Myanmar's 1st National Communication

FORWARD

On behalfofthe Government ofthe Republic ofthe Union ofMyanmar, Ihave great pleasure to present the

Initial National Communication (INC) for Myanmar. It is the fulfillment ofour commitment in this respect lUlder

the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The National Communication

has been prepared by 6 teams ofexperts involving a total of55 multi-disciplinary scientists. This report is a

result oflong, tedious and creative work ofthese Myanmar experts working together and reflecting the most

comprehensive outlook about climate change in Myanmar context. The exercise was coordinated by the .\1inistry ofEnvironmental Conservation and Forestry.

The efforts in the preparation ofthe Initial National CommlUlication have raised the awareness as well as

enhanced the capacities ofthe 6 teams ofexperts in the different disciplines related to Climate Change. However,

constraints and gaps still exist and financial and capacity building also need to be fulfilled to further improve

upon the effort in our future National Communication.

The good work and efforts ofall those who have been involved in the preparation ofthis report are greatly

appreciated. Again, on behalfofthe Government ofthe Republic ofthe Union ofMyanmar, I would like to

thank UNEP and the GEF for providing technical and financial support needed for the preparation ofthis

report.

'~un t National Environmental onservation Committee

Union Minister Ministry ofEnvironmental Conservation and Forestry

Place:

Date:

~ P~i TcuV 5· Cf· ~ 0 12

ContentsPage

EXECUTIVESUMMARY i– xvi

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

Chapter 2 National Circumstances 4

2.1 Natural Conditions and Resources 5

2.2 Population and Society 14

2.3 Economic Development 16

2.4 Some of the Major Sectors which Support

National Development 19

Chapter 3 National Greenhouse Gas Inventory 26

3.1 Introduction 26

3.2 Energy Sector 26

3.3 Industrial Processes and Product Use Sector 30

3.4 Agriculture Sector 32

3.5 Land Use Change and Forestry Sector 36

3.6 Waste Sector 40

3.7 GHG Inventory in Myanmar for

the Year 2000 42

Chapter 4 Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment 54

4.1 Introduction 54

4.2 Climate Change Scenarios for Myanmar 55

4.3 Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment 65

4.4 Vulnerability Indices and Maps for Key

Socio-economic Sectors 77

4.5 Climate Change Impact Parameters

and Key Socio-economic Sectors 78

4.6 Targeted Researches 83

4.7 Conclusion 96

Chapter 5 Mitigation Options Assessment and

Strategies 98

5.1 Introduction 98

5.2 Mitigation Options Assessment for Key

Socio-economic Sectors 98

5.3 National Strategies on GHG

Emission Reduction 108

Chapter 6 Development and Transfer of Environmentally

Sound Technologies 117

6.1 Technology Needs Assessment 117

6.2 A Database for ESTs 120

6.3 Establishment of Technology Information Network

and Information Clearing House 121

Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation 122

7.1 Introduction 122

7.2 Observing Stations 123

7.3 Data Publications 125

7.4 Research on Climate Change 129

7.5 Warning Systems on Natural Disasters 152

7.6 Networking 153

7.7 Needs and Recommendation 157

7.8 Conclusion 161

Chapter 8 Education, Training and Public Awareness

on Climate 163


8.2 Education andTraining Activity 163

8.3 Public Awareness Activity 165

8. 4 Way Forward 169

Page

Chapter 9 Integration of Climate Change Concerns

into Development Plans and Programmes 170


9.2 Climate Change in Myanmar 170

9.3 Integration of CCCs into Development Plans

and Programmes 172

9.4 Programme Sectors 173

Chapter 10 Information and Networking 184

10.1. Introduction 184

10.2. Assessment and Enhancement of

Information Communication Technologies 184

10.3. Establishment of Information Networks 184

Chapter 11 Capacity Building 186

11.1 Capacity Building Needs Assessment 186

11.2 Capacity Building Strategy 190

11.3 Enhancement of International Negotiation Skills 191

Chapter 12 Other Information Considered Relevant to

the Achievement of the Objective

of the Convention 193


12.2 Programs and Activities Undertaken Under

Various UN Environmental Conventions that are

Relevant to the Achievement of the UNFCCC 193

12.3 Additional Information Considered Relevant to

the Achievement of the Objective of the UNFCCC 195

Page

Chapter 13 Constraints and Gaps, and RelatedFinancial, Technical and Capacity Needs 198

13.1 Introduction 19813.2 Development of National Greenhouse

Gases Inventory 19813.3 Financial Needs 20313.4 Technical Needs: Mitigation & Adaptation 20513.5 Needs for Capacity Building 20713.6 Activities for Overcoming Gaps 209

Chapter 14 Conclusions and Recommendation 210

Annexure

Annex I Abatement Project Profiles on GHG Mitigation and Adaptation in

Myanmar 217

AnnexII Report on Research on ENSO Impact on Climate Fluctuation and

Frequency of Extreme Climate Anomalies in the Region and in Myanmar 232

Annex III Estimation of CH4 Emission from Rice Cultivation in Myanmar

Field Survey Research Paper 236

Annex IV Draft National Climate Change Policy, Strategies and Actions 240

Annex V EST Database on Emission Reduction Projects 248

References 256

Acronyms 263

Page

Tables

Page

Table 2.1 Area by type of land in 2005-2006 8

Table 2.2 Changes of land classes in Myanmar (Thousand hectares, percentage) 9

Table 2.3 Major forest types 9

Table 2.4. Forest cover in Myanmar 10

Table 2.5 Change of forest covers between 1925 and 1999 10

Table 2.6 Status of permanent forest estate in Myanmar on 31 March 2001 10

Table 2.7 Estimated volume of standing timber in Myanmar 11

Table 2.8 Status of forest plantations at the end of Year 2000 by type of plantation 11

Table 2.9 Status of forest plantations at the end of Year 2000 by species 12

Table 2.10 Distribution of population byState and Region 15

Table 2.11 Labor force, unemployment rates 15

Table 2.12 Annual Growth Rates of Gross Domestic Product, consumption and investment 17

Table 2.13 Development of energy sector of the whole nation from 1988 to 2009 19

Table 2.14 Energyexploration of states and regions in Myanmar (Comparison between

1988 and 2009) 20

Table 2.15 Production of electric power (1985-86 to 2006-07) 20

Table 2.16 Rail transportation sector 21

Table 2.17 New railroads under construction 21

Table 2.18 New railroads project to be implemented 21

Table 2.19 The list of bridges built from 1988-2008 22

Table 2.20 Agriculturaldevelopment inMyanmar 23

Table 2.21 Supply and demand of wood and wood products 24

Table 2.22 Types of wood-based industries in Myanmar 25

Table 3.1 GHGemissions from fossil fuel combustion in Myanmar in 2000 (Gg) 27

Table 3.2 Estimated CH4 emission from coal mining in 2000 28

Table 3.3 Total GHG emissions from Energy Sector in 2000 (Gg) 28

Table 3.4 Emissions from energysector (Gg ) 29

Table 3.5 GHG emissions from industrial processes and product use in 2000 (Gg) 31

Table 3.6 Emissions from industrial processes and product use sector (Gg) 32

Tables

Page

Table 3.7 CH4 emissions from flooded rice fields of different rice ecosystems in 2000 33

Table 3.8 Total GHG emissions from agriculture in 2000 34

Table 3.9 GHG emissions fromAgriculture Sector 34

Table 3.10 Animalpopulationcensus(number inmillions) 35

Table 3.11 Emission Coefficients for methane emission in livestock sector 35

Table 3.12. Total GHG emission from livestock in 2000 35

Table 3.13 Database for Livestock Sector in Myanmar 36

Table 3.14 Forest types and areas in Myanmar in 2000 36

Table 3.15 Annual increase in carbon stocks and annual carbon dioxide removals in

2000 37

Table 3.16 Annual decrease in carbon stocks and GHG emissions bydifferent activities in

2000 38

Table 3.17 Greenhouse gas emissions bydifferent activities in 2000 39

Table 3.18 GHG emissions / removals from land use change and forestry sector

in 2000 40

Table 3.19 Summary for Net CO2 emissions / removals 40

Table 3.20 Estimation of methane emission for waste sector 42

Table 3.21 GHG emissions and removals in Myanmar in 2000 43

Table 4.1 Brief description of the models applied 55

Table 4.2 Stations used for each grid region of Myanmar 55

Table 4.3 Comparison between observed and model output 63

Table 4.4 Climate scenario for 2001 to 2020 64

Table 4.5 Climate scenario for 2021 to 2050 64

Table 4.6 Climate Scenario for 2051 to 2100 65

Table 4.7 Annual rice production in Myanmar 68

Table 4.8 Annual average water resources potential (km3) by river basin 69

Table 4.9 Water usage (km3) in Myanmar 69

Table 4.10 Completed river water pumping projects in DryZone 70

Table 4.11 Health concerns and related problems to vulnerabilities due to climate change 72

Table 4.12 Wildlife species andwild plants in Myanmar 75

Table 4.13 Vulnerabilityof keysectors to the impacts of climate change 77

Table 4.14 Quantification of levels for vulnerabilityassessment 77

Tables

Page

Table 4.15 Identification and justification “Confidence Level (CL)” of climate change impacts

on the Indicators of the key socio-economic sectors 79

Table 4.16 Possible research areas for the studyof climate variability 83

Table 4.17 Possible research areas on climate change 84

Table 4.18 Possible research areas on tropical storms 84

Table 4.19 Possible research areas on droughts and precipitation warming trend 84

Table 4.20 Possible studyareas on extreme climates in relation to El Nino 85

Table 4.21 Priority list of States and Regions for the sectors and indicators 93

Table 4.22 Priority list of sectors for the States and Regions 94

Table 4.23 Prioritized action for improved assessment of climate change 95

Table 5.1 GHG mitigation potential and costs of some options in energysector 101

Table 5.2 Mitigation options, mitigation potential and costs for the livestock sector 104

Table 5.3 Examples of mitigation technologies, policies and measures, constraints and

opportunities in forestrysector 106

Table 5.4 Analysis of the identified forestrymitigation options byALGAS project 107

Table 5.5 Selected examples of measures to mitigate GHG emissions through slowing

deforestation and assisting regeneration 114

Table 6.1 Preferred Technologies of Ministries and Industries 119

Table 7.1 Observing stations 123

Table 7.2 List of climate data publications 126

Table 7.3 Temperature trend till 2007 of Sub-States/Regions of Myanmar 129

Table 7.4 Highest maximum temperature records at the capitals of States and Regions 132

Table 7.5 Annual rainfall trend (mm/decade) of Sub-States/Regions of Myanmar till 2007 133

Table 7.6 Frequencies of extreme rainfall during the period 1991-2004 136

Table 7.7 Extreme rainfalls (mm) in 24-hour during the period 1961-1990 137

Table 7.8 Frequency of occurrence of storms in the Bay of Bengal during 1887-2005 138

Table 7.9 Loss of lives and damage to properties due to cyclones in Myanmar 141

Table 7.10 Some rainfall (mm)distribution due to SittwayCyclone landfall on

19 May 2004 142

Table 7.11 Maximum rainfall (mm) on the cyclone landfall dayand the highest five days

accumulatedrainfall (mm) 144

Table 7.12 Percentage of occurrence of flood along major rivers in Myanmar 144

Page

Table 7.13 Peak water levels due to floods in Myanmar major rivers till 2004 145

Table 7.14 Myanmar’s annual average water resources potential by river basin,

1980- 1993 148

Table 7.15 The highest maximum temperature records in 1998 in Myanmar 149

Table 7.16 Least annual rainfalls (mm) recorded in 1998 ENSO year 150

Table 7.17 Lowest minimum temperatures recorded at the Capitals of States and Regions 151

Table 7.18 La Nina years preceded or followed by El Nino years during 1950-1989 151

Table 7.19 Some tasks to be undertaken for promoting climate-related research projects 157

Table 7.20 The strategic research topics on climate variability 159

Table 7.21 The strategic research topics on climate change 159

Table 7.22 The strategic research topics on tropical storms 160

Table 7.23 The strategic research topics on drought and precipitation 160

Table 7.24 The strategic research topics on extreme climate in relation to EI Nino 160

Table 8.1 Participatingorganizations in the trainingonclimate change 165

Table 9.1 GHG emissions in the energy sector in 1990 and 2000, in Gg 174

Table 9.2 Policy measures to addressing rising GHG emissions in the energysector

for integration into national and sectoral development plans and program 175

Table 9.3 GHG emissions in the industrial processes sector in 1990 and 2000 176

Table 9.4 Policy measures addressing GHG emissions in the industrial processes sector

for integration into national and sectoral development plans and program 177

Table 9.5 GHG emissions from the agriculture, inclusive of livestock, sector in

1990 and 2000 178

Table 9.6 Policy measures to addressing GHG emissions in the agriculture and livestock

sector for integration into national and sectoral development plans and program 179

Table 9.7 GHG emissions and removals in the land use change and forestry sector in

1990 and 2000 180

Table 9.8 Policymeasures addressing forestry issues for integration into national and

sectoral development plans and program 181

Table 9.9 CH4 emissions in the waste sector in 1990 and 2000 182

Table 9.10 Policy measures to address rising GHG emissions in the waste sector 183

Table 11.1 Capacitybuilding needs assessment 187

Table 13.1 Carbon emissions from forest and grassland conversion during 1990 202

Tables

Figures

Page

Figure 2.1 States and Regions of Myanmar 4Figure 2.2 Hkakabo razi Mountain 5Figure 2.3 One of the numerous disaster scenes due to the tremendous

devastating impact of the Cyclone Nargis 6Figure 2.4 Taungtaman Lake in near Mandalay 8Figure 2.5 Mangrove forest in the delta 10Figure 2.6 Age specific mortality rate (Urban), 2006 (per 1000 population in

each age group) 16Figure 2.7 Structure of Myanmar economy 18Figure 2.8 Value of foreign trade 18Figure 2.9 Foreign Investment of Permitted Enterprises 18Figure 2.10 Sown acreage and production of paddy 23Figure 2.11 Transit of round logs to foreign countries. 25Figure 3.1 Proportions of CO2-equivalent emissions from energy sector by sources 29Figure 4.1 Location of selected stations for climate change scenarios for Myanmar 56Figure 4.2 Mean temperature of Myintkyina observed (1971-200) Vs model

scenarios (1971-2000) 56Figure 4.3 Mean temperature for Mandalay observed (1971-200) Vs model

Scenarios (1971-2000) 56Figure 4.4 Mean Temperature for Sittway Observed (1971-200) Vs Model

Scenarios (1971-2000) 56Figure 4.5 Mean Temperature for Kengtung Observed (1971-200) Vs Model

Scenarios (1971-2000) 57Figure 4.6 Mean Temperature for Yangon Observed (1971-200) Vs Model Scenarios

(1971-2000) 57Figure 4.7 Mean Temperature for Pathein Observed (1971-200) Vs Model Scenarios

(1971-2000) 57Figure 4.8 Mean Temperature for Dawei Observed (1971-200) Vs Model Scenarios

(1971-2000) 57Figure 4.9 Comparison of the Model outputs & Observed values for Myitkyina during

1971-00 57Figure 4.10 Comparison of the Model outputs & Observed values for Mandalay

during 1971-00 57Figure 4.11 Comparison of the Model outputs & Observed values for Sittway

during 1971-00 58Figure 4.12 Comparison of the Model outputs & Observed values for Kengtung

during 1971-00 58Figure 4.13 Comparison of the Model outputs & Observed values forYangon during

1971-00 58Figure 4.14 Comparison of the Model outputs & Observed values for Pathein during

1971-00 58Figure 4.15 Comparison of the Model outputs & Observed values for Dawei during

1971-00 58

Figures

Page

Figure 4.16 (WRE450)Mean Temperature for Myintkyina Observed(1971-2000)Vs Model Scenarios(1971-2000) 59

Figure 4.17 (WRE450)Mean Temperature for Mandalay Observed(1971-2000)Vs Model Scenarios(1971-2000) 59

Figure 4.18 (WRE450)Mean Temperature for Sittway Observed(1971-2000)Vs Model Scenarios(1971-2000) 59

Figure 4.19 (WRE450)Mean Temperature for kengtung Observed(1971-2000)Vs Model Scenarios(1971-2000) 59

Figure 4.20 (WRE450)Mean Temperature for Mingaladon Observed(1971-2000)Vs Model Scenarios(1971-2000) 59

Figure 4.21 (WRE450)Mean Temperature for Pathein Observed(1971-2000)Vs Model Scenarios(1971-2000) 59

Figure 4.22 (WRE450)Mean Temperature for Dawei Observed(1971-2000)Vs Model Scenarios(1971-2000) 60

Figure 4.23 (WRE450) Precipitation for Myintkyina Observed(1971-2000)Vs Model Scenarios(1971-2000) 60

Figure 4.24 (WRE450) Precipitation for Mandalay Observed(1971-2000) Vs ModelScenarios(1971-2000) 60

Figure 4.25 (WRE450) Precipitation for Sittway Observed(1971-2000) Vs ModelScenarios(1971-2000) 60

Figure 4.26 (WRE450) Precipitation for Kengtung Observed(1971-2000) Vs ModelScenarios(1971-2000) 60

Figure 4.27 (WRE450) Precipitation for Mingaladon Observed(1971-2000)Vs Model Scenarios(1971-2000) 61

Figure 4.28 (WRE450) Precipitation for Pathein Observed(1971-2000) Vs ModelScenarios(1971-2000) 61

Figure 4.29 (WRE450) Precipitation for Dawei Observed(1971-2000) Vs ModelScenarios(1971-2000) 61

Figure 4.30 Seasonal Temperature Changes(°C) for 2001-2020 from Model EnsembleScenario 61

Figure 4.31 Seasonal Mean Precipitation Change (%)2001-2020 from Model EnsembleScenarios 62


Figure 4.33 Seasonal Mean Precipitation Change (%) for 2021-2050 from Model EnsembleScenarios 62


Figure 4.35 Seasonal Mean Precipitation Change (%) for 2051-2100 from Model EnsembleScenarios 63

Figure 4.36 The potential hazard levels for climate change features due to global warming. 67Figure 4.37 Location of pump sites in DryZone 71Figure 4.38 State and Region-wise Malaria epidemics in Myanmar (1991 to 2004) 73Figure 4.39 Causes of Malaria epidemics in Myanmar (1991 to 2004) 73Figure 4.40 Potential healtheffects of climate variabilityand change 73Figure 4.41 Vulnerability scores of the key socio-economic sectors for the States and

Regions of Myanmar 80

Figures

Page

Figure 4.42 Population densityof the States and Regions of Myanmar 81

Figure 4.43 Vulnerability indices of the overall keysocio-economic sectors for the States

and Regions of Myanmar 82

Figure 7.1 Meteorological stations 124

Figure 7.2 Locations of hydrological stations and river forecasting stations in Myanmar 125

Figure 7.3 Annual mean temperature trend (graph) in various Sub-States/Regions 130

Figure 7.4 Annual mean temperature trend (contour) in various Sub-States/Regions 131

Figure 7.5 Annual precipitation trend (graph) in various Sub-States/Regions 134

Figure7.6 Annual precipitation trend (contour) in various Sub-States/Regions 135

Figure 7.7 Annual storm frequency in the Bay of Bengal for the period 1950 to 2005 138

Figure 7.8 Abnormal storm track of Cyclone “Nargis” 139

Figure 7.9 Tropical revolving storms that crossed Myanmar coast from 1967 to 2000 139

Figure 7.10 Cyclone landfall probabilityalong Myanmar coast 140

Figure 7.11 Maximum storm surge heights (m) alongMyanmar coast 140

Figure7.12 Storm surge risk (ft) map due to Cyclone “Nargis” in May 2008.

(AfterADPC et. al, 2009) 141

Figure 7.13 Five-dayaccumulated rainfall distribution (mm) due to cyclones in pre

monsoon periods 2006 and 2008. Cyclone track near landfall is shown

by arrow 142

Figure 7.14 Five-dayaccumulated rainfall distribution (mm) due to cyclones in

post-monsoon periods of November 1988 and November 1992.

Cyclone track near landfall is shown by arrow 143

Figure 7.15 Mean monthly temperature (oC) and rainfall (mm) distribution of seven

selected stations from 1961 to 1990 146

Figure 7.16 Drainage basin map of Myanmar 148

Figure 7.17 Different types of warnings and bulletins issued byDMH 152

Figure 7.18 Schematic view of the warning dissemination to reach the target area 153

Figure 8.1 Percentage of trainees responding to satisfaction on training 164

Figure 8.2 Governmentofficial trainingonclimatechange 165

Figure 8.3 The percent understanding on training subject 165

Figure 8.4 The respondent bygender participated in survey 166

Figure 8.5 Effectiveness of TV program reaching to public 168

20122012

NATIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES

The Republic of the Union of Myanmar is situatedbetween latitudes 9º 55" and 28º 15"north andbetween longitudes 92º 10" and 101º 10" east, witha total land area of 676,577 Km2. Myanmarconstitutes 15 States and Regions. According to2008 estimation, there are about 57.5 million peoplein which a total of 135 ethnic groups are living in thecountry. Most of the population are Buddhist andthere is also a rich mix of religions such as Christian,Hindu,MuslimandAnimist.

Myanmar has tropical monsoon weather with threedistinct seasons;hot, rainyand cool seasons. Rainfallis influenced by monsoons and also by the locality.Annual rainfall of the coastal regions has about 5000mm while the central dry zone areas have less than750 mm. Myanmar has a temperature from 10ºC to32ºCwithanaveragemeanvalue21ºCin thenorthernlow lands, sometimes dropping to -1ºC or 0ºC in thehigh lands and 32ºC in the coastal area. During thehot seasons, temperature sometimes reach 40ºC andover in central dry zone areas.

Myanmar land surface slopes gradually withundulating mountain ranges, hills and valleys fromnorth to south. Khakabo-razi, the highest mountainin SouthEastAsia, with itspeak of 5881m is found inNorthern Part of Myanmar. Running parallel fromnorth to south, are 4 mountain ranges; the Chin hills,the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma and the ShanPlateau. There are 5 main rivers called Chindwin,Ayeyarwady, Thanlwin, Sittaung, and Mekongrivers.sWetlands, water springs, tube wells, deep tubewells, ponds and irrigated water systems contributedto water supply in many areas.

The composition anddistribution of Myanmar’s landresources in 2000 were described as reserved forests(18.7%) and other forests (31.5%), fallow land(1.8%),cultivatedareas(13.5%),cultivablewasteland(11.7%) and others (22.6%).

Myanmar also possesses ample mineral resources,such as rubies, sapphire, jades and diamonds.

The environmental conditionof Myanmar sea watersare still in pristine condition together with abundantaquatic resources.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

i

Education system in Myanmar is built upon broadstreams: such as general, professional, technical andvocational .

Medical care and health of the people are top of thenational priority list. Transport and communicationfacilities have been extended and upgradedconsiderably compared to previous days.

NATIONAL GREENHOUSE GAS INVENTORY

Myanmar ratified UNFCCC on 25 November, 1994as a non-Annex I Party. Article 12.5 of theUNFCCC requiresnon-Annex IParties tomake theirinitial national communications. Thus, MyanmarsoughtGlobalEnvironmentFacility(GEF)fundingin2006 to fulfil its commitments and obligations forpreparing and reporting its INC. Accordingly, theNCEA(hereafter referred to as Ministry ofEnvironmental Conservation and Forestry -MOECAF ) of Myanmar launched an INC-projectin 2008 with the financial assistance from GEF/UNEP.

Energysector ThenationalGHGinventoryinenergysector covers three major GHGs: CO2, CH4, N2O.The main sources of GHG emissions examined arefossil fuel combustion, traditional biomass fuelcombustion, fugitive emissions from coal miningactivities, andoil&naturalgas system.The totalGHGemissions from energy sector of Myanmar wereestimated to be 7,863.47 Gg CO2e most of whichcome fromfossil fuel combustion.

Industrial processes and product use sector GHGemissions from various types of industrial processesarenon-energyuserelatedemissions. Theseemissionsare related to physical and chemical transformationof materials, in which GHGs such as CO2, CH4, N2Oand other gases are released.

A total of 463.29 Gg of CO2 equivalent and 4.57Gg of NMVOC is estimated to have been emittedduring the year 2000 from the industrial processesand product use.

Agriculture sector Seventy percent of thepopulation reside in rural areas and are mainlyengaged in agriculture, livestock and fisheryfor their

2012

livelihood. The net sown area was 10.12 million ha.Most farmers traditionally grow rice as a singlecropping system under the rain-fed condition.However with the construction of dams andreservoirs bythe Government,the total ricesown areareached 6,302,306 ha out of which 1,852,691 ha(29.4 % of the total rice land in Myanmar) wereirrigated.

CH4 emissions yr-1 by irrigated rice, regular rain-fedrice, drought prone rain-fed rice and deep water ricewere estimated to be 220.46, 134.62, 34.75 and117.40 Gg yr-1 respectively. The total emission ofN2O in the year 2000 was estimated to be 8.2 Ggyr-1. Use of crop residues for animal feed and fuelwood are common for the smallholder farmers inMyanmar. Onlyafewportionsburnt for landclearing.Total GHG emission of crop residues from fieldburning were 1.61 Gg CO2 e.

Total GHG emissions from agriculture andlivestock in 2000 Total GHG emissions from theagricultural sectorofMyanmar for theyear 2000wereestimated to be 13,195.41 Gg CO2e. The trend ofCH4 and N2O emissions during 2000-2005 showsa rising trend because of increased agricultural landandmoreinputsoffertilizers. Amongthedomesticatedlivestock, ruminant animals, such as cattle, buffalosare the major emitters of CH4 due to their uniquedigestive system. The total CH4emission from thelivestock sector was 456.50 Gg. A considerableamount of N2O was produced from the manuremanagement systems. Because of the increasednumber of livestock, both CH4 & N2O were risingduring 2000-2005.

