When, in the course of human events, it becomes neces-sary for one people to dissolve the political bands whichhave connected them with another, and to assume,among the powers of the earth, the separate and equalstation to which the laws of nature and of nature’s Godentitle them, a decent respect to the opinions ofmankind requires that they should declare the causeswhich impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all menare created equal; that they are endowed by their Creatorwith certain unalienable rights; that among these arelife, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that, to securethese rights, governments are instituted among men, de-riving their just powers from the consent of the gov-erned; that whenever any form of government becomesdestructive of these ends, it is the right of the people toalter or to abolish it, and to institute new government,laying its foundation on such principles, and organizingits powers in such form, as to them shall seem mostlikely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, in-deed, will dictate that governments long establishedshould not be changed for light and transient causes;and accordingly all experience hath shown that man-kind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are suffer-able, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms towhich they are accustomed. But when a long train ofabuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the sameobject, evinces a design to reduce them under absolutedespotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw offsuch government, and to provide new guards for theirfuture security. Such has been the patient sufferance ofthese colonies; and such is now the necessity which con-strains them to alter their former systems of govern-ment. The history of the present King of Great Britain is ahistory of repeated injuries and usurpations, all havingin direct object the establishment of an absolute tyrannyover these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted toa candid world.

He has refused his assent to laws, the most whole-some and necessary for the public good.

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of imme-diate and pressing importance, unless suspended in theiroperation till his assent should be obtained; and, when sosuspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommo-dation of large districts of people, unless those peoplewould relinquish the right of representation in the legis-lature, a right inestimable to them, and formidable totyrants only.

He has called together legislative bodies at placesunusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the deposi-tory of their public records, for the sole purpose of fa-tiguing them into compliance with his measures.

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly,for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on therights of the people.

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolu-tions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the legisla-tive powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned tothe people at large for their exercise; the state remaining,in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasionsfrom without and convulsions within.

He has endeavored to prevent the population ofthese states; for that purpose obstructing the laws of nat-uralization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to en-courage their migration hither, and raising the condi-tions of new appropriation of lands.

He has obstructed the administration of justice, byrefusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciarypowers.

He has made judges dependent on his will alone, forthe tenure of their offices, and the amount and paymentof their salaries.

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and senthither swarms of officers to harass our people and eatout their substance.

A-1

Appendix

DOCUMENTS

Declaration of IndependenceIN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776

THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE THIRTEEN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standingarmies, without the consent of our legislatures.

He has affected to render the military independentof, and superior to, the civil power.

He has combined with others to subject us to a ju-risdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowl-edged by our laws, giving his assent to their acts of pre-tended legislation:

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us;

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punish-ment for any murders which they should commit on theinhabitants of these states;

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world;For imposing taxes on us without our consent;For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of

trial by jury;For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pre-

tended offenses;For abolishing the free system of English laws in a

neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrarygovernment, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to ren-der it at once an example and fit instrument for intro-ducing the same absolute rule into these colonies;

For taking away our charters, abolishing our mostvaluable laws, and altering fundamentally the forms ofour governments;

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaringthemselves invested with power to legislate for us in allcases whatsoever.

He has abdicated government here, by declaring usout of his protection and waging war against us.

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts,burned our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.

He is at this time transporting large armies of for-eign mercenaries to complete the works of death, des-olation, and tyranny already begun with circumstancesof cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the mostbarbarous ages, and totally unworthy of the head of acivilized nation.

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken cap-tive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country,to become the executioners of their friends andbrethren, or to fall themselves by their hands.

He has excited domestic insurrection among us, andhas endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our fron-tiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule ofwarfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages,sexes, and conditions.

In every stage of these oppressions we have peti-tioned for redress in the most humble terms; our re-peated petitions have been answered only by repeatedinjury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by everyact which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of afree people.

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to ourBritish brethren. We have warned them, from time totime, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwar-rantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them ofthe circumstances of our emigration and settlementhere. We have appealed to their native justice and mag-nanimity; and we have conjured them by the ties of ourcommon kindred, to disavow these usurpations, whichwould inevitably interrupt our connections and corre-spondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of jus-tice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiescein the necessity which denounces our separation, andhold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies inwar, in peace friends.

We, therefore, the representatives of the UnitedStates of America, in General Congress assembled, ap-pealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the recti-tude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the au-thority of the good people of these colonies, solemnlypublish and declare, that these United Colonies are, andof right ought to be, FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES;that they are absolved from all allegiance to the Britishcrown, and that all political connection between themand the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totallydissolved; and that, as free and independent states, theyhave full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract al-liances, establish commerce, and do all other acts andthings which independent states may of right do. And forthe support of this declaration, with a firm reliance onthe protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledgeto each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacredhonor.

JOHN HANCOCK [President][and fifty-five others]

A-2 Appendix

Article 1.

The stile of this confederacy shall be “The United Statesof America.”

Article 2.

Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom and inde-pendence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right,which is not by this confederation expressly delegated tothe United States, in Congress assembled.

Article 3.

The said states hereby severally enter into a firm leagueof friendship with each other for their common defence,the security of their liberties and their mutual and gen-eral welfare; binding themselves to assist each otheragainst all force offered to, or attacks made upon them,or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade,or any other pretence whatever.

Article 4.

The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendshipand intercourse among the people of the different statesin this union, the free inhabitants of each of these states,paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted,shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of freecitizens in the several states; and the people of each Stateshall have free ingress and regress to and from any otherState, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of tradeand commerce, subject to the same duties, impositions,and restrictions, as the inhabitants thereof respectively;provided, that such restrictions shall not extend so far asto prevent the removal of property, imported into anyState, to any other State of which the owner is an inhabi-tant; provided also, that no imposition, duties, or restric-

tion, shall be laid by any State on the property of theUnited States, or either of them.

If any person guilty of, or charged with treason,felony, or other high misdemeanor in any State, shall fleefrom justice and be found in any of the United States, heshall, upon demand of the governor or executive powerof the State from which he fled, be delivered up and re-moved to the State having jurisdiction of his offence.

Full faith and credit shall be given in each of thesestates to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings ofthe courts and magistrates of every other State.

Article 5.

For the more convenient management of the general in-terests of the United States, delegates shall be annuallyappointed, in such manner as the legislature of eachState shall direct, to meet in Congress, on the 1st Mon-day in November in every year, with a power reserved toeach State to recall its delegates, or any of them, at anytime within the year, and to send others in their stead forthe remainder of the year.

No State shall be represented in Congress by lessthan two, nor by more than seven members; and no per-son shall be capable of being a delegate for more thanthree years in any term of six years; nor shall any person,being a delegate, be capable of holding any office underthe United States, for which he, or any other for his ben-efit, receives any salary, fees, or emolument of any kind.

Each State shall maintain its own delegates in ameeting of the states, and while they act as members ofthe committee of the states.

In determining questions in the United States, inCongress assembled, each State shall have one vote.

Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall notbe impeached or questioned in any court or place out ofCongress: and the members of Congress shall be pro-tected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments,during the time of their going to and from, and atten-dance on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breachof the peace.

A-3

The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union

BETWEEN THE STATES OF NEW HAMPSHIRE, MASSACHUSETTS BAY, RHODE ISLAND AND PROVIDENCE PLAN-TATIONS, CONNECTICUT, NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELAWARE, MARYLAND, VIRGINIA, NORTHCAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA, GEORGIA.*

*This copy of the final draft of the Articles of Confederation istaken from the Journals, 9:907–925, November 15, 1777.

Article 6.

No State, without the consent of the United States, inCongress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or re-ceive any embassy from, or enter into any conference,agreement, alliance, or treaty with any king, prince, orstate; nor shall any person, holding any office of profit ortrust under the United States, or any of them, accept ofany present, emolument, office or title, of any kind what-ever, from any king, prince, or foreign state; nor shall theUnited States, in Congress assembled, or any of them,grant any title of nobility.

No two or more states shall enter into any treaty,confederation, or alliance, whatever, between them,without the consent of the United States, in Congress as-sembled, specifying accurately the purposes for whichthe same is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue.

No State shall lay any imposts or duties which mayinterfere with any stipulations in treaties entered into bythe United States, in Congress assembled, with any king,prince, or state, in pursuance of any treaties already pro-posed by Congress to the courts of France and Spain.

No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace byany State, except such number only as shall be deemednecessary by the United States, in Congress assembled,for the defence of such State or its trade; nor shall anybody of forces be kept up by any State, in time of peace,except such number only as, in the judgment of theUnited States, in Congress assembled, shall be deemedrequisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defenceof such State; but every State shall always keep up a wellregulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed andaccoutred, and shall provide, and constantly have readyfor use, in public stores, a due number of field pieces andtents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition andcamp equipage.

No State shall engage in any war without the consentof the United States, in Congress assembled, unless suchState be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have re-ceived certain advice of a resolution being formed bysome nation of Indians to invade such State, and thedanger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay till theUnited States, in Congress assembled, can be consulted;nor shall any State grant commissions to any ships orvessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except itbe after a declaration of war by the United States, in Con-gress assembled, and then only against the kingdom orstate, and the subjects thereof, against which war hasbeen so declared, and under such regulations as shall beestablished by the United States, in Congress assembled,

unless such States be infested by pirates, in which casevessels of war may be fitted out for that occasion, andkept so long as the danger shall continue, or until theUnited States, in Congress assembled, shall determineotherwise.

Article 7.

