my.ilstu.edumy.ilstu.edu/~eostewa/497/PROPOSALS/Geggus Propos… · Web viewCecil and Lauritzen (1994) noted that mental ... Utilizing artwork and imagery results in richer word

Visual Artifact Journals 1

Running Head: VISUAL ARTIFACT JOURNALS TO IMPROVE STUDENT

WRITING

Using visual artifact journals to improve student writing

Lauren D Geggus

Illinois State University


The language of images and the language of words are

complementary realms. Olshansky (1995) found that art

integration and art instruction can enhance writing in the

early elementary level by providing a visual framework for

structuring a narrative. Moran, Kornhaber, and Gardner

(2006) found that students succeed in schools that promote

knowledge gain through rich experiences across subject-area

lines. According to Rabkin and Redmond (2006), an arts

program has been shown to have positive and profound effects

on low-income students as well as those struggling for other

reasons. In 23 arts integrated schools in Chicago with

predominately low-income students, standardized test scores

raised as much as two times faster than the scores of

students in more traditional schools (Rabkin & Redmond,

2006). More schools are using arts integration as an

instructional strategy since it has been linked to academic

gains. Gray (2006) noted that in open classroom environments

students are free to express themselves with a chosen media

suitable to their learning needs. These selected media or

semiotic systems can help contribute to student success.

Many school districts are welcoming the use of non-verbal

visual representation in their literacy programs. Gray

indicated that using visual expression alongside verbal


expression can help a student become more proficient in

communication, which could include using drawing, computer

graphics, photography, or physical performance (Gray, 2006).

Being a successful writer is an important skill to have,

especially in a technologically driven world. Walsh (2010)

indicated that writing aids communication skills, and is

used as a means of assessment in higher education. If

students are unable to write well, they will have difficulty

communicating with friends, family, professors, and

potential employers.

In this research study students in fourth grade art

classes will keep a journal that will have personal artwork

and reflective writing on each artwork. Integrating writing

activities into art lessons will give students the

opportunity to express themselves thoroughly. Their artwork

will be reflected upon in a journal to further express their

personality and ideas.

Purpose of Study

Student writing ability and skills at the elementary

level have been a part of school improvement plans for

several years. In order to improve student writing ability

writing will be integrated into several units of study for

each grade level in art class. Keeping a personal art

journal may be meaningful and helpful for students to


communicate ideas and stories. Additionally, it has been

shown (Olshansky, 1996, Golomb, 2001) that students are

motivated to construct narratives from their drawings

regardless of whether they are in oral or written form.

Expanding the communication process through journal writing

connected to their drawings may help students make more

connections between their artwork and their own personal

narrative. The purpose of this study is to determine whether

incorporating writing into a fourth grade art curriculum

will improve students’ writing skills.

Visual artifact journals may assist students through a

visual means in order to stimulate word production for a

narrative. The research will be designed for use during

fourth grade art classes and will be implemented in two of

the three art classes in the school where the researcher

teaches.

Need for Study

According to Saunders-Bustle (2008), visual journaling

naturally scaffolds student learning and connects images and

meaning in their daily lives. Critical analysis of images is

accomplished through the integration of art and writing

activities, and marginalized learners can use sketchbooks to

formulate ideas. While many authors find that artwork and

imagery motivates students to write narratives, no studies

Ed Stewart, 01/22/12,

There is nothing in the research questions or hypothesis about motivation and writing. If there was going to be a qualitative component (a questionnaire) this statement is the basis for it. If motivation is a part of the idea here we should not make assumptions about it but have questions to help ascertain whether students found the writing more enjoyable because of the drawing. Is assist better?

geggusl, 01/22/12,

Is assist better?


were found that compare the writing of students who use

visual journaling and writing in art class with students who

do not in order to determine whether artwork can improve

student writing. More research on using visual journaling to

improve writing skill is needed to determine whether the

activity can facilitate achievement. Classroom teachers and

art teachers may be more inclined to use artwork as a tool

for writing if student writing improves with the use of

visual journaling. This research study will compare a

control group and two experimental groups of fourth graders

in art class. Students in the experimental group will create

artwork in a visual journal and then write about that work.

Student writing will be scored before and after the journals

are initiated in order to determine whether there was any

improvement in the writing of the experimental group versus

the control group, which will not be keeping visual

journals. Visual artifact journals may increase students’

writing skills compared to students who are not exposed to

visual artifact journals in art class.

Research Questions

In order to focus the study the following research

questions have been formulated.


1. Can integrating writing into an art classroom using

visual artifact journals improve writing skills?

2. Can struggling writers improve their writing skills

by means of a visual stimulus for the writing activity?

Hypothesis

In order to further guide the study, the following

research hypothesis was formulated: Keeping a visual

artifact journal will improve fourth grade students’ writing

skills.

Null Hypothesis

In order to conduct statistical analysis, the following null

hypothesis was constructed: A visual journaling experience

will have no effect on fourth grade students’ writing

ability.

