sweet potato, manioc andachira, and a small trace of various fish. They also used severalnon-food crops, such as cotton for textiles, coca, San Pedro cactus, andgourds. The latter were decorated to illustrate activities in daily life.The evidence of coca in society can be seen through remains but alsothrough ceramics. This is the same for the hallucinogenic San Pedrocactus, which has been illustrated in ceremonies on several polychromepots and bowls. In terms of animal resources, the Nazca madesacrifices of llamas and guinea pigs at Cahuachi. Llamas were alsocommonly exploited as pack animals, for their wool, and as a source of

meat (Silverman and Proulx, 2002).As archaeological evidence indicates thus far, sometime during theMiddle Nazca period, the Nazca people created an aqueduct system tosustain life in the exceedingly arid environment. The exact date of construction of the puquios has been under contention for some timenow. Dating of the puquios is quite difficult because of the materialsinvolved in their construction. Attempts at dating the trenches havealso been difficult as the puquios were found by excavation. This destroyed early context that might have beeninterpreted (Schreiber and Rojas, 1995). The most promising techniques used to date them thus far has been theAMS (accelerator mass spectrometry) analysis of varnish that has collected on the rocks inside the puquios , as wellas the study of settlement patterns in the area (Clarkson and Dorn, 1995). These techniques have placed the originalconstruction of the puquios at the Middle Nazca period, as indicated above.

The irrigation system was made up of underground channels, known as puquios , which tapped into the subsurfacewater. The channels were dug into the mountainside until they reached the aquifers under the surface. The channelswere lined with river rocks. They did not use any mortar so that the water would pass into the channels. The waterwas transported to irrigation canals (acequias ) in order to directly supply water for agricultural purposes, or thewater was deposited into small reservoirs (kochas ) for later use (Schreiber and Rojas, 1995). Numerous access holesor ojos (eyes) were placed along the surface of the underground channels and operated much in the same way thatmodern manholes do. People would descend into the puquios in order to clear obstructions or make repairs

(Schreiber and Rojas, 1995). It is difficult to tell how long these underground channels are because extant puquioshave been altered and many of the puquios are too dangerous to explore underground. The length of the puquios are
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estimated by measuring the distances covered by the ojos (Schreiber and Rojas, 1995).Many of the channels remain in use to this day. This also testifies to their importance to generations of ancientpeople in the arid environment. With modern use, people have altered the puquios to be used more efficiently,including installing motorized pumps. In some cases, the kochas have been lined with concrete in order to hold thewater better (Schreiber and Rojas, 1995). Some of the best-preserved channels are those located in Cantalloc.

(Silverman, 1988)

Arts and technology

Pottery

The Nazca culture is characterized by its beautiful polychrome pottery, painted with at least 15 distinct colors. Theshift from post-fire resin painting to pre-fire slip painting marked the end of Paracas-style pottery and the beginningof Nazca-style pottery. The use of pre-fire slip painting meant that a great deal of experimentation took place inorder to know which slips produced certain colors. Major pottery shapes include double-spout bottles, bowls, cups,vases, effigy forms, and mythical creatures. Archaeologists have excavated highly valued polychrome pottery amongall classes of Nazca society, illustrating that it was not just the elite that had access to them. Commoners were able toobtain these goods through feasting and pilgrimages to Cahuachi. In addition, clays matching the chemical signatureof polychrome pottery found all over the Southern Nazca Region have been found near Cahuachi. However, there isno substantial evidence of pottery production at Cahuachi. The site was most likely a redistribution center forceramics (Vaughn and Neff, 2000).The Nazca pottery sequence has been divided into nine phases. Visual depictions found on pottery from Phase 1(also called Proto-Nazca) incorporated realistic subject matter such as fruits, plants, people, and animals. Realismincreased in importance in the following three phases (2, 3, 4) referred to as the Monumental phases. The potteryfrom these phases include renditions of their main subject matter against a bold red, black, or white background.

In the next phase, Nazca 5, considerable experimentation occurred, including the addition of rays, volutes, and other"proliferous" attachments to the supernatural motifs on the vessels. Phase 5 is called Transitional, since it bridges thechange in style between the naturalism of Phases 2-4 and the proliferous elements added to the motifs in Phases 6and 7.

Lobster effigy vessel, phases III-IV

Nazca 6, and 7 include some of the earlier motifs but also emphasizesmilitaristic ones, suggesting a shift in social organization. The motifsin these phases include abstract elements as part of the design. Largenumbers of rays and tassels are appended to many of the designs,particularly those depicting mythical subjects, producing a visualimpression of almost infinitely multiplied elements, an impression

which accounts for the use of the term 'proliferous' (Roark 1965:2). Artfound on pottery in relation to Nazca phases 6 and 7 also display aninfluence from the Moche culture of north coastal Peru. Finally, Nazca8 saw the introduction of completely disjointed figures and a geometriciconography which is difficult to decipher. Phases 8 and 9 are nowbelieved to date to the Middle Horizon, reflecting a shift in power from the coast to the highlands with the advent of the Wari culture about 650 CE. (Silverman and Proulx, 2002).

The Nazca, like all other Pre-Columbian societies in South America including the Inca, had no writing system, incontrast to the contemporary Maya of Mesoamerica. The iconography or symbols on their ceramics served as a

means of communication. The motifs depicted on Nazca pottery fall into two major categories: sacred and profane.The Nazca believed in powerful nature spirits who were thought to control most aspects of life. The Nazca visualizedthese nature spirits in the form of mythical beings, creatures having a combination of human and animal/bird/fish
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characteristics, and painted them onto their pottery. These Mythical Beings include such varieties as theAnthropomorphic Mythical Being, Horrible Bird, Mythical Killer Whale, Spotted Cat, etc. (Proulx 2006). Scenes of warfare, decapitation, and the ritual use of human trophy heads by shamans reflect other aspects of Nazca culture.

