Name- Vedant Vig

Class/Section- 9-E

Roll No.- 48

Topic- The Harrapan and the Mesopotamian

Civilization

Index

• Introduction

• Acknowledgement

• Sources

• Origin & Context

• Art & Craft

• Society

• Religion

• Trade

• Decline

• Bibliography

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my Geography teacher for guiding me through the project and whose

valuable support has helped me complete it. I came to know about many new things in the

course of this project and I am thankful to my teacher for providing me this opportunity.

Introduction

Harappan civilization- It is one among the foremost ancient civilizations of the globe. It was

believed to be a hub of art and culture and architecture. The discoveries made at these

architectural sights give us great insight into the lives and lifestyles of our ancestors. Harappa

is thought to be a 4700 years old city within the subcontinent which was discovered round the

time 1920. Soon after the invention of cities like Lothal, Dholavira, Mohenjodaro, and

Kalibangan have also been discovered and were come to be referred to as the Harappan cities

or also the appearance of Harappan Civilization. These cities were discovered round the river

Indus, henceforth proving the existence of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The site of the ancient city contains the ruins of a Bronze Age fortified city, which was part

of the Indus Valley Civilisation centred in Sindh and the Punjab, and then the Cemetery H

culture. The city is believed to have had as many as 23,500 residents and occupied about 150

hectares (370 acres) with clay brick houses at its greatest extent during the Mature

Harappan phase (2600 BC – 1900 BC), which is considered large for its time. Per

archaeological convention of naming a previously unknown civilisation by its first excavated

site, the Indus Valley Civilisation is also called the Harappan Civilisation.

The Harappan city was divided into two or more parts of which the part to the west was

smaller, however higher, known to be as a citadel. Also, the part to the east was

comparatively larger but lower and the archaeologists called it ‘the lower town’. The citadel

comprised granaries, religious buildings, public buildings, and assembly halls while the lower

town was divided into rectangular sections cut by wide roads at right angles to each other.

Introduction

Mesopotamian civilization- Mesopotamian civilization has a unique place in world history.

It was in Mesopotamia that the earliest cities, the first urban civilization, appeared, about

3500 BCE. Mesopotamia (from Greek “between rivers”) often referred as the cradle of

civilization was situated between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris what is today’s Iraq, eastern

Syria and southeastern Turkey. History of Mesopotamia starts with the emergence of the

Sumerians whose origin is not exactly known about 3100 BC. Besides irrigation which was

crucial for emergence of all early civilizations, rise of the first civilization in the Middle East

can be also attributed to trade. The Mesopotamians had to import large amounts of wood,

building stone and metals because of lack of natural resources.

Mesopotamia includes the eastern one half of the region known as the Fertile Crescent, in

particular, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers from Anatolia to where the

rivers meet and dump into the Persian Gulf. Mesopotamian chronologies typically begin with

the earliest signs of incipient complexity: from the first cultic centers at 9,000 BCE, through

the 6th century BCE with the fall of Babylon. Scholars divide Mesopotamia into northern and

southern regions, primarily based on environment but also differences in politics and

culture. Early advances in the Mesopotamian region include cultic centers, urban cities,

sophisticated water control, pottery, and writing.

Sources

Harrapan Civilization- Archaeological sources are the main sources of the Harappan

Civilisation. Two important sources of the Harappa Civilisation are:

The Great Bath- The Great Bath discovered at Mohenjo-daro revealed that the people had

attained a high level of perfection in the art of building. It has been suggested that the Great

Bath was used for bathing during religious ceremonies. It is also suggested that perhaps a

hierarchal structure existed in a society where the ruling class collected taxes to build

structures for public use.

Seals- About 2,000 seals were discovered from the sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. Most

of these seals were rectangular and square in shape. They bear the images of one-horned bull,

goat, tiger, elephant and rhinoceros. These seals reveal the trade, religious beliefs and script

of the people. The seal with an image of Pashupati show that perhaps people believed in lord

Shiva. Seals also tell us about the trading practices of the period. The discovered seals show

that the Harappans were trading with other civilisations as many Harappan seals were found

in Mesopotamia.