Land use change and forestry sector Forests, ifproperly managed, are the main carbon sinks. Onthe other hand, deforestation and forest degradationprocesses became the source of carbon emissions.The forest resource assessment (FRA - 2000)conducted bythe Food andAgriculture Organization(FAO) in cooperation with the Forest Department(FD) of Myanmar has indicated that Myanmar is stillendowed with a forest cover area of about 52 % ofthe country’s total land area of 676,577 km2.

Annual Increase in Biomass Carbon Stocks Theannual increases in biomass carbon stocks in the land

use change and forestry sector were calculated forthe natural forests, forest plantations, home gardentrees and roadside trees. The CO2 removal in 2000from the natural forests, forest plantations, homegarden trees and roadside trees were: 129,839 Gg,11,750 Gg, 470 Gg, and162 Gg of CO2 respectively.

Annual decrease in biomass carbon stocks Lossesof carbon stocks due to wood removal and fuelwoodremoval were estimated for 2000 to be 2,176,888tCyr-1 and 26,936,418 tCyr-1 respectively, whilethose due to site preparation for forest plantations,shiftingcultivation anddeforestation were estimatedto be 1,863,207 tons of CO2e, 1,200,674 tons ofCO2e and 37,340,974 tons of CO2e respectively.

Therefore, the greenhouse gas emissions in theforestry sector for the year 2000 has been estimatedto be at 40,404.855 Gg CO2e.

Net CO2 emissions/removals for the year 2000Total annual increase in biomass carbon stocks inthe forestry sector was estimated to be 38,787.61Gg of carbon, or 142,221.19 Gg of CO2. On theother hand, total carbon loss by wood removal,fuelwood removal and Harvested Wood Products(HWP) accounted for 29,113.31 Gg of Carbon. Thetotal GHG emission by biomass burning followingland clearing was estimated to be 40,404.855 Gg ofCO2e. Therefore, the net annual CO2 removals ofthe land use change and forestrysector of Myanmarfor the year 2000 was estimated to be 101,816.38Gg of CO2e.

Waste sector CH4 emissions from waste sectorhave been worked out from two different sources(1) disposal of solid waste and (2) treatment ofdomestic and commercial wastewater. For the baseyear 2000, the disposal of solid waste contributed133.31 Gg (99 %); domestic and commercialwastewater contributed 1.198 Gg (1 %) of CH4emissions.

Solid waste Waste includes Agricultural waste,Livestock waste, Industrial waste and Domesticwaste. In 2000, solid waste was 0.278 kg percapita according to the YCDC data issued. It isassumed that solid waste disposal to site (SWDS)which generated 1,514.12 Gg and municipal solid

ii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

2012

waste (MSW) to site was about 1,211.9 Gg in theyear 2000. The dumping of this amount of solidwastes released about 133.31GgofCH4, equivalentto emitting around 2,799.51Gg of CO2 into theatmosphere.

Waste water In year 2000, urban population istaken as approximately 30% of the total country’spopulation,whichis15.3million. Byexpertestimate,netmethaneemissionfromdomesticandcommercialwastewater is 1.257Gg.

Emission of Methane from waste sector in 2000The totalmethane emission fromtheWasteSector inthe year 2000 inMyanmar is altogether 134.57Gg.The trend in this study clearly shows that CH4andCO2 emissions in this sector are increasing due tothe increase of total population especially in urbanareas.

GHG emissions in Myanmar for the year 2000The total GHG emission inMyanmar for the year2000was estimated tobe -67,820.1GgCO2e. TotalCO2 emission in Myanmar for the year 2000 wasestimated to be 41,563.75Gg, whileCH4 emissionaccounted for 1,248.62 Gg. CO, N2O and NOxemissionswere estimated at 2,216.18Gg, 12.94Ggand 34.1Gg respectively.

Emissions fromenergysector amounted to7,863.47GgCO2e. Emissionsfromtraditionalbiomassburnedfor energy accounted for 28, 297.82 Gg CO2e.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

i i i

However, these emissions are not included in thecalculation of national totals since they are far lessthan the total net emissions andwithin the range ofsustainability.

Most CH4 emissions were observed in agriculturesectorwith963.73Ggwhencombinedwith livestock.Forestrysectorshowed themostGHGemissionswiththe value of 40,404.73 GgCO2e.

GHG removals in Myanmar for the year 2000Due to the biomass growth in natural forests, forestplantations, road side trees and home garden trees,land use changeand forestrysector is the onlysectorthat can absorb 142,221.20 Gg of CO2. Therefore,thecountry’snetemission figures turnout tobeminus67,820.10GgCO2e,whichmeans 67.8million tonsof CO2 are being absorbed by forestry sector inMyanmar in 2000.

The Trend of GHG emissions in Myanmar Thetrends for CH4 and N2O emissions in agriculturesector clearly highlighted a sharp increase during2000-2005. Waste sector showed an increase inCH4 emissions due to the population growth. Landuse change and forestrysector is also a major sourceofGHGemissionsmainlyduetodeforestation,shiftingcultivation and landclearing. Moreover, total annualCO2 removals by natural forests are graduallydecliningdue to the decrease of natural forest areas.

GHG emissions and removals inMyanmar for the year 2000

Source / Sink CO2Removal

CO2Emission

CO CH4 N2O Nox CO2 Equ.TotalEmission

CO2 Equ.NetEmission

Energy Sector 7,658.65 - 5.62 0.28 - 7,863.47 7,863.47

Industry Sector 248.59 - - - - 463.29* 463.29

AgricultureSector

0.81 963.75 8.4 0.022 22,843.67 22,843.67

(a)Agriculture 0.81 507.25 8.2 0.022 13,195.17 13,195.17

(b)Livestock 456.5 0.2 9648.5 9648.5

ForestrySector

142,221.20 33,656.51 2,215.37 144.85 4.26 34.08 40,404.73 -101,816.50

Waste Sector 134.57 2,825.97 2,825.97TOTAL 142,221.20 41,563.75 2,216.18 1,248.79 12.94 34.102 74,401.13 -67,820.10

Source / Sink CO2Removal

CO2CO2COEmission

CO CH4CH4CH N2N2N O Nox CO2CO2CO Equ.TotalEmission

CO2CO2CO Equ.NetEmission

Energy Sector 7,658.65 - 5.62 0.28 - 7,863.47 7,863.47

Industry Sector 248.59 - - - - 463.29* 463.29

AgricultureSector

0.81 963.75 8.4 0.022 22,843.67 22,843.67

(a)Agriculture 0.81 507.25 8.2 0.022 13,195.17 13,195.17

(b)Livestock 456.5 0.2 9648.5 9648.5

ForestrySector

142,221.20 33,656.51 2,215.37 144.85 4.26 34.08 40,404.73 -101,816.50

Waste Sector 134.57 2,825.97 2,825.97TOTAL 142,221.20 41,563.75 2,216.18 1,248.79 12.94 34.102 74,401.13 -67,820.10

* Other gases NMVOC, ODS and SF6 amounted to 214.7 Gg CO2e.

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VULNERABILITY AND ADAPTATIONASSESSMENT

Agriculture, water resources, public health, forestry,coastal zones and biodiversity sectors are the mostvulnerable areas to climate change in Myanmar.

Climate change scenariosThe MAGICC/SCENGEN model results on climatescenario were: (1) The temperature for 2001-2020shows 0.5-0.7ºC increase during the whole year inlower parts of Myanmar and record high maximumtemperature may be expected. There is an increasein precipitation of about 4% during March-November in the whole country. (2)The temperaturefor 2021-2050 shows 1.4-1.7ºC increase in themonths June-November in the whole country. FromMarch to November there is an indication of about10% increase of precipitation in the whole country.(3) The temperature for 2051-2100 shows thewarming trend throughout the year especially in thecool season. The wholecountrywill generallyreceiveabout 10% increase of precipitation during March toNovember and deficient rain of up to 80% is likelyduring the cool months from December to February.

The PRECISmodel results on climate scenario were:(1) The standard deviation of mean temperature for2001-2020 is generally less than 0.5ºC in the wholecountry except Mandalay and Myitkyina. Annualrainfall will deviate more than 18% at Mandalay,Sittwe, Pathein and Dawei, more than 14% atMyitkyina, Kengtung and Yangon. (2) For 2021-2050, there is an increasing trend in temperature from1oC to 1.4oC atYangon, Pathein, Myitkyina, Sittway,Dawei, Kengtung, and Mandalay.Alarge standarddeviation at Sittway indicated 1,130 mm, comparedto 891 mm in 1971-2000. (3) For 2051-2100, thescenario indicates increasesof2.8°C to3.5°C inmanyplaces from 1971-2000 baseline data due todecreasing cloudiness coverage. Periods of droughtare likely at Myitkyina, Mandalay, Sittway, Patheinand Yangon where the standard deviation of meantemperature is generally about 0.9ºC.

Vulnerability and Adaptation (V & A) assessmentMyanmar is situated under the high potential hazardlevels. Cyclone and strong winds, flood and stormsurge, intense rain, extremedaytemperature,drought,

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and sea level rise are the six natural hazards identifiedinMyanmar.

Vulnerability Indices (VI) and maps “ Using thespecified equation of the Vulnerability Index (VI),Sector scores (S) and their Mean score (SM) wereworked out for all Regions and States . For InMyanmar, the highest sector score for Vulnerabilityis in public health sector, followed by biodiversity,water resources, forestry, coastal zone and agriculturesectors.

The Public Health sector score is maximum inAyeyarwady Region followed by Rakhine State,Tanintharyi Region, BagoRegion and in Mon State.It is minimum in Chin State.

In Biodiversitysector, score is maximum in SagaingRegion followed by Rakhine State, Bago,Ayeyarwady and Tanintharyi Regions, and in MonState and minimum inYangon Region.

In Water Resources sector, maximum score wasobserved in Mandalay and Bago Regions while theminimum was found in Kachin and Rakhine States.

In Forestry sector, score is maximum in MagwayRegion followed by Mandalay, Bago andAyeyarwadyRegionsandKayah State. It is minimuminTanintharyiRegion.

In Coastal zone sector, score is maximum inAyeyarwady Region followed by Rakhine State,Yangon and Bago Region and Mon State. It isminimum inTanintharyiRegion. There isno score inthe eight inland States and Regions.

In Agriculture sector, Ayeyarwady Region has themaximum score followed by Bago, Sagaing,Mandalay and Magway Regions while Chin Statehas the minimum.

Vulnerabilityindexismaximum inAyeyarwadyRegionand minimum in Chin State. The index is relativelyhigh inAyeyarwady and Yangon Regions followedby Mandalay Region, Mon State and Bago Region.It is relatively low in Sagaing Region and RakhineState and it is lowest in the remaining States andRegionwithminimuminChinState.

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Targeted researches Research programs in theareas of (i) Climate variability, (ii) Climate change,(iii) Tropical storms, (iv) Drought and precipitationtrends and(v)Extremeclimates in relation toElNino,among others, are to be targeted.

The policy options for adequate adaptation andresponse strategies are to improve socioeconomicconditions across the country in accordance with thenational economic objectives.

MITIGATION OPTIONS ASSESSMENT ANDSTRATEGIES

Myanmar isunder noobligation toquantifyreductionof greenhousegas (GHG) emission. However, GHGemissionmitigationoptionsassessmentwasmadeandstrategies were developedfor thekeysocio-economicsectors.

Energy sector - CO2 emission reduction from theenergy sector can be focused on (i) energyconservation and efficiency, (ii) replacing carbon-intensive energysources with less intensive sources,and (iii) promoting new and renewable sources ofenergy. In Myanmar, it can be done by increasedutilization of hydropower, increased use of solarpower,useofelectricvehicle, recyclingofusedengineoil through refining, and byrecovering and recyclingof HFCs. For transportation, primary mitigationoptions will include road maintenance, and fuelswitching from petroleum to CNG.

Agriculture and livestock sector - GHG emissionmitigation in agriculture can be effected through (i)mitigationofCO2 emissionsfromcroplands,biomass,crop residues and by-products, (ii) mitigation of CH4

emissions through fertilizer management, watermanagement, and selection of high yielding ricecultivars, (iii) mitigation of NO2 emissions fromagricultural soils through the use of slow releasefertilizer, sulphur addition and surface application ofliquid manures, and also by developing organicfarming,and(iv) mitigation byreducingfield burningof crop residues via compost making and organicagriculture. Mitigation of methane emissions fromlivestock could be done bydecreasing the number ofruminantanimals,byimprovingmanurehandling,and

byimprovingentericfermentationprocess in ruminantanimals.

Land use change and forestry - Forestrymitigationmeasures include forest protection, afforestation,reforestation, improvementof treespecies and stands,natural regeneration, conservation of natural forests,community forestry, agroforestry, dissemination ofimproved cooking stoves and use of forest productson sustained basis.

Waste sector - In Myanmar, approaches such aswaste disposal, waste recycling, and waste reductionare being employed in managing waste. Under thecurrent domestic sewage system, waste water isdischarged intosewerusinghugeamountof treatmentwater.

National strategies for GHG emission reductionEnergy sector - Emissions from the energy sectorare not significant at present. Energy efficiency,reduced use of non-renewable energy resources,promotion of renewable energy and increasedproduction level of energyare among the imperativesof energypolicylaid down bythe Ministryof Energy.In Myanmar, energyproduced from hydropower andbiomass shares about 67 percent of total energyconsumption.

Agriculture and livestock sector - Ammoniaemissionis theprimarylossofnitrogenfromricefields,whicharefertilizedwithanimalwasteslurry. Keepingthe flooded water table about 10cm high at the timeofADSapplication,ammoniavolatilizationfromADStreated paddy soil will be significantly reduced. Itcould also be suppressed by adding organic wasteand wood vinegar for neutralization.Use of genetically improved breeds, reduction oflivestock numbers, increase in animal productivity,improved higher forage quality, and better nutrientcomposition are the mitigation options, currentlyfeasible at the farm level in Myanmar. Use of ureamolasses mineral blocks (UMMB) was introducedby some projects in cooperation with internationalorganizations.

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Land use change and forestry - In forestry sector,the mitigation strategies are usuallynotaimed at onlyto reduce carbon emission but also increasing carbonsequestration. Forest mitigation options will includemainstreaming climate change concerns into forestpolicyand legislations, improvedforestmanagement,habitatmanagementforwildlifeandwildplants, forestprotection, afforestation and reforestation, andreduced firewood cutting. Promoting carbon tradingis also a promisingmitigation strategy.

Waste sectorDevelopment of industries in Myanmar - InMyanmar, both municipal waste and industrial wastehave been increasing rapidly. By 2002, 83 mainindustries and 61 sub-industries under the 6 branchesof the Ministry of Industry No.1 are producing 542kinds of various goods including textiles, garments,foodstuffs, etc. There are 9 major factories underthe Ministryof IndustryNo.2 in 2002. The factoriesare also producing various kinds of goods, includingtires and tubes, trucks, light vehicles, bicycles, etc.There are also several co-operatives and private-owned industries of various scales. Moreover, thegovernmenthasestablished27 industrialzonesinyear2000. The total number of factories established was60,513 in 2006. Minsitry of industry No. 1 and No.2 are combined to Ministry of Industry in 2011.

Greenhouse Gas emission reduction - In wastemanagement, waste production, waste distributionand waste consumption are involved. Recycling ofplastic wastes, and reuse and recycling of wood andagricultural residues are being promoted in recentyears.

Appropriate mitigation strategies for municipalsolid waste - Development with zero emission hasbeen a growing concept of global acceptance. Useof “waste to energy” plants is also growing. Withregards to the management of MSW, there are 4options and they are — (i) anaerobic digestion ofbio-waste (ii) ‘Round-trip Paddling Fermenter(RTF)’, (iii) Refuse-DerivedFuel (RDF) system, and(iv) use of waste-to-energy power plant.

Proposed projects - A total of fifteen projectproposals are presented in this report. Four aredirectly related to rice cultivation, six on GHGmitigation potential and energy security, four onforestry-related proposals and one is to investigatethe effect of nutrient management on N2O emissionfrom commercial cabbage cropping.

DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFER OFENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND TECHNOLOGIES

Technology NeedsAssessment In order to identifyESTsneedfor mitigationof, andadaptation to climatechange, Technology NeedsAssessment (TNA) wascarried out by the NCEA (MOECAF) under the INCproject.

It was observed that large segment of the industrialcommunityinMyanmar are not aware of the industryrelated environmental problems and manyfactoriesarestillusingoldmachines,obsolete technologiesandold trucks that mostlyemit smoke and exhaust gases.Many factories have to keep and use powergenerators which emit hazardous gases due to lackof constant electric power supply. Waste watertreatment and systematic waste disposal systems arelacking inmost industrial zones.

The survey revealed that there are many industriesthat have much interest in securing ESTs. Most ofthem mentioned that they required 3Rs, incinerationand final disposal technologies. Most private andgovernment owned industries do not have separateor special funds for environmental programs.

From the TNA carried out under the present INCand the pilot TNA conducted in cooperation with theNewEnergyandIndustrialTechnologyDevelopmentOrganization (NEDO)of Japan in 2005, it was foundthat most preferred technologies of the Governmentministriesanddepartments include renewable energytechnologies, energy saving technologies, energyefficient technologies and 4cleaner technologies.

Based on the concern of the ministries and industries,EST needs have also been identified. From the TNAsurvey, it is obvious that there is a great needfor ESTsin Myanmar for both mitigation and adaptationpurposes. Supports from the government as well as

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from the multilateral and bilateral sources are muchneeded for the transfer of ESTs to Myanmar.

Establishments of ESTs database, technologyinformation network, and information clearinghouse - EST database is being developed at theNCEA (MOECAF) using the information and dataobtained through TNA.A technology informationnetwork and information clearing house on EST arealso being initiated by the NCEA (MOECAF).Network members from the ministries, departmentsconcerned and all related organizations have beenidentified.

RESEARCH AND SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION

Department of Meteorologyand Hydrology(DMH),Myanmar has been taking meteorological,hydrological andseismologicalobservationssince thelate 19th century.

Climate/Hydrological reviews Currently, DMHhas 161 observatory stations across the country.According to the data collected since late 19thcentury, the long-term average annual rainfalls were5011 mm in Sittwe, (to be checked in spelling) 912mm in Mandalay, 2629 mm inYangon and 4137 mmin Myeik.

For the period 1991-2000, annual meantemperatures in Sagaing, Magwe, Bago andYangonRegions had decreased by a range of 0.2°C-0.8°Cwhile those of the rest of the States/Regions hadincreased by a range of 0.1°C-0.6°C. The areaswith higher latitudes in northern and central partsexperienceatrendofchangefromwarmingtocoolingstarting from 1977. Annual mean rainfalls of ShanState, Sagaing and Bago Regions had decreased by58 mm, 6 mm and 65 mm respectively, and those ofthe rest of the States/Regions had decreased withinthe range of 2 to 339 mm.

Research on Climate ChangeRegion-wise annual mean temperature The lowestannual mean temperature of Myanmar is 15.8oC inChin State followed by19.1oC in Eastern Shan State,27.4oC inYangon Region and the highest 27.5oC inMagwayRegion for the WMO normal period 1961-1990. There is the general warming trend of mean

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annual temperatures in the whole country since theyear 1979.

For the longer term of 1951-2007, the highestwarming rate per decade was 0.32oC in Kayin State,and cooling trends of -0.23oC and -0.16oC perdecade wereobserved at Magwayand Bago Regionsrespectively.Region-wise extreme mean temperature During1951-2000, annual mean frequency of heat waveoccurrence in Myanmar was 15. The most extensiveheatwave coveringup to60%ofthe countryoccurredin 1998, the ENSO year.

Region-wise annual mean rainfalls The lowestmean annual rainfall of 768 mm isobserved in LowerSagaing. It increases eastward to about 1500 mmover Shan State, northward to about 2000 mm overKachin State, westward to 4700 mm over RakhineState and southward to 5400 mm over TanintharyiRegion. Up till 2007, increasing rainfall trends wereobserved in many regions of the country, butdecreasing rainfall trends observed in some.

Extreme rainfalls Over the period 1991-2004,highextremerainfallswithmaximumfrequenciesof5years occurredatNyaung-U station and low extremesoccurred atMonywa with maximum frequenciesof 5years.Thestations withmaximum frequenciesof lowto lower extremes were observed in the Dry Zone.During 1961-1990, about 94% of 24-hour heaviestrainfallsoccurred in the “earlytopeakmonsoon (mid-MaytoAugust)”.

Cyclones During 1887-2005, there were 1248tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal. Of these, 80cyclones crossed Myanmar coast, i.e. about oneevery other year. But, Myanmar coast was hit bycyclones everyyear after 2002 except for 2005. Lowlyingareasalongtheriversaresubject tonormal floodsduring monsoon and multiple floods occur whenmonsoon is intensified at its peak. Dry Zone alsoexperiences catastrophic floods when heavy rainsoccur for days.

Southwest monsoon The onset of southwestmonsoon into the country is becoming late and itswithdrawal is advancing earlier. For 1988-2000, themonsoon duration was shortened by three weeks in

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Northern Myanmar and one week in other partscompared to 1951-2000average. But post-monsoonrains can occur due to the influence of cyclonicdisturbances in the South China Sea.

Drought can occur inanumber of areas in thecountry.In the Dry Zone, 1954, 1957, 1961, 1972, 1979and 1991 are the year most affected by drought.

ENSO, El Nino and La Nina Over the past 40years,allENSOyears resulted inlargedeficientrainfallin Myanmar. Recently, the ENSO years in Myanmarwere 1982- 83 and 1997- 98. Maximum highesttemperature records were set in 1998 ENSO year inalmost the whole countryexcept SagaingRegion andKachin and Chin States.

In general, monsoon onsets are late and thewithdrawals are earlier in El Nino years, comparedto the normal. There have been records of highestmaximum temperaturesandlowest annual rainfalls inEl Nino years.

The 1950, 1956, 1964, 1970, 1975, 1989 and 1999were the La Nina years. Despite the widespreadoccurrence of temperature rise in the last twodecades,record low minimum temperatures occurred at manystations in the cool season of 1999, a La Nina year.

Warning systems on natural disasters Cyclonesin the Bayof Bengal usuallyaccompanied bystrongwinds, heavy rainfall, floods and storm surges, cancause loss of lives and destruction of property andinfrastructure. DMH has established fiveMeteorological and EarlyWarning Centers for theissuance of various hazard warnings as required.Myanmar is able to issue warnings on storms, floodand tsunami in advance of 5-7 days, 2-3 days and afew hours respectively.

Networking Myanmar has been working with anumber of organizations such as WMO, IPCC,UNFCCC, UNEP, UNESCAP, UNESCO, JICA,etc. to jointlyundertake a wide range of projects andprograms. Myanmar has also been studying andinvestigating important issues on air pollution,oceanography, marine meteorology and climate

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change in cooperation with ASEAN, BIMSTEC,India, China, Korea Republic, Thailand and US.

National strategies for promoting RSO Nationalstrategies for promoting RSO are identified and theyare: (i) to strengthen climate change research, (ii) toupgrade facilities and technologies with the increaseduse of automation system and digitization, and (iii) toenhance capacitybuilding.Research on climate change Climate researchwillparticularlyfocusontheareasofclimatevariability,climate change, tropical storms,droughts andEl NinoinMyanmar. Technological andfinancial support andhuman resources development are in need ofstrengthening. The need for information networkingat all levels is imminent.

REPORT OF EDUCATION, TRAINING ANDPUBLIC AWARENESS ON CLIMATE CHANGE

MyanmarAgenda 21 (1997) has identified activitieswhich are to be implemented to strengthenenvironmental education and awareness programs.Duringtheperiodof2008-2010,anumberofactivitiesfor Education, Training and Public Awareness onClimate Change (ETPA) were implementedaccordingly.

For strengthening education and training, threeactivities were undertaken:

(i) Development of information, education andcommunication (IEC) materials:Under this activity, a manual of WHO on climatechange was translated into Myanmar version to beused as a reference by students and families inMyanmar; a pre-tested tool kit of climate changecommunication was developed for field extensionagents; a climate change educational video wastranslated into Myanmar version for trainingspurposes; and acalculation sheet for self-examinationof ecological footprint was produced.

(ii) Training of government officials on climatechange:A six-day course, participated by 29 officialsrepresenting relevant but different government

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agencies fromvarious regions across the countrywasorganized.

(iii) Training on environmental journalism andclimate change communication:The training was organized for local media groups,and follow-oninformation-sharingmeetingsbetweenthe ETPAteam and trained journalists had occurred,resulting in increased number of climate-relatedarticles in weeklyjournals locallypublished.

For public awareness raising, four activities wereundertaken:

(i) Public awareness survey:One page self-administered questionnaire wasprepared and circulated to the public and NGOs vialocal media throughout the country. The surveyindicated the need for establishing more of socialnetworks to enhance the effectiveness in publicawareness raising.

(ii)Stakeholder awareness raising workshops:Two stakeholder workshops were organized to raisethe awareness of private business sector, civil societyand NGOs through consultative process. As a result,UNDP formed a tri-partite steering committee forsetting up a small grant scheme, under which NGOsand CBOs could initiate grassroots-level climatechange adaptation programs.

(iii) Nation-wide public awareness raisingcampaigns:Public awareness raising campaigns were organizedat township, district and state/Region levels acrossthe nation, and the target audiences were localauthority, government officials, non-state actors andcommunity leaders at each level. During eachcampaign,participatorygroupdiscussionsweremadeto analyze greenhouse gas emissions and extremeweather events.

(iv) Climate Information Center:Nearly500 information materials on various aspectsof environmental conservation and climate changewere collected by the ETPA team and a ClimateInformation Center (CIC) that was established at theoffice of Forest Academy and Advisory Group in

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Yangon. Thecollected materials weremade availableto all stakeholders.

INTEGRATION OF CLIMATE CHANGECONCERNS INTO DEVELOPMENT PLANS AND

PROGRAMMES

Integration of climate change concerns (CCCs) intodevelopmentplansandprogramsisofvital importanceto Myanmar in view of further enhancing its low-carbon economy and reducing its vulnerability toclimatechangechallenge. Myanmarhasprovedmorethan being a net carbon sink nation, with a CO2 netremoval of (-) 67,863 Gg CO2e in 2000.