Definition of Terms

Integration – incorporating more than one subject area into

a unit of study or curriculum.

Orthographic – a standardized way of using a specific

writing system (script) to write the language

Phonological – the use of sound to encode meaning in spoken

language


Semiotics – the language and thought and communication that

humans choose to use daily (Gray, 2006).

Schema – are symbols children create in order to depict

objects in their world.

Transmediation – a process of recasting meaning from one

sign system to another (Olshansky, 2006).

Visual artifact journal – a space for learners to explore

and depict personal imagery. Other than the traditional

drawing and sketching approach, they can be used in many

forms, including collage, photographs, graphics, and

personal schemata. A written assignment coincides with

journaling as a reflection tool for the student’s chosen

artifact (Saunders-Bustle, 2008).

Review of Literature

In order to understand how a visual art experience and

a writing activity are connected, several related issues

need to be understood and compared. The following sections

will point to research already completed in children’s

drawing and writing development. The similarities of drawing

and writing, drawing development, writing development,

semiotics, drawing and writing development, integrated art

approaches to reading and writing, and assisting struggling


writers will enlighten connections in drawing and writing in

children.

Using drawing in the classroom can enable struggling

young writers to organize their ideas and visions into a

narrative form (Olshansky, 2008). According to Eisner

(2002), imagination stimulates images of the possible and

has a critically important cognitive function. With the help

of arts integrated writing activities, students can visually

experiment with ideas to construct words out of imagery, and

turn found words into a narrative. However, as Eisner

observed, an arts integrated curriculum should not replace a

quality art program, but enhance other subject areas’

lessons geared toward multiple learning styles.

Visual arts and writing have many similar attributes.

For example, Eisner (2002) noted that they each have

flexible products and don’t demand a one-word response.

According to Chapman (2000),

The arts teach that there is more than one answer to a

question, and more than one solution to a problem. A

single correct response is often the driving forms in

today’s educational system. Art, music, dance, and

writing show students that a concept or idea may be

interpreted in many ways, and individuals find

differing meanings inside situations. (p. 196)


Mackenzie (2006) found that writing and drawing share

similar psychomotor skills and rely on similar types of

cognition, which are expressive, developmental, and

purposeful. Additionally, editing functions similarly across

the arts. Berghoff, Borgmann, and Parr (2003) discovered

that writers, artists, and musicians view their work as

dynamic and improvable objects. People in the arts edit and

revise more than any other discipline. Those in the arts

review their products looking for successes and problems

that demand improvement. Finally, drawing and writing are

both developmental activities that rely on motor skills and

symbol production.

Drawing development

Hurwitz and Day (2001) have reported that through

scribbling, children are entertained and are simultaneously

learning language and drawing skills. According to Gardner

(1980) and Edwards (1999), children use drawing to record

their lives. Cecil and Lauritzen (1994) noted that mental

images, as created in imaginary play, “are necessary for

linguistic development, for symbolic representations in art,

and for comprehension of written text” (p. 13). While at

play, children substitute images, symbols, or objects for

the real world. The spontaneous play in children is a path

toward emerging cognitive development. Through drawing and


painting experiences, a young child begins to create

symbolic representations that form the foundation for

artistic development and concepts of language comprehension.

In order to interact with others, solve problems,

communicate with peers, and share activities children need

to develop language. Signs, newspapers, magazines, and books

promote orthographic awareness.

Drawing is an almost universal activity for children

who use it as a satisfying learning activity. Mark making

with different tools is cultivated through experimentation.

Crayons, paints, pencils, and paper offer practice and

experimentation in forming graphic representations (Cecil &

Lauritzen, 1994). When children are able to grasp a tool

they will produce scribbles. Scribbling is the earliest

example of personal causation, the realization that the

child’s action controls a physical element of his or her

environment (Hurwitz & Day, 2001). Cox (1992) noted

scribbles are often scribbled over or edited by the child

with additional marks. Motor development ensues as children

produce large, sweeping lines. Large scribbles formed by

upper arm movements evolve into more controlled movements by

use of the lower arm and hand, and lines are ultimately made

finer by delicate finger movements. “As children continue to

explore the medium, then, they find that they can make


different kinds of marks and they may build up quite a

repertoire of scribbles” (Cox, 1992, pp. 14-15). Golomb

(2004) noted that independent, gestural marks while

scribbling do not carry any graphic meaning. The child is

proud of the scribble afterwards despite being an unintended

creation. Scribbles are a record of a child’s actions and

make a statement, whether or not the child was aware of what

would be created. These marks are difficult to decode and

meaning may not be present in beginning scribbles. Early

scribbles assist a child in developing an extensive graphic

vocabulary. These simple scribble marks progress to form

patterns and ultimately lead to non-pictorial designs

(Golomb, 2004).