When land forces are raised by any State for the commondefence, all officers of or under the rank of colonel, shallbe appointed by the legislature of each State respec-tively, by whom such forces shall be raised, or in suchmanner as such State shall direct; and all vacancies shallbe filled up by the State which first made the appoint-ment.

Article 8.

All charges of war and all other expences, that shall beincurred for the common defence or general welfare,and allowed by the United States, in Congress assem-bled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, whichshall be supplied by the several states, in proportion tothe value of all land within each State, granted to or sur-veyed for any person, as such land and the buildings andimprovements thereon shall be estimated according tosuch mode as the United States, in Congress assembled,shall, from time to time, direct and appoint.

The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laidand levied by the authority and direction of the legisla-tures of the several states, within the time agreed uponby the United States, in Congress assembled.

Article 9.

The United States, in Congress assembled, shall have thesole and exclusive right and power of determining onpeace and war, except in the cases mentioned in the 6tharticle; of sending and receiving ambassadors; enteringinto treaties and alliances, provided that no treaty ofcommerce shall be made, whereby the legislative powerof the respective states shall be restrained from impos-ing such imposts and duties on foreigners as their ownpeople are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exporta-tion or importation of any species of goods or commodi-ties whatsoever; of establishing rules for deciding, in allcases, what captures on land or water shall be legal, andin what manner prizes, taken by land or naval forces inthe service of the United States, shall be divided or ap-propriated; of granting letters of marque and reprisal intimes of peace; appointing courts for the trial of piracies

A-4 Appendix

and felonies committed on the high seas, and establish-ing courts for receiving and determining, finally, appealsin all cases of captures; provided, that no member ofCongress shall be appointed a judge of any of the saidcourts.

The United States, in Congress assembled, shall also be the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting, or that hereafter may arisebetween two or more states concerning boundary, juris-diction or any other cause whatever; which authorityshall always be exercised in the manner following: when-ever the legislative or executive authority, or lawful agentof any State, in controversy with another, shall present apetition to Congress, stating the matter in question, andpraying for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given, byorder of Congress, to the legislative or executive author-ity of the other State in controversy, and a day assignedfor the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents,who shall then be directed to appoint, by joint consent,commissioners or judges to constitute a court for hear-ing and determining the matter in question; but, if theycannot agree, Congress shall name three persons out ofeach of the United States, and from the list of such per-sons each party shall alternately strike out one, in the pe-titioners beginning, until the number shall be reduced tothirteen; and from that number not less than seven, normore than nine names, as Congress shall direct, shall, inthe presence of Congress, be drawn out by lot; and thepersons whose names shall be drawn, or any five ofthem, shall be commissioners or judges to hear and fi-nally determine the controversy, so always as a majorpart of the judges who shall hear the cause shall agree inthe determination; and if either party shall neglect to at-tend at the day appointed, without shewing reasonswhich Congress shall judge sufficient, or, being present,shall refuse to strike, the Congress shall proceed to nom-inate three persons out of each State, and the secretaryof Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent orrefusing; and the judgment and sentence of the court tobe appointed, in the manner before prescribed, shall befinal and conclusive; and if any of the parties shall refuseto submit to the authority of such court, or to appear ordefend their claim or cause, the court shall neverthelessproceed to pronounce sentence or judgment, whichshall, in like manner, be final and decisive, the judgmentor sentence and other proceedings being, in either case,transmitted to Congress, and lodged among the acts ofCongress for the security of the parties concerned: pro-vided, that every commissioner, before he sits in judg-ment, shall take an oath, to be administered by one ofthe judges of the supreme or superior court of the State

where the cause shall be tried, “well and truly to hear anddetermine the matter in question, according to the bestof his judgment, without favour, affection, or hope of re-ward”: provided, also, that no State shall be deprived ofterritory for the benefit of the United States.

All controversies concerning the private right of soil,claimed under different grants of two or more states,whose jurisdictions, as they may respect such lands andthe states which passed such grants, are adjusted, thesaid grants, or either of them, being at the same timeclaimed to have originated antecedent to such settle-ment of jurisdiction, shall, on the petition of either partyto the Congress of the United States, be finally deter-mined, as near as may be, in the same manner as is be-fore prescribed for deciding disputes respecting territo-rial jurisdiction between different states.

The United States, in Congress assembled, shall alsohave the sole and exclusive right and power of regulatingthe alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority,or by that of the respective states; fixing the standard ofweights and measures throughout the United States;regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the In-dians not members of any of the states; provided that thelegislative right of any State within its own limits be notinfringed or violated; establishing and regulating postoffices from one State to another throughout all theUnited States, and exacting such postage on the paperspassing through the same as may be requisite to defraythe expences of the said office; appointing all officers ofthe land forces in the service of the United States, ex-cepting regimental officers; appointing all the officers ofthe naval forces, and commissioning all officers what-ever in the service of the United States; making rules forthe government and regulation of the said land andnaval forces, and directing their operations.

The United States, in Congress assembled, shallhave authority to appoint a committee to sit in the recessof Congress, to be denominated “a Committee of theStates,” and to consist of one delegate from each State,and to appoint such other committees and civil officersas may be necessary for managing the general affairs ofthe United States, under their direction; to appoint oneof their number to preside; provided that no person beallowed to serve in the office of president more than oneyear in any term of three years; to ascertain the neces-sary sums of money to be raised for the service of theUnited States, and to appropriate and apply the same fordefraying the public expences; to borrow money or emitbills on the credit of the United States, transmitting,every half year, to the respective states, an account of thesums of money so borrowed or emitted; to build and

The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union A-5

equip a navy; to agree upon the number of land forces,and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, inproportion to the number of white inhabitants in suchState; which requisitions shall be binding; and, there-upon, the legislature of each State shall appoint the regi-mental officers, raise the men, and cloathe, arm, andequip them in a soldier-like manner, at the expence ofthe United States; and the officers and men so cloathed,armed, and equipped, shall march to the place ap-pointed and within the time agreed on by the UnitedStates, in Congress assembled; but if the United States,in Congress assembled, shall, on consideration of cir-cumstances, judge proper that any State should not raisemen, or should raise a smaller number than its quota,and that any other State should raise a greater number ofmen than the quota thereof, such extra number shall beraised, officered, cloathed, armed, and equipped in thesame manner as the quota of such State, unless the legis-lature of such State shall judge that such extra numbercannot be safely spared out of the same, in which casethey shall raise, officer, cloathe, arm, and equip as manyof such extra number as they judge can be safely spared.And the officers and men so cloathed, armed, andequipped, shall march to the place appointed and with-in the time agreed on by the United States, in Congress assembled.

The United States, in Congress assembled, shallnever engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque andreprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or al-liances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof,nor ascertain the sums and expences necessary for thedefence and welfare of the United States, or any of them:nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of theUnited States, nor appropriate money, nor agree uponthe number of vessels of war to be built or purchased, orthe number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor ap-point a commander in chief of the army or navy, unlessnine states assent to the same; nor shall a question onany other point, except for adjourning from day to day,be determined, unless by the votes of a majority of theUnited States, in Congress assembled.

The Congress of the United States shall have powerto adjourn to any time within the year, and to any placewithin the United States, so that no period of adjourn-ment be for a longer duration than the space of sixmonths, and shall publish the journal of their proceed-ings monthly, except such parts thereof, relating totreaties, alliances or military operations, as, in theirjudgment, require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of thedelegates of each State on any question shall be enteredon the journal, when it is desired by any delegate; and

the delegates of a State, or any of them, at his, or their re-quest, shall be furnished with a transcript of the saidjournal, except such parts as are above excepted, to laybefore the legislatures of the several states.

Article 10.

The committee of the states, or any nine of them, shallbe authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, suchof the powers of Congress as the United States, in Con-gress assembled, by the consent of nine states, shall,from time to time, think expedient to vest them with;provided, that no power be delegated to the said com-mittee for the exercise of which, by the articles of con-federation, the voice of nine states, in the Congress of theUnited States assembled, is requisite.

Article 11.

Canada acceding to this confederation, and joining inthe measures of the United States, shall be admitted intoand entitled to all the advantages of this union; but noother colony shall be admitted into the same, unlesssuch admission be agreed to by nine states.

Article 12.

All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed and debtscontracted by, or under the authority of Congress beforethe assembling of the United States, in pursuance of thepresent confederation, shall be deemed and consideredas a charge against the United States, for payment andsatisfaction whereof the said United States and the pub-lic faith are hereby solemnly pledged.

Article 13.

Every State shall abide by the determinations of theUnited States, in Congress assembled, on all questionswhich, by this confederation, are submitted to them.And the articles of this confederation shall be inviolablyobserved by every State, and the union shall be perpet-ual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter bemade in any of them, unless such alteration be agreed toin a Congress of the United States, and be afterwardsconfirmed by the legislatures of every State.

These articles shall be proposed to the legislatures ofall the United States, to be considered, and if approved ofby them, they are advised to authorize their delegates toratify the same in the Congress of the United States;which being done, the same shall become conclusive.

A-6 Appendix

PREAMBLE

We the people of the United States, in order to form amore perfect union, establish justice, insure domestictranquillity, provide for the common defense, promotethe general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty toourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish thisCONSTITUTION for the United States of America.

Article I

Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall bevested in a Congress of the United States, which shallconsist of a Senate and a House of Representatives.

Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be com-posed of members chosen every second year by the peo-ple of the several States, and the electors in each Stateshall have the qualifications requisite for electors of themost numerous branch of the State Legislature.

No person shall be a Representative who shall nothave attained to the age of twenty-five years, and beenseven years a citizen of the United States, and who shallnot, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State inwhich he shall be chosen.