In order to mitigate the GHG emissions and adapt tothe increased warming, policy measures have beenidentified for integration into the national and sectoraldevelopment plans and programs as follows:

Energy sectorThe fourth Short-Term Five-Year Plan (2006/2007to 2010/2011) of the National 30-year EnergyDevelopment Plan placed its emphasis onenvironmental conservation while producing morecrude oil and natural gas.

Policies: (i) To enhance energy conservation,efficiencyand productionand ensure energysecurity,and(ii) topromoteefficiencyofnational transportationsystem, regulation of imports of second-hand motorvehicles

Strategies: (i) Perform energy audit, (ii) tap allpotential power sources including renewable energy,(iii) improve traffic demand management, and (iv)establish national ambient air qualitystandards

Actions:Mitigationmeasures: Setenergyefficiencystandardsand label efficiency grades on products; Provideadvices, inspection, incentivesforenergyconservationand efficiency; Capture fugitive gaseous emissions;Develop voluntary agreements for increased use ofenergyefficientproducts; Investmoreonandpromotethe use of cleaner and zero-emission energies;Construct more hydropower facilities where EIApermits; Upgrade existing power-generation and

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transmission systems; Extract coal-bed methane;Promote bio-energy production from availablesources without compromising food security andviability of forests and soils; Further promote andexpand CNG-used vehicles and CNG pipelines andstations; Improve all transport modes and trafficdemand management, including cycling andcontainerized freight transport; Install more light-emittingdiodesfor traffic lighting.

Adaptation measures: Adopt environmentalstandards for energyefficiency; construct buildingswith designs to increase cross ventilation, preventdirect sunlight in the afternoon and reduce heat gainswith shade covers; increase the use of fuel-efficientmotor vehicles; make all public transports moreattractive and affordable; raise public awareness onGHG emission reduction and energy conservation;build institutional capacity to monitor ambient airquality.

Industrial processes and product use sectorIn the industrial sector, Ministry of Industry 1 andMinistryof Industry2 are producingvarious kinds ofgoods.Thesectorhassomejointventureswithforeigncompanies. Between 1995-96 and 2005-2006, 18industrial zones were established and about 9,849factories and mills are operating in them.

Policies: (i)To adopt energyefficiencystandards andlabelling system, (ii) to prohibit manufacture andimport of GHG inefficient products, and (iii) topromote energy efficiency and emission controltechnologies.Strategies: (i) Practice Green Certification System,(ii) introduce clean and green technologies, and (iii)promote cleaner production.

Actions:Mitigation measures: Set high energy efficiencyandenvironmental standards;conductateachindustry,EfficiencyAudit and provide green labels and taxbenefits to the industry and product that meet the setstandards; further promote the use of CNG, LPG andrenewable energies byproviding incentives.

Adaptation measures: Encourage the use of moreenergy-efficient boilers, motors, furnaces and

electrical equipment; introduce energy-saving,process-specific technologies; initiatethedevelopmentof carbon capture and storage for energy-intensiveplants; implement energy-saving regulations andimproved energy management systems; provideenergy efficiency-related information services;conduct advocacy extensively on conservation ofenergyand utilization of cleaner energy.

Agriculture and livestock sector During 1988 to2000, 116 irrigation projects were completed.Irrigation coverage increased from 12.5% in 1987-88 to 29.4% of the total rice land in the year 2000.Summer rice cultivation has been introduced since1992 and rice production increased from 21 milliontons in 2000-2001 to over 31 million tons in 2007-2008. In general, cattle and buffaloes constitute apart of Myanmar farming system. However, feedresources are scarce and of poor quality especiallyduring the dry season, resulting in low productivity.Emissions of CH4 and N2O are likely to increase dueto the expansion of agriculture with more fertilizerinputs and increasing livestock population.

Policies: (i) To follow Code of Good AgriculturalPractice (CGAP), (ii) to ensure increased foodproduction in climate friendly and resilient manner,and (iii) to improve livestock management andlivestock feed.

Strategies: (i)To improve rice cropping systems andwater management, (ii) to promote organic farming,(iii) to do research and developmenton crop varietiesadaptable to climate change, (iv) to breed geneticallyimproved strains of animals and regulate theirpopulation, and (v) to improve manure managementand animal feed with quality forage and mineralsupplements.

Actions:Mitigation measures Reduce tillage and practiceintermittent irrigation,properselectionof ricevarietiesandcroprotation inricefields;promote“ConservationAgriculture”,“SlopingLandAgriculturalTechnology”and other climate friendly technologies; improvewater, crop and crop residue management; promoteorganic farming and bio-fertilizer use, and reducethe use of chemical fertilizers; apply slow releasefertilizer; improve and expand pastures, grasslands

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and forage and its quality; improve the use andmanagement of animal waste to harvestproducer gasand to use gasification effluent as bio-fertilizer;supplementpoorqualityroughagewithminerals,ureamolasses, legume or other agricultural bi-products.

Adaptation measures Adjust cropping systems,improve farm management including post-harvesttechnology ; use stress-resistant plant varieties andensureclimate-resilientagriculture;promotewateruseconservation and efficiency; expand waterimpoundment systems through clusters of smallerdams, ponds, etc.; promote organic farming and useof bio-fertilizers; popularize dry-land agriculturaltechnologies, improve and expand pasture andgrassland; add fermentation-control medicine,fermentation stabilizers and micro-organismrepressors to animal diets; access to advancedlivestock technologies.

Land use change and forestry sector Annualdeforestation ratewas estimated at 466,420ha during1989-1998. To check or reverse this trend of forestdepletion and degradation, protection of remainingnatural forests and reforestation have been sped up.Localcommunities,privatecompaniesandindividualshavebeenactivelyestablishingforestplantations.BothGHG inventories conducted in 1990 and 2000 hadtestified that Myanmar was a net CO2 sequester.

Policies: (i)Topromotecarbon sequestration throughsustainableforestecosystemdevelopment, (ii)Changeof land use to be preceded by EIA in accord withbroad National Land Use Plan.

Strategies: (i) To introduce private forestry, (ii) Tomanage state and non-state forest ecosystems in asustainablemanner, (iii)To intensifyreforestation andafforestation programs, (iv)To promote communityforestry and urban tree planting, (v) To encouragemanufacture of long lasting value added forestproducts, (vi)To develop national land use plan; (vi)To let EIAprecede any major land use change.

Actions:Mitigation measures: Protect existing forestseffectively; expand forest extent, increase forestdensity and growth; maintain structural diversity offorest and species mixture; restore forests; expand

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ProtectedAreas System; avoid clear felling of forestin timberharvest, practice reduced impact loggingandrestore harvested areas; increase advocacy andeducate public on community forestry (CF); applysystems such as agro-forestry or aqua-forestry toestablish CFs;continue the annual freedistribution oftree seedlings for roadside and urban greening andset up incentives to ensure the survival of the plantedtrees; develop technologies for manufacturing end-use forest products for extended use; strive fordevelopmentand implementationofnational landuseplan to sustain permanent forest estate; conduct EIAand thorough cost-benefit analysis prior to decidinganymajor land use change.

Adaptation measures: Conserve, enrich and sustainbiodiversity; encourage climate-resilient species inreforestation and afforestation program; practicemulti-culture and structurally complex forestecosystems management; intensify mangrovereforestation and afforestation in coastal zones;establish an effective mechanism for fire protectionand fire fighting; enhance public awareness andparticipation in managing the forests; educate publicon climate change concerns.

Waste sectorSince the inception of the market-oriented economicsystemin1988,urbanizationandindustrializationhaveaccelerated in the country. Dailywaste generation inYangon increased three folds within 1990 to 2007.Emissionfromthewastesectorwillassumeanupwardtrend with the improving economy coupled withincreasingindustrialization.

Policy: (i) To strengthen “Green and Clean Cities ”campaign to make the city green and clean; (ii) toreduce GHG emissions and environmental pollution.

Strategies: (i) To minimize per capita wastegeneration, (ii) to recycle waste, (iii) to generate heatand electricity from waste, (iv) to advocate self-cleanliness and public hygiene, and (v) to enforce“Polluter PaySystem”

Actions:Mitigation measures: Reduce the volume of wasteper capita; categorize waste and dispose it properlyat designated landfills; collect fees forwaste disposal;

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fine heavily those who throw wastes recklessly;eliminate theuse of polyethylene bags; expand wastetreatment facilities; produce biogas for electricitygeneration at sewage treatment facilities; encouragewaste recycle and waste reuse; promote marketopportunities for recycled waste products; enforceregulations and standards for waste management;raise public awareness on waste generation anddisposal.

INFORMATION AND NETWORKING

Assessment and enhancement of InformationCommunication Technologies The existing ICTtools and communication facilities are not adequatein most of the government departments and otherrelevant organizations. Only a few experts in ICTare available, and more ICT trainings are needed.The promotion of ICT has been undertaken jointlyby the private computer associations and thegovernment in recent years. However, manygaps andconstraints suchas financial and technicaldifficulties,and poor infrastructure and frequent power failuresstillremain. Institutionalstrengtheningincludinghumanresource developmentand skills andexpertiseonICTaretobefurtherenhancedinalmostall thegovernmentorganizations.

Establishment of information networks Theclimate change information network has now beenofficially established at MOECAF with initial 25members from various government departments andlocal NGOs. The project has alsoestablished its ownwebsite www.myanmar-unfccc-nc.net. Trainingrelating to the use of website has been provided forMOECAF bya local company. In effect, Myanmarhas laiddown firm foundation for promotingclimatechangeinformationsharingandnetworkingwithinandoutside the country.

CAPACITY BUILDING

Myanmar needs capacity building to be able toaddress climate changeand its impactsand to fulfil itscommitments to the Convention.

Capacity building needs assessment - Myanmarundertook capacity-building needs assessmentcovering the areas of human resources, and

technology capacity building. The assessmenthighlighted the needs of the institutions andorganizations for man-power training, technologytransfer and dissemination.

Regarding human resources: Manyorganizationsare interested to have trainings on climate changeissues, GHG inventory, vulnerabilityand adaptationassessment, technology needs assessment,environmental management and clean developmentmechanisim (CDM) and carbon trading.Regarding technologies: A large number oforganizations are interested in ESTs and renewableenergy technologies. Cleaner production of cement,efficientandcleanerCH4 gasreductionfromlivestock,air quality monitoring, reduction of emission fromdeforestation and forest degradation (REDD) are ofinterest to some specific organizations.

Capacity building strategy The strategy involvesthree steps namely; capacity-building needsassessment, identification andformulation of prioritycapacity building projects, and mobilization ofresources for implementing the projects. Capacitybuildingstrategycouldbeappliedonthenationalscaleor on sector-wise basis. But implementation shouldbe made on a continuous basis.

Enhancement of international negotiation skillsCapacitybuilding to enhance the negotiation skills islargelyneeded in developingcountries due to limitedexperience, limited expertise and knowledge andlanguage barrier. In this respect, more seminars andworkshops on climate change with the participationof relevant specialists and expertsare to be organized.

OTHER INFORMATION CONSIDEREDRELEVANT TO THE ACHIEVEMENT OF THE

OBJECTIVE OF THE CONVENTION

Apart from the programs and activities that arerequired by the UNFCCC to be undertaken by aparty to the Convention, there are several otherenvironmental protection and conservation activitiescarried out in Myanmar which could directly orindirectly contribute towards addressing climatechangeandachievingtheobjectiveof theConvention.

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United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (UNCCD) related programs andactivities - Myanmar acceded to the United NationsConvention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) inJanuary1997. Even before accedingto the UNCCD,the Forest Department had implemented a specialgreening project for the nine districts in 1994. Theproject area was extended to 13 districts with theformation of a new DryZone Greening Departmentin 1997. Currently, there are 140 dams constructedin the DryZone with water shed areas of 4.5 millionhectares. Rehabilitation and reforestation ofmangroves isalsobeingcarriedout in theAyeyarwadydelta region where large areas of mangrove forestshad disappeared due to over-exploitation. Myanmarhas also formulated a NationalAction Programme(NAP) to combat desertification with 5 proposedprojects particularly in the DryZone. The Dry Zonehas nowstarted to benefit fromthe greeningactivitiesthereby, achieving the objective of the UNFCCC.

Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocolrelated programs and activities - Myanmar alsoacceded to the Vienna Convention for the Protectionof the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol inNovember 1993. The preparation of a CountryProgram which was supported by the UNEP andcoordinated by the NCEA (MOECAF) wascompleted during 1998 and 1999. RefrigerationManagement Plan (RMP) was formulated in 2002and was approved by the Multilateral Fund in 2005.A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) on thePreparation of ozone regulations for the control ofODS,andmonitoringimplementationoftheRMPwassigned in 2008. The MOU on Provision of servicesand data collection for the formulation of theHydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase outManagement Plan (HPMP) has also been signed.

Today, Myanmar has successfully phased out CFCconsumption in all sectors. Awareness promotionactivities on protection of the ozone layer, trainingprogramsforrefrigerationandairconditioningservicetechnicians, and training programs for enforcementofficers have also been conducted.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)related programs and activities There is a loss ofbiological diversity due to social and economic

pressures all over the world. Today, climate changeis also posing threats to the biological resources.Conservation of biological diversity (CBD) istherefore being carried out by nations around theglobe. Myanmarismakingeffortsfor theconservationof biological diversityby, promulgating a Protectionof Wildlife and Wild plants and Conservation ofNaturalAreas Law in 1994, formulating MyanmarForest Policy in 1995, ratifying CBD in 1994,acceding to the Convention on International Tradeon Endangered Species of wild flora and fauna(CITES) in1997 and ratifyingtheCartagena Protocolon bio-safety in 2008. MOECAF is now initiatingthedevelopmentofNationalBiodiversityStrategyandAction Plan (NBSAP) with technical support fromUNEP Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific(UNEP-ROAP). Conservation of biodiversity callsfor protection of the habitats mainly forests, so thatbyimplementingtheCBD, forestsarebeingprotectedand conserved. In 2009, about 4.35% of the countryarea has been notified as protected area. Moreover,34 protected areas, 3 zoological gardens, 1 botanicalgarden and a national herbal park have beenestablished.

Organizational improvement In addition to theNCEA which was formed in 1990 to manage andcoordinate environmental matters in the country, andto act as the national focal point for environmentalrelations with other countries and internationalorganizations, the Environmental ConservationCommittee (ECC) was formed in 2004 to effectivelycarryoutenvironmentalconservationactivitieswithinthecountry.TheNationalEnvironmentalConservationCommittee (NECC) has been reformed in 2011 as afull flashfocalorganizationfor theenvironmentsectorthroughout thecountryand the NCEAwasabolished.Moreover, to speed up its environmental protectionmeasures the Ministry of Forestry was renamed toMinistryofEnvironmentalConservationandForestry(MOECAF) in 2011. In recent years, there has beenasubstantialdevelopment in the formationof thenon-governmental environmental organizations such asForest Resources Environment Development andConservationAssociation(FREDA),BiodiversityandNatureConservationAssociation (BANCA),WildlifeConservation Society (WCS- Country program),Ecosystem Conservation and CommunityDevelopment Initiative (ECCDI), Economically

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Progressive Ecosystem Development (ECODEV),Re-newable EnergyAssociation Myanmar (REAM)etc; that are doing environmental promotion mattersincluding climate change mitigation and adaptationrelated Programs.

International cooperation for addressingclimate change After signing the UNFCCC in1992, Myanmar ratified the convention in1994. Thecountry regularly participated in the COPs of theUNFCCC and its subsidiarybodies meetings. It wasone of the 12 participating countries in theALGASproject, and ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2003.

Regarding CDM projects, there has been somecooperation between Myanmar and Japan. TheDesignated NationalAuthority(DNA) of Myanmarwas established in 2006 for approvingand providinginformation on proposed CDM projects. In order tomake Myanmar safer and more resilient to naturalhazards after the country suffered from a disastrouscyclone Nargis in 2008, the National DisasterPreparedness Central Committee (NDPCC) wasformed in the same year. The Committee is chairedby the Prime Minister and has 38 members.MyanmarAction Plan on Disaster Risk Reduction(MAPDRR) 2009-2015 has been prepared. ThePlan has identified projects and activities which arenecessary to meet the Hyogo Framework forAction(HFA) and ASEAN Agreement on DisasterManagement and Emergency ResponseCommitments.

CONSTRAINTS AND GAPS, AND RELATEDFINANCIAL, TECHNICAL AND CAPACITY NEEDS

Development of national greenhouse gasesinventoryPresent efforts in national greenhouse gasesinventory - Very limited activities on climate changehave been carried out in Myanmar apart from thepreliminary greenhouse gases (GHG) inventoryandmitigation options assessment undertaken in theALGAS-study in 1996. Cooperative efforts of theUnited Nations, e.g. IPCC, UNEP, internationalorganizations and Non-Government Organizations,are important to address the climate change issuesand research activities.

Data availability constraints Limited user-friendlydatabaseonESTs, includingendogenous technologiesis an example of such constraints. There are noforecasts of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)events in Myanmar. The methods used for thedevelopment ofVulnerabilityindices &mapsneed tobe elaborated.

Needs for GHG-inventory on a continuous basisCO2, CH4 and N2O data need to be updated andextended based on the COP-8 Guidelines. Capacitybuilding of Individual researchers in various sectorsshould be promoted, and GHG-inventory needs tobe conducted on a continuous basis.

Constraints and needsEnergy and industrial processes sectorsGreenhouse gas inventory for energy sector includeCO2 andN2Oemissions fromfossil fuel combustions,CH4 emissions from fugitive coal mining activities,fugitiveoilandnaturalgassystem,andNMVOCfromfuelcombustion. Awidevarietyof industrialactivitiesproduces greenhouse gases as a by-product. Thetotal CO2 emissions from the energyand industrialprocesses in Myanmar were estimated at 8,326.76Gg in 2000.

Agriculture sector Theinjudicious use of chemicalfertilizers and pesticides, the production of CH4 frompaddyfields and ruminant animals, and of CO2 fromthe burning of , crop residues for land clearing haveoften adverselyaffected the environment and createdmanyproblems.Promotionof abalancedandefficientplant and animal management systems to intensifyagriculture in a sustainable manner is needed.

Waste sector GHG inventory for the waste sectormainly includes CH4 emissions from MSW anddomestic & industrial wastewater. In rural areasand small towns, there is no systematic collectionof waste. Due to filling of waste over the yearsin sub-urban areas, anaerobic conditions developand hence these dumping sites generate largeamount of CH4.

Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry sectorCountrywide, the annual deforestation was 0.3%,which is only slightly above the global average.Population growth and its effects on natural habitats

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are exacerbated by the lack of comprehensive landuse policies and planning. Species-specific andecological zone-specific data are still lacking. Thedry matter (biomass)-based inventories for plantedspecies should be carried out. Inventory activitieswith new approaches to address deforestation, itscauses and land use changes should be conducted.Reliabledataontypesoffire,actualareaburntannuallyand greenhouse gases emission are still lacking.

Financial needsFinancial resources for climate change outreachprograms and activities are needed in Myanmar atpresent. Myanmar’s contribution to themitigation ofand adaptation to global climate change depends toa great extent on transfer of technologies and capacitybuilding, as well as on funding support. Due to thelimited financial resources, onlya fewactivitieshavebeen done in Myanmar to raise the public awarenesson climate change issues. The UN system has animportant role to play in supporting and enablingdeveloping countries to participate in the carbonmarket and prepare for future funding opportunitiesto catalyze climate action.

Technical needsTechnology needs for mitigation of climate changeUpdated and improved cost-effective mitigationoptions assessment for CO2, N2O, CH4, and newassessment of mitigation options for CO, NOx, Non-MethaneVolatile Compound (NMVC), SO2, HFCs,PFCs and SF6 for the year 2000, includingappropriate mitigation technologies, are needed.Lackoflegalandeconomic instruments formitigationmeasures, lack of a national strategy for GHGmitigation,andlackoftechnicalcapacityinquantitativemitigationoptions analysis, areundoubtedlyobvious.Technical capacity to effectively integrate V&Aassessment and mitigation options analysis intosustainable development programs, and to developnational adaptation andmitigationprogramsofactionisare still lacking.

Technology needs for adaptation to climatechange No previous studies on the vulnerability ofMyanmar to climate change have been undertaken,and hence no adaptation strategy or action plan hasbeen developed. Thus, all selectedpriorityareas willrequire participatory rapid appraisals (PRAs) with

the aimof collecting information onvulnerabilities toclimate change. Cost-effective technological andpolicy adaptation measures that are appropriate toMyanmar should be identified. Policies on climatechange adaptation are still needed to be addressed.Progress in the field of climate change relatedassessments is insufficient to obtain up-to-datesituation in manyaspects.

Systematic observation and research on climatesystem Inadequate computers and internet access,limitedclimatechangerelated information to functionas a clearing house, and limited practice of sharinginformation among departmental personnel are mostcommonlyobvious. Lackof training, informationandexperience on EnvironmentallySoundTechnologiesInformation System (ESTIS) are also constraints inthis regard. The hydro-meteorological data setsprovidealong-termbaselineagainstwhichthe impactof change in land use and land management on waterquality and quantity can be measured. Suchinformationisuseful forotherresearchers, inparticular,for understanding issues regarding global climatechange. Traditionalwater management system needsto be strengthened to meet the future requirements.Adaptation measures for water scarcity and droughtinclude water supply and demand management,improvedwatershedmanagement,waterconservationand increased storage of water.

To enhance the systematic observation and researchactivities, technical/ financial/ expertise support willcertainly be necessary from various international/regional organizations. Research works of climatechange will be particularly focused on El Nino,ENSO, tropical storms and associated hazards anddroughts in Myanmar.Myanmar has signed some 30 international andregional environmental treaties and conventions.

Needs for capacity buildingLimited capacities at all levels relating to climatechange issues, namely(i) climate change negotiation,(ii) preparationofclimatechangeprojects forbilateraland multilateral funding, (iii) assessingthe impactsofboth technological andpolicymeasures for mitigationand adaptation, and (v) effective implementation ofvarious multilateral environmental agreements,including the UNFCCC, are prominent barriers.

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Climate change information network should bestrengthenednationally/regionallyand internationally.Capacity development in DMH, universities andrelated institutions is also another area of gap in thecountry.

Training needs Capacity building for GHG-inventoryand V&A assessment are urgentlyneeded.Limited humanand institutional capacityin assessing,evaluatingandverifyingESTs, and inadequatehumanand institutional capacity in climate data monitoringare gaps to be bridged.

Initiating programs of school education and publicawareness on climate change There are fewoutreach materials, especially in Myanmar languageon climate change issues for different target groups.In school level education, it is preferable to integrateenvironmental issues into existing subjects in thecurricula, rather than attempting to introduceenvironmentasaseparatesubject. Findingsofclimatechange research in universities and other institutionsneed to be continually made available in appropriateform for use by schoolteachers. It is desirable forpracticalactivitiesonclimatechangeandenvironmentalstudies to be based on traditional conservationpractices, and to involve interaction of schoolchildrenwith local villagers so that they can understand theissues. Public education, awareness, and trainingprograms need to be conducted on a large scalethroughout the country with particular emphasis onpollution, natural resources depletion and globalclimate change.

Formulation of the communication networkamong researchers, institutions and policy-makersClimate changepolicy, strategyand programs,as wellas the integration of this policy and strategy intosustainable development are needed. There is also aneed to introduce and strengthen communityeducation on climate change and disasterpreparedness.

Policy measures are needed to integrate climatechange concerns into national long-term socio-economic andenvironmental planning. Buildingup aconsiderable mass of human resources with requiredskills, isabasicneedforanyprogressin theinstitutionalframework. Theformulated National Environmental

Policy calls for harmony and balance betweenenvironmentanddevelopment throughthe integrationof environmental considerations into developmentprocess and it forms the basis for developingenvironmental strategies, programs and plans.Moreover, Myanmarhaspromulgated environmentalconservation in 2012.

Myanmar has undertaken a few activities relating tootherMultilateralEnvironmentalAgreements(MEAs).Although Myanmar hasprepared its nationalAgenda21, the issue on the integration of climate changeconcerns into sustainable development plans andprograms has not yet been addressed.

Activities for overcoming gaps -Efforts will be made to overcomethe data constraintsand gap in GHGInventory.Countryspecificemissionfactors shouldbedeveloped e.g.emission factors fromforest fire, and CH4 emission from rice fields.

As far as capacitybuilding is concerned, it would beappropriate to maximize the synergies forimplementing the UNFCCC and other globalenvironmental agreements, such as CBD andUNCCD. The National Capacity Needs Self-Assessment (NCSA) project for GlobalEnvironmental management would provide a goodbasis for such synergies. In addition, a Capacity-Building Strategy that highlights the priorities andoptions, including the development of South-Southcapacitybuilding programs, will be developed.

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Chapter 1Introduction

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Myanmar lies mainly in the tropic and the climate inthe country is greatly influenced by the tropicalmonsoon through the north-east and south-westmonsoon winds. The country enjoys three distinctseasons namely, hot, rainy and cool seasons.However, it is also frequently subjected to cyclonesand river flooding. During the last four decades,Myanmar had six major cyclones: Sittway Cyclonein 1968, Pathein Cyclone in 1975, Gwa Cyclone in1982, Maungdaw Cyclone in 1994, Cyclone Malain 2006 and Cyclone Nargis in 2008. Flooding issometimes caused by cyclones, but more often byexcessive precipitation in mountainous watersheds.Much ofUpper Myanmar lies on a tectonicallyactivezone. Earthquakes are common and occasionallydevastating.

The incidence of deforestation, desertification, watershortage, pollution, saltwater intrusion and otheradverse environmental conditions have increased inMyanmar due to development activities. Poverty isalsoprevalent inruralareasandamonglargesegmentsof the urban population. However, it has greatpotential for economic development because of itswealth in natural resources.

On the other hand, the socio-economic developmentand industrializationprocesses that have been rapidlytaking momentum, coupled with the increasingpopulation,havebeendwindlingthecountry’s naturalresources. It is critically urgent, therefore, that theclimate change concerns are integrated into all futurenationalandsectoraldevelopmentplansandprogramsin order to bring about economic development insocial harmony and ecological integrity. MyanmarAgenda 21 has outlined very comprehensively theprocess of integration of environment anddevelopment in decision-making. This should betaken as the guideline for integrating climate changeconcerns into national development plans andprograms to ensureeconomicdevelopment in parallelwith environmental protection.