Further, while some describe scribbling as pure motor

development, Eglinton (2003) noted that children begin to

name their scribbles after they have reached controlled

scribbling. Named scribbling denotes a huge cognitive-

perceptual event in a child’s development. Children make

marks and then name them. The lines and shapes inside the

scribbles begin to have a more important significance. In

the named scribbling stage, children begin to talk more

about what they are creating. Next, scribbles and lines

become shapes that may stand for objects. The scribbles and

the lines are changing, so the child is unable to predict


what will emerges, so he or she waits until the scribble is

finished to name or label the scribble (Eglinton, 2003).

Following the scribble stage, symmetrical, circular

forms occur universally in children’s development. These

forms may be used to depict almost any object (Edwards,

1999; Golomb, 2004). Circles lead toward more graphic

development. Hurwitz and Day (2001) call these circles

mandalas, which ultimately evolve into symbols. Circles may

stand for a figure, animal, plant, or cosmic entity. At

about age three, a child will go on to create more complex

imagery, reflecting their growing awareness. The circular

object may receive legs and a face (Hurwitz & Day, 2001).

According to stage theory, children transition from

scribbling into the symbol making stage or schematic stage,

and begin to create schema to depict general objects

(Eglinton, 2003; Gardner, 1980; Golomb, 2004; Hurwitz & Day,

2001). They form ideas connected to their imagery. When a

child makes marks or draw objects on paper they are often

differentiate between their marks and symbols verbally

(Eglinton, 2003; Eisner, 2002; Hurwitz & Day, 2001).

Tadpole drawings can stand for a chosen object, which is the

child’s symbolic interpretation of their mark or shape.

Rather than drawing a specific object, such as their own

house, a child draws a general house shape to represent


their house. “A child does not draw Lassie, Pluto, or her

own dog Fido — she draws a dog” (Gardner, 1980, p. 65). This

is most likely because of limited ability. The child’s

ability to conceptually organize imagery from his or her

world is still developing.

Schemas develop along with a child’s cognitive

development and motor development (Gardner, 1980). Mark

making is built upon line experimentation that assists the

child in rendering forms. Moving into the schema stage,

Eglinton finds that it is important for educators to realize

that the borders between the pre-schematic and schematic

stage are blurry. The time of symbol creation is a major

developmental step for a child. Skills are acquired within

the context of art experiences when the child is ready

(Eglinton, 2003). An enriched environment, which provides

the opportunity to create and experiment, helps children to

expand their own ability in developing integrated knowledge

and literacy skills (Cecil & Lauritzen, 1994). Additionally,

by age four or five, children begin to tell stories and work

out problems through their art. A drawing may be transparent

or disproportioned, but the schema tells the story (Edwards,

1999). Efland (2002) noted that schemata evolve into

logical, scientific and propositional structures. “They are

abstract structures that summarized information from many


different cases, but tied to these structures is the

awareness of particular operations or actions undertaken by

the mind to understand what is given in perception” (Efland,

2002, p. 146).

Gardner (1980) explained that children are challenged

to continue drawing in order to better differentiate their

marks “to distinguish between branches of a tree and from

the arms of a person” (p. 68). By the age of four, five, or

six, children have invented a trove of schemata to depict

objects of their world. At the symbol-making stage, children

are comfortable with their ability to depict reality.

Further, Gardner has noted that expressiveness can be found

in drawings of children between ages five and seven. After

mastering basic drawings steps and creating acceptable

likeness of objects, children go on to produce drawings that

are “lively, organized, and almost, unfailingly pleasing to

behold” (Gardner, 1980, p. 94). The drawings have a message

or are speaking to an audience. The many hours children

spend creating drawing after drawing may point to the

importance of artistic creation for a child’s development.

Edwards (1999) stated that at around ages nine or ten,

children’s drawings are more complex, and they are more

concerned with the appearance of their drawing. Details are

added to create a more realistic depiction. Accuracy in many


areas of study becomes progressively more important to the

developing child. In middle childhood, the lack of concern

for accuracy and realism falls away. They become preoccupied

with realism over expressiveness. This new interest in

accuracy engulfs their behavior (Gardner, 1980).

Recent research supports the notion that artistic

development branches out in alternative directions,

depending on “individual factors, the purpose of the

drawing, and the cultural milieu” (Soundy & Drucker, 2010,

p. 448). This school of thought proposes that drawing

ability is layered not linear. Similarly, writing skills do

not develop in a linear fashion but are created at many

levels simultaneously (Mackenzie, 2010, p. 323).

Contemporary art research shows diverse developmental

trajectories and supports a holistic view of development

(Soundy & Drucker, 2011).

Writing Development

Berninger, et al (2006) stated that “writing is not the

inverse of reading” (p. 88). It is not simply motor

development or primarily visual. Writing is language by hand

and shares some general processes with listening, speaking,

and reading. Each child learns different modes of letter

production for writing using print, keyboard, or cursive

writing. Handwriting is a combination and interaction of


orthographic colds codes (letter forms), phonological codes

(names), and grapho-motor codes. Gardner (1980) stated that

every child in our culture expresses himself or herself with

writing. Most children understand that marks in a specific

pattern correspond to words, though they may not yet know

how to interpret the sound for the word. Emergent spelling

depends upon the child’s ability to make word sounds in

spoken word form, and follows from “phonetic to partially

phonemic to fully phonemic spelling in representing speech

with alphabetic writing” (Berninger, et al, (2006), p. 88).