Representatives and direct taxes shall be appor-tioned among the several States which may be includedwithin this Union, according to their respective num-bers, which shall be determined by adding to the wholenumber of free persons, including those bound to servicefor a term of years and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shallbe made within three years after the first meeting of theCongress of the United States, and within every subse-quent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall bylaw direct. The number of Representatives shall not ex-ceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shallhave at least one Representative; and until such enumer-ation shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall beentitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Is-land and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five,New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight,Delaware one, Maryland six,Virginia ten, North Carolinafive, South Carolina five, and Georgia three.

When vacancies happen in the representation fromany State, the Executive authority thereof shall issuewrits of election to fill such vacancies.

The House of Representatives shall choose theirSpeaker and other officers; and shall have the sole powerof impeachment.

Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall becomposed of two Senators from each State, chosen by thelegislature thereof, for six years; and each Senator shallhave one vote.

Immediately after they shall be assembled in conse-quence of the first election, they shall be divided asequally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Sena-tors of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration ofthe second year, of the second class at the expiration of thefourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of thesixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every secondyear; and if vacancies happen by resignation or other-wise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, theExecutive thereof may make temporary appointmentsuntil the next meeting of the legislature, which shall thenfill such vacancies.

No person shall be a Senator who shall not have at-tained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years acitizen of the United States, and who shall not, whenelected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shallbe chosen.

The Vice President of the United States shall be Pres-ident of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they beequally divided.

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and alsoa President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice Presi-dent, or when he shall exercise the office of the Presidentof the United States.

A-7

Constitution of the United States of America

Note: Passages that are no longer in effect are printed in italic type.

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all im-peachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall beon oath or affirmation. When the President of the UnitedStates is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence oftwo-thirds of the members present.

Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extendfurther than to removal from the office, and disqualifica-tion to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profitunder the United States; but the party convicted shallnevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial,judgment and punishment, according to law.

Section 4. The times, places and manner of holdingelections for Senators and Representatives shall be pre-scribed in each State by the legislature thereof; but theCongress may at any time by law make or alter such reg-ulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators.

The Congress shall assemble at least once in everyyear, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a differentday.

Section 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elec-tions, returns and qualifications of its own members,and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to dobusiness; but a smaller number may adjourn from day today, and may be authorized to compel the attendance ofabsent members, in such manner, and under suchpenalties, as each house may provide.

Each house may determine the rules of its proceed-ings, punish its members for disorderly behav-ior, and with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel amember.

Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings,and from time to time publish the same, excepting suchparts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and theyeas and nays of the members of either house on anyquestion shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present,be entered on the journal.

Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall,without the consent of the other, adjourn for more thanthree days, nor to any other place than that in which thetwo houses shall be sitting.

Section 6. The Senators and Representatives shall re-ceive a compensation for their services, to be ascer-tained by law and paid out of the treasury of the UnitedStates. They shall in all cases except treason, felony andbreach of the peace, be privileged from arrest duringtheir attendance at the session of their respective

houses, and in going to and returning from the same;and for any speech or debate in either house, they shallnot be questioned in any other place.

No Senator or Representative shall, during the timefor which he was elected, be appointed to any civil officeunder the authority of the United States, which shall havebeen created, or the emoluments whereof shall have beenincreased, during such time; and no person holding anyoffice under the United States shall be a member of eitherhouse during his continuance in office.

Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate inthe House of Representatives; but the Senate may pro-pose or concur with amendments as on other bills.

Every bill which shall have passed the House of Rep-resentatives and the Senate, shall, before it become alaw, be presented to the President of the United States; ifhe approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return itwith objections to that house in which it originated, whoshall enter the objections at large on their journal, andproceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsiderationtwo-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, itshall be sent, together with the objections, to the otherhouse, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, ifapproved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become alaw. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shallbe determined by yeas and nays, and the names of thepersons voting for and against the bill shall be enteredon the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shallnot be returned by the President within ten days (Sun-days excepted) after it shall have been presented to him,the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signedit, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent itsreturn, in which case it shall not be a law.

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concur-rence of the Senate and House of Representatives maybe necessary (except on a question of adjournment)shall be presented to the President of the United States;and before the same shall take effect, shall be approvedby him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassedby two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representa-tives, according to the rules and limitations prescribedin the case of a bill.

Section 8. The Congress shall have powerTo lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises,

to pay the debts and provide for the common defenseand general welfare of the United States; but all duties,imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout theUnited States;

A-8 Appendix

To borrow money on the credit of the United States;To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and

among the several States, and with the Indian tribes;To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and

uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughoutthe United States;

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of for-eign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting thesecurities and current coin of the United States;

To establish post offices and post roads;To promote the progress of science and useful arts

by securing for limited times to authors and inventorsthe exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;To define and punish piracies and felonies com-

mitted on the high seas and offenses against the law ofnations;

To declare war, grant letters of marque andreprisal, and make rules concerning captures on landand water;

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation ofmoney to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;

To provide and maintain a navy;To make rules for the government and regulation of

the land and naval forces;To provide for calling forth the militia to execute

the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repelinvasions;

To provide for organizing, arming, and discipliningthe militia, and for governing such part of them as maybe employed in the service of the United States, reserv-ing to the States respectively the appointment of the of-ficers, and the authority of training the militia accordingto the discipline prescribed by Congress;

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatso-ever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square)as may, by cession of particular States, and the accept-ance of Congress, become the seat of government of theUnited States, and to exercise like authority over allplaces purchased by the consent of the legislature of theState, in which the same shall be, for erection of forts,magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needfulbuildings;—and

To make all laws which shall be necessary andproper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers,and all other powers vested by this Constitution in thegovernment of the United States, or in any departmentor officer thereof.

Section 9. The migration or importation of such per-sons as any of the States now existing shall think proper toadmit shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to theyear 1808; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such im-portation, not exceeding $10 for each person.

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall notbe suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or inva-sion the public safety may require it.

No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall bepassed.

No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, un-less in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken.

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported fromany State.

No preference shall be given by any regulation ofcommerce or revenue to the ports of one State over thoseof another; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State,be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another.

No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but inconsequence of appropriations made by law; and a regularstatement and account of the receipts and expenditures ofall public money shall be published from time to time.

No title of nobility shall be granted by the UnitedStates: and no person holding any office of profit ortrust under them, shall, without the consent of theCongress, accept of any present, emolument, office, ortitle, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or for-eign state.

Section 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, al-liance, or confederation; grant letters of marque andreprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anythingbut gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts;pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law im-pairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title ofnobility.

No State shall, without the consent of Congress, layany imposts or duties on imports or exports, exceptwhat may be absolutely necessary for executing its in-spection laws: and the net produce of all duties andimposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shallbe for the use of the treasury of the United States; andall such laws shall be subject to the revision and con-trol of the Congress.

No State shall, without the consent of Congress, layany duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in timeof peace, enter into any agreement or compact with an-other State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger aswill not admit of delay.

Constitution of the United States of America A-9

Article II

Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in aPresident of the United States of America. He shall holdhis office during the term of four years, and, togetherwith the Vice President, chosen for the same term, beelected as follows:

Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the leg-islature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equalto the whole number of Senators and Representatives towhich the State may be entitled in the Congress; but noSenator or Representative, or person holding an office oftrust or profit under the United States, shall be ap-pointed an elector.

The electors shall meet in their respective States, andvote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shallnot be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves.And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and ofthe number of votes for each; which list they shall sign andcertify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government of theUnited States, directed to the President of the Senate. ThePresident of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senateand the House of Representatives, open all the certificates,and the votes shall then be counted. The person having thegreatest number of votes shall be the President, if suchnumber be a majority of the whole number of electors ap-pointed; and if there be more than one who have such ma-jority, and have an equal number of votes, then the Houseof Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot oneof them for President; and if no person have a majority,then from the five highest on the list said house shall in likemanner choose the President. But in choosing the Presidentthe votes shall be taken by States, the representation fromeach State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shallconsist of a member or members from two-thirds of theStates, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary toa choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, theperson having the greatest number of votes of the electorsshall be the Vice President. But if there should remain twoor more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose fromthem by ballot the Vice President.

The Congress may determine the time of choosingthe electors and the day on which they shall give theirvotes; which day shall be the same throughout theUnited States.

No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizenof the United States at the time of the adoption of thisConstitution, shall be eligible to the office of President;neither shall any person be eligible to that office whoshall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, andbeen fourteen years a resident within the United States.

In case of the removal of the President from office orof his death, resignation, or inability to discharge thepowers and duties of the said office, the same shall de-volve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by lawprovide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice President, de-claring what officer shall then act as President, and suchofficer shall act accordingly, until the disability be re-moved, or a President shall be elected.

The President shall, at stated times, receive for hisservices a compensation, which shall neither be in-creased nor diminished during the period for which heshall have been elected, and he shall not receive withinthat period any other emolument from the UnitedStates, or any of them.

Before he enter on the execution of his office, heshall take the following oath or affirmation:—“I dosolemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully executethe office of the President of the United States, and willto the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend theConstitution of the United States.”

Section 2. The President shall be commander in chiefof the army and navy of the United States, and of themilitia of the several States, when called into the actualservice of the United States; he may require the opinion,in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executivedepartments, upon any subject relating to the duties oftheir respective offices, and he shall have power to grantreprieves and pardons for offenses against the UnitedStates, except in cases of impeachment.

He shall have power, by and with the advice andconsent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nom-inate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public minis-ters and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and allother officers of the United States, whose appointmentsare not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall beestablished by law: but Congress may by law vest the ap-pointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper,in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in theheads of departments.