In order to form a central body to coordinateenvironmental affairs with national economic

development, the National Commission forEnvironmentalAffairs (NCEA) was established in1990. It was set upat the Ministryof ForeignAffairs,chaired by Minister for Foreign Affairs. NCEAoperates directly under the guidance of the Cabinetand comprises a chairman, a secretary, and a joint-secretary. It has the following four committees:

1. Committee on Pollution Control2. Committee on Natural Resources

Conservation3. Committee onTraining, Research &

Education, and4. Committee onInternational Relations

NCEAhaddevelopedNationalEnvironmentalPolicywhich was adopted in December 1994, formulatedMyanmarAgenda 21 (MA21) in 1997 and draftedthe National Environmental Protection Law (NEPL)in 2000. NCEA was transferred to the Ministry ofForestry to be chaired by the minister for Forestry in2005 and abolished in 2011. National EnvironmentalConservation Committee (NECC) was formed in2004 and reformed in 2011. Moreover, Ministry ofForestrywas renamed to Ministryof EnvironmentalConservation and Forestry (MOECAF). (Here afterNCEA was refered to as MOECAF)

A specific aim of MA21 is to facilitate theincorporation of environmental and sustainabledevelopment policy considerations into the decision-making and policy formulation processes of thegovernment in the economic and social sectors.

The National Environment Policy underlines theGovernment’scommitment toestablishsoundpoliciesintheutilizationofwater, land,forests,minerals,marineand other natural resources in order to conserve theenvironment and prevent its degradation.

The current process of national development andplanning in Myanmar does not provide a systematicmeansfor theintegrationofenvironmentaldimensions(MA 21). Climate change is one of the hottestenvironmental issues today and MOECAF is wellplaced to undertake the task of coordinating line

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ministries and ensuring the integration of climatechange concerns into the national and sectoraldevelopment plans and programs.

Myanmar activelyparticipated at the UNCED in RiodeJaneiroandsigned theUNFrameworkConventionon Climate Change in June 1992. It has embarkedas one of the 12 participating countries on theAsianLeast Cost Greenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy(ALGAS) Regional Project which was implementedby UNDP/GEF and executed byADB from 1995 to2000.

Myanmar ratified UNFCCC on 25 November, 1994as a non-Annex I Party. Article 12.5 of theUNFCCC requiresnon-Annex IParties tomake theirinitial national communications. Apart from thepreliminary greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory andmitigation options assessment undertaken in theALGAS-study in 1997, no other project activitiesrelating to UNFCCC have been undertaken inMyanmar.

In 1996, guidelines for the preparation of INC fornon-Annex I Parties were adopted by the SecondConference of the Parties (COP). The GlobalEnvironment Facility (GEF) provides financialassistance to non-Annex I Parties to prepare theirnational communications under the guidance of theCOP 8. Manycountries have alreadysubmitted theirInitial National Communications reports. Somehavesubmitted their reports as early as in 1997, e.g.Argentina, Jordon,Mexico,Macronesia,Senegal, andUruguay. Afew more countries have submitted theirSecond National Communication reports whereasMexico has even submitted their fourth NationalCommunication reports.

MyanmarsoughtGlobalEnvironmentFacility(GEF)funding in 2006 to fulfill its commitments andobligations for preparing and reporting its InitialNational Communication (INC) according to therecommendedguidelinesandoperationalprocedures.In this context, MOECAF of Myanmar launched anINC-project in2008with thefinancialassistancefromGEF/UNEP. Although this report is the first INCreport for Myanmar, it is prepared with componentsthat cover mostof thecontentsof the SecondNational

Communication.Theprojectproposalwasformulatedin accordance with the guidelines adopted at COP 8(Decision 17/CP.8) in 2002 and the GEFOperational Procedures for the ExpeditedFinancing of National Communications from non-Annex I Parties (November 2003).

In order to facilitate the preparation of this projectproposal, an informal stakeholder’s consultationmeeting was organized by MOECAF on 13 January2006. AProject Management Team (PMT) and aNational StudyTeam (NST) were established underthe auspices of the MOECAF in consultation withotherrelevantgovernmentdepartments,privatesectorand NGOs. ANational Climate Change Committee(NCCC) to be chaired by the Director-General ofMOECAF will also be established to provideguidance to the PMT. The NST is coordinated by aProject Coordinator. The Project Coordinator,together with the leader of each Working Group,formed the PMT.

The NST, which is the backbone of the projectcomprised working groups that deal with (i) GHGInventory and Mitigation Option Analysis; (ii)Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment; (iii)DevelopmentandTransferofEnvironmentallySoundTechnologies; (iv) Research and SystematicObservation; (v) Education, Training and PublicAwareness, and (vi) Compilation of the NationalCommunication. Each working group is composedof a number of experts drawn from both the publicand the private sectors, including NGOs. Eachworking group prepared the respective relatedchapters that constitute this report.

To integrateenvironmentanddevelopment,particularemphasis has been placed on key economic sectorsfor which GHG inventory was undertaken for thepreparation of Myanmar’s first Initial NationalCommunication. These economic sectors are:

1. Energy,2. Industrial processes,3. Agriculture includinglivestock,4. Land use change and forestry, and5. Waste.


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Although Myanmar is submitting its INC report onlynow, the countryhas longbeen makingefforts for thepositive contributions to the mitigation of GHGemission and protecting global climate by makingmitigationoptionsassessmentandstrategies inthekeyeconomic sectors of the country. The followingmitigation options are being implemented andencouraged:

(i) Hydro power project -Myanmar with manyriversis endowed naturallywith abundant hydropowerresources. Myanmar has already identified 267sites with the total capacity of 39,624 MW.

(ii) Solar electric panel to replace diesel generator- Today’s electricity supply in Myanmar isgenerated by fuel generators and hydroelectricpower plants. Solar energy is now available allover the country. Photovoltaics (PVs) are themost attractive amongrenewable energyoptionsthat are now being used. It is reliable, clean, andenvironmentallyfriendly.

(iii) LED street lighting - LED street lightings arebeing used in most of the big cities in Myanmar.This is also one of the options to save electricpower generation.

(iv)Electric vehicle - An electric car is an automobilethat usesan electric motor forpropulsion, in placeof morecommon propulsion methodssuchas theinternal combustion engine. In Myanmar, someelectric vehicles are now beingproduced and arebeing used in the areas, such as hotel zones,zoological gardens, parks, golf clubs, etc.

(v) Waste engine oil recycling -The engine lubricantindustry is a big business in Myanmar, with anannual consumption of about 4.5 million gallons(20.24m liters) and turnover ranging from US$25 to 40 million. Small amount of lubricant oil islost during use and the rest are released into theenvironment. It can also be used as refineryfeedstock to become part of crude oil. Used oilsare being refined again and again after blendingwith suitable additives and with no compromiseonquality.

(vi) HFCs recycling - Recovery and recycling ofHFCs help decrease HFC emissions duringequipment service and disposal. The approachinvolves the use of a refrigerant recoverydevicethat transfers refrigerant into an external storagecontainerpriortoservicingof theequipment.Oncethe recovery process and source operations arecomplete, the refrigerantscontained in thestoragecontainer arerecharged back into the equipment,cleaned through the use of recyclingdevices, sentto a reclamation facility to be purified.

(vii) Transport - As transport sector is the largestconsumeroffossil fuels,mitigationoptions in thissector are given due consideration. Recent trendsin fuel switching from gasoline to CompressedNatural Gas (CNG) in motor vehicles havealready helped to reduce GHG emissions in thissector. The primarymitigation options identifiedfor GHG emission mitigation in the transportsector are:-a) Road maintenanceb) Modal shift from road to rail (passenger &

freight)c) CNG vehicles and electric vehicles (In terms

of CO2 mitigation potential, the mostattractive option in the transport sector is fuelswitching to CNG for Myanmar.)

(viii) Recycling of waste - Recycling of waste paper,rubber goods, broken glass wares, steel andvarious metals, broken plastic and steel pipes,etc. is being done in Myanmar long before 3Rsconcept has been introduced globally.

(ix)Forestry -Myanmar has beenmanagingitsnaturalforests under the Myanmar Selection Systemsince 1856. It is a Sustainable ForestManagement System. Moreover, CommunityForestry and Agroforestry are also beingencouraged. Theseactivitieswill increase thesinkand will compensate the emissions from othersectors as well as from other forestry activities.

In addition, reafforestation programs have beenintensified andforest andwildlife protection lawsandregulations are being increasinglyenforced.

The 2000 GHG inventoryhas verywell testified thatMyanmar is still a big net carbon sink country.


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Chapter 2National Circumstances

Figure 2.1: States and Regions of Myanmar

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Chapter 2 National Circumstances

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2.1. Natural Conditions andResources

Location, territory and administrative regionsMyanmar is situated between north latitudes 9º 53"and 28º 25" and east longitudes 92°10' and 101°10'.Myanmar shares a border line territory of 2,192 kmwith China, 224 km with Laos and 2,096 km withThailand in the east. It shares also 1,331 km borderline with India and 256 km with Bangladesh in thewest. It has a long sea coast facing the Bayof Bengalin thewest,continuessouth-ward facingtheAndamanSea in the south and southwest. The whole coast linemeasures 2,832 km in length.

Myanmar has a total land area of 676,577 km2. Thewidth from east to west is 936 km and the lengthfrom north to south is 2,051 km (including 1,200 kmlong peninsular in the south east). (See location map,Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.2: Hkakaborazi Mountain

Seven Statesand seven Regions constitute the Unionof Myanmar. The seven States are Kachin, Kayah,Kayin, Chin, Mon, Shan and Rakhine, the sevenRegions being Magway, Mandalay, Sagaing, Bago,Tanintharyi,AyeyarwadyandYangon. (Figure 2.1)

NayPyi Taw, the recentlycreated new capital cityofMyanmar located in thesouthernpartof theMandalayRegion represents a new administrative Region.

Climate change and disaster

Climate of MyanmarThe climate of Myanmar is influenced by tropicalmonsoon winds, which are the south-west monsoonand the north-east monsoon. Myanmar has threedistinct seasons namely, the rainyseason, the winter,and the summer. The rainy season starts with theonslaught of the south west monsoon winds in earlyMayandendinOctober followedbythewinter whichnormallystarts from November and ends in February.The summer begins in March and continues to theend ofApril. During the rainy season the weather ishumid, wet and warm, typical of the tropics. Duringthewinterandthesummerseasonsrain-showersoccuroccasionally.

During the winter and summer seasons the north-eastmonsoon winds blow from the north-east. Duringthese seasons northern parts of Myanmar and hillyregions have pronounced cold weather withoccasional rainfalls, while other parts are moderatelycold.

Rainfall is influenced by the monsoons and also bythe locality. The coastal regions have about 5,000mm of annual rainfall but the central dry zone areashave less than 750 mm.

The highest average rainfall between 1997 and 2006was recorded in Dawei in Tanintharyi Region as5,825mm and the lowest for the same period wasrecorded at Nyaung Oo in Mandalay Region as641mm.And the highest actual rainfall for 2006 wasrecorded at Thantwe in Rakhine State as 6,821mmand the lowest for that year was recorded at NyaungOo in MandalayRegion as 697mm.

Regarding temperatures, the mean maximumtemperature during the period from 1997 to 2006was recorded at Hpa-an in Kayin State and Monywain Sagaing Region as 34.3°C and the lowest meanminimum was recorded at Hakha in Chin State as10.7°C.

The actualmean maximumtemperature for2006 wasrecorded at Monywa in Sagaing Region as 34.6°C


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and the lowest was recorded at Hakha in Chin Stateas 21.8°C, and mean minimum temperature wasrecorded at the same place as 10.6°C.

The average mean relative humidity for the periodfrom 1997 to 2006 was the highest at Bago in BagoRegion being 81% and the lowest at Nyaung Oo inMandalayRegion with 62%.

In Myanmar the temperatures generallyvarybetween10ºC and 32ºC with the average mean temperatureof 21ºC in the northern lowlands, sinkingsometimesto -1ºC or 0ºC in the high lands and 32ºC in thecoastal area. During the hot seasons, temperaturessometimes reach 40ºC and over in central dry zone.(The records of the past few years showed thetemperatures ranging between 10.7ºC and 34.3ºC)

Climate changeClimate disastersDuring the last four decades, Myanmar had six majorcyclones: SittwayCyclone in 1968, Pathein Cyclonein 1975, Gwa Cyclone in 1982, Maungdaw Cyclonein 1994, Cyclone Mala in 2006 and Cyclone Nargisin 2008. “The Nargis” which severely struckAyeyarwady delta and eastern part of Yangon inYangon Region with the wind speed of over 160 mph(approx. 258 km/h) and the resultant associatedfloods had caused massive physical destructions ofmangroves, agricultural fields, houses and utilityinfrastructures in addition to the deaths of over100,000 people including trauma for children of theyounger age. Furthermore, floodingespeciallyof saltwater into the agricultural lands and freshwaters,caused further economic, social and environmentaldamages extensively.

Other types of disasters also used to occur in thecentral Myanmar. There are streams which are dryandfilledwithsandinsummer,but, intherainyseason,and occasionally in summer, which happen to beflooded suddenly by heavy showers in the upperwatershed regions resulting in the devastatingeffectssuch as drowning people and animals and destroyinginfrastructures.

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Figure 2.3: One of the numerous disasterscenes due to the tremendous devastating

impact of the Cyclone Nargis

Myanmar environment policyThe wealth of the country is its people, its culturalheritage, its environment and its natural resources.TheobjectivesofMyanmar’sEnvironmentpolicyaimat achieving harmony and balance between thesecharacteristics through integration of environmentalconsiderations into the development process toenhance the quality of life of its citizens (ALGAS,1998).

Myanmar is still rich in natural resources. Myanmarnatural ecosystems are still in good shape, althoughthey have been disrupted by man to some extent.

Physical feature and topographyMyanmar’s land surface slopes gradually withundulating mountain ranges, hills and valleys fromnorth to south. The Khakaborazi with its peakelevated to 5,881m is located in Kachin State on theborder withTibetan China. It is the highest mountainnot only in Myanmar but also in the whole of SouthEastAsia.The mountain ranges in thenorthern tip ofMyanmar are high, some of them reaching theelevation of over 3,700 m and theyare continuationsof Himalayan mountain range. From north to souththere are theChin Hills some of whichhave peaks of3,400m in height continuing southwards to join theRakhine Yoma (Rakhine mountain range) in thewestern part of Myanmar.

The BagoYoma with some peaks reaching600 m inheight stretches from north to south in the middle ofMyanmar to literallyend inYangon.


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The Shan Yoma or the Shan Plateau in the east, haspeaks as high as 2,800m.

The rivers flowthroughmostlybetweenthe mountainranges from north to south. Chindwin River whichhas water source in northern Kachin Hills and ChinHills is 960km long. Its so calledChindwin basin liesbetween Kachin State and the Chin Hills, and on itscourse to the southChindwinRiver joinsAyeyarwadyRiver in the middle of thecountry.AyeyarwadyRiversourced in thenorthernmosthillyregion in the KachinState has two tributaries namely the Mekha and theMelikha, theconfluenceofwhich isaboveMyitkyina,the capital cityof Kachin State.

AyeyarwadyRiverwhich is 2,170kmlongruns alongthe western aspects of Bago Yoma southwards totheAyeyarwadyDelta, and into theGulfofMoattama.It is the most navigable and socio-economicallymostimportant river in the countrysince it passes throughmanybigcities such as Myitkyina, Bhamo, Sagaing,Mandalay, Myingyan, Pyay, Hinthada, Yangon andPathein in the delta.

Than Lwin River with its source in the Himalayanmountains is 2,800 km long and snow fed. It flowsthrough China, and passing Shan, Kayah and KayinStates in Myanmar entres the Gulf of Moattama. It isnavigable onlyin some places in its lower regions.

Sittaung River, which is 100 km long, is a short riverfed bystreams mostof which havingoriginated in theBagoYoma in Yamethin and Pyinmana Districts ofMandalay Region and in Toungoo District of BagoRegion.SittaungvalleyisawidevalleybetweenBagoYoma and lower hills of Kayin State.

Mekong River flows along the border with LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic.

In fact, all the big rivers except Sittaung have theirsources inHimalayan mountains.

Therearealsonumeroussmaller riversandbigstreamsflowing crisscross throughout Myanmar, which areimportant to their respective States and Regions fornavigation,communication,fishingandwaterresource.The Tanintharyi peninsular on its western coast has201 islands of which 112 islands are inhabited.

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The geological formation of the BagoYoma regionconsists mainlyof folded tertiarysedimentary rocks.The main folds run from north to south. It is hillyandcharacterized bybroken ridges. The outcrops have asteep scarp slope on one side and gentle dip slopeon the other. The direction of the dip controls thedrainage and, along with soils, influences the type offorest.

TheRakhineYomarangeismadeupofabeltofancientrocks including gneiss that occurs in a narrow stripforming the core of the northern part. In the southernpart of theeastern foothills ofRakhineYoma the foldsrun roughly from north to south, with long narrowoutcrops of alternating sandstones, forming hills andclays, forming valleys. From Pakokku Districtnorthwards beds of coarse sands are common. Thefolds run also in the north to south direction. Bandsof mottledclays are common with interbedded shalesand sandstones. In the north Mu-Chindwin Dividevolcanic rocks occur. In the Mu-AyeyarwadyDividein the further north, the rocks and soils combine tosome extent. In the upperAyeyarwady valley, largestretches of loose sands occur, resulting in swampyareas that are slightly clayey. Considerable areas ofcrystalline rocks also occur.

In the Rakhine coastal regions the rocks do not varygreatly from those of Bago Yoma, but are morethoroughlylithified.

The whole Shan Plateau, Karen State, Kayah Sate,Mon State and Tanintharyi Region which constitutethe eastern part of Myanmar, are formed by the oldhard rocks. This area is bound on the west by arelativelynarrow beltofoldgneiss. In the north, muchof the Shan Plateau is formed of alternating bands ofgneiss and limestone. In the south, old sedimentaryrocks cover most of the country and of these plateaulimestone is the most wide spread. In the massifs ofthe Shan State there are also old filled basins whichproviderichalluvial tracts grading intomarches in thecentre.

There are mud volcanoes and one extinct volcanocalled Mount Popa which is situated in the centralpart ofMyanmar.From north to south there are faults:


2012

the Chindwin fault, and the Sagaing fault down toAyeyarwadydelta.

Water resourcesMyanmar has amplewater resources althoughwateravailability is not even over thewhole country. In thedry zone of central Myanmar, for example, wherethelandissemi-arid in therainshadowareaofRakhineYomaand theChinHillswater is veryscarce: accessto fresh water is a big problem facing the localcommunities.Throughout thelengthofMyanmar, thevalleysandbasinsof the threebigrivers theChindwin,theAyeyarwadyand theThan-Lwin, there is virtuallyan ample supplyofwater. SittaungRiverhas its ownmoist and fertilevalleyaswell.

Now, in someplaces in the dryzone, the farmers arebeing provided with water for agriculture andhousehold use bypumping theRiverAyeyarwady.

Thesouthwestmonsoonwindsannuallybringrain foragricultural lands inmanyparts of

Myanmar, especially in the Ayeyarwady Delta,YangonRegion, SagaingRegion, andBagoRegion.Myanmar now possesses more than 200 dams andreservoirs constructed throughout the country tosupport the irrigation and thewater resources.

The wetlands with big lakes and marshlands alsoconstitute amechanism to regulate storage and flowofwater in the country.

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Figure 2.4:Taungtaman lake inMandalayregion

Groundwaterpumpedupmanuallyandmechanicallyprovidesmorewater to the villages that have pondswithwater gathered during rainy season. In the highmountain ranges and forest there used to be manywater springs. Mountain springs provide water tovillagerswaydown thehills.

The Inle Lakewith its scenic beauty and traditionalcultural attraction is shrinking due to soil erosion inthe surroundingarea because of forest depletion anddegradation andenvironmentallyhostile agriculturalpractices. Similar situations have also been takingplace inmanyother places inMyanmar. IndawgyiLake inKachin State is also shrinking. Some of thetributaries of some big rivers are contaminatedwithchemicals due toall sorts ofminingactivities in theirwatersheds.

The percentage of people covered bysafewater andsanitation is still very lowin thecountrybytheglobalstandard; it is even lower compared to a fewneighboringcountries.

It is obvious that the traditional water managementsystem can no longer meet the requirements of themarket economy. In this context it is urgentlyneededto reform the present system ofwatermanagementbyestablishinga high level national agencyforwaterresourcemanagement.

Land resources

TheareaofMyanmar classifiedbytypeof land in theyear 2005-2006 is as shown in the following table(Table2.1).

Table 2.1: Area by type of land in 2005-2006

Source: Statistical Yearbook, 2006, CSO

Sr.no. Type of land Area(000’ ha)

% of total

1 Reserved forest 15,707.05 23.22

2 Other wood land 17,828.41 26.35

3 Current fallows 368.26 0.54

4 Net area sown 10,922.05 16.14

5 Cultivable wasteother thanfallows

6,279.10 9.28

6 Others 16,552.84 24.47

Total 67,657.70 100

Sr.no. Type of land Area(000’ ha)

% of total

1 Reserved forest 15,707.05 23.22

2 Other wood land 17,828.41 26.35

3 Current fallows 368.26 0.54

4 Net area sown 10,922.05 16.14

5 Cultivable wasteother thanfallows

6,279.10 9.28

6 Others 16,552.84 24.47

Total 67,657.70 100


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The total area of 676,577 km2 of Myanmar is di-vided by land types as reserved forest, other wood-land, current fallows, net area sown, cultivablewasteother than fallows and others.

As seen in theabove table forest coveredarea is about50%, the net sown area presents about 11million ha(including fallow land) and the cultivablewaste landabout 7.9 million ha in the financial year 2005-2006.The land area canbedivided intomountainousand plateau, plains and river valleys.Theareas occu-

pied bymountain ranges and the plateau are biggerthan theplains, river basins, andvalleys.The trendofincreasing agricultural area against the forest land isobvious (Table 2.2).

Cultivable fallow land andwaste land are granted toprivate individuals,StateEconomicEnterprises, JointVentures and Cooperative societies in order to en-courage the development of agriculture, livestockbreeding and related activities.

Table 2.2: Changes of land classes inMyanmar (Thousand hectares, percentage)%Change % %(1990- Change Change

Share Share Share (2000-2005) (1990-2005)

Closed Fores ts 28,114.70 41.6 25,841 38.2 -8.1 24,704.20 36.5 -4.4 -12.1Open Fores t 9,755.80 14.4 9,426.90 13.9 -3.4 9,262.40 13.7 -1.7 -5.1

Total Fores t 37,870.50 56 35,267.90 52.1 -6.9 33,966.60 50.2 -3.7 -10.3

Other woodedLand

10,405.80 15.4 11,435.30 16.9 9.9 11,950 17.7 4.5 14.8

Other Land

(Including water

bodies )

Total Land Area 67,657.70 100 67,657.70 100 0 67,657.70 100 0 0

32.1 3.7 12.219,381.40 28.6 20,954.50 31 8.1 21,741.10

Classes 1990 2000 2005

Extent Extent Extent

%Change % %(1990- Change Change

Share Share Share (2000-2005) (1990-2005)Share (2000-2005) (1990-2005)

Closed Fores ts 28,114.70 41.6 25,841 38.2 -8.1 24,704.20 36.5 -4.4 -12.128,114.70 41.6 25,841 38.2 -8.1 24,704.20 36.5 -4.4 -12.128,114.70 41.6 25,841 38.2 -8.1 24,704.20 36.5 -4.4 -12.128,114.70 41.6 25,841 38.2 -8.1 24,704.20 36.5 -4.4 -12.128,114.70 41.6 25,841 38.2 -8.1 24,704.20 36.5 -4.4 -12.128,114.70 41.6 25,841 38.2 -8.1 24,704.20 36.5 -4.4 -12.1Open Fores t 9,755.80 14.4 9,426.90 13.9 -3.4 9,262.40 13.7 -1.7 -5.1

Total Fores t 37,870.50 56 35,267.90 52.1 -6.9 33,966.60 50.2 -3.7 -10.337,870.50 56 35,267.90 52.1 -6.9 33,966.60 50.2 -3.7 -10.337,870.50 56 35,267.90 52.1 -6.9 33,966.60 50.2 -3.7 -10.337,870.50 56 35,267.90 52.1 -6.9 33,966.60 50.2 -3.7 -10.337,870.50 56 35,267.90 52.1 -6.9 33,966.60 50.2 -3.7 -10.337,870.50 56 35,267.90 52.1 -6.9 33,966.60 50.2 -3.7 -10.3

Other woodedLand

10,405.80 15.4 11,435.30 16.9 9.9 11,950 17.7 4.5 14.8

Other Land

(Including water

bodies )

Total Land Area 67,657.70 100 67,657.70 100 0 67,657.70 100 0Total Land Area 67,657.70 100 67,657.70 100 0 67,657.70 100 0Total Land Area 67,657.70 100 67,657.70 100 0 67,657.70 100 0Total Land Area 67,657.70 100 67,657.70 100 0 67,657.70 100 0Total Land Area 67,657.70 100 67,657.70 100 0 67,657.70 100 0 0

32.1 3.732.1 3.7 12.219,381.40 28.6 20,954.50 31 8.1 21,741.1019,381.40 28.6 20,954.50 31 8.1 21,741.1019,381.40 28.6 20,954.50 31 8.1 21,741.1019,381.40 28.6 20,954.50 31 8.1 21,741.10

Classes 1990 2000 2005

Extent Extent Extent

Source: FAO (2006)

Forest resources

Myanmar is rich invast varietiesofnatural resources,both renewable and non-renewable.Among them,forest resource is one of themost critical suppliersnot only for the livelihood of the people but for thenational economyaswell.

It has very diverse ecosystems and accordinglydifferent forest types fromhigh alpine forests to sealevel tidal forests havebeen identified.