Textiles

Nazca mantle from Paracas Necropolis, 0-100 CE This is a "double fish" (probablysharks) design. Brooklyn Museum collections.

The Nazca are also known for theirtechnically complex textiles. The textileswere most likely woven by women athabitation sites from spun cotton and wool(Silverman and Proulx, 2002). The textileswould have been made using a backstraploom. This is similar to the way textiles aremade in the region today (Silverman andProulx, 2002). Textiles were woven with thecommon motifs earlier than they appeared

painted on pottery. The dry desert haspreserved the textiles of both the Nazca andParacas cultures, which comprise most of what is known about early textiles in the region.

Shawls, dresses, tunics, belts, and bags have been found through excavations at Cahuachi and elsewhere. Manytextiles associated with the Nazca culture are garments that were included with grave goods found at burial sites.Almost every body found is wrapped (sometimes partially) in a textile as a part of burial ritual. These textiles arefound with partial burials as well. Often piles of bones are found wrapped in a textile garment (DeLeonardis, 2000).The deposits of dresses and shawls contained both high-status garments (with feathers, painting, embroidery) and

plain garments, suggesting different social roles or responsibilities. Mary Frame's extensive analysis of textiles fromCahuachi has revealed more about Nazca women. She noted that although the women are rarely recognized in thearchaeological record, they had ready access to high-status materials and the right to wear potent imagery on theirgarments (Frame, 2003), which gave an indication of their status. A large portion of dresses were found portrayingbirds with speckled bodies, double-headed serpentine figures, and anthropomorphic figures.

Nazca Lines

"The Dog" from the air

The geoglyphs of Nazca or "Nazca Lines" are a series of geometricshapes, miles of lines, and large drawings of animal figures (some aslarge as a football field) constructed on the desert floor in the Nazcaregion (Aveni, 2000). Many theories have arisen about the greatgeoglyphs. A large number of people over an extended period of timecould have constructed the lines. Researchers have demonstratedtechniques to see how this was done.

By extending a rope between two posts and removing the red pebbleson the desert surface along the rope, the lines could be constructed.The contrast of the red desert pebbles and the lighter earth beneathwould make the lines visible from a high altitude. Due to the simplisticconstruction of the geoglyphs, regular amounts of rainfall would have

easily eroded the drawings but the dry desert environment has preserved the lines for hundreds of years.
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Nazca culture 6

The purpose of the lines continues to be debated. Some researchers theorize they were created for the gods to lookupon them from above, while others suggest they were some sort of calendar with astronomical alignments thatwould aid in planting and harvesting of crops. Others have thought the lines were the pathways for importantceremonial processions (Aveni, 2000). The lines have been studied by experts of several disciplines.Anthropologists, archaeologists, and astronomers have all studied the lines (Silverman and Proulx, 2002) have notfound conclusive evidence for any of the theories as to purpose (Aveni, 2000). It is unlikely that we will discover thetrue purpose of the geoglyphs.

Trephination and cranial manipulation

Head Trophy of the Nazca culture.

Representation of a warrior holding a trophyhead.

Trephination was a primitive skull surgery used by the Nazca thatrelieved pressure on the brain from battle wounds or for ritualpurposes. It entails the removal of one or more sections of bone fromthe skull (while the person is still alive). Evidence of trephination hasbeen seen through the analysis of excavated skulls. Some of the skullsshow signs of healing, evidence that some individuals who underwent

the procedure had survived.Elongated skulls, as a result of skull manipulation, were also seen inthe excavations from Cahuachi. This effect was achieved by binding acushion to an infant's forehead and a board to the back of the head.Archaeologists can only speculate as to why this was done to some of the skulls. Several theories suggest skull manipulation created anethnic identity, formed the individual into a social being, or may haveillustrated social status. (Silverman and Proulx, 2002)

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"Between the Lines: The Mystery of the Giant Ground Drawings of Ancient Nasca, Peru" Aveni, Anthony F.University of Texas Press. Austin. 2000. "New Chronometric Dates for the Puquios of Nasca, Peru" Clarkson, Persis B. and Dorn, Ronald I. (1995) Latin

American Antiquity , Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 56 69. "The body Context: Interpreting Early Nasca Decapitation Burials" DeLeonardis, Lisa. Latin American Antiquity .

2000. Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 363 368. "Moving Beyond Iconography: Neutron Activation Analysis of Ceramics from Marcaya, Peru" Vaughn, Kevin J.

and Neff, Hector. Journal of Field Archaeology . (2000) Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 75 90. Early Nasca Needlework by Alan R. (1996) Sawyer Laurence King. ISBN 1-85669-088-1 "The Role of Prosopis in Ecological and Landscape Change in the Samaca Basin, Lower Ica Valley, South Coast

Peru from the Early Horizon to the Late Intermediate Period " by Beresford-Jones, D., S. Arce, O.Q. Whaley andA. Chepstow-Lusty (2009). Latin American Antiquity Vol. 20 pp. 303 330

External links Ancient Peruvian ceramics: the Nathan Cummings collection by Alan R. Sawyer (http:/ / libmma. contentdm.

oclc. org/ cdm/ compoundobject/ collection/ p15324coll10/ id/ 35107), an exhibition catalog from TheMetropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Nazca culture (seeindex)
http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/35107http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/35107


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Pottery 8

Pottery

A potter at work in Jaura, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Unfired "green ware" pottery on a traditionaldrying rack at Conner Prairie living history

museum

'Pottery is the ceramic material which makes up potterywares ,[1] of which major types include earthenware, stoneware and porcelain. Theplace where such wares are made is also called a pottery (plural"potteries"). Pottery also refers to the art or craft of a potter or themanufacture of pottery.[2]