The President shall have power to fill up all vacan-cies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, bygranting commissions which shall expire at the end oftheir next session.

Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Con-gress information of the state of the Union, and recom-mend to their consideration such measures as he shall

A-10 Appendix

judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordi-nary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them,and in case of disagreement between them, with respectto the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them tosuch time as he shall think proper; he shall receive am-bassadors and other public ministers; he shall take carethat the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commis-sion all the officers of the United States.

Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil of-ficers of the United States shall be removed from officeon impeachment for, and on conviction of, treason,bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.

Article III

Section 1. The judicial power of the United States shallbe vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferiorcourts as the Congress may from time to time ordain andestablish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferiorcourts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, andshall, at stated times, receive for their services a com-pensation which shall not be diminished during theircontinuance in office.

Section 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases,in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, thelaws of the United States, and treaties made, or whichshall be made, under their authority;—to all cases affect-ing ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls;—to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction;—tocontroversies to which the United States shall be aparty;—to controversies between two or more States;—between a State and citizens of another State;—betweencitizens of different States;—between citizens of thesame State claiming lands under grants of differentStates, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, andforeign states, citizens or subjects.

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other publicministers and consuls, and those in which a State shallbe party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdic-tion. In all the other cases before mentioned, theSupreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both asto law and fact, with such exceptions, and under suchregulations, as the Congress shall make.

The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeach-ment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in theState where said crimes shall have been committed; butwhen not committed within any State, the trial shall beat such place or places as the Congress may by law havedirected.

Section 3. Treason against the United States shall con-sist only in levying war against them, or in adhering totheir enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No personshall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony oftwo witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession inopen court.

The Congress shall have power to declare the pun-ishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shallwork corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during thelife of the person attainted.

Article IV

Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in eachState to the public acts, records, and judicial proceed-ings of every other State. And the Congress may by gen-eral laws prescribe the manner in which such acts,records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effectthereof.

Section 2. The citizens of each State shall be entitled toall privileges and immunities of citizens in the severalStates.

A person charged in any State with treason, felony,or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be foundin another State, shall on demand of the executive au-thority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up,to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of thecrime.

No person held to service or labor in one State, underthe laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in conse-quence of any law or regulation therein, be dischargedfrom such service or labor, but shall be delivered up onclaim of the party to whom such service or labor may bedue.

Section 3. New States may be admitted by the Congressinto this Union; but no new State shall be formed orerected within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor anyState be formed by the junction of two or more States, orparts of States, without the consent of the legislatures ofthe States concerned as well as of the Congress.

The Congress shall have power to dispose of andmake all needful rules and regulations respecting theterritory or other property belonging to the UnitedStates; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so con-strued as to prejudice any claims of the United States, orof any particular State.

Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to everyState in this Union a republican form of government,

Constitution of the United States of America A-11

and shall protect each of them against invasion; and onapplication of the legislature, or of the executive (whenthe legislature cannot be convened), against domesticviolence.

Article V

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shalldeem it necessary, shall propose amendments to thisConstitution, or, on the application of the legislatures oftwo-thirds of the several States, shall call a conventionfor proposing amendments, which, in either case, shallbe valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode ofratification may be proposed by the Congress; providedthat no amendments which may be made prior to theyear one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in anymanner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninthsection of the first article; and that no State, without itsconsent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in theSenate.

Article VI

All debts contracted and engagements entered into, be-fore the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as validagainst the United States under this Constitution, as un-der the Confederation.

This Constitution, and the laws of the United Stateswhich shall be made in pursuance thereof; and alltreaties made, or which shall be made, under the author-ity of the United States, shall be the supreme law of theland; and the judges in every State shall be boundthereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any Stateto the contrary notwithstanding.

The Senators and Representatives before men-tioned, and the members of the several State legislatures,and all executive and judicial officers, both of the UnitedStates and of the several States, shall be bound by oath oraffirmation to support this Constitution; but no religioustest shall ever be required as a qualification to any officeor public trust under the United States.

Article VII

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall besufficient for the establishment of this Constitution be-tween the States so ratifying the same.

Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of theStates present, the seventeenth day of September inthe year of our Lord one thousand seven hundredand eighty-seven and of the Independence of theUnited States of America the twelfth. In witnesswhereof we have hereunto subscribed our names.

[Signed by]Go WASHINGTON

Presidt and Deputy from Virginia[and thirty-eight others]

AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION

Amendment I*

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishmentof religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; orabridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or theright of the people peaceably to assemble, and to peti-tion the government for a redress of grievances.

Amendment II

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the securityof a free State, the right of the people to keep and beararms shall not be infringed.

Amendment III

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in anyhouse without the consent of the owner, nor in time ofwar, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Amendment IV

The right of the people to be secure in their persons,houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonablesearches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no war-rants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported byoath or affirmation, and particularly describing theplace to be searched, and the persons or things to beseized.

Amendment V

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or other-wise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indict-

A-12 Appendix

*The first ten Amendments (Bill of Rights) were adopted in 1791.

ment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the landor naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service intime of war or public danger; nor shall any person besubject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardyof life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminalcase to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived oflife, liberty, or property, without due process of law; norshall private property be taken for public use withoutjust compensation.

Amendment VI

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy theright to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury ofthe State and district wherein the crime shall have beencommitted, which district shall have been previously as-certained by law, and to be informed of the nature andcause of the accusation; to be confronted with the wit-nesses against him; to have compulsory process for ob-taining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistanceof counsel for his defense.

Amendment VII

In suits at common law, where the value in controversyshall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shallbe preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be other-wise reexamined in any court of the United States, thanaccording to the rules of the common law.

Amendment VIII

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive finesimposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Amendment IX

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights,shall not be construed to deny or disparage others re-tained by the people.

Amendment X

The powers not delegated to the United States by theConstitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are re-served to the States respectively, or to the people.

Amendment XI[Adopted 1798]

The judicial power of the United States shall not be con-strued to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced

or prosecuted against one of the United States by citi-zens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of anyforeign state.

Amendment XII[Adopted 1804]

The electors shall meet in their respective States, andvote by ballot for President and Vice President, one ofwhom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the sameState with themselves; they shall name in their ballotsthe person voted for as President, and in distinct bal-lots the person voted for as Vice President, and theyshall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as Pres-ident, and of all persons voted for as Vice President,and of the number of votes for each, which lists theyshall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat ofgovernment of the United States, directed to the Presi-dent of the Senate;—the President of the Senate shall,in the presence of the Senate and House of Representa-tives, open all the certificates and the votes shall thenbe counted;—the person having the greatest numberof votes for President shall be the President, if suchnumber be a majority of the whole number of electorsappointed; and if no person have such majority, thenfrom the persons having the highest numbers not ex-ceeding three on the list of those voted for as President,the House of Representatives shall choose immedi-ately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing thePresident, the votes shall be taken by States, the repre-sentation from each State having one vote; a quorumfor this purpose shall consist of a member or membersfrom two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all theStates shall be necessary to a choice. And if the Houseof Representatives shall not choose a President when-ever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then theVice President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of thePresident.

The person having the greatest number of votes asVice President shall be the Vice President, if such a num-ber be a majority of the whole number of electors ap-pointed; and if no person have a majority, then from thetwo highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choosethe Vice President; a quorum for the purpose shall con-sist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and amajority of the whole number shall be necessary to achoice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to theoffice of President shall be eligible to that of Vice Presi-dent of the United States.

Constitution of the United States of America A-13

Amendment XIII[Adopted 1865]

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude,except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shallhave been duly convicted, shall exist within the UnitedStates, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this ar-ticle by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XIV[Adopted 1868]

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in theUnited States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, arecitizens of the United States and of the State whereinthey reside. No State shall make or enforce any lawwhich shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citi-zens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive anyperson of life, liberty, or property, without due process oflaw; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction theequal protection of the laws.

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned amongthe several States according to their respective numbers,counting the whole number of persons in each State, ex-cluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote atany election for the choice of Electors for President andVice President of the United States, Representatives inCongress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, orthe members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any ofthe male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-oneyears of age and citizens of the United States, or in anyway abridged, except for participation in rebellion, orother crime, the basis of representation therein shall bereduced in the proportion which the number of suchmale citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citi-zens twenty-one years of age in such State.

Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representa-tive in Congress or Elector of President and Vice Presi-dent, or hold any office, civil or military, under theUnited States, or under any State, who, having previouslytaken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officerof the United States, or as a member of any State legisla-ture, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, tosupport the Constitution of the United States, shall haveengaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, orgiven aid and comfort to the enemies thereof. Congressmay, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove suchdisability.

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the UnitedStates, authorized by law, including debts incurred forpayment of pensions and bounties for services in sup-pressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be ques-tioned. But neither the United States nor any State shallassume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid ofinsurrection or rebellion against the United States, orany claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; butall such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held ille-gal and void.

Section 5. The Congress shall have the power to en-force, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of thisarticle.

Amendment XV[Adopted 1870]

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States tovote shall not be denied or abridged by the United Statesor by any State on account of race, color, or previouscondition of servitude.

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforcethis article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XVI[Adopted 1913]

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes onincomes, from whatever source derived, without appor-tionment among the several States, and without regardto any census or enumeration.

Amendment XVII[Adopted 1913]

Section 1. The Senate of the United States shall becomposed of two Senators from each State, elected bythe people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shallhave one vote. The electors in each State shall have thequalifications requisite for electors of [voters for] themost numerous branch of the State legislatures.