Spelling is never merely visual because orthographic

representations of words are made my “mapping them into

their spoken word counterparts” (p. 65). Gardner (1980)

found that as early as two, children begin to attempt

forming numbers and letters. Until a child has learned to

read, he or she may not successfully depict words to express

ideas by writing. According to Gardner,

Until the task of writing has been mastered, the system

of drawing is the only one sufficiently elaborated to

permit expression of inner life. Once writing mechanics

and literary accomplishment have advanced sufficiently

(as they ought to have by the age of nine or ten), the

possibility of achieving in words what was once


attempted in drawings comes alive: the stage is set for

the decline or demise of graphic expression. (p. 155)

According to Puranik, Lonigan, and Kim (2011), a

child’s name is one of the first words a child is able to

write. “Phonological awareness is not related to a child’s

name writing ability when print knowledge was accounted for.

Instead letter name recognition and print knowledge

predicted name writing” (p. 466). Children must have some

general experience with forming shapes and knowing specific

letters in order to write words. Further, children must have

basic knowledge about print and its function before they

attempt to write. In a developmental table, Berninger, et.

al. (2006) find that stage one for handwriting development

begins when an infant experiments with marks and then turns

the marks into scribbling. In stage two a toddler imitates

others using crayons to make vertical and horizontal

strokes. Toddlers also create diagonal lines and shapes

using straight lines and circular forms. In stage three of

handwriting development, a preschooler or kindergartener

learns to name letters. Holding a pencil versus a crayon

sharpens motor control. Tracing letters or completing mazes

helps a child’s motor development. The child imitates adults

in forming letters. Finally, at stage four, kindergartners

and first graders learn the differences between uppercase


and lower case letters and are able to copy them accurately.

In random order, kindergarteners or first graders can name

upper case and lowercase letters, and write letters on their

own from memory (Berninger, et al, 2006).

Next, spelling ability indicates a great milestone in

children’s literacy development. Several emergent literacy

skills must be drawn upon in order for children to be able

to spell. The use of spelling had been considered a high-

quality reflection of a child’s knowledge and learning of

alphabetic principles and a decent indicator of their

reading level. “Orthographic knowledge has been shown to

make important contributions to spelling for beginning

writers, and letter writing skills are an excellent

indicator of a child’s orthographic knowledge” (p. 467).

Hence, the ability to form letters should influence

preschool children’s spelling ability. More experienced

letter writers should be more proficient spellers than

children with less ability at forming letters (Puranik,

Lonigan, & Kim, 2011).

Most children enter school knowing how to talk and

draw. These already learned abilities could enhance

students’ early writing ability (Mackenzie, 2010, p. 323).

Once a child comprehends and masters writing, the child’s

drawings are permanently affected. By the time a child


enters school, language dominates drawing as a consequence

of the child’s desire for accuracy. Over time, gaining

knowledge and aspiring for accuracy in many areas directs

the child’s growth. Children turn to using language for

describing events. From ages eight and ten, children tend to

pay more attention to language and rely more and more on its

function. Gardner (1980) determined that before this point,

words were not as reliable as art for expressing feelings,

and drawing held a relatively “accessible means of exploring

complex thoughts and feeling, and bore a special

responsibility — and furnished a special opportunity” (p.

150). In early childhood, drawings serves to express

feelings, desires, and anxieties, but writing, a more

literal tool, is developed to assist the child in recording

or expressing ideas. Together, writing and drawing can

enable an emerging student to communicate a more detailed

narrative. With the language of drawing and the language of

writing so interconnected, the use of artwork integrated

into writing narratives may enhance writing ability on many

levels.

Semiotics

Gray (2006) stated that semiotics is the language of

thought and communication that humans choose to use daily.

Berghoff, Borgmann, and Parr (2003), noted that learners


interpret signs and construct meanings. Further, the same

sign or idea can be expressed by dance, paint, or poem. We

operate with our senses and within their combination, we are

able to recall or envision an image while hearing or

smelling. Eisner (2002) found that we could visualize a

banana through our sense of smell. Thus, representation,

whether visual, audible, or literal, contributes to the

sharing of ideas and provides a record of knowledge.

Additionally, image making takes place mentally in dance,

music, visual arts, and in essays: each is a profound means

of communication. The act of representation can help with

the recalling of ideas and the discovery of new ideas and

meanings. Discovery and invention are made through selected

material (Eisner, 2002).