Theareaunder different forest types are presented in(Table 2.3).

Table 2.3: Major forest types% of total

forest area

1. Tidal Forest

2. Beach and Dune Forest

3. Swamp Forest

4. Tropical Evergreen Forest 5,528,640 16

5. Mixed Deciduous Forest 13,476,060 39

6. Dry Forest 3,455,400 10

7. Deciduous Indaing (Dipterocarps) 1,727,700 5

8. Hill and Temperate Evergreen Forest 8,984,040 26

Total Forest Area 34,554,000 100

No. Forest Types Area (ha)

1,382,160 4

% of total

forest area

1. Tidal Forest

2. Beach and Dune Forest

3. Swamp Forest

4. Tropical Evergreen Forest 5,528,640 16

5. Mixed Deciduous Forest 13,476,060 39

6. Dry Forest 3,455,400 10

7. Deciduous Indaing (Dipterocarps) 1,727,700 5

8. Hill and Temperate Evergreen Forest 8,984,040 26

Total Forest Area 34,554,000 100

No. Forest Types Area (ha)

1,382,160 4

Planning and Statistic Division, Forest Department, Myanmar, 2000

The flora recorded so far inMyanmar includes 273plant families, 2,371genera, 11,800 speciesofwhich

2,300 species are trees, 97 bamboo species, 26species of rattan (cane), and 841 species of orchids.


2012Chapter 2 National Circumstances

Figure 2.5: Mangrove forest in the delta

ForestryForest coverAccording to the analysis of 1989Landsat imageries,closed forests occupied 293,269 km2or 43.34%,degraded forests 50,963 km2 or 7.53% and forestsaffectedbyshiftingcultivation154,389km2or22.8%of the total land area as shown in (Table 2.4 )below.Table 2.4: Forest cover in Myanmar

Source: Forestry inMyanmar, June 2000

Percent ofcountry area

1 Closed forest 293,269 43.3

2Degradedforest 50,963 7.5

3Forest affectedby shiftingcultivation

154,389 22.8

Total 498,621 73.6

Sr. No. Forest cover Area (km2)Percent ofcountry area

1 Closed forest 293,269 43.31 Closed forest 293,269 43.31 Closed forest 293,269 43.3

2Degradedforest 50,963 7.5

3Forest affectedby shiftingcultivation

154,389 22.8154,389 22.8

Total 498,621 73.6

Sr. No. Forest cover Area (km2Area (km2Area (km )

Change of forest coverThe forest cover of Myanmar had reduced from65.8% of the total area of the country in 1925 to52.3% in 1999 (Table 2.5)

1925 65.8 -

1958 57.2 0.253 (-)

1975 52.7 0.237 (-)

1989 50.8 0.127 (-)

1999 52.3 0.136 (+)

0.180 (-)

Year

Average annual changefrom 1925 to 1999

% of total landarea

Average annualchange %

1925 65.81925 65.8 -

1958 57.2 0.253 (-)

1975 52.7 0.237 (-)1975 52.7 0.237 (-)1975 52.7 0.237 (-)

1989 50.8 0.127 (-)

1999 52.3 0.136 (+)1999 52.3 0.136 (+)1999 52.3 0.136 (+)

0.180 (-)

Year

Average annual changefrom 1925 to 1999

% of total landarea

Average annualchange %

Table 2.5: Change of forest covers between1925 and 1999

The forest cover of the country had decreasedcontinuously from 1925 (65.8%) to 1989 (50.8%),a decrease of 15% in 65 years. From1989 it startedto increase to reach 52.3% in 1999, indicating anincrease of 1.5% during the period. However, thearea under closed forests had decreased from43.3%to 37.4%. The average annual loss of forest coverover the period of 75 years had been approximately0.18%of the total landareaor 0.274%of the forestedland.

Permanent forest estateReserved forests (RF), protectedpublic forests (PPF)and protected areas system (PAS) constitutepermanent forest estate (PFE). The status of PFE asof 31March 2001 is shown in (Table 2.6).

Table 2.6: Status of permanent forest estateinMyanmar ( 31March 2001)

Source: PSD (Planning& Statistics Division), FD

Category

RF and PPF 129,445 19.13

PAS 15,276 2.26

Total PFE 144,721 21.39

Area (km2)Percent of total landarea

Category

RF and PPF 129,445RF and PPF 129,445 19.13

PAS 15,276 2.26

Total PFE 144,721 21.39

Area (km2

Area (km2

Area (km )Percent of total landarea

Total PFE 144,721 21.39Total PFE 144,721 21.39

Thetotal areaof the reserved forestsand theprotectedpublic forests has reached 129,445 km2 constituting19.13% of the total area of the country, and that ofProtectedAreas System 15,276 km2or 2.26%of thetotal land area. Thus, by the end of the financial year2000-01 the total areaof thePermanent ForestEstatehas become 144,721 km2 covering approximately21.39%of thecountry.

During1988-2001 theMyanmarForestDepartmenthadbeenabletoextendtheareaofreservedforestsandtheprotectedpublic forests by29,425km2andhad todisforest 579km2.Thus, on 31March2001, the totalRF and PPF area stood at about 129,445 km2constituting19.13%of the total areaofMyanmar.Theannualgrowthofpermanentforestarea,excludingPAS,had been 2,220 km2. Myanmar Forest Policy hasenvisaged increasingtotalPFEto30%ofthe total landarea.

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Source:National ForestMaster Plan (2001-2002 to 2030-2031)

2012

Myanmarhasbeenlosingitsclosedforestsat therateof0.64%annually.The problemof forest depletionhadbeenevengreaterwiththemangrovesintheAyeyarwadydelta; theyhad depleted at the rate twice the nationalaverage. Of a number of causal factors of forestdegradationanddepletion,agricultural expansionhasalwaysbeenthemaincause.

Timber resourceMyanmar flora, so far recorded, consists of 1,347species of big trees, 741 species of small trees, 1,696species of shrubs, 96 species of bamboos, 36 species

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of rattansand841speciesoforchids.Outof2,088 treespecies, 85 have been recognized and accepted asproducingmultiple-usetimberofpremiumquality.

It has been estimated that closed broad-leaved,mangrove andconiferous forests of thecountrytakentogether contain about 2.25 billion cubic meters ofstandingtimber(Table2.7),whilethetotalannualgrowthofclosedbroad-leavedforests isestimatedat31millioncubicmetersbasedonanestimatedannual growthof1.5m3/haofall treesof dbh (diameteratbreast height)20 cmandup.

Table 2.7: Estimated volume of standing timber inMyanmarGrand total

Total (mil.m3) v/ha (m3) Total (mil.m3) v/ha (m3) (mil.m3)

Closed broad-leaved 1,859 90 357 30 2,216

Mangrove 12 30.6 4 16 16

Conifers 16 141.6 - - 16Total 1,887 361 2,248

Type of vegetationProductive forest Unproductive forest Grand total

Total (mil.m3Total (mil.m3Total (mil.m ) v/ha (m) v/ha (m3) v/ha (m3) v/ha (m ) Total (mil.m) Total (mil.m3) Total (mil.m3) Total (mil.m ) v/ha (m) v/ha (m3) v/ha (m3) v/ha (m ) (mil.m) (mil.m3)) (mil.m3)) (mil.m

Closed broad-leaved 1,859 90 357 30 2,216

Mangrove 12 30.612 30.6 4 16 1616 16

Conifers 16 141.6 - - 16Total 1,887 361 2,248

Type of vegetationType of vegetationProductive forest Unproductive forest

Source: Status Paper of the Forestry Sector in Myanmar, September 1996.

DensityofMyanmarnatural forests isverylowhavingonly90m3 per ha in the closed broad-leaved forestsand 30.6 m3 in themangroves. Coniferous forestswith a growing stock of about 142 m3/ha are beststocked in the country.

Forest managementMyanmarSelectionSystem(MSS)hasbeenthemainsilvicultural systempracticed in themanagement ofpracticallyall thenatural forests in the country.Clearfelling, simple coppice and coppice with standardssystemsareappliedinlocalsupplyforestsandfuelwoodplantations.

Forest plantationsEstablishmentofforestplantationsstartedinMyanmaras early as in the late 1850’s. Forest resources beingabundant in thosedays, theplantationpolicyhadbeenonly to enrich the existing natural forests. Inconsequence, the annual planting target had neverexceeded700hauntil 1960.However, thelast three tofourdecadeshadseenarapid rateofdeforestationanddegradation of natural forests as a result of shiftingcultivation,excessivefuelwoodcutting,andexpansionofagricultural landsanddevelopmentofinfrastructure.

In thiscontext,extensiveblock-wiseplantingschemeshave been called upon since early1970’s in order to

rehabilitate thedegraded forests, restore the lost forestarea, supplement theyield fromthenatural forestsandimprove environment. FD and Dry Zone GreeningDepartment (DZGD)havenowbeenplantingaround45,000haannually.

Inaddition,aspecial teakplantationprojectwasstartedin1998withthemainobjectiveofincreasingteakyieldand reducingpressureon thenatural forests. Planting20,000 ha each year, a 40- year rotation has beenenvisaged inorder tobeable toharvest a finalyieldofabout1.8millioncubicmeterseveryyear.

At theendof theyear2000, total areaofvarious forestplantations exceeded675,000ha (Table2.8and2.9).Commercial plantations constituted55%of the totalplanted area, and teak constituted 42% of all theplanted species.

Table 2.8: Status of forest plantations at theend ofYear 2000 by type of plantation

Source: PSD, FD

Sr. No. Type of plantation Area (ha) %1 Commercial plantation 371,074 552 Village supply plantation 188,703 283 Industrial plantation 50,356 74 Watershed plantation 65,610 10

Total 675,743 100

Sr. No. Type of plantation Area (ha) %1 Commercial plantation 371,074 552 Village supply plantation 188,703 283 Industrial plantation 50,356 74 Watershed plantation 65,610 10

1 Commercial plantation 371,074 551 Commercial plantation 371,074 551 Commercial plantation 371,074 552 Village supply plantation 188,703 282 Village supply plantation 188,703 282 Village supply plantation 188,703 283 Industrial plantation 50,356 73 Industrial plantation 50,356 73 Industrial plantation 50,356 74 Watershed plantation 65,610 104 Watershed plantation 65,610 104 Watershed plantation 65,610 10

Total 675,743 100675,743 100


2012

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Table 2.9: Status of forest plantationsat the end of Year 2000 by species

Source: PSD, FD

Sr.No Tree species Area (ha) %1 Teak 281,190 42

2 Pyinkado 52,219 8

3 Padauk 15,539 2

4 Pine 15,899 2

5 Eucalypt 74,682 11

6 Others 236,214 35

Total 675,743 100

Sr.No Tree species Area (ha) %1 Teak 281,190 421 Teak 281,190 421 Teak 281,190 42

2 Pyinkado 52,219 8

3 Padauk 15,539 23 Padauk 15,539 23 Padauk 15,539 2

4 Pine 15,899 2

5 Eucalypt 74,682 115 Eucalypt 74,682 115 Eucalypt 74,682 11

6 Others 236,214 35

Total 675,743 100Total 675,743 100

Private plantationsIn 2008, theGovernment started granting long termleases toprivateindividualsandcompaniestoestablishforestplantations.Privateestablishmentofplantationsin 2008 was 8,892 ha out of which 2,454 ha wereteak and 10,571 ha were other hardwoods.

Mineral resourceMyanmar has extensive mineral resources. TheMinistry of Mines is responsible to explore anddevelop them. One State Enterprise is responsiblefor theproduction ofmetallicminerals and the otherfor dealingwith industrial minerals aswell as steeland ironproducts. Theproductionofprecious stonessuch as rubies, sapphire, jades and diamonds arehandledbyanotherStateEnterprise.Themainmineralproducts are refined lead, refined silver, zincconcentrates, copper concentrates, refined tin and tinconcentrate, tin-wolfram-sheelite concentrate, andgold. Industrialmineralproducts includecoal,gypsum,byrate, limestone, dolomite, bentonite chromite,fireclay, fluoride, granite andother items.

Marine resourcesMyanmar has about 2,832 km long coast line andmore than 800 islands in MyeikArchipelago. It isvery rich in both pelagic fish and demersal fish.

Myanmarcoastal regionwith the total areaof swampof about 0.5million ha serves as spawning, nurseryand breedingground for aquatic and near shore andbrackishwater fishes. The continental shelf covers228,751 square kilometers.

Myanmarmarine fisherywaters include territorial seaand exclusive economic zone (EEZ). The territorialsea ofMyanmar extends 12 nauticalmiles from thebaseline towards the sea and EEZ is the areawhichcovers all areas of the territorial sea and extends 200nautical miles from the baseline. The total area ofMyanmar fisherywaters, includingEEZ is 486,000squarekilometers.

According tomarine FisheryResource Survey andExploratory Fishing Project conducted by fisheryexpertsonemillionmetric tonsofpelagicfishand0.85millionmetric tonsofdemersal fishexist inMyanmarmarine waters. The Maximum Sustainable Yield(MSY)fromMyanmarWaterswasestimatedat about1.05millionmetric tons. Since theearly1960s, trawlfishinghas been introduced inMyanmarwaters andlatermore advanced technologies of fishing such asbottom trawl net, purse seine net, etc are used.Landing data from marine fisheries showed thatexploitation rate ofmarine fish has increased year byyear and now it nearly equals theMSY.

Myanmar scientists collaboratewith scientists fromASEAN member countries and had conductedresearches in the high sea areaswhich indicated thatenvironmental conditionsofMyanmar seawaters arestill in good shape and the aquatic resources such asTuna,DeepSeaSquids,DeepSeaLobster and otherpelagic fishes aremore abundant than in thewatersof theneighbouringcountries.

Biodiversity

Myanmar canclaimas possessinga richbiodiversitydistributed in different types of forests. Besides,complex arrays of plains alongwith themajor riversandplateaurunningparallel to eachotherwithuniqueecosystems support numerous live forms interactingbetween varying climate and geo-physicalcomponents in the entire country. Biodiversity is avital resource for the sustainable developmentof thenation.BiodiversityinMyanmarcanbedifferentiatedas shownbelow:

(i) MountainBiodiversity(ii) ForestBiodiversity(iii) DryandSub-humid landBiodiversity(iv) InlandWaterBiodiversity


2012

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(v) Agricultural Biodiversity(vi) Marine and Coastal Water Biodiversity

and(vii) Small Islands Biodiversity

Status of biodiversityVarious forest types of Myanmar are inhabited by avast arrayof plantsand wildlife species whereas riversystems and tidal forests serve as breeding placesfor a wide range of aquatic species. Conservation ofthese biological resources has been incorporated inthe broaderscope of nature andwildlife conservationwhich is regarded as one of the national priorities inMyanmar.

Protection of soil, water, wildlife, biodiversity andthe entire environment is identified as an importantimperative in the 1995 Myanmar Forest Policy.

There are 11,800 plant species under angiospermsand gymnosperms including 841 medicinal plantspecies, 96 bamboo species and 37 rattan species.Under fauna, there are 251 species of mammal,1,056 species of birds, 272 species of reptiles,including: 153 snake, 87 lizard and 32 turtle andtortoise species. Under amphibians there are 82species, including 79 frog species, 2 caecilians, and1 salamander.There are 310 fresh water fish species,and 465 marine water fish species recorded so far inMyanmar.

Protected Areas System

The protectedareas system (PAS) is well establishedwith the set-up of parks and sanctuaries. Myanmaris committed to sustainable development of forestsand biological resources through accession to anumberof internationalconventions andagreements.In effect, forestryin Myanmar has beenwell in place,maintaining a balance between environment,development and social needs.

Diverse forestecosystems inMyanmarhaveadiversefauna and flora. So far, 23 sanctuaries and five parksconstituting about 2.26% (15,270 km2) of the totalland area of the country have been established. It isstipulated in the Myanmar Forest Policy that thecoverage of the PAS will be increased to 5% in the

short term. In the long term it is intended to increaseup to 10%.

Threats to biodiversity

Myanmarwith its topographyfeaturinghighmountainranges, rivers and lakes and valleys anda longcoastalregions making up of different ecosystems, diversedlife forms of flora and fauna are found all overMyanmar.Biodiversityofdifferent typesaredescribedabove. Theyhave also common anddifferent threats.Commonthreats to thebiodiversitycomefromhumaninterferences whether high on the mountain slopes,or in the forests, along the rivers and in the valleys.Taungya cuttings, illegal felling of trees and plants,poachingandhunting for sale ofwildlife products arethe major threats in the mountain ecosystem. Forestfires, erosion and landslides are also threats in theseareas. In the forest lands, encroachment of land fortaungyar, agricultural expansion, road building andurbanization, dam construction and geologicalextractions of minerals are common all over thecountry. Illegal felling of trees and over exploitation,cutting of trees for making household products,charcoal burning for sale and household fuel woodutilization are the major threats to forest degradation,deforestation and loss of biodiversity. Forestfragmentationscausehabitat loss species lossand lossof genetic resources.

In the dry and sem-humid areas in Myanmar, thedevelopmentof tradesandcottage industryisgrowingwith theincrease in population, anddemand for forestproducts and firewood is great threateningsurrounding dryforests. The increasing temperature,verylowrainfall, soildeteriorationand reducingwaterholding capacity are additional threats. Wetlandregions inMyanmarconsistingofbigrivers,andsmallrivers streams and small lakes have diversityof freshwater fishes. The threats are deforestation incatchmentareas,erosionandsiltation, legaland illegalsettlements leading to pollution, eutrophication dueto residues of fertilizers in catchment areas, panningfor gold leading to water poisoning and destructiveillegal andover fishing.


2012

2.2. Population and Society

Population

The population of the Union of Myanmar in 2008was estimated at 57.5 million, an increase of 0.98million over the year 2005-2006 population of 56.52million, registeringa growth rate of2.02 percent. Thetotal population was 56,515,000 which included28,097,000 males and 28,418,000 females.Myanmaris inhabitedbyover100ethnicnationalities.Bamar was the largest group constituting about 69percent of the total.

About 70 percent of Myanmar’s population live inrural and remote areas and about 30% in towns andcities.ThemostpopulouscitiesareYangon, the formercapital, and Mandalay, the ancient capital ofMyanmar.Accordingto thestatisticaldataendingyear2000, the most populated Regions are Mandalay,AyeyarwadyandYangon.

Myanmar supports a diversity of ethnic groups,officially listed as 135 national races classified intoeight groups namely Bamar, Chin, Kachin, Kayah,Kayin, Mon, Rakhine and Shan. The ethnic groupslike Kachin,Kayin, Kayah, Chin, Rakhine,Shan, andMon live in Kachin State, Kayin State, Kayah State,Chin State, Rakhine State, Shan State and Mon Staterespectively. The people living in the Regions aremostlyBamars.

The people of Myanmar are mostlyBuddhists, but arichmixof religionscanbefound, includingChristian,Hindu, Muslim andAnimist.The ethnic groups havetheir own traditions and societal structures.

EmploymentIn the year 2005, there were 77 labour officesthroughout the country.All persons wishing to joingovernment service have to register for work ingovernment labour offices.

The results of the labour force survey conducted in1990 by the Department of Labour are shown in(Table 2.11) together with the 1973 and 1983population censuses. The table presents labour force,unemployment rates and visible underemployment

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rates. “Unemployed” refers to persons who are notemployed but are available for or seeking paid work.Visible underemployment is primarily a statisticalconcept directlymeasurable by labor force and othersurveys reflecting an insufficiency in the volume ofemployment. Itoccurswhenapersonis inemploymentof less than normal duration and is seeking or wouldaccept additional work. The table presented belowhas used the time utilization approach as well as theusual status approach to estimate the rate of visibleunderemployment inMyanmar (StatisticalYearbook,2006).

EducationEducation system in Myanmar is built upon broadstreams: General, Professional, Technical andVocational. Under the general and professionalstreams are included Basic education, Monasticeducation, Higher education, two-year College andUniversity of distance education. Under Technicalandvocational streamsis includedTeacher’sTrainingProgram(BasicEducationandTechnical,Agriculturaland Vocation Education).

Basic educationTheBasicEducationcomprisesprimarygrade,middlegrade and higher grade. It is also classified aspreschool (kindergarten), primaryschool (from gradeone to four),middle school (from gradefive to seven)and high school (from grade eight to ten) They arealso known as Basic Education Primary School(BEPS), Basic Education Middle School (BEMS)and Basic Education High School (BEHS)respectively, after which higher education is offeredin Institutesand Universities.

Higher educationAfter passing the BEHS examination and universityentrance examinations, students enter variousuniversities, institutes, degree colleges and technical/vocational training institutes, according to their meritand choice. There are altogether 102 institutionsincluding universities, technological institutes, anddegree and diploma colleges in Myanmar.

The number of schools constructed in States andRegions in 2007 alone amounted to 2,360.


2012

Monastic education schoolsWith the aim of providing the needy children andpeople living in various parts of the countrywith thebasiceducationinconjuctionwithBuddhisticteachings1,313 Monastic Education Schools have beenopened in 249 townships. Altogether more than200,000 boys and girls excluding nuns and novicesof the respectivemonasteries are learning in theseschools at present.

Medical care and healthIn 1979, theMinistryofHealth introduced theVitalStatistics CollectionSystem (VSS) in rural areas of

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Table 2.10:Distribution of population by State andRegion

Source: Statistical Yearbook, 2006

Sr. States/ Regions Landarea km2 Populationnumber

Density per km2

1 Kachin State 85,783.08 1,511,165 18

2 Kayah State 11,318.63 335,961 30

3 Kayin State 29,313.47 1,739,690 59

4 Chin state 34,750.11 533,047 15

5 Mon State 11,863.87 2,997,543 253

6 Rakhine State 35,483.47 3,183,330 90

7 Shan State 150,317.45 5,464,070 36

8 Sagaing Region 91,294.96 6,274,055 69

9 Tanintharyi Region 41,820.51 1,631,874 39

10 Bago Region 61,953.63 5,792,576 93

11 Magway Region 43,244.85 5,392,446 125

12 Mandalay Region 35,718.36 8,061,708 226

13 Yangon Region 9,812.93 6,724,274 685

14 Ayeyarwady Region 33,901.70 7,862,628 232

Total 676,577.00 57,504,367 85

Sr. States/ Regions Landarea km2

Landarea km2

Landarea km Populationnumber

Density per km2

Density per km2

Density per km

1 Kachin State 85,783.08 1,511,165 18

2 Kayah State 11,318.63 335,961 30

3 Kayin State 29,313.47 1,739,690 59

4 Chin state 34,750.11 533,047 15

5 Mon State 11,863.87 2,997,543 253

6 Rakhine State 35,483.47 3,183,330 90

7 Shan State 150,317.45 5,464,070 36

8 Sagaing Region 91,294.96 6,274,055 69

9 Tanintharyi Region 41,820.51 1,631,874 39

10 Bago Region 61,953.63 5,792,576 93

11 Magway Region 43,244.85 5,392,446 125

12 Mandalay Region 35,718.36 8,061,708 226

13 Yangon Region 9,812.93 6,724,274 685

14 Ayeyarwady Region 33,901.70 7,862,628 232

Total 676,577.00 57,504,367 85

Toprovidehealth assistance inallplacesofMyanmar,hospitals havebeen increasinglyconstructed. In1988therewere only361 hospitals inMyanmar but nowthenumberhas increased to846.Toenhancecapacity

Table 2.11: Labor force, unemployment rates

Note: LFS = Labour Force Survey Source: Department of Labour

LFS1/ LFS2/I. Total Labour Force (in million) 9.37 12.2 11.35 16.52

1. Employed 9.2 12 10.66 15.83

2. Unemployed 0.17 0.2 0.69 0.69II. Unemployment Rate (%)

(a) Both sexes 1.81 1.64 6.08 4.18

(b) Male 2.08 1.92 4.63 3.69

(c) Female 0.97 1.14 8.84 4.79

S.N Category1990

1983Popuation

Census

1973Popuation

Census LFS1/ LFS2/I. Total Labour Force (in million) 9.37 12.2 11.35 16.529.37 12.2 11.35 16.529.37 12.2 11.35 16.52

1. Employed 9.2 12 10.66 15.83

2. Unemployed 0.17 0.2 0.69 0.690.2 0.69 0.690.2 0.69 0.69II. Unemployment Rate (%)

(a) Both sexes 1.81 1.64 6.08 4.181.81 1.64 6.08 4.181.81 1.64 6.08 4.18

(b) Male 2.08 1.92 4.63 3.69

(c) Female 0.97 1.14 8.84 4.790.97 1.14 8.84 4.790.97 1.14 8.84 4.79

S.N Category1990

1983Popuation

CensusCensus

1973Popuation

Census


Myanmar. By theyear 2006 it covered all rural areasof 291 townships and rural population of 42.49million representing 100% of the total ruralpopulationof the township thatwere surveyed.

According to2005 statistics infantmortalityratewas44.9 per 1,000, and the age specificmortality rate isgiven in (Figure2.6).

2012

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To promoteand upgrade the standard of medical carein townships and districts, specialists and physiciansareassigned to townsanddistricts all over thecountry.

With a view to encouraging thepractice of traditionalmedicine, thegovernmenthasestablishedaUniversityof Traditional Medicine and traditional medicinehospitals and clinics throughout the country.

Figure 2.6:Age specific mortality rate (Urban),2006

(per 1000 population in each age group)

2.3. Economic Development

Level of economic developmentFrom 1988 onwards Myanmar has moved to a moreliberalized economic policybased onmarket orientedsystem, promoted the role of private sector and openup to foreign investments.To stabilize the economicdevelopment and also provide safety nets for the

The positive GDP growth has been recorded high incertain sectors of the economy. However, neither therateofsocialdeclineand inequitynor thedeteriorationof natural resources and environmental degradationassociated with economic growth has beensatisfactorily studied or surveyed and reported. Forthe continuedeconomicgrowth, thecountrywillhaveto facethe impendingchallenges includingthemacro-economic instability, volatility of foreign exchangeearning and unstable exchange rates, low level ofsavings, large deficits, distortion in the price andinsertions system, indiscriminate land uses andecosystem instability. (MyanmarAgenda 21)

The PlanningDepartment of the Ministryof NationalPlanning and Economic Development is responsiblefor collection and issuing of statistical data on grossdomestic products, consumption, investment andnational income, which are calculated both at currentprices and constant prices. Since 2006-2007 the totalvalue ofnet output and services (GDP) are calculatedat 2005-2006 constant producer prices.