Section 2. When vacancies happen in the representa-tion of any State in the Senate, the executive authority ofsuch State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacan-cies: Provided, that the Legislature of any State may em-power the executive thereof to make temporary appoint-ments until the people fill the vacancies by election asthe Legislature may direct.

A-14 Appendix

Section 3. This amendment shall not be so construedas to affect the election or term of any Senator chosenbefore it becomes valid as part of the Constitution.

Amendment XVIII[Adopted 1919; repealed 1933]

Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article

the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating

liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exporta-

tion thereof from the United States and all territory subject to

the jurisdiction thereof, for beverage purposes, is hereby pro-

hibited.

Section 2. The Congress and the several States shall have

concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legis-

lation.

Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall

have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by

the legislatures of the several States, as provided by the Con-

stitution, within seven years from the date of the submission

thereof to the States by the Congress.

Amendment XIX[Adopted 1920]

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States tovote shall not be denied or abridged by the United Statesor by any State on account of sex.

Section 2. The Congress shall have the power to en-force this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XX[Adopted 1933]

Section 1. The terms of the President and Vice Presi-dent shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, andthe terms of Senators and Representatives at noon onthe 3d day of January, of the years in which such termswould have ended if this article had not been ratified;and the terms of their successors shall then begin.

Section 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once inevery year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the3d of January, unless they shall by law appoint a differentday.

Section 3. If, at the time fixed for the beginning of theterm of the President, the President-elect shall have

died, the Vice President-elect shall become President. If aPresident shall not have been chosen before the timefixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President-elect shall have failed to qualify, then the Vice President-elect shall act as President until a President shall havequalified; and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President-elect nor a VicePresident-elect shall have qualified, declaring who shallthen act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected, and such persons shall act ac-cordingly until a President or Vice President shall havequalified.

Section 4. The Congress may by law provide for thecase of the death of any of the persons from whom theHouse of Representatives may choose a President when-ever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them,and for the case of the death of any of the persons fromwhom the Senate may choose a Vice President wheneverthe right of choice shall have devolved upon them.

Section 5. Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15thday of October following the ratification of this article.

Section 6. This article shall be inoperative unless itshall have been ratified as an amendment to the Consti-tution by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the severalStates within seven years from the date of its submission.

Amendment XXI[Adopted 1933]

Section 1. The eighteenth article of amendment to theConstitution of the United States is hereby repealed.

Section 2. The transportation or importation into anyState, Territory, or Possession of the United States for de-livery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violationof the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited.

Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless itshall have been ratified as an amendment to the Consti-tution by conventions in the several States, as providedin the Constitution, within seven years from the date ofsubmission thereof to the States by the Congress.

Amendment XXII[Adopted 1951]

Section 1. No person shall be elected to the office ofPresident more than twice, and no person who has held

Constitution of the United States of America A-15

the office of President, or acted as President, for morethan two years of a term to which some other person waselected President shall be elected to the office of Presi-dent more than once. But this article shall not apply toany person holding the office of President when this arti-cle was proposed by the Congress, and shall not preventany person who may be holding the office of President,or acting as President, during the term within which thisarticle becomes operative from holding the office ofPresident or acting as President during the remainder ofsuch term.

Section 2. This article shall be inoperative unless itshall have been ratified as an amendment to the Consti-tution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the severalStates within seven years from the date of its submissionto the States by the Congress.

Amendment XXIII[Adopted 1961]

Section 1. The District constituting the seat of Govern-ment of the United States shall appoint in such manneras the Congress may direct:

A number of electors of President and Vice Presidentequal to the whole number of Senators and Representa-tives in Congress to which the District would be entitledif it were a State, but in no event more than the least pop-ulous State; they shall be in addition to those appointedby the States, but they shall be considered for the pur-poses of the election of President and Vice President, tobe electors appointed by a State; and they shall meet inthe District and perform such duties as provided by thetwelfth article of amendment.

Section 2. The Congress shall have the power to en-force this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXIV[Adopted 1964]

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States tovote in any primary or other election for President orVice President, for electors for President or Vice Presi-dent, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shallnot be denied or abridged by the United States or any State by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or othertax.

Section 2. The Congress shall have the power to en-force this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXV[Adopted 1967]

Section 1. In case of the removal of the President fromoffice or of his death or resignation, the Vice Presidentshall become President.

Section 2. Whenever there is a vacancy in the office ofthe Vice President, the President shall nominate a VicePresident who shall take office upon confirmation by amajority vote of both Houses of Congress.

Section 3. Whenever the President transmits to thePresident pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker ofthe House of Representatives his written declaration thathe is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his of-fice, and until he transmits to them a written declarationto the contrary, such powers and duties shall be dis-charged by the Vice President as Acting President.

Section 4. Whenever the Vice President and a majorityof either the principal officers of the executive depart-ments or of such other body as Congress may by law pro-vide, transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senateand the Speaker of the House of Representatives theirwritten declaration that the President is unable to dis-charge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice Pres-ident shall immediately assume the powers and duties ofthe office as Acting President.

Thereafter, when the President transmits to thePresident pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker ofthe House of Representatives his written declaration thatno inability exists, he shall resume the powers and dutiesof his office unless the Vice President and a majority ofeither the principal officers of the executive depart-ment[s] or of such other body as Congress may by lawprovide, transmit within four days to the President protempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House ofRepresentatives their written declaration that the Presi-dent is unable to discharge the powers and duties of hisoffice. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, as-sembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if notin session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days afterreceipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress isnot in session, within twenty-one days after Congress isrequired to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote ofboth Houses that the President is unable to discharge thepowers and duties of his office, the Vice President shallcontinue to discharge the same as Acting President; oth-erwise, the President shall resume the powers and dutiesof his office.

A-16 Appendix

Amendment XXVI[Adopted 1971]

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States,who are eighteen years of age or older, to vote shall notbe denied or abridged by the United States or by anyState on account of age.

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforcethis article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment XXVII*[Adopted 1992]

No law, varying the compensation for services of theSenators and Representatives, shall take effect, until anelection of Representatives shall have intervened.

*Originally proposed in 1789 by James Madison, this amendment failed towin ratification along with the other parts of what became the Bill of Rights.However, the proposed amendment contained no deadline for ratification,and over the years other state legislatures voted to add it to the Constitution;many such ratifications occurred during the 1980s and early 1990s as publicfrustration with Congress’s performance mounted. In May 1992 theArchivist of the United States certified that, with the Michigan legislature’sratification, the article had been approved by three-fourths of the states andthus automatically became part of the Constitution.

Constitution of the United States of America A-17

A-18

State Date of Admission

1. Delaware December 7, 17872. Pennsylvania December 12, 17873. New Jersey December 18, 17874. Georgia January 2, 17885. Connecticut January 9, 17886. Massachusetts February 6, 17887. Maryland April 28, 17888. South Carolina May 23, 17889. New Hampshire June 21, 1788

10. Virginia June 25, 178811. New York July 26, 178812. North Carolina November 21, 178913. Rhode Island May 29, 179014. Vermont March 4, 179115. Kentucky June 1, 179216. Tennessee June 1, 179617. Ohio March 1, 180318. Louisiana April 30, 181219. Indiana December 11, 181620. Mississippi December 10, 181721. Illinois December 3, 181822. Alabama December 14, 181923. Maine March 15, 182024. Missouri August 10, 182125. Arkansas June 15, 1836

State Date of Admission

26. Michigan January 26, 183727. Florida March 3, 184528. Texas December 29, 184529. Iowa December 28, 184630. Wisconsin May 29, 184831. California September 9, 185032. Minnesota May 11, 185833. Oregon February 14, 185934. Kansas January 29, 186135. West Virginia June 20, 186336. Nevada October 31, 186437. Nebraska March 1, 186738. Colorado August 1, 187639. North Dakota November 2, 188940. South Dakota November 2, 188941. Montana November 8, 188942. Washington November 11, 188943. Idaho July 3, 189044. Wyoming July 10, 189045. Utah January 4, 189646. Oklahoma November 16, 190747. New Mexico January 6, 191248. Arizona February 14, 191249. Alaska January 3, 195950. Hawaii August 21, 1959

Territorial ExpansionTerritory Date Acquired Square Miles How Acquired

Original states and territories 1783 888,685 Treaty of ParisLouisiana Purchase 1803 827,192 Purchased from FranceFlorida 1819 72,003 Adams-Onís TreatyTexas 1845 390,143 Annexation of independent countryOregon 1846 285,580 Oregon Boundary TreatyMexican cession 1848 529,017 Treaty of Guadalupe HidalgoGadsden Purchase 1853 29,640 Purchased from MexicoMidway Islands 1867 2 Annexation of uninhabited islandsAlaska 1867 589,757 Purchased from RussiaHawaii 1898 6,450 Annexation of independent countryWake Island 1898 3 Annexation of uninhabited islandPuerto Rico 1899 3,435 Treaty of ParisGuam 1899 212 Treaty of ParisThe Philippines 1899–1946 115,600 Treaty of Paris; granted independenceAmerican Samoa 1900 76 Treaty with Germany and Great BritainPanama Canal Zone 1904–1978 553 Hay-Bunau-Varilla TreatyU.S. Virgin Islands 1917 133 Purchased from DenmarkTrust Territory of the Pacific Islands* 1947 717 United Nations Trusteeship

*A number of these islands have been granted independence: Federated States of Micronesia, 1990;Marshall Islands, 1991; Palau, 1994.