Mesopotamian Civilization- There are many archaeological finds like pottery, architecture,

human remains etc, along with evidence of agriculture, dating back to the time when the

civilisation in Mesopotamia started and flourished. With texts like Epic of Gilgamesh and

various others describing many events involving their gods, it can be said that they had a well

established set of beliefs and religion.

• Epics of Gilgamesh- The social structure was also given importance as there were a

set of rules like the Code of Hammurabi (which was written around 1750 B.C.E by a

Babylonian king Hammurabi, but there were a set of laws which existed in the earlier

kingdoms of Mesopotamia)

• Code of Hammurabi- There were wars that happened in the region, with one of the

famous battle being Battle of Kadesh between Hittite empire and Egypt which

resulted in the first ever peace treaty found till date.

Origin & Extent

Harrapan Civilization- The archaeological remains show that before the emergence of

Harappan civilization the people lived in small villages. As the time passed, there was the

emergence of small towns which ultimately led to full-fledged towns during the Harappan

period.

The whole period of Harappan civilization is in fact divided into three phases:

• Early Harappan phase (3500 BC-2600 BC): It was marked by some town-planning in

the form of mud structures, elementary trade, arts and crafts, etc.

• Mature Harappan phase (2600 BC-1900 BC): It was the period in which we notice

well-developed towns with burnt brick structures, inland and foreign trade, crafts of

various types, etc.

• Late Harappan phase (1900 BC-1400 BC): It was the phase of decline during which

many cities were abandoned and the trade disappeared leading to the gradual decay of

the significant urban traits.

Mesopotamian Civilization- Mesopotamian civilization began during 4000 and 3000 BC. It

derived its name and existence for lying between the two rivers Tigris and Euphrates which is

modern-day Iraq and Kuwait. The history goes back to 5800 BCE where people started

living in the fertile crescent, which was formed due to these two famous rivers.

The crescent spread from the Taurus Mountains to the Arabian desert and from Eastern

Mediterranean to Zagros mountains. Before the establishment of the Mesopotamia

civilization, the people of the Neolithic era had their settlements there. They were the hunters

and gatherers who also did some occasional farming.

Art & Craft

Harrapan Civilization- The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze Age. The people of

Harappa used many tools and implements of stone, but they were well-acquainted with the

manufacture and use of bronze. However, bronze tools are not prolific in Harappa. For

making bronze, copper was obtained from the Khetri copper mines at Rajasthan and from

Baluchistan, and tin from Afghanistan. The bronze-smiths produced not only images and

utensils but also various tools and weapons such as axes, saws, knives and spears. A piece of

woven cotton has been recovered from Mohenjo-daro, and textile impressions have been

found on several objects. Spindle whorls and needles have also been discovered. Weavers

wove cloth of wool and cotton. Boatmaking was practised. seal-making and terracotta manu-

facture were also important crafts. The goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold, copper,

bronze and precious stones. Silver and gold may have been obtained from Afghanistan and

precious stones from South India. The Harappans were expert bead-makers. The potter's

wheel was in full use.

The Harappans made brilliantly naturalistic models of animals, specially charming being the

tiny monkeys and squirrels used as pinheads and beads. For their children, they made cattle-

toys with movable heads, model monkeys which would slide down a string, little toy-carts,

and whistles shaped like birds, all of terracotta. They also made rough terra cotta statuettes of

women, usually naked or nearly naked, but with elaborate headdresses; these are probably

icons of the Mother Goddess.

Mesopotamian Civilization-Art played a key role in Mesopotamian culture. Many forms of

art had been crafted by the most skilled, all lending a hand to help better understand the

Mesopotamian people.

Religion was one key influence present in near all Mesopotamian artwork. Statues of gods

were crafted from stone had been present throughout the rooms of the Ziggurat temples.