TheAnnual Rate of Real Gross Domestic Productincreased from 3% in 1988 to about 13% in 2007.Growth rates of Gross Domestic Product,consumption and investments for 2006-2007 show8.3 percent for forestry, 8.6 percent in agriculturalsector and12.2percent in livestockandfisherysector.Overall per capita GDP has increased by 10.5percent (Table 2.12).


and education in medical sector manymore Institutesof Medicine have been opened. In 1988, there wereonly3Institutes of Medicine and one Dental College,but at present there are 4 Institutes of Medicine, 2DentalColleges,2NursingColleges,2PharmaceuticalColleges, 2Medical Institutes ofTechnology,and oneInstitute of Public Health. Previously there were only7 nurse trainingschools which havenow increased to23.

vulnerable groups duringthe transition, the followinglaws have been enacted: Foreign Investment Law,New Central Bank of Myanmar Laws, FinancialInstitution of Myanmar Law and Myanmar TourismLaws. And the Chambers of Commerce has beentransformedandreactivatedas theUnionofMyanmarChambers of Commerce and Industry.

2012

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Table 2.12:Annual GrowthRates ofGross Domestic Product, consumption and investment

Source: StatisticalYear Book, CSO,Myanmar (2008)

I 2.2 2.6 6.7 14 10.6 10.6 13.5 13.1 13.8 12.11 Agriculture 2.2 2 5.5 11.1 8.1 4.7 9.3 10.2 10.7 8.62 Livestock andFishery 2 -0.6 3 18.9 12.6 14 25.3 15.5 18.8 12.23 Forestry -0.1 8.3 -4.5 3.3 7.7 6.2 6.4 -5.9 4 8.34 Energy -7.6 8.9 30.1 6.9 25 10.3 8.3 19.4 155 Mining 2.9 18.5 27.3 4 32.4 7.9 15.4 37 9.96.ProcessingandManufacturing 2.9 0.1 7.6 23 21.8 28.7 22 24.7 21.9 22.1

7 ElectricPower 5.4 5 6.6 15.3 -7.8 22.1 15 7.3 19.2 9.58 Construction -0.8 35.8 27.2 4 29.4 60.5 19.7 13.5 11 15.2

II 4.1 4.2 9.3 12.6 18.8 25.3 17.4 17.7 15.2 15.71. Transport 1.5 3.5 6.4 22.5 19.5 25.8 20.9 16.5 16.2 162. Communications 12 3.9 24.6 29 30.3 89.8 3.5 51.6 18.5 20.73. Financial Institutions 6.1 16.7 34.8 16.3 24.9 45.5 10.4 27.4 51.7 11.2

4. Social andAdministrativeServices 6.4 4.2 6.2 4.3 13.5 13.5 10.7 14.9 8.4 9

5. Rental andOther Services 2.1 3.5 6.3 5.9 18.6 20 14.1 14.4 12 14.3

III 3.7 2.4 5.7 14.1 10.6 10.5 13.3 12.8 12.1 12.7IV 2.9 2.8 6.9 13.7 11.3 12 13.8 13.6 13.6 12.7V 0.9 0.9 5 11.5 9.1 9.8 11.6 11.3 11.3 10.5VI 0.2 -1 4.4 5.5 10.3 9.8 10.3 9.5 8.8 9.3

VII -0.4 34.8 25.7 8.8 7 4 26.2 19.3 27.1 21.9PERCAPITAINVESTMENT

2006-07

3.9

SERVICES

TRADEVALUEGROSSDOMESTICPRODUCTPERCAPITAGDPPERCAPITACONSUMPTION

2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

GOODS

2000-01

Sr. Sectors

1985-86

1990-91

1995-96

I 2.2 2.6 6.7 14 10.6 10.6 13.5 13.1 13.8 12.11 Agriculture 2.2 2 5.5 11.1 8.1 4.7 9.3 10.2 10.7 8.62.2 2 5.5 11.1 8.1 4.7 9.3 10.2 10.7 8.62.2 2 5.5 11.1 8.1 4.7 9.3 10.2 10.7 8.62.2 2 5.5 11.1 8.1 4.7 9.3 10.2 10.7 8.62.2 2 5.5 11.1 8.1 4.7 9.3 10.2 10.7 8.62.2 2 5.5 11.1 8.1 4.7 9.3 10.2 10.7 8.6

2006-07

2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

GOODSGOODSG

2000-01

Sr. Sectors

1985-86

1990-91

1995-96

2 -0.6 3 18.9 12.6 14 25.3 15.5 18.8 12.22 -0.6 3 18.9 12.6 14 25.3 15.5 18.8 12.22 -0.6 3 18.9 12.6 14 25.3 15.5 18.8 12.22 -0.6 3 18.9 12.6 14 25.3 15.5 18.8 12.22 -0.6 3 18.9 12.6 14 25.3 15.5 18.8 12.22 -0.6 3 18.9 12.6 14 25.3 15.5 18.8 12.22 -0.6 3 18.9 12.6 14 25.3 15.5 18.8 12.22 -0.6 3 18.9 12.6 14 25.3 15.5 18.8 12.22 -0.6 3 18.9 12.6 14 25.3 15.5 18.8 12.22 -0.6 3 18.9 12.6 14 25.3 15.5 18.8 12.2Livestock andFishery2-0.1 8.3 -4.5 3.3 7.7 6.2 6.4 -5.9 4 8.3-0.1 8.3 -4.5 3.3 7.7 6.2 6.4 -5.9 4 8.3-0.1 8.3 -4.5 3.3 7.7 6.2 6.4 -5.9 4 8.3-0.1 8.3 -4.5 3.3 7.7 6.2 6.4 -5.9 4 8.3-0.1 8.3 -4.5 3.3 7.7 6.2 6.4 -5.9 4 8.3-0.1 8.3 -4.5 3.3 7.7 6.2 6.4 -5.9 4 8.3-0.1 8.3 -4.5 3.3 7.7 6.2 6.4 -5.9 4 8.3-0.1 8.3 -4.5 3.3 7.7 6.2 6.4 -5.9 4 8.3-0.1 8.3 -4.5 3.3 7.7 6.2 6.4 -5.9 4 8.3-0.1 8.3 -4.5 3.3 7.7 6.2 6.4 -5.9 4 8.3-0.1 8.3 -4.5 3.3 7.7 6.2 6.4 -5.9 4 8.3Forestry3-7.6 8.9 30.1 6.9 25 10.3 8.3 19.4 15-7.6 8.9 30.1 6.9 25 10.3 8.3 19.4 15-7.6 8.9 30.1 6.9 25 10.3 8.3 19.4 15-7.6 8.9 30.1 6.9 25 10.3 8.3 19.4 15-7.6 8.9 30.1 6.9 25 10.3 8.3 19.4 15-7.6 8.9 30.1 6.9 25 10.3 8.3 19.4 15-7.6 8.9 30.1 6.9 25 10.3 8.3 19.4 15-7.6 8.9 30.1 6.9 25 10.3 8.3 19.4 15-7.6 8.9 30.1 6.9 25 10.3 8.3 19.4 153.9Energy4

II

IIIIVVVIVII

2.9 18.5 27.3 4 32.4 7.9 15.4 37 9.92.9 18.5 27.3 4 32.4 7.9 15.4 37 9.92.9 18.5 27.3 4 32.4 7.9 15.4 37 9.92.9 18.5 27.3 4 32.4 7.9 15.4 37 9.92.9 18.5 27.3 4 32.4 7.9 15.4 37 9.92.9 18.5 27.3 4 32.4 7.9 15.4 37 9.92.9 18.5 27.3 4 32.4 7.9 15.4 37 9.92.9 18.5 27.3 4 32.4 7.9 15.4 37 9.92.9 18.5 27.3 4 32.4 7.9 15.4 37 9.92.9 18.5 27.3 4 32.4 7.9 15.4 37 9.9Mining5ProcessingandManufacturing 2.9 0.1 7.6 23 21.8 28.7 22 24.7 21.9 22.1ProcessingandManufacturing 2.9 0.1 7.6 23 21.8 28.7 22 24.7 21.9 22.1ProcessingandManufacturing 2.9 0.1 7.6 23 21.8 28.7 22 24.7 21.9 22.1ProcessingandManufacturing 2.9 0.1 7.6 23 21.8 28.7 22 24.7 21.9 22.1ProcessingandManufacturing 2.9 0.1 7.6 23 21.8 28.7 22 24.7 21.9 22.1ProcessingandManufacturing 2.9 0.1 7.6 23 21.8 28.7 22 24.7 21.9 22.1ProcessingandManufacturing 2.9 0.1 7.6 23 21.8 28.7 22 24.7 21.9 22.1ProcessingandManufacturing 2.9 0.1 7.6 23 21.8 28.7 22 24.7 21.9 22.1ProcessingandManufacturing 2.9 0.1 7.6 23 21.8 28.7 22 24.7 21.9 22.1ProcessingandManufacturing 2.9 0.1 7.6 23 21.8 28.7 22 24.7 21.9 22.1ProcessingandManufacturing 2.9 0.1 7.6 23 21.8 28.7 22 24.7 21.9 22.16

5.4 5 6.6 15.3 -7.8 22.1 15 7.3 19.2 9.55.4 5 6.6 15.3 -7.8 22.1 15 7.3 19.2 9.55.4 5 6.6 15.3 -7.8 22.1 15 7.3 19.2 9.55.4 5 6.6 15.3 -7.8 22.1 15 7.3 19.2 9.55.4 5 6.6 15.3 -7.8 22.1 15 7.3 19.2 9.55.4 5 6.6 15.3 -7.8 22.1 15 7.3 19.2 9.55.4 5 6.6 15.3 -7.8 22.1 15 7.3 19.2 9.55.4 5 6.6 15.3 -7.8 22.1 15 7.3 19.2 9.55.4 5 6.6 15.3 -7.8 22.1 15 7.3 19.2 9.55.4 5 6.6 15.3 -7.8 22.1 15 7.3 19.2 9.55.4 5 6.6 15.3 -7.8 22.1 15 7.3 19.2 9.5ElectricPower7-0.8 35.8 27.2 4 29.4 60.5 19.7 13.5 11 15.2-0.8 35.8 27.2 4 29.4 60.5 19.7 13.5 11 15.2-0.8 35.8 27.2 4 29.4 60.5 19.7 13.5 11 15.2-0.8 35.8 27.2 4 29.4 60.5 19.7 13.5 11 15.2-0.8 35.8 27.2 4 29.4 60.5 19.7 13.5 11 15.2-0.8 35.8 27.2 4 29.4 60.5 19.7 13.5 11 15.2-0.8 35.8 27.2 4 29.4 60.5 19.7 13.5 11 15.2-0.8 35.8 27.2 4 29.4 60.5 19.7 13.5 11 15.2-0.8 35.8 27.2 4 29.4 60.5 19.7 13.5 11 15.2-0.8 35.8 27.2 4 29.4 60.5 19.7 13.5 11 15.2Construction84.1 4.2 9.3 12.6 18.8 25.3 17.4 17.7 15.2 15.74.1 4.2 9.3 12.6 18.8 25.3 17.4 17.7 15.2 15.74.1 4.2 9.3 12.6 18.8 25.3 17.4 17.7 15.2 15.74.1 4.2 9.3 12.6 18.8 25.3 17.4 17.7 15.2 15.74.1 4.2 9.3 12.6 18.8 25.3 17.4 17.7 15.2 15.74.1 4.2 9.3 12.6 18.8 25.3 17.4 17.7 15.2 15.74.1 4.2 9.3 12.6 18.8 25.3 17.4 17.7 15.2 15.74.1 4.2 9.3 12.6 18.8 25.3 17.4 17.7 15.2 15.74.1 4.2 9.3 12.6 18.8 25.3 17.4 17.7 15.2 15.74.1 4.2 9.3 12.6 18.8 25.3 17.4 17.7 15.2 15.7SERVICES1.5 3.5 6.4 22.5 19.5 25.8 20.9 16.5 16.2 161.5 3.5 6.4 22.5 19.5 25.8 20.9 16.5 16.2 161.5 3.5 6.4 22.5 19.5 25.8 20.9 16.5 16.2 161.5 3.5 6.4 22.5 19.5 25.8 20.9 16.5 16.2 161.5 3.5 6.4 22.5 19.5 25.8 20.9 16.5 16.2 161.5 3.5 6.4 22.5 19.5 25.8 20.9 16.5 16.2 161.5 3.5 6.4 22.5 19.5 25.8 20.9 16.5 16.2 161.5 3.5 6.4 22.5 19.5 25.8 20.9 16.5 16.2 161.5 3.5 6.4 22.5 19.5 25.8 20.9 16.5 16.2 161.5 3.5 6.4 22.5 19.5 25.8 20.9 16.5 16.2 161.5 3.5 6.4 22.5 19.5 25.8 20.9 16.5 16.2 16Transport1.12 3.9 24.6 29 30.3 89.8 3.5 51.6 18.5 20.712 3.9 24.6 29 30.3 89.8 3.5 51.6 18.5 20.712 3.9 24.6 29 30.3 89.8 3.5 51.6 18.5 20.712 3.9 24.6 29 30.3 89.8 3.5 51.6 18.5 20.712 3.9 24.6 29 30.3 89.8 3.5 51.6 18.5 20.712 3.9 24.6 29 30.3 89.8 3.5 51.6 18.5 20.712 3.9 24.6 29 30.3 89.8 3.5 51.6 18.5 20.712 3.9 24.6 29 30.3 89.8 3.5 51.6 18.5 20.712 3.9 24.6 29 30.3 89.8 3.5 51.6 18.5 20.712 3.9 24.6 29 30.3 89.8 3.5 51.6 18.5 20.7Communications2.6.1 16.7 34.8 16.3 24.9 45.5 10.4 27.4 51.7 11.26.1 16.7 34.8 16.3 24.9 45.5 10.4 27.4 51.7 11.26.1 16.7 34.8 16.3 24.9 45.5 10.4 27.4 51.7 11.26.1 16.7 34.8 16.3 24.9 45.5 10.4 27.4 51.7 11.26.1 16.7 34.8 16.3 24.9 45.5 10.4 27.4 51.7 11.26.1 16.7 34.8 16.3 24.9 45.5 10.4 27.4 51.7 11.26.1 16.7 34.8 16.3 24.9 45.5 10.4 27.4 51.7 11.26.1 16.7 34.8 16.3 24.9 45.5 10.4 27.4 51.7 11.26.1 16.7 34.8 16.3 24.9 45.5 10.4 27.4 51.7 11.26.1 16.7 34.8 16.3 24.9 45.5 10.4 27.4 51.7 11.26.1 16.7 34.8 16.3 24.9 45.5 10.4 27.4 51.7 11.2Financial Institutions3.

Social andAdministrativeServices 6.4 4.2 6.2 4.3 13.5 13.5 10.7 14.9 8.4 9Social andAdministrativeServices 6.4 4.2 6.2 4.3 13.5 13.5 10.7 14.9 8.4 9Social andAdministrativeServices 6.4 4.2 6.2 4.3 13.5 13.5 10.7 14.9 8.4 9Social andAdministrativeServices 6.4 4.2 6.2 4.3 13.5 13.5 10.7 14.9 8.4 9Social andAdministrativeServices 6.4 4.2 6.2 4.3 13.5 13.5 10.7 14.9 8.4 9Social andAdministrativeServices 6.4 4.2 6.2 4.3 13.5 13.5 10.7 14.9 8.4 9Social andAdministrativeServices 6.4 4.2 6.2 4.3 13.5 13.5 10.7 14.9 8.4 9Social andAdministrativeServices 6.4 4.2 6.2 4.3 13.5 13.5 10.7 14.9 8.4 9Social andAdministrativeServices 6.4 4.2 6.2 4.3 13.5 13.5 10.7 14.9 8.4 9Social andAdministrativeServices 6.4 4.2 6.2 4.3 13.5 13.5 10.7 14.9 8.4 9Social andAdministrativeServices 6.4 4.2 6.2 4.3 13.5 13.5 10.7 14.9 8.4 94.

2.1 3.5 6.3 5.9 18.6 20 14.1 14.4 12 14.32.1 3.5 6.3 5.9 18.6 20 14.1 14.4 12 14.32.1 3.5 6.3 5.9 18.6 20 14.1 14.4 12 14.32.1 3.5 6.3 5.9 18.6 20 14.1 14.4 12 14.32.1 3.5 6.3 5.9 18.6 20 14.1 14.4 12 14.32.1 3.5 6.3 5.9 18.6 20 14.1 14.4 12 14.32.1 3.5 6.3 5.9 18.6 20 14.1 14.4 12 14.32.1 3.5 6.3 5.9 18.6 20 14.1 14.4 12 14.32.1 3.5 6.3 5.9 18.6 20 14.1 14.4 12 14.32.1 3.5 6.3 5.9 18.6 20 14.1 14.4 12 14.32.1 3.5 6.3 5.9 18.6 20 14.1 14.4 12 14.3Rental andOther Services5.

3.7 2.4 5.7 14.1 10.6 10.5 13.3 12.8 12.1 12.73.7 2.4 5.7 14.1 10.6 10.5 13.3 12.8 12.1 12.73.7 2.4 5.7 14.1 10.6 10.5 13.3 12.8 12.1 12.73.7 2.4 5.7 14.1 10.6 10.5 13.3 12.8 12.1 12.73.7 2.4 5.7 14.1 10.6 10.5 13.3 12.8 12.1 12.73.7 2.4 5.7 14.1 10.6 10.5 13.3 12.8 12.1 12.73.7 2.4 5.7 14.1 10.6 10.5 13.3 12.8 12.1 12.73.7 2.4 5.7 14.1 10.6 10.5 13.3 12.8 12.1 12.73.7 2.4 5.7 14.1 10.6 10.5 13.3 12.8 12.1 12.73.7 2.4 5.7 14.1 10.6 10.5 13.3 12.8 12.1 12.7TRADEVALUE2.9 2.8 6.9 13.7 11.3 12 13.8 13.6 13.6 12.72.9 2.8 6.9 13.7 11.3 12 13.8 13.6 13.6 12.72.9 2.8 6.9 13.7 11.3 12 13.8 13.6 13.6 12.72.9 2.8 6.9 13.7 11.3 12 13.8 13.6 13.6 12.72.9 2.8 6.9 13.7 11.3 12 13.8 13.6 13.6 12.72.9 2.8 6.9 13.7 11.3 12 13.8 13.6 13.6 12.72.9 2.8 6.9 13.7 11.3 12 13.8 13.6 13.6 12.72.9 2.8 6.9 13.7 11.3 12 13.8 13.6 13.6 12.72.9 2.8 6.9 13.7 11.3 12 13.8 13.6 13.6 12.72.9 2.8 6.9 13.7 11.3 12 13.8 13.6 13.6 12.72.9 2.8 6.9 13.7 11.3 12 13.8 13.6 13.6 12.7GROSSDOMESTICPRODUCT0.9 0.9 5 11.5 9.1 9.8 11.6 11.3 11.3 10.50.9 0.9 5 11.5 9.1 9.8 11.6 11.3 11.3 10.50.9 0.9 5 11.5 9.1 9.8 11.6 11.3 11.3 10.50.9 0.9 5 11.5 9.1 9.8 11.6 11.3 11.3 10.50.9 0.9 5 11.5 9.1 9.8 11.6 11.3 11.3 10.50.9 0.9 5 11.5 9.1 9.8 11.6 11.3 11.3 10.50.9 0.9 5 11.5 9.1 9.8 11.6 11.3 11.3 10.50.9 0.9 5 11.5 9.1 9.8 11.6 11.3 11.3 10.50.9 0.9 5 11.5 9.1 9.8 11.6 11.3 11.3 10.50.9 0.9 5 11.5 9.1 9.8 11.6 11.3 11.3 10.5PERCAPITAGDP0.2 -1 4.4 5.5 10.3 9.8 10.3 9.5 8.8 9.30.2 -1 4.4 5.5 10.3 9.8 10.3 9.5 8.8 9.30.2 -1 4.4 5.5 10.3 9.8 10.3 9.5 8.8 9.30.2 -1 4.4 5.5 10.3 9.8 10.3 9.5 8.8 9.30.2 -1 4.4 5.5 10.3 9.8 10.3 9.5 8.8 9.30.2 -1 4.4 5.5 10.3 9.8 10.3 9.5 8.8 9.30.2 -1 4.4 5.5 10.3 9.8 10.3 9.5 8.8 9.30.2 -1 4.4 5.5 10.3 9.8 10.3 9.5 8.8 9.30.2 -1 4.4 5.5 10.3 9.8 10.3 9.5 8.8 9.30.2 -1 4.4 5.5 10.3 9.8 10.3 9.5 8.8 9.30.2 -1 4.4 5.5 10.3 9.8 10.3 9.5 8.8 9.3PERCAPITACONSUMPTION-0.4 34.8 25.7 8.8 7 4 26.2 19.3 27.1 21.9-0.4 34.8 25.7 8.8 7 4 26.2 19.3 27.1 21.9-0.4 34.8 25.7 8.8 7 4 26.2 19.3 27.1 21.9-0.4 34.8 25.7 8.8 7 4 26.2 19.3 27.1 21.9-0.4 34.8 25.7 8.8 7 4 26.2 19.3 27.1 21.9-0.4 34.8 25.7 8.8 7 4 26.2 19.3 27.1 21.9-0.4 34.8 25.7 8.8 7 4 26.2 19.3 27.1 21.9-0.4 34.8 25.7 8.8 7 4 26.2 19.3 27.1 21.9-0.4 34.8 25.7 8.8 7 4 26.2 19.3 27.1 21.9-0.4 34.8 25.7 8.8 7 4 26.2 19.3 27.1 21.9PERCAPITAINVESTMENT

AsMyanmar is an agrarian country, the agriculturesector comprisingagriculture, livestock, fishery, andforestrycontributes tomore than 50%of thenationalGDPandabout30%of theexport earnings.Althoughforestry sector’s contribution to the nationalGDPisless than 1 percent, timber export alone contributesabout 10 percent of the total export. Like otherdeveloping countries,Myanmar’s external trade hasalso to relyon exports of primaryproducts from thenatural resources.

There isaprospect fornetearningsfromforest throughcarbon initiativeproposedbyacoalitionofdevelopingcountries at theUNClimateTalks inKenya in 2006.Under the proposed carbon finance initiative,Myanmar could earn from$128million to over $1.8billion from industrial countries through forestconservation funds if the countrymitigated 32-93megatons of CO2 which are being emitted due todeforestation of 466,000 hectares per year inMyanmar (Mongaban 2006). The estimation stated

that carbon finance could boost per capita GDP inMyanmar from 5 to 20 percent.

Economic structureMyanmar is in its initial stageof development.Thus,it has to rely on primary sectors such as resourceextractionandexport.Thecountryisat the transitionalperiod of market-oriented economic system andindustrialization. Up to recent days the structure ofMyanmareconomyhasnotsignificantlychangedwithhigh domination of primary sectors comprisingagriculture, livestockandfishery, and forestry, energyandmining.Secondarysector includesprocessingandmanufacturing, electric power and construction.Tertiary sector consists of transportation,communication, finance, social and administration,rentals and other services plus trade.The proportionof industrialsectorinMyanmarslightlyincreasedfrom15% in 1985-86 to 16 percent in 2005-2006. Theshareofagricultureandotherprimarysectorsdeclinedfrom61%to49%,and thatof service sector increased


2012

from 23 to 35% for the same period. Highercontribution of service sector was due to rapidexpansion of international trade with the initiation ofthe market economy (Figure 2.7).

Page 18

Figure 2.7: Structure of Myanmar economyFigure 2.8: Value of foreign trade

Foreign tradeExport commodities include

1. Agricultural products : rice and riceproducts, pulses, maize, oilcakes, rawrubber, raw cotton, raw jute and otheragricultural products;

2. Animal products;3. Marine products such as fish, prawns, and

other marine products;4. Timber such as teak and hardwoods;5. Base metals and ores;6. Precious and semi-precious materials such

as silver, precious stones and pearls;7. Gas; and8. Garments.

Export commodities for 2006-07 valued 30,026million kyats in total. Rice is exported to South-eastAsian and a few otherAsian countries, Middle East,America, Europe,Africa and Oceania.

Timber isexportedmostlytoASEANandotherAsiancountries, Middle East,Americas, Europe,Africa andOceania.

Foreign investments

Foreigninvestorscansetuptheirbusiness inMyanmareither in the form of one hundred percent foreign in-vestment or as a joint venture with any partner (anindividual, a private company, a cooperative, a soci-etyor a state-owned enterprise). In all joint ventures,the minimum share of the foreign party is 35 percentof the total equitycapital.

(Figure 2.8 and 2.9) show foreign investment of Per-mitted Enterprises from 1990 to 2007, number ofEnterprises and Foreign Investments in million US$.

Figure 2.9: Foreign investment of permittedenterprises


2012

Page 19

2.4. Some of the Major Sectorswhich Support the NationalDevelopment

The major sectors are Energy, Electric Power,Transport and Communications, Agriculture andLivestock and Fisheries and Forestry.Abrief accountof each of these sectors is presented below.

EnergyMyanmar is richlyendowed with renewableand non-renewable energyresources that are being exploitedby the state sector with the participation of local andforeign investors. The exploitation, development,production and transportation of crude oil and naturalgas are the responsibility of Myanmar Oil and GasEnterprise (MOGE)which operates oil andgas fieldsboth on land and offshore.