THE AMERICAN LAND

Admission of States into the Union

THE AMERICAN PEOPLE

Population, Percentage Change, and Racial Composition for the United States, 1790–2000

Population ofIncrease over Preceding Census Racial Composition, Percent Distribution*

Census United States Number Percentage White Black Latino Asian

1790 3,929,214 80.7 19.3 NA NA1800 5,308,483 1,379,269 35.1 81.1 18.9 NA NA1810 7,239,881 1,931,398 36.4 81.0 19.0 NA NA1820 9,638,453 2,398,572 33.1 81.6 18.4 NA NA1830 12,866,020 3,227,567 33.5 81.9 18.1 NA NA1840 17,069,453 4,203,433 32.7 83.2 16.8 NA NA1850 23,191,876 6,122,423 35.9 84.3 15.7 NA NA1860 31,433,321 8,251,445 35.6 85.6 14.1 NA NA1870 39,818,449 8,375,128 26.6 86.2 13.5 NA NA1880 50,155,783 10,337,334 26.0 86.5 13.1 NA NA1890 62,947,714 12,791,931 25.5 87.5 11.9 NA NA1900 75,994,575 13,046,861 20.7 87.9 11.6 NA 0.31910 91,972,266 15,997,691 21.0 88.9 10.7 NA 0.31920 105,710,620 13,738,354 14.9 89.7 9.9 NA 0.31930 122,775,046 17,064,426 16.1 89.8 9.7 NA 0.41940 131,669,275 8,894,229 7.2 89.8 9.8 NA 0.41950 150,697,361 19,028,086 14.5 89.5 10.0 NA 0.41960† 179,323,175 28,625,814 19.0 88.6 10.5 NA 0.51970 203,235,298 23,912,123 13.3 87.6 11.1 NA 0.71980 226,504,825 23,269,527 11.4 85.9 11.8 6.4 1.51990 248,709,873 22,205,048 9.8 83.9 12.3 9.0 2.92000 281,421,906 32,712,033 13.2 82.2 12.2 11.7 3.8

A-19

*Not every racial group included (e.g., no Native Americans). Persons of Latino origin may be of anyrace. Data for 1980, 1990, 2000 add up to more than 100% because those who identify themselvesas “Latino” could still be counted as “White.”†First year for which figures include Alaska and Hawaii.(Source: Census Bureau, Historical Statistics of the United States, updated by relevant Statistical Abstract of theUnited States.)

Population Density and Distribution, 1790–2000

*The Bureau of the Census defines “urban” as communities of 2,500 or more inhabitants.†First year for which figures include Alaska and Hawaii.(Source: Census Bureau, Historical Statistics of the United States, updated by relevant Statistical Abstract of theUnited States.)

6.1 7.2 7.2 8.8 10.815.3

19.824.9

28.235.1

39.745.7

51.256.2 56.5

64.069.9 73.5 73.7

5.1

93.9 92.8 92.8 91.2 89.284.7

80.275.1

71.864.9

60.354.3

48.843.8 43.5

36.030.1 26.5 26.3

76.0

24.8

75.2

94.9

Po

pu

lati

on

per

sq

uar

e m

ile

1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960† 1970 1980 1990 2000

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

% Urban* % Rural Population per square mile

24.0

A-20 Appendix

Changing Characteristics of the U.S. PopulationR

ate

Fertility Rate per Thousand Women Ages 15–44

1910 1930 1950 1970 1990

150

100

50

0’99

Ag

e

80

70

60

50

40

301900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Life Expectancy at Birth

Ag

e

40

30

20

10

Median Age of Population (years)

1820 1850 1900 1950 2000

Ave

rag

e nu

mb

er o

f ho

use

ho

ld m

emb

ers

Household Size

6

5

4

3

2

1

01790 1850 18901870 1910 1930 1950 1970 ’90 ’00

Per

1,0

00 li

ve b

irth

s

Infant Mortality

1920 1930 1950 1970 1990

150

120

90

60

30

0’98

Total

White

BlackA

ge

1890 1910 1930 1950 1990 ’001970

Median Age at First Marriage

Male

Female

30

28

26

24

22

20

Sources: Historical Statistics of the United States and Statistical Abstract of the United States, relevant years.

Immigrants to the United StatesImmigration Totals by Decade

Years Number Years Number

1820–1830 151,824 1911–1920 5,735,8111831–1840 599,125 1921–1930 4,107,2091841–1850 1,713,251 1931–1940 528,4311851–1860 2,598,214 1941–1950 1,035,0391861–1870 2,314,824 1951–1960 2,515,4791871–1880 2,812,191 1961–1970 3,321,6771881–1890 5,246,613 1971–1980 4,493,3141891–1900 3,687,546 1981–1990 7,338,0621901–1910 8,795,386 1991–2000 9,095,417

Total 66,089,431

Major Sources of Immigration, 1820–1998 A-21

18601830 1900188018701840 1850 19101890 1940 1980 1998196019501920 1930 199019701820

800

1,200

1,000

600

400

200

0

Imm

igra

nts

per

dec

ade

(th

ou

san

ds)

Northwestern Europe

Asia

Central, Eastern, and Southern Europe

Other immigration: Africa, Australia, Oceania

Western Hemisphere

Total immigration

Major Sources of Immigration, 1820–1998

Sources: Historical Statistics of the U.S., Colonial Times to 1970 (1975) and Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2001 (2002).

The American WorkerTotal Males as Females as Married Female Workers Percent

Number Percent Percent of Women as Percent of of Laborof of Total Total as Percent of Female Force

Year Workers Workers Workers Female Workers Population Unemployed

1870 12,506,000 85 15 NA NA NA1880 17,392,000 85 15 NA NA NA1890 23,318,000 83 17 14 19 4 (1894 � 18)1900 29,073,000 82 18 15 21 51910 38,167,000 79 21 25 25 61920 41,614,000 79 21 23 24 5 (1921 � 12)1930 48,830,000 78 22 29 25 9 (1933 � 25)1940 53,011,000 76 24 36 27 15 (1944 � 1)1950 62,208,000 72 28 52 31 5.31960 69,628,000 67 33 55 38 5.51970 82,771,000 62 38 59 43 4.91980 106,940,000 58 42 55 52 7.11990 125,840,000 55 45 54 58 5.62000 135,208,000 53 47 55 60 4.0

A-22 Appendix

NA � Not available.

A-23

THE AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

Presidential Elections, 1789–2000States in Electoral Popular Percentage of

Year the Union Candidates Parties Vote Vote Popular Vote

1789 11 GEORGE WASHINGTON No party designations 69John Adams 34

Minor candidates 35

1792 15 GEORGE WASHINGTON No party designations 132John Adams 77

George Clinton 50Minor candidates 5

1796 16 JOHN ADAMS Federalist 71Thomas Jefferson Democratic-Republican 68Thomas Pinckney Federalist 59

Aaron Burr Democratic-Republican 30Minor candidates 48

1800 16 THOMAS JEFFERSON Democratic-Republican 73Aaron Burr Democratic-Republican 73

John Adams Federalist 65Charles C. Pinckney Federalist 64

John Jay Federalist 1

1804 17 THOMAS JEFFERSON Democratic-Republican 162Charles C. Pinckney Federalist 14

1808 17 JAMES MADISON Democratic-Republican 122Charles C. Pinckney Federalist 47

George Clinton Democratic-Republican 6

1812 18 JAMES MADISON Democratic-Republican 128DeWitt Clinton Federalist 89

1816 19 JAMES MONROE Democratic-Republican 183Rufus King Federalist 34

1820 24 JAMES MONROE Democratic-Republican 231John Quincy Adams Independent Republican 1

1824 24 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS Democratic-Republican 84 108,740 30.5Andrew Jackson Democratic-Republican 99 153,544 43.1

William H. Crawford Democratic-Republican 41 46,618 13.1Henry Clay Democratic-Republican 37 47,136 13.2

1828 24 ANDREW JACKSON Democratic 178 642,553 56.0John Quincy Adams National Republican 83 500,897 44.0

1832 24 ANDREW JACKSON Democratic 219 687,502 55.0Henry Clay National Republican 49 530,189 42.4William Wirt Anti-Masonic 7

33,108 2.6John Floyd National Republican 11

Because candidates receiving less than 1 percent of the popular vote are omitted, the percentage of popular vote

may not total 100 percent. Before the Twelfth Amendment was passed in 1804, the electoral college voted for two

presidential candidates; the runner-up became vice president.