The definition of pottery used by ASTM is "all fired ceramic waresthat contain clay when formed, except technical, structural, andrefractory products."[3] Some archaeologists use a differentunderstanding of this definition by excluding ceramic objects such asfigurines which are made by similar processes, materials and the samepeople but are not vessels.[4]

Pottery originates during the Neolithic period. Ceramic objects like the

Gravettian culture Venus of Doln Vstonice figurine discovered in theCzech Republic date back to 29,000 25,000 BCE, and pottery vesselsdiscovered in Jiangxi, China date back to 20,000 BP. Early Neolithicpottery has also been found in Jomon Japan (10,500 BCE), the RussianFar East (14,000 BCE), Sub-Saharan Africa and South America.

Pottery is made by forming a clay body into objects of a required shapeand heating them to high temperatures in a kiln which removes all thewater from the clay, which induces reactions that lead to permanentchanges including increasing their strength and hardening and settingtheir shape. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing. Priorto some shaping processes, clay must be prepared.Kneading helps toensure an even moisture content throughout the body. Air trappedwithin the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing andcan be accomplished by a machine called a vacuum pug or manuallyby wedging. Wedging can also help produce an even moisture content.Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged, it isshaped by a variety of techniques. After shaping it is dried and thenfired.
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Pottery 9

Traditional Pottery workshop reconstruction inthe Museum of traditional crafts and applied arts,

Troyan, Bulgaria

Physical stages of clay

Tajine potter, making tajines

Clay ware takes on varying physical characteristics during the makingof pottery. Greenware refers to unfired objects. At sufficient moisture content,

bodies at this stage are in their most plastic form: they are soft andmalleable, and hence can be easily deformed by handling.

Leather-hard refers to a clay body that has been dried partially. Atthis stage the clay object has approximately 15% moisture content.Clay bodies at this stage are very firm and only slightly pliable.Trimming and handle attachment often occurs at the leather-hardstate.

Bone-dry refers to clay bodies when they reach a moisture content at or near 0%. It is now ready to be bisquefired.

Biscuit [5][6]refers to the clay after the object is shaped to the desired form and fired in the kiln for the first time,known as "biscuit fired". This firing changes the clay body in several ways. Mineral components of the clay bodywill undergo chemical changes that will change the colour of the clay.

Glaze fired is the final stage of some pottery making. A glaze may be applied to the bisque form and the objectcan be decorated in several ways. After this the object is "glazed fired", which causes the glaze material to melt,then adhere to the object. The glaze firing will also harden the body still more as chemical processes can continueto occur in the body.

Clays bodies and mineral contentsThere are several materials that are referred to as clay. The properties of the clays differ include: Plasticity, themalleability of the body; the extent to which they will absorb water after firing; and shrinkage, the extent of reduction in size of a body as water is removed. Different clay bodies also differ in the way in which they respondwhen fired in the kiln. A clay body can be decorated before or after firing. Prior to some shaping processes, claymust be prepared. Each of these different clays are composed of different types and amounts of minerals thatdetermine the characteristics of resulting pottery. There can be regional variations in the properties of raw materialsused for the production of pottery, and this can lead to wares that are unique in character to a locality. It is commonfor clays and other materials to be mixed to produce clay bodies suited to specific purposes. A common component

of clay bodies is the mineral kaolinite. Other mineral compounds in the clay may act as fluxes which lowers thevitrication temperature of bodies. Following is a list of different types of clay used for pottery.[7]
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Pottery 10

Preparation of Clay for Pottery in India

Kaolin, is sometimes referred to as China clay because it was firstused in China.

Ball clay An extremely plastic, fine grained sedimentary clay,which may contain some organic matter. Small amounts can beadded to porcelain to increase plasticity.

Fire clay A clay having a slightly lower percentage of fluxes thankaolin, but usually quite plastic. It is highly heat resistant form of clay which can be combined with other clays to increase the firingtemperature and may be used as an ingredient to make stonewaretype bodies.

Stoneware clay Suitable for creating stoneware. This clay has many of the characteristics between fire clay andball clay, having finer grain, like ball clay but is more heat resistant like fire clays.

Common red clay andShale clay have vegetable and ferric oxide impurities which make them useful for bricks,but are generally unsatisfactory for pottery except under special conditions of a particular deposit.[8]

Bentonite An extremely plastic clay which can be added in small quantities to short clay increase the plasticity.

Methods of shaping

A man shapes pottery as it turns on a wheel.(Cappadocia, Turkey)

Pottery can be shaped by a range of methods that include:

Handwork pottery in Kathmandu, Nepal

Hand building . This is the earliest forming method. Wares can beconstructed by hand from coils of clay, combining flat slabs of clay, orpinching solid balls of clay or some combination of these. Parts of hand-built vessels are often joined together with the aid of slip, anaqueous suspension of clay body and water. A clay body can be

decorated before or after firing. Prior to some shaping processes, claymust be prepared such as tablewares although some studio potters findhand-building more conducive to create one-of-a-kind works of art.
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Pottery 11

Classic potter's kick wheel in Erfurt, Germany

The potter's wheel. In a process called "throwing" (coming from theOld English wordthrawan which means to twist or turn,[9]) a ball of clay is placed in the centre of a turntable, called the wheel-head, whichthe potter rotates with a stick, with foot power or with a variable-speedelectric motor.