Oil producing fields are mostly located in the centralpart of Myanmar and in PyayDistrict. Myanaung oilfield producescrudeoil and natural gas,while inPyayoil field some new discoveries have been made from

the sub thrust zone. MOGE has discovered more gaspools near Aphyauk, a small village in TaikkyiTownship inYangonRegion.The Aphyaukoil field isnow providing natural gas for power generation andindustrial uses in Yangon and Pyay. Since 1989MOGE has signedagreements on production sharingcontracts with multinationaloil companies to exploreand produce petroleum in several onshore andoffshore areas. Potentials for further exploration anddevelopmentexist inHukaungBasin,ChindwinBasin,Shwebo-Monywa Plains, Salin Basin, CentralMyanmar Basin, Rakhine Coastal Plain and theSittaungBasin.

In respect of offshore exploration of oil and gas,several foreign companies have been drilling for oiland gas like Yadana Offshore Oil Company in theGulf ofMoattama offshore area, ShweOil Enterprisein Rakhine offshore area, theYetagun Oil CompanyinTanintharyi Offshore area

The development of the energy sector during theperiod from 1988 to 2009 has been as shown in(Table 2.13 and 2.14).

Sr S tate/Region Unit 1988 2009 Progres s1. Oil Field Exploration

(A) Oil Field (Onshore) Field 19 31 12(B) Oil Field (Offshore) Field - 5 5Total Field 19 36 17

2. Oil and Natural Gas Pipeline Length(A) Onshore km 403.97 3,169.53 2,765.56(B) Offshore(Under Water) km - 550.62 550.62(C) Offshore(Onland) km - 135.24 135.24Total km 403.97 3,855.39 3,451.42

3. Crude Oil Production(A) Offshore Bbl - 3,044,414 3,044,414Total Bbl 6,165,641 6,279,880 1,14,239

4. Natural Gas Production(A) Offshore mmscf - 348,131 348,131

Table 2.13: Development of energy sector of the whole nation from 1988 to 2009

Industries and factories

In 2008, the total number of factories (industries)was 14 including 3 crude oil refineries, 5 chemicalfertilizer factories, 1 methanol factory. 1 tar factoryand 1 carbon dioxide factory.

Electric powerIn 1988 electric power supply for the whole countrywas 273 millionKwhbut it increasedto7,508 million


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Page 20

Table 2.14: Energy exploration of states and regions inMyanmar(Comparison between 1988 and 2009)

Sr State/R egion U nit 19 88 2 00 9Tan in thay i Region-Crude Oil Production bb l - 3,044,414(o ffs ho re)-Natural Gas Production mmscf - 141,807

(Offshore mm3

Magway Reg ion-Oil Field(Onshore) field 10 20

Yangon Reg ion-Crude Oil Production bb l - 2,823(Onshore)-Natural Gas Production mmscf - 865.96

mm3

Ayeyarwady Region-Crude Oil Production bb l 178,435 220,271(Onshore)

-Natural Gas Production mmscf 15,972.23 22,523.20(Onshore) mm

3

-Natural Gas Production mmscf - 206,342(Offs ho re) mm3

1

2

3

4

Sr State/R egion U nit 19 88 2 00 9Tan in thay i Region-Crude Oil Production bb l - 3,044,414(o ffs ho re)-Natural Gas Production mmscf - 141,807

(Offshore mm3

Magway Reg ion-Oil Field(Onshore) field 10 20

Yangon Reg ion-Crude Oil Production bb l - 2,823(Onshore)-Natural Gas Production mmscf - 865.96

mm3

Ayeyarwady Region-Crude Oil Production bb l 178,435 220,271(Onshore)

-Natural Gas Production mmscf 15,972.23 22,523.20(Onshore) mm

3

-Natural Gas Production mmscf - 206,342(Offs ho re)

1

2

3

4

mm3

The following (Table 2.15) shows the progress inelectric power production from 1985/86 to 2006/2007.

Table 2.15: Production of electric power (1985-86 to 2006-07)

Note: mmscf=millionstandard cubit feet bbl = barrelNote: mmscf=millionstandard cubit feet bbl = barrelNote: mmscf=millionstandard cubit feet bbl = barrelNote: mmscf=millionstandard cubit feet bbl = barrelNote: mmscf=millionstandard cubit feet bbl = barrelNote: mmscf=millionstandard cubit feet bbl = barrelNote: mmscf=millionstandard cubit feet bbl = barrelNote: mmscf=millionstandard cubit feet bbl = barrelNote: mmscf=millionstandard cubit feet bbl = barrelNote: mmscf=millionstandard cubit feet bbl = barrelNote: mmscf=millionstandard cubit feet bbl = barrelNote: mmscf=millionstandard cubit feet bbl = barrel

Kwh in 2008. Itwas due to the construction of 4,115Kwh in 2008. Itwas due to the construction of 4,115hydroelectric power stations of various sizesthroughout the country.At present, 23 projects areon-going while another 23 stations have beenprogrammed for future construction.


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Page 21

Transport and communicationTransport andcommunication includeairways, inlandwaterways, railways, road transport, sea and coastalshipping, Yangon city transport and post andtelecommunication.

Public transportPublic transport is carriedout bymeansof air planes,buses of different categories, railways, ships, boatsandmotor-cycles.All the vehicles are run either bygovernment, government/private joint ventures,private and private companies. Railway transport issolely run by the State.

Air-waysThe airlines in Myanmar are operated both by thegovernment and theprivate.TheMyanmarAirwaysInternational isrunbythegovernment.Privateairlinesinclude Air Bagan Ltd., Air Mandalay Ltd., andYangonAirways.

There are altogether 69 Airports in Myanmar. Jetairplanes can land at 37 airports. The internationalairplanes landatNayPyiTaw,YangonandMandalayInternationalAirports.

Railways

Railwaytransport is themostusedafter road transportinMyanmar.MyanmarRailways started evenbeforethe SecondWorldWar under the British ColonialRule. The system was and is still a very efficienttransport system.Out of 14States andRegions, onlyChin States doesn’t have railway transport. In theyear 2008, the total length of railways in the countryhas reached5,155km.Themain trunk line isbetweenYangon andMandalay. Just in themiddle ofYangonMandalay railway is located the new capital city ofMyanmar, theNay Pyi Taw. Now the railway lineshave fanned out fromNayPyiTaw in all directions.The second trunk line is between Mandalay andMyitkyinawhich is the capital ofKachinState in thenorth. The following tables (Tables 2.16, 2.17, and2.18)showoverviewof railwaysector, railwaysunderconstruction andupcomingprojects.

Table 2.16: Rail transportation sector

Table 2.17: New railroads under construction

Table 2.18: New railroads project to beimplemented

Sr. Road section Kilometer

1. Bago-Kayan-Thonegwa-Thanlyin (Okkphosu)

108

2. Lashio-Muse 233

3. Kalay-Tamu 136

Total (km) 477

Sr. Road section KilometerSr. Road section Kilometer

1. Bago-Kayan-Thonegwa-Thanlyin (Okkphosu)

108

2.

3.

233Lashio-Muse

136Kalay-Tamu

477Total (km)

Sr. Railroad section Kilometer

1. Thayet-Kyunchaung 295

2. Katha-Bhamo 158

3. Mongnai-Kengyun 364

4. Pyawbwe-Natmauk-Kanpya-Magway

153

5. Dawei-Myeik 213

6. Yechanpyin-An-Minbu 395

7. Pathein (Begayet)-Nyaungdon-Yangon(Hlinethaya)

140

8. Pyay (Shwedaga)-Toungoo (Kyetaw) –Nay Pyi Taw

193

9. Hinthada –Nyaungdon 77

Total (km) 1,988

Sr. Railroad section Kilometer

1. Thayet-Kyunchaung 295

2. Katha-Bhamo 158

3. Mongnai-Kengyun 364

4. Pyawbwe-Natmauk-Kanpya-Magway

153

5. Dawei-Myeik 213

6. Yechanpyin-An-Minbu 395Yechanpyin-An-Minbu 395

7. Pathein (Begayet)-Nyaungdon-Yangon(Hlinethaya)

140

8. Pyay (Shwedaga)-Toungoo (Kyetaw) –Nay Pyi Taw

193

9. Hinthada –Nyaungdon 77

Total (km) 1,988Total (km) 1,988

Sr. Particular 1988 2008 Progress1. Passenger trains (run) 243 412 169

2. Cargo train (run) 18 21 3

3. Engine (unit) 239 319 80

4. Railroads (km) 3,181 5,321 2,140

5. Rail track (km) 4,497 7,087 2,590

6. Railway station (unit) 487 840 353

7. Rail bridge (unit) 5,650 10,627 4,977Number of passengers

(million per year)

9. Tonnage oftransported goods(million per year)

1.5 3 1.5

8.48.8 67 18.2

Sr. Particular 1988 2008 ProgressSr. Particular 1988 2008 ProgressSr. Particular 1988 2008 Progress1. Passenger trains (run) 243 412 169

2. Cargo train (run) 18 21 318 21 3

3. Engine (unit) 239 319 80

4. Railroads (km) 3,181 5,321 2,1403,181 5,321 2,140

5. Rail track (km) 4,497 7,087 2,590

6. Railway station (unit) 487 840 353487 840 353

7. Rail bridge (unit) 5,650 10,627 4,977Number of passengers

(million per year)

9. Tonnage oftransported goods(million per year)

1.5 3 1.5

8.48.8 67 18.248.8 67 18.248.8 67 18.2


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RoadsRoad constructionworks were apparentlyspeed upduring theperiodbetween1988and2008.Accordingto 2008 statistics, the total length of the roads inMyanmar reached up to 31,076 km.

Bridges

Bridges have been built and roads constructed,crisscrossedallover thecountryenablingaccess evento very remote places in the country. Improvedaccessibility ismost evident in theAyeyarwadyDeltawhichwas formerlyaccessible onlyby inlandwatertransport. It is now accessible by means of roadtransport throughmanybridges across rivers and bigstreams constructed from1988 to2008. Asof 2008,total bridges over 55min length number 233whilebridges under 55mnumber 2,913.Table 2.19: The list of bridges built from

1988-2008

Sr. State/ Region Under (55m)(number)

Over (55m)(number)

1. Kachin State 413 182. Kayah State 24 13. Kayin State 187 74. Chin State 17 35. Sagaing Region 408 16

6. Tanintharyi Region 116 77. Bago Region 171 188. Magway Region 164 199. Mandalay Region 212 11

10. Mon State 131 4

11. Rakhine State 259 3612. Yangon Region 66 3013. Shan State (East) 168 414. Shan State (South) 185 515. Shan State (North) 80 7

16. Ayeyarwady Region 312 47Total 2,913 233

Sr. State/ RegionSr. State/ Region Under (55m)(number)

Over (55m)(number)

1. Kachin State 413 182. Kayah State 24 13. Kayin State 187 74. Chin State 17 35. Sagaing Region 408 16

6. Tanintharyi Region 116Tanintharyi Region 116 77. Bago Region 171 188. Magway Region 164Magway Region 164 199. Mandalay Region 212 11

10. Mon State 131 4

11. Rakhine State 259 3612. Yangon Region 66 3013. Shan State (East) 168 414. Shan State (South) 185Shan State (South) 185 515. Shan State (North) 80 7

16. Ayeyarwady Region 312Ayeyarwady Region 312 47Total 2,913 233

Inland water transportThe Inland Water Transport (IWT) existed evenbefore the Second World War. The system stillfunctionswell. The transport system functions in allthe navigable rivers and streams. TheAyeyarwadyriver systemis still an importantwaterway. Passengerboats, cargoboats, etc. runupanddownAyeyarwadyRiver betweenYangon andMandalay.Ayeyarwady

delta river transport system still is very importantregardless of bridges and improved road transport.Agriculturalproducesuchasrice, fruits,andvegetablesand also fish and fish products are daily transportedbywater toYangon and other towns in the country.

In theRakhine,Delta andTanintharyi coastal regionsthe transport is provided by small ships and Oceanliners runningup anddown along the coasts

Post and telecommunicationPost andTelecommunicationDepartment under thePost and Communication Enterprise render thetelecommunication services for the whole country.Currently, the automatic telephone exchange system,thecellularmobile telephonesystem, theCodeRegionMultipleAccess (CDMA)mobile telephone systemand the Global System forMobile Communication(GSM) system are being applied in the country.MyanmarPost andTelecommunicationEnterprisehasalso beenproviding internet and email services to thepublic sinceMarch 1998.

Agriculture, livestock and fishery sectorAgriculture“Developmentofagricultureas thebaseandall- rounddevelopment of other sectors of the economyaswell“is oneof themain economicobjectivesof thenation.Thus, theagriculturesectoris themainstayofMyanmareconomy.

About 60 different crops can be grown ranging fromtypical tropical species tomoderate temperatevarietiesincluding cereals such as rice, wheat,maize,millets,beans, pulses and oilseeds, and industrial crops suchas cotton, jute, rubber, sugarcane, toddy palms,coconut palms, tobacco and spices andmany otheredibles and non-edibles.

In 1988agricultural land areawas9.63millionha andthe fallow land area left was 10.56mha.At that timethe area under rice cultivationwas 4.78mha and thedescending trend of rice productionwas estimated at13.15millionmetric tons approximately.

Increase in population growth required increase incultivation of agricultural crops. In 1992-93 arevolutionaryapproachwas laid down inAgricultural


2012

Sectorarl plans and imperative tasks to develop thesectorwere launched.

Agricultural research has developed new improvedvarieties of rice. Starting fromyear 2008-2009, highgrade varieties and hybrid varieties are undercultivation.

Among theextended production of various peas andbean export, varieties such as green gram,mugpea,pigeon pea, cowpea, kidneybean, etc., are included.The area planted with various peas and beansincreased to 4,119,444 ha. The area under goodyieldingvarietieshas increased to2,482,558ha.Newvarieties of beans such as green gram, pigeon peaandmugpea aregrowninplaceof oldpoorvarieties.

Up to 1988 therewere only138 dams, and irrigatedcultivationwas only0.53million ha.Multiple cropacreagewas 1.54mhaonly.During theperiod of 20years (from 1988-2008) the number of dams and

Page 23

reservoirs increased by217.Artisanwells, surfacewells and small dams were constructed in placeswhere irrigation channels could not reach.

There are 322 river water pumping stationsconstructed in order to irrigate the landwhich canbecultivated.Multiplecropsystemhas increasedto8.05m ha.Monsoon paddycultivation has increased tonearly6.88millionhaandsummerpaddyto364,217ha totaling more than 7.24 million ha makingMyanmar a ricebowl ofAsia.Theproductionof ricehas increased from 1,000million baskets to 1,230million baskets in 2008-09. The rice production inMyanmarhas increased to theextent that somestatesand regions have now ample supply of rice.Furthermore, theproductionandexport of industrialcrops, oil seeds, peas and beans have increasedsince 2008-09.

The increase in cultivated area and production ofpaddy is shown in (Table 2.20 and Figure 2.10).

Table 2.20: Agricultural development inMyanmar

Type Unit 1988 31-12-2008 Increase/Decrease (-)Land Resources1. Sown Area Hectare 9,639,943 21,534,006 11,894,0632. Uncultivated area Hectare 11,415,638 5,914,914 (-)5,500,724

Type Unit 1988 31-12-2008 Increase/Decrease (-)Land Resources1. Sown Area Hectare 9,639,943 21,534,006 11,894,0632. Uncultivated area Hectare 11,415,638 5,914,914 (-)5,500,724

Figure 2.10: Sown acreage and production ofpaddy

Livestock and FisheryMyanmar possesses a huge amount of marine andfresh water resources such as fish, crabs, prawns,etc.Waterandlandpollutionisminimalcreatingamplebreedinggrounds and high population growthof thefauna.Ayeyarwady,Chindwin,ThanLwinRivers andtheir tributaries make up 8.2 million ha of watersurface.Annual water covered area is 6million ha'andreservoirsand lakes irrigationsystemcoversabout1.8millionha.

Livestock industryis administeredbytheMinistryofLivestock and Fisheries, establishing commercialstandard of livestock farms in Myanmar. Majorlivestock inMyanmar includewater buffaloes, cattle,sheep, goats, pigs, chicken, ducks, turkeys,Muscovyducks and quails. There is amarked increase in thenumber of livestock from 1988 to 2008.

The production of fish and prawns also increasedduring 1998 to 2008.

Source: StatisticalYear Book, CSO2006


2012

The livestock and fishery sector is one of the mostproductive sectors and it holds vast potential forfurther expansion and exports of the products.

Livestock breeding of pedigree stock of cattle,buffalo, pig, sheep, goat, poultry, etcformsan integralpart of the rural economy.Ownershipof the livestockis characterizedbysmall individual herds and flocks.Cattle and buffaloes are reared primarily for use incultivationofagricultural cropswhilepigsandpoultryare raised for household consumption.

Fisherysector is divided into freshwater fisheries andmarine fisheries. Freshwater fisheries make use ofnaturalwater,while flood fisheries aremadepossiblethrough vast river systems and heavyrainfall. Therearealso leasable fisherieswhichcovervast areas.Fishculture operations are presently being undertakenextensively in ponds, lakes and reservoirs.

Myanmar’s continental shelf covers 228,781 km2while the exclusive economic zone is 486,000 km2wide. Itsmaximumsustainableyield(MSY)inmarine

Page 24

fisheries is estimated at 1.05million tons per year,and is still underexploited.

Forest industryTimber harvesting, milling and marketingThehardwoodindustrywasnationalizedon1October1963.Atpresent,MTE(MyanmaTimberEnterprise)is solely responsible for the extraction of both teakand other hardwoods. MTE extensively useselephants (about 3,000) and buffaloes (about 1,200)forstumpingandskiddingoflogs.Mechanizedloggingisminimalbecauseofdifficult terrainandlowperunitarea yield under the selection system.

Wood and wood productsMyanmar produces awide range ofwood andwoodproducts, ranging from firewood to high classfurniture.Export of teakandhardwood is increasing,but that of value-added products still needs to bepromoted.Supplyanddemand situationofwoodandwood products is shown in (Table 2.21).

Table 2.21: Supply and demand ofwood andwood products

Production 37,560 4,196 1,056 15 43 118Consumpti

on 37,560 2,720 781 16 82 68Export 0 1,476 275 0 0 54

(Import) 0 0 0 -1 -39 -4

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Production 37,560 4,196 1,056 15 43 118Consumpti

on 37,560 2,720 781 16 8237,560 2,720 781 16 8237,560 2,720 781 16 82

Export 0 1,476 275 0 0(Import) 0 0 0 -1 -39 -40 0 0 -1 -39 -40 0 0 -1 -39 -4

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540 1,476 275 0 00 1,476 275 0 0

0 0 0 -1 -39 -40 0 0 -1 -39 -40 0 0 -1 -39 -40 0 0 -1 -39 -4

Myanmar initiated a market-oriented economicsystem following 1988 and private wood-basedindustries consequently started to grow after 1990.However, timber harvesting and export of logs bythe private sector was banned in 1993, but it wasallowed to work in partnership with MTE and toexport value-added wood products only.With theaim to develop wood-based industries, MyanmarForest Products andTimberMerchants’Association

(MFPTMA) was formed on 11 May 1993. TheAssociationencourages timbermerchants to producevalue-addedwoodproducts byproviding themwithtechnical know-howandmarket information.Underthemotivation ofMFPTMA, 1,207 entrepreneursfrom production, manufacturing and marketingenterprises have been registered as of 2007. Morethan 100wood-based industries have already beenestablished inYangonandMandalayindustrial zones.


2012

Wood-based industries produce and export mostlyfurniture and parts, parquet, doors and door frames,and four sides plains (S4S).As ordered by foreigncustomers, curvingchair,garden furnitureand indoorfurniture are also made. Among the value-addedwood-based products, finger joint panel is a productwhich saves wastes. Although Myanmarentrepreneurs’ efforts are to be highly regarded,improvement seemsunsatisfactoryas yet.AccordingtoMFPTMA,Myanmar produces 1.4million tonsof teak and hardwood annually, exports about 0.8million tonsandearnsUS$400million.Abreakdownof types of industry inMyanmar is shown in (Table2.22).

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Table 2.22: Types of wood-based industries inMyanmar

Private MTE Total

1. Plywood 1 5 6

2. FingerJoint

1 - 1

3.ParticleBoard

- 1 1

4. Molding - 3 3

5. Furniture 1,588 * 5 1,593

6. Pencil 1 - 1

7. Match - - -

8. SawMill 228 91 319

GrandTotal

1,819 105 1,924

No. Type ofFactory

Number of Factory

Private MTE Total

1. Plywood 1 5 6

2. FingerJoint

1 - 1

3.ParticleBoard

- 1 1

4. Molding - 3 3

5. Furniture 1,588 * 5 1,593

6. Pencil 1 - 1

7. Match - - -

8. SawMill 228 91 319

GrandTotal

1,819 105 1,924

No. Type ofFactory

Number of Factory

More than95percent ofMyanmar timber is exportedtoAsian countries which include about 80 percentexported to fivemajor tradingpartnersnamelyIndia,Thailand, China, Singapore andMalaysia. ExceptSingapore, which mostly re-exports to othercountries, other countries use Myanmar timberdomestically.

Source: MFPTMANotes: * small-scale home industries

Up to now, round logs, especially teak logs, are themain export item amongwood andwood productsalthoughMyanmar IndustrialDevelopmentPlanhasenvisaged tograduallyreduce round logexports andincrease supply to domesticwood-based industries.

Figure 2.11:Transit of round logs to foreigncountries.


2012

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Chapter 3 National Greenhouse Gas Inventory

Chapter 3

National Greenhouse Gas Inventory

3.1. Introduction

The National Commission for EnvironmentalAffairs(NCEA) of Myanmar launched an INC-project in2008 with the financial assistance from GEF/UNEP.Greenhouse Gas (GHG) inventory and mitigationoption analysis team (GHG study team), establishedin January 2008 is one of the six expert groups whoare working for INC preparation under this project.GHG studyteamsuccessfullyaccomplished nationalGHG inventories for 2000 in energy, industrialprocesses and product use, agriculture, forestry andother land use, and waste sectors. The team made aparticular initiative in the context of improving andupdating the reliable data on GHG emission/absorption in Myanmar.

Theinventorychapterhighlightsonlythemainfeaturesof Myanmar’s GHG inventory, which identifies thepotential GHG sources and sinks and providesestimates of major GHGs in Myanmar for year 2000.The GHG inventories on emissions by sources andremovals by sinks covers carbon dioxide (CO2),methane (CH4) and Nitrous Oxide (N2O), and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Carbon (NMVOC).

GHG study team conducted the national inventoryon GHGs by setting the year 2000 as the base year,and prepared the database for each sector andpredicted the GHGemission/reduction in inventoriedsectors. In estimating GHG emissions for the year2000, the experts used the published information onGHG sources and sinks to a great extent. However,research and studies concerning the climate changeissues are limited and the country specific emissionfactors/default values are not available in Myanmar.Therefore, the GHG inventory in this study mostlyused the emission factors and default values asdescribed in IPCC 2006 Guidelines.

3.2. Energy Sector

The national GHG inventory in energysector coversthree major GHGs: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane

(CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). The main sources ofGHGemissionsexaminedare fossil fuel combustion,traditionalbiomassfuelcombustion,fugitiveemissionsfrom coal mining activities, and oil and natural gassystem.

Methodology for GHG inventoryThe methodologies provided by the IPCC 2006GuidelinesfornationalGHGInventorieswereappliedin this inventory. Based on the actual conditions inMyanmar, analysis was made for the applicabilityofthe IPCC methods to Myanmar and the appropriateapproaches were selected. In the calculating CO2equivalent, GlobalWarming Potentials(GWPs) usedwere CO=1,CH4=21,N20=310 and NOx=5.

Since there are no country specific emission factorsin Myanmar for emission assessment, default valuessuggested by IPCC 2006 guidelines were usedwhether in net calorific value estimation or in CO2emissionstudiesor in fractions ofcarbon oxidization.Emissionsfromtheuseoffossilfuelsfrominternationalbunkers are excluded in the current national GHGestimations. Therefore, CO2 emissions frominternational aviation fuel burning are not accountedfor in the national inventory.

For estimating GHG emissions, the IPCC 2006Guidelines, Tier 1 and Tier 2 were used dependingon the quality and availability of activity data andemission coefficients as required by each approach.The inventorysimultaneouslyadopted the referenceapproach and sectoral approach based on detailedinformation on technologies as recommended bytheIPCC Guidelines. The sectoral approach was usedas thebasis for thecurrent inventory.Theclassificationof sectors and fuel types are basically the same as theclassification in the IPCC Guidelines in which thetransport sector is defined as the transport of thewhole society.

In the case of natural gas consumption in energyindustries sector, Tier 1 approach was applied. In

2012

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Anothermajor sectorcontributing toGHGemissionswas transportation. The transport sector wassegregated into road, rail, aviation and navigation.CO2 emission for all these sectorswas estimated byusingTier1methodandas forCH4andN2Oemissionfor road and air sub sector, Tier 2 method wasemployed.

In the light ofMyanmar’s specific circumstances anddata availability, the IPCC Tier 1 was adopted toestimatemethaneemissions fromcoalminingsuchassurface and undergroundmining activities and alsothe fugitive methane emissions from oil and gassystems inMyanmar.

GHG Emissions from fuel combustionThecurrent inventoryofGHGemissionsfromenergyconsumptiontookintoaccountallemissionsfromfossilfuel combustion.

Fossil fuel combustion

Fuel combustion, one of the largest contributors toGHG emissions in Myanmar, can be broadly

categorized into fourgroups for emissionassessment,i.e. energy industries,manufacturing industries andconstruction, transport and other sectors havingemissions fromenergyconsumption.

Myanmar’s commercial energy resources dependedalmost fully on hydropower and fossil fuels. Theemission sources in the sector of electric power andheat supplywere defined to be the power generationandheat supplyofMyanmar’s thermalpowerutilitieswhile theemissions fromauxiliarypowerplants andother sources of heat supply were reported in therelevantsectors.Machineriesandequipments forfossilfuel combustion composed of gas turbines andcombined cycle power plants, power generatingboilers, industrial boilers, industrial kilns, householdcookingovens, farm implements, power-generationinternal-combustionengines,differentkindsofaviationvehicles, road transport vehicles, railway transportvehicles, shipping transport vehicles, etc.GHGemission byfossil fuel combustion inMyanmar fortheyear 2000was estimated to be7,755.11GgCO2e(Table 3.1) in which energy industry and transportsectors shared the largest contributions.