}

A-24 Appendix

Presidential Elections, 1789–2000 (continued)States in Electoral Popular Percentage of

Year the Union Candidates Parties Vote Vote Popular Vote

1836 26 MARTIN VAN BUREN Democratic 170 765,483 50.9William H. Harrison Whig 73Hugh L. White Whig 26

739,795 49.1Daniel Webster Whig 14W. P. Mangum Whig 11

1840 26 WILLIAM H. HARRISON Whig 234 1,274,624 53.1Martin Van Buren Democratic 60 1,127,781 46.9

1844 26 JAMES K. POLK Democratic 170 1,338,464 49.6Henry Clay Whig 105 1,300,097 48.1James G. Birney Liberty 0 62,300 2.3

1848 30 ZACHARY TAYLOR Whig 163 1,360,967 47.4Lewis Cass Democratic 127 1,222,342 42.5Martin Van Buren Free Soil 0 291,263 10.1

1852 31 FRANKLIN PIERCE Democratic 254 1,601,117 50.9Winfield Scott Whig 42 1,385,453 44.1John P. Hale Free Soil 0 155,825 5.0

1856 31 JAMES BUCHANAN Democratic 174 1,832,955 45.3John C. Frémont Republican 114 1,339,932 33.1Millard Fillmore American 8 871,731 21.6

1860 33 ABRAHAM LINCOLN Republican 180 1,865,593 39.8Stephen A. Douglas Democratic 12 1,382,713 29.5John C. Breckinridge Democratic 72 848,356 18.1John Bell Constitutional Union 39 592,906 12.6

1864 36 ABRAHAM LINCOLN Republican 212 2,206,938 55.0George B. McClellan Democratic 21 1,803,787 45.0

1868 37 ULYSSES S. GRANT Republican 214 3,013,421 52.7Horatio Seymour Democratic 80 2,706,829 47.3

1872 37 ULYSSES S. GRANT Republican 286 3,596,745 55.6Horace Greeley Democratic * 2,843,446 43.9

1876 38 RUTHERFORD B. HAYES Republican 185 4,034,311 48.0Samuel J. Tilden Democratic 184 4,288,546 51.0Peter Cooper Greenback 0 75,973 1.0

1880 38 JAMES A. GARFIELD Republican 214 4,453,295 48.5Winfield S. Hancock Democratic 155 4,414,082 48.1James B. Weaver Greenback-Labor 0 308,578 3.4

1884 38 GROVER CLEVELAND Democratic 219 4,879,507 48.5James G. Blaine Republican 182 4,850,293 48.2Benjamin F. Butler Greenback-Labor 0 175,370 1.8John P. St. John Prohibition 0 150,369 1.5

1888 38 BENJAMIN HARRISON Republican 233 5,477,129 47.9Grover Cleveland Democratic 168 5,537,857 48.6Clinton B. Fisk Prohibition 0 249,506 2.2Anson J. Streeter Union Labor 0 146,935 1.3

*When Greeley died shortly after the election, his supporters divided their votes among the minor candidates.

Because candidates receiving less than 1 percent of the popular vote are omitted, the percentage of popular vote

may not total 100 percent.

}

Presidential Elections, 1789–2000 A-25

Presidential Elections, 1789–2000 (continued)States in Electoral Popular Percentage of

Year the Union Candidates Parties Vote Vote Popular Vote

1892 44 GROVER CLEVELAND Democratic 277 5,555,426 46.1Benjamin Harrison Republican 145 5,182,690 43.0James B. Weaver People’s 22 1,029,846 8.5John Bidwell Prohibition 0 264,133 2.2

1896 45 WILLIAM McKINLEY Republican 271 7,102,246 51.1William J. Bryan Democratic 176 6,492,559 47.7

1900 45 WILLIAM McKINLEY Republican 292 7,218,491 51.7William J. Bryan Democratic; Populist 155 6,356,734 45.5John C. Wooley Prohibition 0 208,914 1.5

1904 45 THEODORE ROOSEVELT Republican 336 7,628,461 57.4Alton B. Parker Democratic 140 5,084,223 37.6Eugene V. Debs Socialist 0 402,283 3.0Silas C. Swallow Prohibition 0 258,536 1.9

1908 46 WILLIAM H. TAFT Republican 321 7,675,320 51.6William J. Bryan Democratic 162 6,412,294 43.1Eugene V. Debs Socialist 0 420,793 2.8Eugene W. Chafin Prohibition 0 253,840 1.7

1912 48 WOODROW WILSON Democratic 435 6,296,547 41.9Theodore Roosevelt Progressive 88 4,118,571 27.4William H. Taft Republican 8 3,486,720 23.2Eugene V. Debs Socialist 0 900,672 6.0Eugene W. Chafin Prohibition 0 206,275 1.4

1916 48 WOODROW WILSON Democratic 277 9,127,695 49.4Charles E. Hughes Republican 254 8,533,507 46.2A. L. Benson Socialist 0 585,113 3.2J. Frank Hanly Prohibition 0 220,506 1.2

1920 48 WARREN G. HARDING Republican 404 16,143,407 60.4James N. Cox Democratic 127 9,130,328 34.2Eugene V. Debs Socialist 0 919,799 3.4P. P. Christensen Farmer-Labor 0 265,411 1.0

1924 48 CALVIN COOLIDGE Republican 382 15,718,211 54.0John W. Davis Democratic 136 8,385,283 28.8Robert M. La Follette Progressive 13 4,831,289 16.6

1928 48 HERBERT C. HOOVER Republican 444 21,391,993 58.2Alfred E. Smith Democratic 87 15,016,169 40.9

1932 48 FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT Democratic 472 22,809,638 57.4Herbert C. Hoover Republican 59 15,758,901 39.7Norman Thomas Socialist 0 881,951 2.2

1936 48 FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT Democratic 523 27,752,869 60.8Alfred M. Landon Republican 8 16,674,665 36.5William Lemke Union 0 882,479 1.9

Because candidates receiving less than 1 percent of the popular vote are omitted, the percentage of popular vote

may not total 100 percent.

A-26 Appendix

Presidential Elections, 1789–2000 (continued)States in Electoral Popular Percentage of

Year the Union Candidates Parties Vote Vote Popular Vote

1940 48 FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT Democratic 449 27,307,819 54.8Wendell L. Willkie Republican 82 22,321,018 44.8

1944 48 FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT Democratic 432 25,606,585 53.5Thomas E. Dewey Republican 99 22,014,745 46.0

1948 48 HARRY S TRUMAN Democratic 303 24,105,812 49.5Thomas E. Dewey Republican 189 21,970,065 45.1Strom Thurmond States’ Rights 39 1,169,063 2.4Henry A. Wallace Progressive 0 1,157,172 2.4

1952 48 DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER Republican 442 33,936,234 55.1Adlai E. Stevenson Democratic 89 27,314,992 44.4

1956 48 DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER Republican 457 35,590,472 57.6Adlai E. Stevenson Democratic 73 26,022,752 42.1

1960 50 JOHN F. KENNEDY Democratic 303 34,227,096 49.7Richard M. Nixon Republican 219 34,108,546 49.5Harry F. Byrd Independent 15 502,363 .7

1964 50 LYNDON B. JOHNSON Democratic 486 43,126,506 61.1Barry M. Goldwater Republican 52 27,176,799 38.5

1968 50 RICHARD M. NIXON Republican 301 31,770,237 43.4Hubert H. Humphrey Democratic 191 31,270,533 42.7George C. Wallace American Independent 46 9,906,141 13.5

1972 50 RICHARD M. NIXON Republican 520 47,169,911 60.7George S. McGovern Democratic 17 29,170,383 37.5

1976 50 JIMMY CARTER Democratic 297 40,827,394 49.9Gerald R. Ford Republican 240 39,145,977 47.9

1980 50 RONALD W. REAGAN Republican 489 43,899,248 50.8Jimmy Carter Democratic 49 35,481,435 41.0John B. Anderson Independent 0 5,719,437 6.6Ed Clark Libertarian 0 920,859 1.0

1984 50 RONALD W. REAGAN Republican 525 54,451,521 58.8Walter F. Mondale Democratic 13 37,565,334 40.5

1988 50 GEORGE H. W. BUSH Republican 426 47,946,422 54.0Michael S. Dukakis Democratic 112 41,016,429 46.0

1992 50 WILLIAM J. CLINTON Democratic 370 43,728,275 43.2George H. W. Bush Republican 168 38,167,416 37.7H. Ross Perot Independent 0 19,237,247 19.0

1996 50 WILLIAM J. CLINTON Democratic 379 47,401,185 49.0Robert Dole Republican 159 39,197,469 41.0H. Ross Perot Independent 0 8,085,295 8.0

2000 50 GEORGE W. BUSH Republican 271 50,456,169 47.9Albert Gore, Jr. Democratic 267 50,996,116 48.4Ralph Nader Green 0 2,783,728 2.7

Because candidates receiving less than 1 percent of the popular vote are omitted, the percentage of popular vote

may not total 100 percent.

Supreme Court JusticesTerm of

Name Service Appointed By

JOHN JAY 1789–1795 WashingtonJames Wilson 1789–1798 WashingtonJohn Rutledge 1790–1791 WashingtonWilliam Cushing 1790–1810 WashingtonJohn Blair 1790–1796 WashingtonJames Iredell 1790–1799 WashingtonThomas Johnson 1792–1793 WashingtonWilliam Paterson 1793–1806 WashingtonJOHN RUTLEDGE* 1795 WashingtonSamuel Chase 1796–1811 WashingtonOLIVER ELLSWORTH 1796–1800 WashingtonBushrod Washington 1799–1829 J. AdamsAlfred Moore 1800–1804 J. AdamsJOHN MARSHALL 1801–1835 J. AdamsWilliam Johnson 1804–1834 JeffersonBrockholst Livingston 1807–1823 JeffersonThomas Todd 1807–1826 JeffersonGabriel Duvall 1811–1835 MadisonJoseph Story 1812–1845 MadisonSmith Thompson 1823–1843 MonroeRobert Trimble 1826–1828 J. Q. AdamsJohn McLean 1830–1861 JacksonHenry Baldwin 1830–1844 JacksonJames M. Wayne 1835–1867 JacksonROGER B. TANEY 1836–1864 JacksonPhilip P. Barbour 1836–1841 JacksonJohn Cartron 1837–1865 Van BurenJohn McKinley 1838–1852 Van BurenPeter V. Daniel 1842–1860 Van BurenSamuel Nelson 1845–1872 TylerLevi Woodbury 1845–1851 PolkRobert C. Grier 1846–1870 PolkBenjamin R. Curtis 1851–1857 FillmoreJohn A. Campbell 1853–1861 PierceNathan Clifford 1858–1881 BuchananNoah H. Swayne 1862–1881 LincolnSamuel F. Miller 1862–1890 LincolnDavid Davis 1862–1877 Lincoln

Note: The names of Chief Justices are printed in capital letters.*Although Rutledge acted as Chief Justice, the Senate refused to confirm his appointment.