During the process of throwing, the wheel rotates rapidly while thesolid ball of soft clay is pressed, squeezed and pulled gently upwardsand outwards into a hollow shape. The first step of pressing the roughball of clay downward and inward into perfect rotational symmetry iscalledcentring the clay a most important skill to master before the

next steps:opening (making a centred hollow into the solid ball of clay), flooring (making the flat or rounded bottominside the pot),throwing or pulling (drawing up and shaping the walls to an even thickness), andtrimming or turning(removing excess clay to refine the shape or to create a foot ).

Considerable skill and experience are required to throw pots of an acceptable standard and, while the ware may havehigh artistic merit, the reproducibility of the method is poor.[10] Because of its inherent limitations, throwing canonly be used to create wares with radial symmetry on a vertical axis. These can then be altered by impressing,bulging, carving, fluting, and incising. In addition to the potter's hands these techniques can use tools, includingpaddles, anvils & ribs, and those specifically for cutting or piercing such as knives, fluting tools and wires. Thrownpieces can be further modified by the attachment of handles, lids, feet and spouts.Granulate pressing: As the name suggests, this is the operation of shaping pottery by pressing clay in a semi-dryand granulated condition in a mould. The clay is pressed into the mould by a porous die through which water ispumped at high pressure. The granulated clay is prepared by spray-drying to produce a fine and free-flowing materialhaving a moisture content of between about 5 and 6 per cent. Granulate pressing, also known asdust pressing , iswidely used in the manufacture of ceramic tiles and, increasingly, of plates.

Injection moulding: is a shape-forming process adapted for the tableware industry from the method long establishedfor the forming of thermoplastic and some metal components.[11]It has been called Porcelain Injection Moulding , or

PIM .[12]Suited to the mass production of complex-shaped articles, one significant advantage of the technique is thatit allows the production of a cup, including the handle, in a single process, and thereby eliminates the handle-fixingoperation and produces a stronger bond between cup and handle.[13] The feed to the mould die is a mix of approximately 50 to 60 percent unfired body in powder form, together with 40 to 50 percent organic additivescomposed of binders, lubricants and plasticisers. The technique is not as widely used as other shaping methods.[14]

Jiggering and jolleying: These operations are carried out on the potter's wheel and allow the time taken to bringwares to a standardized form to be reduced. Jiggering is the operation of bringing a shaped tool into contact with theplastic clay of a piece under construction, the piece itself being set on a rotating plaster mould on the wheel. The jigger tool shapes one face while the mould shapes the other. Jiggering is used only in the production of flat wares,such as plates, but a similar operation, jolleying , is used in the production of hollow-wares such as cups. Jiggeringand jolleying have been used in the production of pottery since at least the 18th century. In large-scale factoryproduction, jiggering and jolleying are usually automated, which allows the operations to be carried out bysemi-skilled labour.
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Pottery 12

Shaping on a potter's kick wheel;Glehir, Turkey

Roller-head machine: This machine is for shaping wares on a rotating mould, asin jiggering and jolleying, but with a rotary shaping tool replacing the fixedprofile. The rotary shaping tool is a shallow cone having the same diameter asthe ware being formed and shaped to the desired form of the back of the articlebeing made. Wares may in this way be shaped, using relatively unskilled labour,

in one operation at a rate of about twelve pieces per minute, though this varieswith the size of the articles being produced. Developed in the U.K. just afterWorld War II by the companyService Engineers , roller-heads were quicklyadopted by manufacturers around the world; they remain the dominant methodfor producing flatware.[15]

Pressure casting specially developed polymeric materials allow a mould to besubject to application external pressures of up to 4.0 MPa so much higher thanslip casting in plaster moulds where the capillary forces correspond to a pressureof around 0.1 - 0.2 MPa. The high pressure leads to much faster casting ratesand, hence, faster production cycles. Furthermore, the application of high pressure air through the polymeric mouldsupon demoulding the cast means a new casting cycle can be started immediately in the same mould, unlike plastermoulds which require lengthy drying times. The polymeric materials have much greater durability than plaster and,therefore, it is possible to achieve shaped products with better dimensional tolerances and much longer mould life.Pressure casting was developed in the 1970s for the production of sanitaryware although, more recently, it has beenapplied to tableware.[16][17]

RAM pressing: is used to shape ware by pressing a bat of prepared clay body into a required shape between twoporous moulding plates. After pressing, compressed air is blown through the porous mould plates to release theshaped wares.Slipcasting: is ideally suited to the making of wares that cannot be formed by other methods of shaping. A slip,

made by mixing clay body with water, is poured into a highly absorbent plaster mould. Water from the slip isabsorbed into the mould leaving a layer of clay body covering its internal surfaces and taking its internal shape.Excess slip is poured out of the mould, which is then split open and the moulded object removed. Slipcasting iswidely used in the production of sanitary wares and is also used for making smaller articles, such as intricatelydetailed figurines.

Decorating and glazing

Contemporary pottery fromOkinawa, Japan

Pottery may be decorated in a number of ways including: In the clay body, for example, by incising patterns on its surface.

Underglaze decoration (in the manner of many blue and white wares).Underglaze may be applied by brush strokes, air brush, or by pouring theunderglaze into the mold, covering the inside, creating a swirling effect, then themold is filled with slip. In-glaze decoration On-glaze decoration Enamel
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Pottery 13

This is an Italian red earthenware vase coveredwith a mottled pale blue glaze. It has large blue

and gold-coated flowers and a scallopedgold-coated rim.

Pots in Punjab, Pakistan

Additives can be worked into the clay body prior to forming, toproduce desired effects in the fired wares. Coarse additives such assand and grog (fired clay which has been finely ground) are sometimesused to give the final product a required texture. Contrasting colouredclays and grogs are sometimes used to produce patterns in the finished

wares. Colourants, usually metal oxides and carbonates, are addedsingly or in combination to achieve a desired colour. Combustibleparticles can be mixed with the body or pressed into the surface toproduce texture.