Another important form of art, had been the mosaics painted by the Mesopotamians.

Frescoes had detailed the walls of Ziggurat temples, depicting many religious gods. Pictures

of daily life and achievements in battle had been painted by the Assyrian people, showing

pride in this form of art.

Society

Harrapan Civilization- The Harappan society was an urban society and appears to have

been divided into three sections – an elite class associated with the citadel, a well-to-do

middle class (rich merchants), and a relatively weaker section occupying the lower towns

(labourers). The Harappan society is believed to be matriarchal in nature as a large number of

terracotta (fire-baked earthen clay) female figurines have been excavated which are

representations of the Great Mother Goddess. The terracotta figurines and the stone

sculptures indicate the dressing style of the people. The men are mostly shown wearing a

dress wrapped around the lower half of the body with one end worn over the left shoulder and

under the right arm. The garment was made of cotton, silk and wool. A woven cloth has been

found at Mohenjo-Daro and the Harappan people were well acquainted with spinning and

weaving.

Mesopotamian Civilization- The Mesopotamian society was hierarchic. In a Mesopotamian

society, there were three social classes: nobility, free citizens, and slaves. The nobility class

included priests, and priest-kings. The priest-kings were believed to be the representative of

the cities patron God or Goddess. They lived in temples and were the city's tax

collectors. All people of the nobility class were in charge of maintenance, construction, and

organization of the canals. The free people class was a combination of a modern middle and

lower class. The middle class was made up of merchants, craftsmen, and anyone who was

involved in trade. The middle class men lived in the city. Farmers, fishermen, shepherds,

and hunters made up the lower class. These people lived on the outskirts of the city and were

responsible for the food supply. The slave class was the lowest class, made up of prisoners of

war, and theses slaves could be bought or sold. The slaves were allowed to marry and have a

family if they wished.

Religion

Harrapan Civilization- The religion of the Indus people had some interesting aspects. There

is an absence of any temple among the remains of the Indus Valley. Some scholars like to

believe that the large buildings found at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were in fact temples.

The importance of the worship of the Mother Goddess (Sakti) is proved by the discovery of

numerous terra-cota figurines. The worship of Siva is suggested by the discovery of figure of

a deity with three faces, with horned head dress, seating cross-legged in a Yogic posture,

surrounded by animals like buffalo, rhinoceros, deer, tiger, etc. Two more figures

representing Siva have also been unearthed. In these figures Siva seats in a Yogic posture and

plants or flowers emerge from his head. The worship of Siva and Mother Goddess were

widely prevalent. Animal worship is shown by seals and terracotta figurines. Worship of tree,

fire, water and probably sun seems to have been in prominent among the Indus people. The

discovery of a few seals bearing Swastika symbol and Wheel symbol also indicates Sun

worship. Swastika is the symbol of the Sun.

Mesopotamian Civilization- Mesopotamian religion, beliefs and practices of the Sumerians

and Akkadians, and their successors, the Babylonians and Assyrians, who inhabited ancient

Mesopotamia (now in Iraq) in the millennia before the Christian era. These religious beliefs

and practices form a single stream of tradition. Sumerian in origin,

Mesopotamian religion was added to and subtly modified by the Akkadians (Semites who

emigrated into Mesopotamia from the west at the end of the 4th millennium BCE), whose

own beliefs were in large measure assimilated to, and integrated with, those of their

new environment. As the only available intellectual framework that could provide

a comprehensive understanding of the forces governing existence and also guidance for right

conduct in life, religion ineluctably conditioned all aspects of ancient Mesopotamian

civilization. It yielded the forms in which that civilization’s social, economic, legal, political,

and military institutions were, and are, to be understood, and it provided the significant

symbols for poetry and art. In many ways it even influenced peoples and cultures outside

Mesopotamia, such as the Elamites to the east, the Hurrians and Hittites to the north, and

the Aramaeans and Israelites to the west.