A-27

Supreme Court Justices (continued)Term of

Name Service Appointed By

Stephen J. Field 1863–1897 LincolnSALMON P. CHASE 1864–1873 LincolnWilliam Strong 1870–1880 GrantJoseph P. Bradley 1870–1892 GrantWard Hunt 1873–1882 GrantMORRISON R. WAITE 1874–1888 GrantJohn M. Harlan 1877–1911 HayesWilliam B. Woods 1881–1887 HayesStanley Matthews 1881–1889 GarfieldHorace Gray 1882–1902 ArthurSamuel Blatchford 1882–1893 ArthurLucious Q. C. Lamar 1888–1893 ClevelandMELVILLE W. FULLER 1888–1910 ClevelandDavid J. Brewer 1890–1910 B. HarrisonHenry B. Brown 1891–1906 B. HarrisonGeorge Shiras, Jr. 1892–1903 B. HarrisonHowell E. Jackson 1893–1895 B. HarrisonEdward D. White 1894–1910 ClevelandRufus W. Peckham 1896–1909 ClevelandJoseph McKenna 1898–1925 McKinleyOliver W. Holmes 1902–1932 T. RooseveltWilliam R. Day 1903–1922 T. RooseveltWilliam H. Moody 1906–1910 T. RooseveltHorace H. Lurton 1910–1914 TaftCharles E. Hughes 1910–1916 TaftEDWARD D. WHITE 1910–1921 TaftWillis Van Devanter 1911–1937 TaftJoseph R. Lamar 1911–1916 TaftMahlon Pitney 1912–1922 TaftJames C. McReynolds 1914–1941 WilsonLouis D. Brandeis 1916–1939 WilsonJohn H. Clarke 1916–1922 WilsonWILLIAM H. TAFT 1921–1930 HardingGeorge Sutherland 1922–1938 HardingPierce Butler 1923–1939 HardingEdward T. Sanford 1923–1930 HardingHarlan F. Stone 1925–1941 CoolidgeCHARLES E. HUGHES 1930–1941 HooverOwen J. Roberts 1930–1945 HooverBenjamin N. Cardozo 1932–1938 Hoover

A-28 Appendix

Supreme Court Justices (continued)Term of

Name Service Appointed By

Hugo L. Black 1937–1971 F. RooseveltStanley F. Reed 1938–1957 F. RooseveltFelix Frankfurter 1939–1962 F. RooseveltWilliam O. Douglas 1939–1975 F. RooseveltFrank Murphy 1940–1949 F. RooseveltHARLAN F. STONE 1941–1946 F. RooseveltJames F. Byrnes 1941–1942 F. RooseveltRobert H. Jackson 1941–1954 F. RooseveltWiley B. Rutledge 1943–1949 F. RooseveltHarold H. Burton 1945–1958 TrumanFREDERICK M. VINSON 1946–1953 TrumanTom C. Clark 1949–1967 TrumanSherman Minton 1949–1956 TrumanEARL WARREN 1953–1969 EisenhowerJohn Marshall Harlan 1955–1971 EisenhowerWilliam J. Brennan, Jr. 1956–1990 EisenhowerCharles E. Whittaker 1957–1962 EisenhowerPotter Stewart 1958–1981 EisenhowerByron R. White 1962–1993 KennedyArthur J. Goldberg 1962–1965 KennedyAbe Fortas 1965–1970 L. JohnsonThurgood Marshall 1967–1991 L. JohnsonWARREN E. BURGER 1969–1986 NixonHarry A. Blackmun 1970–1994 NixonLewis F. Powell, Jr. 1971–1987 NixonWilliam H. Rehnquist 1971–1986 NixonJohn Paul Stevens 1975– FordSandra Day O’Connor 1981– ReaganWILLIAM H. REHNQUIST 1986– ReaganAntonin Scalia 1986– ReaganAnthony Kennedy 1988– ReaganDavid Souter 1990– BushClarence Thomas 1991– BushRuth Bader Ginsburg 1993– ClintonStephen Breyer 1994– Clinton

Supreme Court Justices A-29

THE

AMER

ICAN

ECON

OMY

Key

Econom

ic Indic

ato

rsG

ross

Nat

iona

lP

rod

uct

(GN

P)

Co

rnF

ore

ign

Trad

ean

d G

ross

Do

mes

ticS

teel

Pro

duc

tion

(in $

mill

ions

)P

rod

uct

(GD

P)a

Pro

duc

tion

(mill

ions

of

Aut

om

ob

iles

Year

(in $

bill

ions

)(in

to

ns)

bus

hels

)R

egis

tere

dN

ew H

ous

ing

Sta

rts

Exp

ort

sIm

po

rts

1790

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

2023

1800

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

7191

1810

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

6785

1820

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

7074

1830

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

7471

1840

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

132

107

1850

NA

NA

592d

NA

NA

152

178

1860

NA

13,0

0083

9eN

AN

A40

036

218

707.

4b77

,000

1,12

5N

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A45

146

218

8011

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01,

707

NA

NA

853

761

1890

13.1

4,77

9,00

01,

650

NA

328,

000

910

823

1900

18.7

11,2

27,0

002,

662

8,00

018

9,00

01,

499

930

1910

35.3

28,3

30,0

002,

853

458,

300

387,

000

(191

8 �

118,

000)

1,91

91,

646

1920

91.5

46,1

83,0

003,

071

8,13

1,50

024

7,00

0 (1

925

�93

7,00

0)8,

664

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3090

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,591

,000

2,08

023

,034

,700

330,

000

(193

3 �

93,0

00)

4,01

33,

500

1940

100.

066

,983

,000

2,45

727

,465

,800

603,

000

(194

4 �

142,

000)

4,03

07,

433

1950

286.

596

,836

,000

3,07

540

,339

,000

1,95

2,00

09,

997

8,95

419

6050

6.5

99,2

82,0

004,

314

61,6

82,3

001,

365,

000

19,6

5915

,093

1970

1,01

6.0

131,

514,

000

4,20

089

,279

,800

1,43

4,00

042

,681

40,3

5619

802,

819.

511

1,83

5,00

06,

600

121,

601,

000

1,29

2,00

022

0,62

624

4,87

119

905,

764.

998

,906

,000

7,93

313

3,70

0,00

01,

193,

000

394,

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485,

453

2000

9,96

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8,02

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a In

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er 1

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the

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the

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f U.S

. pro

duc

tion.

bFi

gure

is a

vera

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r 18

69–1

878.

c Fig

ure

is a

vera

ge fo

r 18

79–1

888.

dFi

gure

for

1849

.e F

igur

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r 18

59.

f Fig

ure

for

1997

.g D

oes

not

incl

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spor

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tility

veh

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s) a

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l B

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and D

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and

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Sec

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edic

area

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NA

NA

NA

NA

55.0

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55.7

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AN

AN

AN

A31

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(181

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NA

NA

NA

NA

34.9

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2038

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AN

AN

AN

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NA

NA

NA

NA

12.6

48,5

65,0

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4054

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80.

7)10

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AN

AN

AN

A.7

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3,00

018

5043

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7N

AN

AN

AN

A1.

063

,453

,000

1860

44.2

(186

5: 8

8.9)

1.7

NA

NA

NA

NA

5.0

64,8

44,0

0018

7025

.79.

2N

AN

AN

AN

A41

.72,

436,

453,

000

1880

19.3

21.2

NA

NA

NA

NA

35.8

2,09

0,90

9,00

018

9020

.9 (1

899:

48.

6)33

.6N

AN

AN

AN

A11

.41,

222,

397,

000

1900

36.6

27.0

NA

NA

NA

NA

7.7

1,26

3,41

7,00

019

1045

.1 (1

919:

59.

5)23

.2N

AN

AN

AN

A3.

11,

146,

940,

000

1920

37.1

3.4

NA

NA

NA

NA

16.0

24,2

99,3

21,0

0019

3025

.36.

6N

AN

AN

AN

A19

.916

,185

,310

,000

1940

17.5

(194

5: 8

9.4)

6.0

16.0

.3.5

20.8

9.4

42,9

67,5

31,0

0019

5032

.220

.39.

61.

8.6

.611

.325

6,85

3,00

0,00

019

6052

.25.

98.

012

.6.9

1.0

7.5

290,

525,

000,

000

1970

41.8

4.4

8.0

15.5

6.2

4.4

7.3

308,

921,

000,

000

1980

22.7

3.6

14.6

20.1

9.4

5.4

8.9

909,

050,

000,

000

1990

23.9

2.3

11.7

19.8

12.4

3.1

14.7

3,26

6,07

3,00

0,00

020

0016

.22.

614

.122

.719

.93.

512

.35,

629,

000,

000,

000

a Fig

ures

rep

rese

nt p

erce

ntag

e of

tot

al fe

der

al s

pen

din

g fo

r ea

ch c

ateg

ory.

Not

incl

uded

are

tra

nsp

orta

tion,

com

mer

ce, h

ousi

ng, a

nd v

ario

us o

ther

cat

egor

ies.

b17

89–1

791

figur

e.c 1

791

figur

e.dIn

clud

es t

rain

ing,

em

plo

ymen

t, a

nd s

ocia

l ser

vice

s.

NA

�N

ot a

vaila

ble

.

Federal Budget Outlays and Debt A-31