Agateware: Named after its resemblance to the quartz mineral agatewhich has bands or layers of colour that are blended together, agatewares are made by blending clays of differingcolours together but not mixing them to the extent that they lose their individual identities. The wares have adistinctive veined or mottled appearance. The term "agateware" is used to describe such wares in the UnitedKingdom; in Japan the term "neriage " is used and in China, where such things have been made since at least theTang Dynasty, they are called "marbled " wares. Great care is required in the selection of clays to be used for makingagatewares as the clays used must have matching thermal movement characteristics.

Banding: This is the application by hand or by machine of a band of colour to the edge of a plate or cup. Alsoknown as "lining", this operation is often carried out on a potter's wheel.Burnishing: The surface of pottery wares may beburnished prior to firing by rubbing with a suitable instrument of wood, steel or stone to produce a polished finish that survives firing. It is possible to produce very highly polishedwares when fine clays are used or when the polishing is carried out on wares that have been partially dried andcontain little water, though wares in this condition are extremely fragile and the risk of breakage is high.
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Pottery 14

An ancient Armenian urn

Engobe: This is a clay slip, that is used to coat the surface of pottery, usuallybefore firing. Its purpose is often decorative though it can also be used to maskundesirable features in the clay to which it is applied. Engobe slip may beapplied by painting or by dipping to provide a uniform, smooth, coating. Engobehas been used by potters from pre-historic times until the present day and is

sometimes combined with sgraffito decoration, where a layer of engobe isscratched through to reveal the colour of the underlying clay. With care it ispossible to apply a second coat of engobe of a different colour to the first and toincise decoration through the second coat to expose the colour of the underlyingcoat. Engobes used in this way often contain substantial amounts of silica,sometimes approaching the composition of a glaze.

Litho: This is a commonly used abbreviation for lithography, although thealternative names of transfer print or "decal " are also common. These are used to

apply designs to articles. The litho comprises three layers: the colour, or image, layer which comprises the decorativedesign; the cover coat, a clear protective layer, which may incorporate a low-melting glass; and the backing paper onwhich the design is printed by screen printing or lithography. There are various methods of transferring the designwhile removing the backing-paper, some of which are suited to machine application.

Gold: Decoration with gold is used on some high quality ware. Different methods exist for its application, including: Best gold - a suspension of gold powder in essential oils mixed with a flux and a mercury salt extended. This can

be applied by a painting technique. From the kiln, the decoration is dull and requires burnishing to reveal the fullcolour

Acid Gold a form of gold decoration developed in the early 1860s at the English factory of Mintons Ltd,Stoke-on-Trent. The glazed surface is etched with diluted hydrofluoric acid prior to application of the gold. Theprocess demands great skill and is used for the decoration only of ware of the highest class.

Bright Gold consists of a solution of gold sulphoresinate together with other metal resonates and a flux. Thename derives from the appearance of the decoration immediately after removal from the kiln as it requires noburnishing

Mussel Gold an old method of gold decoration. It was made by rubbing together gold leaf, sugar and salt,followed by washing to remove solubles
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Pottery 15

Glazing

Two panels of earthenware tiles painted withpolychrome glazes over a white glaze. (19th)

Glaze is a glassy coating on pottery, the primary purposes of which are decoration and protection. One important use of glaze isto render porous pottery vessels impermeable to water and otherliquids. Glaze may be applied by dusting the unfired composition

over the ware or by spraying, dipping, trailing or brushing on athin slurry composed of the unfired glaze and water. The colour of a glaze before it has been fired may be significantly different thanafterwards. To prevent glazed wares sticking to kiln furnitureduring firing, either a small part of the object being fired (forexample, the foot) is left unglazed or, alternatively, specialrefractory "spurs " are used as supports. These are removed anddiscarded after the firing.

Some specialised glazing techniques include:

Salt-glazing, where common salt is introduced to the kilnduring the firing process. The high temperatures cause the saltto volatize, depositing it on the surface of the ware to react withthe body to form a sodium aluminosilicate glaze. In the 17thand 18th centuries, salt-glazing was used in the manufacture of domestic pottery. Now, except for use by some studio potters, the process is obsolete. The last large-scaleapplication before its demise in the face of environmental clean air restrictions was in the production of salt-glazed sewer-pipes.[18][19]

Ash glazing - ash from the combustion of plant matter has been used as the flux component of glazes. The sourceof the ash was generally the combustion waste from the fuelling of kilns although the potential of ash derivedfrom arable crop wastes has been investigated.[20]Ash glazes are of historical interest in the Far East althoughthere are reports of small-scale use in other locations such as the Catawba Valley Pottery in the United States.They are now limited to small numbers of studio potters who value the unpredictability arising from the variablenature of the raw material.[21]

Firing

The pottery firing process in Kalabougou, Mali,using a firing mound.

Firing produces irreversible changes in the body. It is only after firingthat the article or material is pottery. In lower-fired pottery, thechanges include sintering, the fusing together of coarser particles in the

body at their points of contact with each other. In the case of porcelain,where different materials and higher firing-temperatures are used, thephysical, chemical and mineralogical properties of the constituents inthe body are greatly altered. In all cases, the object of firing is topermanently harden the wares and the firing regime must beappropriate to the materials used to make them. As a rough guide,earthenwares are normally fired at temperatures in the range of about1,000C (1,830 F) to 1,200 C (2,190 F); stonewares at betweenabout 1,100 C (2,010 F) to 1,300 C (2,370 F); and porcelains atbetween about 1,200 C (2,190 F) to 1,400 C (2,550 F).
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Pottery 16

A large kiln at a pottery in Bardon Mill, UK.