Art enhances children’s observation and aesthetic

skills. According to Eisner (2002), forming meaning and

concepts mentally is an imaginative activity; images are

constructed from one or more sensory modalities in order to

represent a signifier. Differentiation must take place in

order to name imagery or concepts. For example, a child must

be able to visually differentiate between a cat and a dog in

order to name each organism. Children learn to recognize

subtleties and qualities of objects in order to interpret

and understand meanings in the world. Concepts and meaning


that children construct may be represented in any symbolic

system or material form that can in turn be used as a proxy

for an assumed concept (Eisner, 2002). Similarly, Berghoff,

Borgmann, and Parr, (2003) explained that the process of

meaning-making is complex, matching signs and meanings,

which can be formed and imagined as a three-way

relationship. The authors stated,

Instead of going from sign to fixed meaning, a learner

goes from sign to possible meaning and possible

expression, and experiences a quality of knowing we

have called thirdness, a tentative kind of meaning

making that is dependent on the learners’ identity and

preferences as well as life experiences and prior

knowledge. (p. 354)

In a semiotic model, signs are formed to represent

personal meaning and are interpreted by a dynamic process.

The learner attributes meaning to a sign from his or her own

schemata and experiences. However, in a semiotic model

“meaning does not come from recognizing the words and

knowing their meaning. Rather, the learner who perceives a

word or words begins to draw on her schema and experiences

to attribute meaning to them as signs” (Berghoff, Borgmann,

& Parr, 2003, p. 354). Writing stories draws from the sign

system of language, and using art to teach children about


the elements of their message will enhance their narrative.

Stetsenko (1995) found that drawing is developmental

and is connected to language and writing. It doesn’t develop

independently. Mark making must be attempted before writing

and symbols can be physically formed. Drawing holds a

specific role in child development, assisting in developing

and functioning in a specific medium of symbols. In order to

communicate within more complex settings, children must be

able to reference from imagery or symbols in the world, and

in turn have to know how to use the symbols. Before being

able to write words, the words must be understood by the

child as a reference to an object or idea, but also as a

combination of letters. Also, an object may be distinguished

by using a variety of symbols, not just a combination of

particular sounds. Before writing words, children must

understand that a drawing of an object can stand for

different things in reality. Drawings show the relationship

of words and objects, by graphically depicting an object.

Drawing precedes and develops into writing (Stetsenko,

1995).

Literacy can mean using multiple semiotic systems,

including verbal language, visual art, mathematics, music,

and expressive movement. Balancing content with teacher-


planned instruction and student-initiated projects enables

freedom of choice and support (Gray, 2006).

Drawing and Writing Development

According to Stetsenko (1995), two researchers,

Obukhova and Borisova, observed the connection between the

drawing and language processes of three to seven year old

children at preschools in Moscow. They found parallels

between children’s drawing stages and language production.

While drawing, the researchers recorded any utterances or

words the children made before, during, and after the

activity. The children were classified into three groups:

simple forms (age 3-4), complex forms (age 4-5), and dynamic

scenes (age 4-5). A certain sequence emerged in the

development of language and drawing in the participants.

During observations in the first stage, the children rarely

spoke during the drawing activity. Afterwards, the child

often used one word to refer to an object in their drawing.

The researchers called this the stage of syncretic speech; a

word and object relationship. In the second stage, children

commented during their drawing processes and named the

picture after it was completed. They spoke about what they

were drawing and used words to enrich the drawing. Finally,

the third group (dynamic scenes) first described what they


were about to draw and mentioned what they planned to show.

These observations determined that there may be a

relationship between drawing development and language

development. This infers that mastering drawing is an

important stage in a child’s learning progress (Stetsenko,

1995).

Similarly, a single case study performed by Hanes and

Weisman (2000) found that their child, Hank, used art to

learn and understand his world. Using visual media to

interpret the world and his experiences helped him to take

new information and create knowledge. He connected his

drawings to his own interests and often chose to reinforce

what he had learned by going home and drawing about the

experience. For example, after Hank’s first trip to a shoe

store he chose to illustrate the store and clerk. One group

of thematic drawings was strongly connected to Hank’s

language development through the connection of pictures and

words. While many of Hank’s drawings were experimentations

with different media, many of his drawings had a story or

intention. As an implication from this case study, the

authors found that more art educators should use the

artistic process as an avenue for students to interpret

their world and reflect on themselves. Children operate and

live in multiple realities and should be allowed and

Chaz McMotherfucker, 01/22/12,

no difference

Edward Stewart, 11/14/13,

This suggests an interesting study for the future: An ex-post facto study where students are divided into two groups. One group of children have not been encouraged or given many opportunities to graphically express themselves, and the second group made up of children who were encouraged and had rich graphic expressive opportunities. Look to see if there is a difference in the writing abilities of the two groups.


encouraged to use multiple means of expression.

Specifically, product should be less of a focus for young

children to process their personal experiences (Hanes &

Weisman, 2000).