Trade

Harrapan Civilization- The Harappan cities were connected with rural agricultural

communities and distant resource and mining areas through strong trade systems. They used

animals, river boats and bullock carts for transport. This trade is reflected in the widespread

distribution of exquisite beads and ornaments, metal tools and pottery that were produced by

specialized artisans in the towns and cities. The major commodities in internal trade consisted

of cotton, lumber, grain, livestock and other food stuffs. The Indus valley people had also

close commercial relation with Central Asia, the Arabian Gulf region and the distant

Mesopotamian cities, such as Susa and Ur Excavations at Lothal reveals the existence of a

dock supporting the activities of trade in that period. Trade also existed with Northern

Afghanistan from where the Harappans bought the famous blue gemstones.

Mesopotamian Civilization- Mesopotamia was a region which did not have many natural

resources. Therefore, the people who lived there needed to trade with neighbouring countries

in order to acquire the resources they needed to live. Grain, oils and textiles were taken from

Babylonia to foreign cities and exchanged for timber, wine, precious metals and stones. In

addition, merchants from other countries travelled to Babylonia to exchange their goods.

Merchants used several different methods for transporting their goods depending on what

they were transporting. For example, grain was quite bulky and was best transported on a

boat, whereas precious stones were likely to be small, so they could be transported on foot or

by donkey.

Decline

Harrapan Civilization- The causes of the decline of the Harappan civilization

are as follows:

Climatic Changes and Floods

It is believed that the amount of rainfall increased around 3000 BC and later declined. This

may have affected agriculture and animal breeding. Many scholars contend that the decrease

in the fertility of soil because of increased salinity led to the desertification of the area.

Changes in the course of rivers may have led to disastrous floods and the decline in

civilization.

Deforestation

The people in the Indus Valley civilization used wood in large quantities to produce bronze

and to make pottery, boats, furniture, and jewelry. This may have led to deforestation

resulting in various climatic changes in the region.

Earthquake

It is believed by several historians that earthquakes resulted in changes in the course of the

River Indus which must have led to the inundation of the interior areas of Mohenjo-Daro.

Attack of the Aryans

Historians like Mortimer Wheeler believed that the Aryans coming from Central Asia

invaded and destroyed the Indus settlements. The discovery of skeletons of several men,

women, and children indicates that the Harappans probably met some violent death. In the

last phase of Mohenjo-Daro, skeletons of men, women, and children have been found lying in

a street. Skeletons of 13 males, females, and one child have been discovered from one of the

rooms. This indicates that the civilization declined as a result of the attacks of the invading

Aryans.

Mesopotamian Civilization- The Mesopotamian civilization declined because of two main

reasons. They are as follows:

• The first is that the Mesopotamian life style was badly destroyed by war. The

different city-states were fighting for control of each other lands and would wage all

out conflicts among each other to gain territory. They mostly fought for farmland and

irrigation waters.

• The second reason for the decline of the Mesopotamian civilization was due to the

irrigation techniques they used. The same techniques that made farming possible also

prevented farming from occurring in later dates. After irrigation water sits on the land,

over time, the water leaves behind mineral salt which will eventually erode the

farming land.

Bibliography

1. Harappan Civilization: Introduction, Architecture, Farming, Video, Example

(toppr.com) 2. Introduction to Mesopotamia – Ancient Civilizations (anciv.info) 3. What are the archaeological sources of the Harappan Civilization? | Study.com 4. Mesopotamia - HISTORY 5. Origin and Extent of Harappan Civilisation (Indus Valley Civilization) (imp.center) 6. What is the origin and extent of the Mesopotamian civilization? - Quora 7. Indus Valley Civilization: Harappan Arts, Crafts (visual-arts-cork.com) 8. Art and Architecture - Mesopotamia (weebly.com) 9. Trade | Mesopotamian Civilization & Ancient Greece (wordpress.com) 10. Trade in Harappan Civilization - Study Page 11. Top 4 Causes of the Decline of the Harappan Civilization (homeoflearning.in) 12. Reasons for Decline - Mesopotamia (weebly.com)