Firing pottery can be done using a variety of methods, with a kilnbeing the usual firing method. Both the maximum temperature and theduration of firing influences the final characteristics of the ceramic.Thus, the maximum temperature within a kiln is often held constant fora period of time tosoak the wares to produce the maturity required in

the body of the wares.The atmosphere within a kiln during firing can affect the appearance of the finished wares. An oxidising atmosphere, produced by allowing airto enter the kiln, can cause the oxidation of clays and glazes. Areducing atmosphere, produced by limiting the flow of air into the kiln,can strip oxygen from the surface of clays and glazes. This can affect the appearance of the wares being fired and,for example, some glazes containing iron fire brown in an oxidising atmosphere, but green in a reducing atmosphere.The atmosphere within a kiln can be adjusted to produce complex effects in glaze.

Kilns may be heated by burning wood, coal and gas or by electricity. When used as fuels, coal and wood canintroduce smoke, soot and ash into the kiln which can affect the appearance of unprotected wares. For this reason,wares fired in wood- or coal-fired kilns are often placed in the kiln in saggars, lidded ceramic boxes, to protect them.Modern kilns powered by gas or electricity are cleaner and more easily controlled than older wood- or coal-firedkilns and often allow shorter firing times to be used. In a Western adaptation of traditional Japanese Raku warefiring, wares are removed from the kiln while hot and smothered in ashes, paper or woodchips which produces adistinctive carbonised appearance. This technique is also used in Malaysia in creating traditionallabu sayung .

In Mali, a firing mound is used rather than a brick or stone kiln. Unfired pots are first brought to the place where amound will be built, customarily by the women and girls of the village. The mound's foundation is made by placingsticks on the ground, then:

[...]pots are positioned on and amid the branches and then grass is piled high to complete the mound. Althoughthe mound contains the pots of many women, who are related through their husbands' extended families, eachwomen is responsible for her own or her immediate family's pots within the mound.When a mound is completed and the ground around has been swept clean of residual combustible material, asenior potter lights the fire. A handful of grass is lit and the woman runs around the circumference of themound touching the burning torch to the dried grass. Some mounds are still being constructed as others arealready burning.

HistoryA great part of the history of pottery is prehistoric, part of past pre-literate cultures. Therefore, much of this history

can only be found among the artifacts of archaeology. Because pottery is so durable, pottery and sherds from potterysurvive from millennia at archaeological sites.Before pottery becomes part of a culture, several conditions must generally be met. First, there must be usable clay available. Archaeological sites where the earliest pottery was found were near

deposits of readily available clay that could be properly shaped and fired. China has large deposits of a variety of clays, which gave them an advantage in early development of fine pottery. Many countries have large deposits of a variety of clays.

Second, it must be possible to heat the pottery to temperatures that will achieve the transformation from raw clayto ceramic. Methods to reliably create fires hot enough to fire pottery did not develop until late in thedevelopment of cultures.

Third, the potter must have time available to prepare, shape and fire the clay into pottery. Even after control of fire was achieved, humans did not seem to develop pottery until a sedentary life was achieved. It has been
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Pottery 17

hypothesized that pottery was developed only after humans established agriculture, which led to permanentsettlements. However, the oldest known pottery is from China and dates to 20,000 BC, at the height of the ice age,long before the beginnings of agriculture.

Fourth, there must be a sufficient need for pottery in order to justify the resources required for its production.[22]

Earliest known ceramics are theGravettian figurines that date to

29,000 to 25,000 BC

Cupisnique pottery. Stirrup spoutbottle with a feline-human

representation. Larco MuseumCollection. Lima-Peru

Early potteryMethods of forming : Hand-shaping was the earliest method used to formvessels. This included the combination ofpinching andcoiling .

Firing : The earliest method for firing pottery wares was the use of bonfires Pitfired pottery. Firing times were short but the peak-temperatures achieved in thefire could be high, perhaps in the region of 900 C (1,650 F), and were reachedvery quickly.[23]

Clay : Early potters used whatever clay was available to them in their geographicvicinity. However, the lowest quality common red clay was adequate for

low-temperature fires used for the earliest pots. Clays tempered with sand, grit,crushed shell or crushed pottery were often used to make bonfire-fired ceramicsbecause they provided an open-body texture that allowed water. The coarserparticles in the clay also acted to restrain shrinkage during drying, and hencereduce the risk of cracking.

Form : In the main, early bonfire-fired wares were made with rounded bottoms toavoid sharp angles that might be susceptible to cracking.

Glazing : the earliest pots were not glazed.

Thepotter's wheel was invented in Mesopotamia sometime between 6,000 and

4,000 BCE (Ubaid period) and revolutionised pottery production.Biscuit moulds were used to a limited extent as early as the 5th and 6th centuryBCE by the Etruscans[24]and more extensively by the Romans.[25]

Slipcasting , a popular method for shaping irregular shaped articles. It was firstpractised, to a limited extent, in China as early as the T'ang dynasty[26]

Transition to kilns : The earliest intentionally constructed were pit-kilns ortrench-kilns holes dug in the ground and covered with fuel. Holes in the groundprovided insulation and resulted in better control over firing.[27]

kilns : Pit fire methods were adequate for creating earthenware, but higher-fired

stoneware and porcelain required more sophisticated methods of firing usinghigh-fire kilns (see below kilns).