Mackenzie (2011) examined what would happen in

Kindergarten classes in New South Wales, Australia, when

drawing was given a priority in writing activities. During

independent writing and drawing time, students were able to

choose to draw a story and then write from the drawing or to

write a story and then to create an illustration. Teachers

recorded whether students drew first or chose to write

first. After data and interviews were taken, teachers found

that drawing enabled students to take more risks or to be

more flexible with their writing. In previous years,

students had relied on a teacher’s writing sample. In these

activities, the goal was to have students understand that

there were different means of making meaning and that all

were valued forms of communication. Additionally, the

teachers noted students spent more time on task and they got

to know each student’s personal interests and writing

aptitude better (Mackenzie, 2011). Finally, prioritizing

drawing had a positive impact on student behavior and had

created a more engaged classroom. Teachers noted increased

concentration and an improvement in motor skills (Mackenzie,


2011, p. 333). Results of this study found a strong

connection between emergent writing and drawing in

kindergarteners. The school environment that allowed

students to build on previous knowledge was most effective.

Drawing was central to novice writers, supporting their

thoughts and ideas with a visual scaffold.

Integrated Art Approaches to Writing

Art-based literacy models assist in motivating all

learners. According to Olshansky (2008) “pictures provide

critical tools for developing, expressing, and recording

ideas” (p. 11). Burger and Winner (2000) found that visual

art instruction enhanced reading ability through cognitive

development and as a motivational tool. They also posited

that visual art instruction could enhance students’

perceptual skills. Also, when given the opportunity to

participate in engaging art activities that are integrated

with reading and writing activities, students became more

motivated to read and write. While art activities may

motivate some students, the authors found that training in

the visual arts could lead to small improvements in visual

reading readiness tests, but not in reading achievements

tests. Burger and Winner concluded that further research was

necessary to determine whether engaging art projects


motivate students to read more and thus may become better

readers.

Several arts and reading programs developed during the

1970s were successful in assisting struggling readers.

“Learning to Read through the Arts” (LTRTA) began in 1971,

Children’s Art Carnival (CAC) was used in 1974, and Reading

Improvement through the Arts (RITA) followed in 1975. All of

these programs came out of New York City and were based on

the belief that visual art is a powerful means for improving

reading skills (Burger & Winner, 2000).

Another alternative approach to teaching writing, the

Writer Workshop model, used quality picture books to

motivate and engage all learners (Burger & Winner, 2000).

Image-Making, an art integrated approach created by

Olshansky (1995) in the mid 1990s, focused on the stories of

author illustrators, such as Ezra Jack Keats, Eric Carle and

Leo Lionni. Olshansky composed a unit with hand-made paper,

students moved forward in the process by choice. They were

not initially directed begin with create images, but are

left to begin the project in a way conducive to their

learning style. Verbal children are able to construct a

story and then create artwork, while visual learners may be

better suited to create artwork that leads them to find

words (Olshansky, 1995). They are not initially directed


begin with create images, but are left to begin the project

in a way conducive to their learning style. Verbal children

are able to construct a story and then create artwork, while

visual learners may be better suited to create artwork that

leads them to find words (Olshansky, 1995). Diverse

learning styles are valued in the image-making process.

Additionally, Moran, Kornhaber, and Gardner (2006) found

that allowing students to follow a clear path, with the help

of their area of interest or learning style, will assist in

developing their peak intelligence.

The Picturing-Writing Approach developed by Olshansky

(1995) integrates art into a reading or writing curriculum

that begins with an art lesson. Andrejczak, Trainin, and

Poldberg (2005) noted that this process begins with

instruction in a crayon resist method. Artwork enables a

pre-writing process. In a study at the University of New

Hampshire, the “Picturing-Writing” curriculum included two

units, “Weather Poetry” and “Time of Day.” Both units used

rich thematic literature, a visual arts lesson, graphic

organizers, and a multi-page book containing visual art and

text. Two students were observed and interviewed during the

Picturing-Writing lessons. The Picturing-Writing process

assisted Jeremy, a kinesthetic second grader, by helping him


focus on creating and engaging in writing through artwork.

Olshansky (2008) explained:

I have noticed that many struggling readers are, like

myself, visual or kinesthetic learners. Words are just

not their medium. However, give visual and/or

kinesthetic learners visual and kinesthetic tools for

supporting their literacy learning, and watch out.

Based on my two decades of observation I have come to

expect that struggling readers and writers can and will

succeed using this alternative pathway into literacy

learning. (p. 10)

Students are able to create more coherent text using visuals

as a pre-writing motivation, which helps them to brainstorm

their ideas in images and words (Andrzejczak, N., Trainin,

G., & Poldburg, M., 2005). Some however, believe that using

visual art as an entry point to writing and reading is only

motivational in nature.

Olshansky (2006) created the Artist-Writers Workshop in

order to form democratic communities in the classroom. Words

and pictures were seen as complementary languages, and were

treated equally. In order to appeal to young readers,

quality picture books were utilized cooperatively to teach

the language of words and imagery. The “Artist-Writers

Workshop” restructures the writing approach to engage


students in creating artwork before they write. A four-step

process allowed for a progressive approach to reading and

writing which included: “Literature share and discussion,

Modeling, Work session, and Group share” (p. 530). Students

were taught how to read words and imagery, thus experiencing

two languages. One specific struggling writer, Peter, age 8,

was observed drafting his story first with collaged images

and later became actively involved in the creation of a

narrative. Another student stated, “Writing used to be hard,

but now it is easy. All I have to do is look at each picture

and describe some things I see. I listened to my words to

see if they match with my story and they always do”

(Olshansky, 2006, p. 530). When given the opportunity to

construct stories with imagery, visual and kinesthetic

learners improve and are motivated to write. Children

construct meaning with images in order to pull out a story

from a concrete example. Additionally, with this process,

students created artwork first and transmediation occurred

when images were used to generate words. Olshansky (2006)

defined transmediation as the recasting of meaning from one

sign system to another, which assisted students in

developing language skills. In a yearlong study, Olshansky

looked at integrated art approaches to writing. Involving

first and second graders, the study, which lasted from 1997-


1998, showed that students across three states exhibited

significant gain in writing, compared to students not using

the Picturing-Writing or Image-Making approach.

Utilizing visual artifact journals has been shown to be

another successful approach to infusing art and writing

activities. According to Sanders-Bustle (2008), visual

artifact journals can be a space for learners to explore and

depict personal imagery. Other than the traditional drawing

and sketching approach, they can be used in many forms,

including collage, photographs, graphics, and personal

schemata. A written assignment coincides with journaling as

a reflection tool for the student’s chosen artifact. Using

images to construct writing illustrates how seeing is

understanding and emphasizes the engagement of other senses

through observation. The written reflection is of paramount

importance in the assignment. Students at any level can

create meaning through the visual study of an object.

Students can improve writing skills by using their artifact

as bait to fish for descriptive language, poetic

representations, and relevant narratives. Sketchbook

incorporation can be liberating for all learners.

Assisting Struggling Readers and Writers


Similar to Olshansky’s observations, Andrejczak,

Trainin, and Poldburg (2005), found that artmaking enables

students to extend visual ideas into more descriptive texts.

There is a connection between visual and verbal imagery.

Visuals can enable students to extend an idea or thought.

“Students who use visual art as a pre-writing stimulus are

composing their ideas both in images and in words” (p. 1).

Artwork can assist as a symbol system to communicate ideas,

stimulate thoughts, and motivate students to form more

elaborate information. Emergent writers struggle because

they are still in the process of developing fine motor

skills, recalling sentence patterns, and using correct

grammar. Since many emergent writers have to master many

processes, their sentences tend to be simple and formulaic.

Utilizing artwork and imagery results in richer word

creation and more intricately formed sentences than the

traditional writing activity followed by an illustration.

Increased aesthetic perception, with the assistance of

studying and creating art, strengthens students’ observation

skills.

Some research has found that art may be an entry point

into reading and writing. Regardless of developmental stage,

young writers can benefit from using a visual image as a


catalyst for writing. According to Andrzejczak, Trainin, and

Poldberg (2005),

We suggested “that quality visual art instruction as

promoted by Eisner and Efland will build cognitive

connections to language and provide students with the

ability and skills to capture and elaborate on their ideas

beyond the use of iconic images” (p. 3).

Their study in a California school had students use

their artwork to brainstorm ideas for a graphic organizer.

Researchers had students use their paintings and graphic

organizers to create a multi-page book containing student

artwork and text. While it was no surprise that students

were motivated to create artwork, the researchers found the

students were forming new writing ideas while creating

artwork. While in the process of creating artwork, students

responded to their work before the writing process had

begun. Artwork preceded the writing. The researchers

suggest that teachers use the creation of artwork before a

writing activity rather than the traditional approach to

write and then illustrate, which the researchers feel

motivates some students to rush through the writing in order

to get to the art activity. Children in their study created

writing with richer metaphorical language and detail when

they were able to first express their ideas visually

Ed Stewart, 11/14/13,

This was block quoted, but there were only 33 words in the quote so It had to be made into a regular quote.


(Andrzejczak, Trainin, & Poldberg 2005). Similarly,

Olskansky (2008) observed students during sharing time,

reading stories that they created during an “Artist/Writers”

activity. The teacher informed Olshansky that the two

students that were the most successful in the activity and

had presented their work in front of the class were two of

her lowest performing writers. Emergent or novice writers

benefited from the visual dynamics of writing activities

infused with artmaking (Olshansky, 1995; Caldwell & Moore

1991).

Berghoff, Borgmann, and Parr, (2003) believe that an

art-infused curriculum helps teachers to create a democratic

classroom that celebrates diversity. While arts integration

can assist in other content areas, quality art instruction

should not be substituted or confused by classroom teachers

as something to use for other academic goals. Using art as a

means to enhance a primary educational mission should not be

art education’s only goal or function (Eisner, 2002). Art

integration can assist in providing a rich atmosphere of

learning. With diverse learners in every classroom, teachers

should allow students to demonstrate knowledge through

diverse means: storyboards, performance, song writing,

journaling, or building (Moran, Kornhaber, & Gardner, 2006).