History of pottery types

Earthenware

The earliest forms of pottery were made from clays that were fired at lowtemperatures in pit-fires or in open bonfires. They were hand formed andundecorated. Because the biscuit form of earthenware is porous, it has limitedutility for storage of liquids. However, earthenware has a continuous history
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An Incipient Jmon pottery vesselreconstructed from fragments

(10,000-8,000 BCE), Tokyo NationalMuseum, Japan

from the Neolithic period to today. It can be made from a wide variety of clays.The development of ceramic glaze which makes it impermeable makes it apopular and practical form of pottery making. The addition of decoration hasevolved throughout its history.

StonewareGlazed Stoneware was being created as early as the 15th century BCE in China.This achievement coincided with kilns that could be fired at highertemperatures.[28]

Porcelain

Porcelain was first made in China during the Tang Dynasty (618-906 CE).Porcelain was also made in Korea and Japan around the 16th and 17th centuryAD after suitable kaolin was located in those countries. It was not created outside of the area until the 18thcentury.[29]

History by region

A pottery vessel's fragment, date back to 20,000BP. They were discovered in Xianrendong cave

in Jiangxi, China.

The earliest-known ceramic objects are Gravettian figurines such asthose discovered at Doln Vstonice in the modern-day CzechRepublic. The Venus of Doln Vstonice (Vstonick Venue inCzech) is a Venus figurine, a statuette of a nude female figure dated to29,000 25,000 BCE (Gravettian industry). The earliest pottery vesselsdate back to 20,000 BP and were discovered in Xianrendong cave inJiangxi, China. The pottery may have been used as cookware. Other

early pottery vessels include those excavated from the YuchanyanCave in southern China, dated from 16,000 BCE,[30]and those foundin the Amur River basin in the Russian Far East, dated from 14,000BCE.[][31]

Other early pottery vessels include those made by the Incipient Jmonpeople of Japan from around 10,500 BCE have also been found.[32] The term "Jmon" means "cord-marked" inJapanese. This refers to the markings made on the vessels and figures using sticks with cords during their production.

It appears that pottery was independently developed in Sub-Saharan Africa during the 11,000-10,000 BCE[33]and inSouth America during the 10,000 BCE[34]

Far East Asia

Sherds have been found in China and Japan from a period between 12,000 and perhaps as long as 18,000 years ago.As of 2012, the earliest pottery found anywhere in the world,[35]dating to 20,000 to 19,000 years before the present,was found at Xianrendong Cave in the Jiangxi province of China.[36]In Japan, the Jmon period has a long historyof development of Jmon Pottery which was characterized by impressions of rope on the surface of the potterycreated by pressing rope into the clay before firing. Glazed Stoneware was being created as early as the 15th centuryBCE in China. Porcelain became a renowned Chinese export during the Tang Dynasty (618-906 CE) and subsequentdynasties.[37] Korean potters produced porcelain as early as the 14th century CE.[38] Koreans brought the art of porcelain to Japan in the 17th century CE.[39]

The secret of making such porcelain was sought in the Islamic world and later in Europe when examples wereimported from the East. Many attempts were made to imitate it in Italy and France. However it was not produced
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Pottery 19

outside of the Orient until 1709 in Germany.[40]

South Asia

Pottery was in use in ancient India, including areas now forming Pakistan and northwest India, during the MehrgarhPeriod II (5,500-4,800 BCE) and Merhgarh Period III (4,800-3,500 BCE), known as the ceramic Neolithic andchalcolithic. Pottery, including items known as the ed-Dur vessels, originated in regions of the Saraswati River / Indus River and have been found in a number of sites in the Indus Civilization.[41][42]

Near East

The earliest history of pottery production in the Near East can be divided into four periods, namely: the Hassunaperiod (7000-6500 BCE), the Halaf period (6500-5500 BCE), the Ubaid period (5500-4000 BCE), and the Urukperiod (4000-3100 BCE).The invention of the potter's wheel in Mesopotamia sometime between 6,000 and 4,000 BCE (Ubaid period)revolutionized pottery production. Specialized potters were then able to meet the expanding needs of the world's firstcities.

Pottery making began in the Fertile Crescent from the 7th millennium BCE. The earliest forms, which were found atthe Hassuna site, were hand formed from slabs, undecorated, unglazed low-fired pots made from reddish-brownclays. Within the next millennium, wares were decorated with elaborate painted designs and natural forms, incisingand burnished.By 4000 BCE, the potters wheel was developed.Newer kiln designs could fire wares to 1,050 C (1,920 F) to 1,200C (2,190 F) which enabled new possibilities and new preparation of clays. Production was now carried out bysmall groups of potters for small cities, rather than individuals making wares for a family. The shapes and range of uses for ceramics and pottery expanded beyond simple vessels to store and carry to specialized cooking utensils, potstands and rat traps.[43]

As the region developed new organizations and political forms, pottery became more elaborate and varied. Somewares were made using moulds, allowing for increased production for the needs of the growing populations. Glazingwas commonly used and pottery was more decorated.[44]

Aegean region

Civilization developed concurrently with the Fertile Crescent in the ancient Mediterranean islands around Greecefrom about 3200 to 1000 BCE and carried to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome that is considered the Classical erain the Western world. The arts of these cultures eventually became a hallmark for Europe and the New World.The Minoan pottery was characterized by elaborate painted decoration with natural themes.[45]

The classical Greek culture began to emerge around 1000 BCE featuring a variety of well crafted pottery which now

included the human form as a decorating motif. The pottery wheel was now in regular use. Although glazing wasknown to these potters, it was not widely used. Instead, a more porous clay slip was used for decoration. A widerange of shapes for different uses developed early and remained essentially unchanged during the Greek history.[46]

In the Mediterranean, during the Greek Dark Ages (1,100 800 BCE), amphoras and other pottery were decoratedwith geometric designs such as squares, circles and lines. In the Chalcolithic period in Mesopotamia, Halafianpottery achieved a level of technical competence and sophistication, not seen until the later developments of Greekpottery with Corinthian and Attic ware.[citation needed ]

The Etruscan pottery carried on the Greek pottery with its own variations.The Ancient Roman pottery started by copying Greek and Etruscan styles but soon developed a style of its own.The distinctive Red Samian ware of the Early Roman Empire was copied by regional potters throughout the Empire.
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Pottery 20

Islamic pottery

Early Islamic pottery followed the forms of the regions which the Muslims conquered. Eventually, however, therewas cross-fertilization between the regions. This was most notable in the Chinese influences on Islamic pottery.Trade between China and Islam took place via the system of trading posts over the lengthy Silk Road. Islamicnations imported stoneware and later porcelain from China. China imported the minerals for Cobalt blue from the

Islamic ruled Persia to decorate their blue and white porcelain, which they then exported to the Islamic world.Likewise, Islamic art contributed to a lasting pottery form identified as Hispano-Moresque in Andalucia (IslamicSpain). Unique Islamic forms were also developed, including fritware, lusterware and specialized glazes liketin-glazing, which led to the development of the popular maiolica.[47]

One major emphasis in ceramic development in the Muslim world was the use of tile and decorative tilework.

Europe

A potter at work, 1605

The early inhabitants of Europe developed pottery at about the sametime as in the Near East, circa 5500 4500 BCE. These cultures andtheir pottery were eventually shaped by new cultural influences andtechnology with the invasions of Ancient Rome and later by Islam. TheRenaissance art of Europe was a melding of the art of Classical era andIslamic art.

Americas

Most evidence points to an independent development of pottery in theAmerindian cultures, starting with their Archaic Era (3500 2000BCE), and into their Formative period (2000 BCE-200 CE). Thesecultures did not develop the stoneware, porcelain or glazes found in the

old world.

Africa

Northern Africa includes Egypt, which had several distinct phases of development in pottery. During the early Mediterranean civilizations of the fertile crescent, Egypt developed a unique non-clay-basedhigh-fired ceramic which has come to be called Egyptian faience.[48]

The other major phase came during the Umayyad Caliphate of Islam, Egypt was a link between early center of Islamin the Near East and Iberia which led to the impressive style of pottery.

As for Sub-Saharan Africa, in 2007, Swiss archeologists discovered pieces of the oldest pottery in Africa in CentralMali, dating back to at least 9,500 BCE. The relationship of the introduction of pot-making in many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa with the spread of Bantu languages has been long recognized, although the details remaincontroversial and awaiting further research, and no consensus has been reached.[49]
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Pottery 21

Oceania

Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia

Pottery has been found in archaeological sites across the islands of Oceania. It is attributed to an ancientarchaeological culture called the Lapita. A form of pottery calledPlainware is found throughout sites of Oceania.The relationship between Lapita pottery and Plainware is not altogether clear.

The Indigenous Australians were hunter-gatherer tribes and did not farmWikipedia:Disputed statement or cultivatecrops, and in keeping with these cultural features, they also never developed pottery.[50]After Europeans came toAustralia and settled, they found deposits of clay which were analysed by English potters as excellent for makingpottery. Less than 20 years later, Europeans came to Australia and began creating pottery. Since then, ceramicmanufacturing, mass-produced pottery, and studio pottery have flourished in Australia.[51]

Archaeology

Pottery found at atal Hyk - sixth millenniumBC

For archaeologists, anthropologists and historians the study of potterycan help to provide an insight into past cultures. Pottery is durable, and

fragments, at least, often survive long after artefacts made fromless-durable materials have decayed past recognition. Combined withother evidence, the study of pottery artefacts is helpful in thedevelopment of theories on the organisation, economic condition andthe cultural development of the societies that produced or acquiredpottery. The study of pottery may also allow inferences to be drawnabout a culture's daily life, religion, social relationships, attitudestowards neighbours, attitudes to their own world and even the way theculture understood the universe.Chronologies based on pottery are often essential for dating non-literate cultures and are often of help in the datingof historic cultures as well. Trace-element analysis, mostly by neutron activation, allows the sources of clay to beaccurately identified and the thermoluminescence test can be used to provide an estimate of the date of last firing.Examining fired pottery shards from prehistory, scientists learned that during high-temperature firing, iron materialsin clay record the exact state of Earth's magnetic field at that exact moment.

Environmental issues in productionAlthough many of the environmental effects of pottery production have existed for millennia, some of these havebeen amplified with modern technology and scales of production. The principal factors for consideration fall intotwo categories: (a) effects on workers, and (b) effects on the general environment. Within the effects on workers,

chief impacts are indoor air quality, sound levels and possible over-illumination. Regarding the general environment,factors of interest are fuel consumption, off-site water pollution, air pollution and disposal of hazardous materials.Historically, "plumbism" (lead poisoning) was a significant health concern to those glazing pottery. This wasrecognised at least as early as the nineteenth century, and the first legislation in the United Kingdom to limit potteryworkers exposure was introduced in 1899.[52]While the risk to those working in ceramics is now much reduced, itcan still not be ignored. With respect to indoor air quality, workers can be exposed to fine particulate matter, carbonmonoxide and certain heavy metals. The greatest health risk is the potential to develop silicosis from the long-termexposure to crystalline silica. Proper ventilation can reduce the risks, and the first legislation in the United Kingdomto govern ventilation was introduced in 1899. Another, more recent, study at Laney College, Oakland, Californiasuggests that all these factors can be controlled in a well-designed workshop environment.[53]

The use of energy and pollutants in the production of ceramics is a growing concern. Electric firing is arguably moreenvironmentally friendly than combustion firing although the source of the electricity varies in environmental
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Nasca Culture and Art