In a realm of standardized testing, it is difficult for


schools to allocate time in a school day for the arts.

Integrating art should not replace quality art instruction

in a school’s curriculum, but should be utilized in order to

provide more engaging activities and methods of evaluation.


Procedures

Participants and Selection

A convenience sample will be recruited from a

Midwestern, small urban elementary school. The sample for

this study will consist of three fourth grade classes. Each

fourth grade class will have an equivalent amount of

Learning Disabled (LD) students enrolled since the school in

which the research will take place evenly distributes

special education students each year. The Monday and

Wednesday classes will act as the treatment group. The

Wednesday group receives two more art classes than the

Monday group. The Friday class, which will be the control

group, receives only one less art class this semester than

the Wednesday group. Therefore, the combination of the

groups with fewer or more art classes should average out to

have a similar amount of art hours as the Friday class.

Writing by two of the fourth grade classes will be compared

to the other class to determine if using artwork before a

writing assignment can improve writing. The control group

will not keep a journal in art class, but will participate

in the same art curriculum as the experimental group.

Students in the experimental treatment group will keep a

visual journal regardless of their participation in the

study. Students in the experimental treatment group will


keep a visual journal regardless of their participation in

the study. Students who choose not to participate in the

research or whose parents decline to give permission for

participation will continue keeping a journal, but their

writing will not be scored or used in the results. Non-

participants are those students who are in the treatment

classes but have not given assent or have not received their

parents or guardians consent to participate in the study.

Participants will be informed that their journals will be

used in a thesis study conducted by a master’s student, and

their drawing and writing examples will be used voluntarily.

Treatment

This study will use a pretest/posttest design with a

treatment group and a control group. A writing assessment

rubric will be used (Appendix X). The school where the study

will take place has three fourth grade classes. Two of the

three fourth grade classes will keep visual artifact

journals, while the third class will be the control group

and will not participate in the visual journal assignments

during the course of the semester.

Before the treatment begins, a writing sample will be

used as a pretreatment measure in order to assess whether

student writing has improved. Next, students will make at

least five visual and writing entries in their journals.


Finally, as a post treatment, a new writing sample will be

taken and assessed with the same rubric after 16 weeks of

involvement with the visual journal assignments. The

pretreatment writing scores and the post-treatment writing

scores will be compared in order to determine whether

improvement in the quality of writing was made. The control

group’s writing scores will be compared to the treatment

group’s writing scores to determine whether the change in

writing can be attributed to the visual journal treatment.

Students in the two fourth grade classes designated as

the treatment group will construct and keep visual artifact

journals in art class. Visual journal entries will take

place in art class within each unit of study throughout the

semester. In a collage unit, students will create figural

collages with inspiration from Romare Bearden and Henri

Matisse. Next, students will create a seascape in mixed

media collage with inspiration from Homer and Hokusai.

Students will create a drawing of a structure based on

Russian architecture and will then create a drawing on

scratch paper. Finally, students will create a character for

a clay mask unit with inspiration from African masks. The

journal entries will consist of a visual object or drawing

and a reflection or narrative. Additional materials

(photographs, special paper, and organic material) may be


brought from home to construct ideas and design content.

Additional art materials will be available for students to

create or construct imagery in class. The writing assignment

will succeed each visual entry in the journal, reflecting

upon their ideas, emotions, or knowledge on the entry.

Entries must contain at least five sentences alongside their

image, or embedded in their image. A total of at least five

visual artifact journal entries will be made throughout the

semester in order to determine whether there is improvement

in writing samples.

Analysis

Writing samples will be collected from all three

classes before the study begins. After students complete at

least five journal entries, the final writing sample will be

assessed with a rubric to determine whether the students

using artifact journals improved their writing skills,

compared to the control group. Pre and post-treatment

writing scores will be compared both within groups and

between groups to establish whether there was any

improvement in the writing and whether the treatment groups

scores showed a significant improvement over the control

group’s scores. The writing scores will be analyzed using

the statistical program, Statistical Package for Social

Studies (SPSS).


Summary

With writing and drawing developmentally connected,

using imagery to inspire writing in fourth grade students

could potentially improve their writing skills. The research

on writing and art indicates that visual artifact journals

can motivate students in several ways. Students may be more

interested in painting or sketching ideas for a writing

assignment because it may be more engaging and exciting for

some individuals compared to brainstorming techniques using

only writing. Students’ ideas and personal stories may

motivate them to create successive entries. Since the

artifact journaling activity is visual, visual or

kinesthetic learners may benefit more than other types of

learners. It is hoped that the study will benefit emergent

and struggling writers in the improvement of writing skills.

Additional drawing and writing activities will benefit all

students in the treatment group.


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