Table 3.1: GHGemissions from fossil fuel combustion inMyanmar in 2000 (Gg)

Categories CO2 CH4 N2O Total CO2 e

Energy Industry 2,323.02 - - 2,323.02

Industry& Construction 784.83 - 0.08 809.63

Transport 2,129.98 0.46 0.1 2,170.64

Commercial & Institutional 888.55 - - 888.55

Residential 42.87 - - 42.87

Agriculture/Forestry/Fishery 596.9 - 0.1 627.9

Others 892.5 - - 892.5

Total emissions from fossil fuel combustion 7,658.65 0.46 0.28 7,755.11

Categories CO2 CH4CH4CH N2O Total CO2 e

Energy Industry 2,323.02 - - 2,323.02

Industry& Construction 784.83 - 0.08 809.63

Transport 2,129.98 0.46 0.1 2,170.64

Commercial & Institutional 888.55 - - 888.55

Residential 42.87 - - 42.87

Agriculture/Forestry/Fishery 596.9 - 0.1 627.9

Others 892.5 - - 892.5

Total emissions from fossil fuel combustion 7,658.65 0.46 0.28 7,755.11

Traditional biomass fuel combustionItmainlyconsistsoffuel-woodconsumedfordomestichome cooking. About 95 percent of the ruralhouseholds uses fuel-wood for their home cooking.Someurbanhouseholdsuse sawmill residues (woodwaste) and charcoal.

The total volume of fuel-wood, wood waste andcharcoal used in the year 2000 amounted to26,010,600 m3, 418,517 m3 and 254,800 m3

respectively. Total volume of each of the fuels wasconverted to totalbiomassbymultiplyingitbyitsbasicdensity. The average basic densities of woods andtimbers and charcoal were taken as 0.595 ton m-3and 0.425 tonm-3 respectively.


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GHGemissionsfromtheabovementionedfuelswerecalculated by the Net Calorific Values (NCV) anddefault emission factors for stationarycombustion intheenergy industriesgivenin IPCC 2006Guidelines.TotalCO2emission, totalCH4emissionand totalN2Oemission for fuel-wood and wood-waste wereestimated tobe 27,475.3Gg, 7.3595Gg and 0.9813Gg, respectively.

Similarly, total emissions of CO2, CH4andN2O forcharcoal amounted to 357.79 Gg, 0.0958 Gg and0.0128Gg respectively.

Finally, totalCO2equivalentemissionsfromtraditionalbiomass burned for energywas calculatedand itwasfound to be28,297.82 Gg CO2e.

According to IPCC2006Guidelines, the total GHGemissions fromtraditionalbiomassburnedfor energywere included neither in the energy sector nor inthe national totals.

Fugitive emissions from oil and natural gassystemsOnlymethaneemissionswerecalculated fromoil andnatural gas systems.Methane emissions fromoil andnatural gas systems were estimated to be 4.63 Gg(97.23 Gg CO2e).

Fugitive emissions from coal mining activitiesOnlymethane emissionswere calculated from coalmining activities ofMyanmar.Methane emissionsfromundergroundmining and surfaceminingwereestimated at 0.53Gg (11.13GgCO2e) (Table 3.2).

Table 3.2: Estimated CH4 emissions from coal mining in 2000

Exploitedcoal Emission Conversion

Methaneemission

( ton) coefficient coefficient (Gg)Undergroundmining 36,650 18 0.67 0.44

Surface mining 109,900 1.2 0.67 0.09

0.53

Type of mining

Total

Exploitedcoal Emission Conversion

Methaneemission

( ton) coefficient coefficient (Gg)Undergroundmining 36,650 18 0.67 0.44

Surface mining

Type of mining

Total

0.09109,900 1.2 0.67109,900 1.2 0.67109,900 1.2 0.67

0.53

Total GHG emissions from energy sector for theyear 2000TotalGHGemissionsfromenergysectorof Myanmarwere estimated to be 7,863.47 Gg CO2e most ofwhich came from fossil fuel combustion. CO2

emissionsaccountedfor97%oftotal emissionswhileCH4and N2O emissions shared only 2% and 1%respectively(Table3.3).GHGemissionsbydifferentsub-sectors are presented in Figure 3.1.

Table 3.3 : Total GHGemissions from energy sector in 2000 (Gg)

No. Emission sources CO2 CH4 N2O Total CO2 e

Fuel Combustion

- Fossil fuel combustion 7,658.65 0.46 0.28 7755.11- Traditional biomass fuel combustion* 27,475.3* 7.36* 0.98* 28297.82*

2 Fugitive emissions from coal mining - 0.53 - 11.13

3 Fugitive emissions from oil and gas systems - 4.63 - 97.23

Total 7,658.65 5.62 0.28 7,863.47

1

No. Emission sources CO2CO2CO CH4CH4CH N2O Total CO2 e

Fuel Combustion

- Fossil fuel combustion 7,658.65 0.46 0.28 7755.11- Traditional biomass fuel combustion* 27,475.3* 7.36* 0.98* 28297.82*

2 Fugitive emissions from coal mining - 0.53 - 11.13

3 Fugitive emissions from oil and gas systems - 4.63 - 97.23

Total 7,658.65 5.62 0.28 7,863.47

1


*Not included in national GHG inventory calculations.

2012

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Figure 3.1: Proportions of GHGemission(CO2- equivalent) fromvarious sources in

energy sector

Database for energy sectorDatabase for fuel production, import, export and fuelconsumption by the whole energy sector and fuelconsumption by sub-sectors, and database fortraditional biomass fuel burned are presented inAppendix I .

Database forGHGemissions in energysector during2001-2005 indicated thatGHGemission ineach sub-sectordependedon theannual targetof theconcernedsub-sector. CO2 emissions in energy andtransformation industries and industry sectors haveshown an increasing trend while those of smallcombustions were seen as a decreasing trend(Table 3.4).

Trend of GHG emissions in energy sectorCO2 emissions depend on the type and amount ofenergyconsumed, andenergyconsumption is closelylinked to the socio-economic development of acountry. Hence, projection of CO2emissions fromthe energy sector is basedmainly on projections ofthepopulationandeconomicgrowthofacountryovera specific period in the future. Besides, otherGHGsare also emitted from a number of activities that useenergysuch as residential and commercial cooking,spaceheating, industrialprocesses, transportationandso on. Energyuse inMyanmar is increasing faster inthe transportation sector than in any other sector.Increase in transportation energy use is a clear

Table 3.4: Emissions fromEnergy Sector (Gg )

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

CO2 2,323.02 2,118.25 2,430.94 2,756.17 3,734.13 3,050.16

CO2 784.83 865.39 889.92 866.07 961.44 695.03N2O 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06

CO2 2,129.98 1,980.12 2,486.63 2,608.35 2,504.92 2,432.82CH4 0.46 0.42 0.48 0.54 0.55 0.67N2O 0.1 0.09 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.11

CO2 1,528.30 1,428.30 1,417.08 1,406.97 1,177.10 1,333.94N2O 0.1 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.07

CO2 27,833.09 28,545.25 29,177.07 30,125.50 30,204.63 30,801.48CH4 7.46 7.65 7.82 8.07 8.09 8.25N2O 0.99 1.02 1.04 1.08 1.08 1.1

CH4 0.53 0.35 0.42 0.61 0.83 0.73

CH4 4.63 4.8 5.12 5.41 6.59 6.76

CO2 892.52 363.82 331.1 425.92 248.53 454.3Total CO2 e 7,863.47 6,944.15 7,765.79 8,281.84 8,870.99 8,212.01

Oil andnatural gas

Others

Energy and transformation industries

Industry

Transport

Small combustion

Traditional biomass burned for energy* (not included in calculations)

Fugitive emissions from fuels

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

CO2 2,323.02 2,118.25 2,430.94 2,756.17 3,734.13 3,050.16

CO2 784.83 865.39 889.92 866.07 961.44 695.03N2O 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06

CO2 2,129.98 1,980.12 2,486.63 2,608.35 2,504.92 2,432.82CH4 0.46 0.42 0.48 0.54 0.55 0.67N2O 0.1 0.09 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.11

CO2 1,528.30 1,428.30 1,417.08 1,406.97 1,177.10 1,333.94N2O 0.1 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.07

CO2CH4N2O

CH4

CH4

CO2 892.52 363.82 331.1 425.92 248.53 454.3Total CO2 e

Oil andnatural gas

Others

Energy and transformation industries

Industry

Transport

Small combustion

Traditional biomass burned for energy* (not included in calculations)

Fugitive emissions from fuels

27,833.09 28,545.25 29,177.07 30,125.50 30,204.63 30,801.4827,833.09 28,545.25 29,177.07 30,125.50 30,204.63 30,801.4827,833.09 28,545.25 29,177.07 30,125.50 30,204.63 30,801.4827,833.09 28,545.25 29,177.07 30,125.50 30,204.63 30,801.4827,833.09 28,545.25 29,177.07 30,125.50 30,204.63 30,801.4827,833.09 28,545.25 29,177.07 30,125.50 30,204.63 30,801.487.46 7.65 7.82 8.07 8.09 8.257.46 7.65 7.82 8.07 8.09 8.257.46 7.65 7.82 8.07 8.09 8.257.46 7.65 7.82 8.07 8.09 8.257.46 7.65 7.82 8.07 8.09 8.257.46 7.65 7.82 8.07 8.09 8.250.99 1.02 1.04 1.08 1.08 1.10.99 1.02 1.04 1.08 1.08 1.10.99 1.02 1.04 1.08 1.08 1.10.99 1.02 1.04 1.08 1.08 1.10.99 1.02 1.04 1.08 1.08 1.10.99 1.02 1.04 1.08 1.08 1.1

0.53 0.35 0.42 0.61 0.83 0.730.53 0.35 0.42 0.61 0.83 0.730.53 0.35 0.42 0.61 0.83 0.730.53 0.35 0.42 0.61 0.83 0.730.53 0.35 0.42 0.61 0.83 0.730.53 0.35 0.42 0.61 0.83 0.73

4.63 4.8 5.12 5.41 6.59 6.764.63 4.8 5.12 5.41 6.59 6.764.63 4.8 5.12 5.41 6.59 6.764.63 4.8 5.12 5.41 6.59 6.764.63 4.8 5.12 5.41 6.59 6.764.63 4.8 5.12 5.41 6.59 6.76

7,863.47 6,944.15 7,765.79 8,281.84 8,870.99 8,212.017,863.47 6,944.15 7,765.79 8,281.84 8,870.99 8,212.017,863.47 6,944.15 7,765.79 8,281.84 8,870.99 8,212.017,863.47 6,944.15 7,765.79 8,281.84 8,870.99 8,212.017,863.47 6,944.15 7,765.79 8,281.84 8,870.99 8,212.017,863.47 6,944.15 7,765.79 8,281.84 8,870.99 8,212.01


2012

indication of a large amount of carbon emissionsbecausevirtuallyall energyrequirementsof this sectorare in the form of petroleum products. The growingpopulation,increasedurbanizationandindustrializationare accelarating the growth in theownership of motorvehicles, refrigerationandairconditioningandvariousenergy intensive products. These are some of themain factors underlying the rapidly increasinggreenhouse gases.

The relatively low per capita CO2 emissions from theenergy sector is due to the fact that Myanmar reliespredominantly on hydropower generators forindustrial, residential andcommercialuses.Electricitygeneration by hydroelectric power plants was1,248.45 million KWh. This was approximately 47percent of the total generation in 1990. In year 2005electricity generation byhydroelectric power plantsincreased to 2,407.75 GWh. With this rate ofhydropower development, the emissions from theenergyand transformation industries subsectors willnot increasesignificantly. Fluctuations in the trendarelargelydrivenbyemission from energyindustry. Thiscategorycan show year to year fluctulations becauseof the use of thermal stations to supplement thehydroelectric generation. CO2emissions are foundto increasesignificantlywith the diversificationof thecountry’s energybase, thermal power plants that havebecome absolutelynecessary with the decline in theoutput of hydropower generation as a result ofdecreasing precipitations in the catchment areas.

3.3. Industrial Processes and ProductUse Sector

GHG emissions from various types of industrialprocesses arenotenergy-use related emissions. Theseemissions are related to physical and chemicaltransformations of materials, in which GHGssuch asCO2, CH4, N2O and other gases are released. Thepreparationof theindustrialprocesses inventorieswasbasically based on the IPCC methodology.

Industrialproduction processesproducevarious typesof GHGsapart from energycombustion in industries.These processes involve the chemical or physicaltransformation of raw materials into intermediate orfinal products. GHG emissions were worked out forindustries namely, cement, lime, iron and steel, glass,

Page 30

urea, calcium carbide used in acetylene, food andbeverages.

Cement productionCO2 emission during the productionof cement is oneof the most important GHG emission sources fromthe industrial sector in Myanmar. All the cementfactories in Myanmar use its own clinker to producecement. There are no imports or exports of clinker.Two types of cement are produced in Myanmar. Themajorityof the cement produced is Portland cementof which the production is over 99 percent. The rawmixture is initiallyfinelyground and fed into a kiln inorder to obtain thermal stations to supplement thehydroelectric generation.

The clinker is thereaftergroundwithgypsuminorderto obtain finished cement. High temperatures incementkilnchemicallychange raw material lime intocement clinkerand therebyemit carbondioxide. CO2

emissionfromcementproduction isobtainedbyusingan emission factor expressed in tons of CO2 releasedper ton of cement produced.

Lime productionFor lime production, the inventory was conductedusing the activity data of mineral production.Limestones are exploited bymining activities ratherthan production industry in Myanmar. Therefore,fugitiveemissionscould haveoccurred,butno properdata are available.

The amount of lime produced is generally governedby the demand. Therefore, the total amount of limeconsumed per year could be approximated to thetotalannualproduction. Theamountof limeproducedcould be estimated to be 0.57 t lime/t of dolomiteused and an emission factor of 0.77 tCO2 of limeproduced. The usage of dolomite for the productionof limestoodat39.93 kt in2000.For limeproduction,the inventoryused the activitydata of industrial rawmineral production.

Glass productionIndustries which manufacture glass emit CO2. Thetotal production of glass in Myanmar in 2000 was15,031 tons.Theemission factor for theglass industrywas 0.21 t CO2/t of glass produced.


2012

Metal productionMetal production includes the production ofmetalssuch as iron and steel. The quantityof iron and steelproduced in 2000 was 2.7 and 7.6 kt respectively.Emission factors were the default valuesrecommended by the IPCC 2006. For ironproduction, defaultCO2emission factor frompig ironproductionwasused andas for steel production,CO2emissionwas calculated byelectric arc furnace steelmakingmethod.

Food and drinkNMVOCare emitted in preparing some foods in thesector. GHG emissions were worked out for foodindustries,namely, alcoholicbeverages, sugar, shrimpand biscuit. Emission of NMVOC in 2000 wasestimated to be 4.57 Gg.

Consumption of Halocarbons and SulphurhexafluorideIntroduction of HFCs to replace ozone-depletingsubstances (ODS) toMyanmar commenced in1997,but there areno records of import of these chemicalsfor the year 2000. ODS such as CFCs and HCFCshave beenused byrefrigeration and air conditioningservice during the phase down period of ODS.Mobile air conditioners, both locallymanufacturedand imported, use HFCs as refrigerants. ODSsubstitutes are also used in refrigerators, air

conditioning and cold storages. Emissions ofODSsubstituteswere estimated using the defaultmethodrecommended by the IPCC.

Electrical equipments usingSF6 havebeen importedtoMyanmar since 1984. Emissions of SF6 per yearhave been estimated using the default methodrecommended by the IPCC.

Lubricant useLubricants are mostly used in industries andtransportation. The use of lubricants in internalcombustion engines is primary for their lubricatingproperties and associated emissions are, therefore,considered as non-combustion emissions. Asmallproportion of lubricants are oxidized during use.Therefore, in calculating CO2 emissions, the totalamountof lubricant lostduring theirusewasassumedto be fully oxidized as CO2 emission. Specificquantitiesof lubricantusedasmotoroil / industrialoiland ODU factor for lubricants were based on localknowledge.

Total GHG emissions from Industrial processesand product use sector in 2000A total of 463.3Ggof CO2 –equivalent and 4.57GgofNMVOCis estimated tohavebeenemittedduringthe year 2000 from the industrial processes andproduct use ( Table 3.5).

Page 31

Table 3.5: GHGemissions from Industrial Processes and Product Use in the year 2000

Sources of Category CO2 NMVOC ODS SF6TotalCO2e%

Industrial processes

Cement 203.23 203.23 44

Lime 30.74 30.74 7

Glass 1.74 1.74 0

Urea 0.8 0.8 0

Iron & Steel 4.34 4.34 1

Food& Drink 4.57

Product Use

Carbide for Acetylene Production 0.35 0.35 0

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning - 0.11 143 31

Electrical Equipment - 0.003 71.7 15

Lubricant Use 7.39 7.39 2

TOTAL 248.6 4.57 0.11 0.003 463.3 100

Sources of Category CO2 NMVOC ODS SF6NMVOC ODS SF6NMVOC ODS SFTotalCO2e%


Cement 203.23 203.23 44

Lime 30.74 30.74 7

Glass 1.74 1.74 0

Urea 0.8 0.8 0

Iron & Steel 4.34 4.34 1

Food& Drink 4.57

Product Use

Carbide for Acetylene Production 0.35 0.35 0

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning - 0.11 143 31

Electrical Equipment - 0.003 71.7 15

Lubricant Use 7.39 7.39 2

TOTAL 248.6 4.57 0.11 0.003 463.3 100


2012

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Database and trend of GHG emissions forindustrial processes and product use sectorDatabase for production in different industrialprocesses ofMyanmar is presented inAppendix II.

The emissions fromindustrial processes andproductuse sector for the years 2000-2005 showed a risingtrend in general (Table 3.6).

Table 3.6: Emissions from Industrial Processes and ProductUse sector (Gg)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

CO2 241.2 225.9 227.17 336.02 302.77 292.01

NMVOC* 4.57 4.84 4.29 3.52 3.66 3.17

HCFCs/CFCs 0.11 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.18 0.11

SF6 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003

CO2 7.39 6.26 6.98 7.13 6.52 6.33

Total CO2 equivalent 463.3 407.9 422.9 570.9 615 513

Industrial Processes

Solvent Used

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

CO2 241.2 225.9 227.17 336.02 302.77 292.01

NMVOC* 4.57 4.84 4.29 3.52 3.66 3.17

HCFCs/CFCs 0.11 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.18 0.11

SF6SF6SF 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003

CO2 7.39 6.26 6.98 7.13 6.52 6.33

Total CO2Total CO2Total CO equivalent 463.3 407.9 422.9 570.9 615 513

Industrial Processes

Solvent Used

equivalent 463.3 407.9 422.9 570.9 615 513equivalent 463.3 407.9 422.9 570.9 615 513equivalent 463.3 407.9 422.9 570.9 615 513equivalent 463.3 407.9 422.9 570.9 615 513equivalent 463.3 407.9 422.9 570.9 615 513equivalent 463.3 407.9 422.9 570.9 615 513

3.4. Agriculture Sector

AgricultureSinceMyanmarisanagro-basedcountry, itseconomymainly depends on agricultural production.Agriculture sector contributed 34% ofGDP, 23%of total export earnings, and employed63%of laborforce in 2000. Seventy percent of the populationreside in rural areas and are mainly engaged inagriculture, livestock and fishery sectors for theirlivelihoods. Thenet sownarea was10.12millionhawhich is only one-fourth of the total land area ofMyanmar. Most farmers traditionally grow rice inmonsoon season as a single cropping system underthe rain-fed condition. Since 1988, theGovernmenthas been constructing dams and reservoirs acrossthecountry to irrigate thepaddyfields. The irrigationprojects completedduring1988 to 2000 totaled 116.Irrigated area increased from 12.5 % of the sownarea in 1987-88 to 18% in1998-99. Summer paddyprogramwas introduced in 1992. In the year 2000,togetherwith the use of highyielding, short durationvarieties in summer (pre-monsoon) season, the totalrice sown area reached 6,302,306 ha of which theirrigated rice landwas 1,852,691 ha (29.4%of thetotal rice land inMyanmar) (DAP, 2001).

Rice is a staple food and it grows well in all agro-ecological regions ofMyanmar. Flooded rice fields

act as a major emitter of CH4, which is one of thepotent greenhouse gases for global warming. Theproduction ofmethane from paddy fields, ruminantanimals, fertilizerapplication,landclearingandorganicmatter decomposition have been linked to globalwarming as GHG.

Estimation of CH4 emission from rice fieldsAccording to the specific conditions in wateravailability and soil condition for cultivation, riceecosystemsaregenerallyclassified intofivecategories:1) Irrigated rice land, 2) Regular/favorable rain-fedlowland,3)Drought-prone rain-fed lowland, 4)Deepwater rice and 5) Upland rice which respectivelycovered about 30%, 38 %, 12%, 17% and 3% oftotal ricearea in theyear2000 (MyanmarAgricultureServiceAnnualReport, 2004).Tier1method in2006-IPCCguidelinewas adoptedwith the use of defaultemission andscaling factors. Applying the equationsand worksheets described in the 2006-IPCCGuidelines,CH4emissionfromricecultivation in2000was estimated to be 507.23 Gg CH4 yr

-1, whichirrigated rice contributed to the largest share with220.46 Gg (43.46%) (Table 3.7).


2012

Page 33


Table 3.7: CH4emissions from flooded rice fields of different rice ecosystems in 2000

CH4 (Gg yr-1)

1 Irrigated Rice 1,852,691 220.46 43.46

2 Regular Rain-fed Rice 2,432,690 134.62 26.54

3 Drought-prone Rain-fed Rice 756,276 34.75 6.85

4 Deep water Rice 1,071,392 117.4 23.15

Total 6,302,306 507.23 100

No. Rice ecosystems Harvestedarea (ha) % of totalemission

CH4 (Gg yr-1)

1 Irrigated Rice 1,852,691 220.46 43.46

2 Regular Rain-fed Rice 2,432,690 134.62 26.54

3 Drought-prone Rain-fed Rice 756,276 34.75 6.85

No. Rice ecosystems Harvestedarea (ha)No. Rice ecosystems Harvestedarea (ha) % of totalemission

23.15117.41,071,392Deep water Rice4507.23 100507.23 100507.23 1006,302,306Total

Estimation of N2O from agricultural soilsN2O is an important GHGproduced in agriculturalsoil by microbial processes of nitrification anddenitrification. IncreasedNinputs toagricultural soilshave greatly increased N2O emission. It wasrecognized that upland fields that favor bothnitrificationanddenitrificationprocessespromoteN2Oformation. Therefore, the significant contribution toglobalN2Oproduction fromupland agriculturewaswell recognized in the past fewdecades.

The totalN2Oemission fromagricultural soils in theyear 2000 was estimated to be 8.2 Gg N2O yr

-1 ofwhich direct N2O emissions and indirect N2Oemissions were 7.45 GgN2Oyr

-1 and 0.75 GgN2Oyr-1, respectively (Table 3.8 ).

Crop residue burningUse of crop residues for animal feed and fuel woodare common for the smallholder farmers acrossMyanmar. Farmers usuallyburn down the residuesof previous crops and weeds at the land clearingtime (e.g paddy, wheat, corn and sugarcane)However, the practice of burning and the amount ofburningmaterialsvaryfromregion toregion,andevenplot toplot. In thedryzoneofcentralMyanmarwherethe animal feed and fuel are scarce, the residues ofpaddy, pulses, peanut and corn are used for cattlefeeding and those of sesame, pigeon pea, cotton arefor household fuel and jaggery industry.

For theestimationofGHGemissionsfromburningoffield residues, sugarcane, rice, wheat and cornwereincluded, andotherswereassumed tobe insignificantfor field burning. With the adoption ofTier 1, IPCC2006 Guidelines, the emissions of CH4, CO, N2Oand NOx in 2000were estimated to be 0.024, 0.81,

0.0006 and 0.022 Gg yr-1 respectively.GHGemissionsfromtheagricultural sector fortheyear2000are summarized in Table 3.8.

Database and trend of GHG emission for theagricultural sector in MyanmarThe basic information on the harvested area andproduction of four major crops, the total harvestedarea, variety of rice in terms of growing period andirrigation types for the years 1990, 1995, 2000, and2001-2005 is presented inAppendix III. Databasefor theuseof fertilizersand theannualburningofcropresidues in agriculture sector is also presented.The trendof GHGemissions fromagriculture sectorfor the years 1990, 1995, 2000, and 2001-2005 ispresented in Table 3.9. CH4andN2O emissions inagriculture sector during 1990-2005 tended to risebecause of increased agricultural land and areaincreased fertilizer input.

Livestock sectorLivestock is used for draft power, means oftransportation, capital, credit,meat,milk, socialvalue,hides and sources of organic fertilizer for seasonalcropping. Livestock-crop holding have been in thehands of resource-poor farmers for many decadesandwill remainso formanyyears tocome. Ingeneral,farmingsystems inMyanmar include traditional ricecultivation, fieldcropproduction,andlivestockrearing(especially buffalo or cattle or both ). Livestock inMyanmar mostly consume the agricultural cropresisues and farm by- products.

Feed resources are scarce and quality is poorespecially during dry season, which results in lowproductivity.

2012

Myanmar relies heavilyon draft cattlepopulation topromote agricultural expansion. Landcultivation ismostly done with the use of draught cattle andbuffaloes. Draft cattle are also veryuseful asmeansof transport in the rural areas. Dairy cattle are bredtoproducedairyproducts fordomestic consumption.

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Chicken, pigs, ducks, sheep and goats are raised fordomestic consumption. Data for horses, mules andasses population inMyanmar were obtained fromLBVD. Livestock population as per StatisticalYearbook 2007 is shown inTable 3.10.

Enteric fermentationEmission sources of methane by animals were inconformitywith the emission sources definedbytheIPCC. Methane emissions mainly came from theenteric fermentation of ruminants, including dairycattle, non-dairy cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, horse,donkey andmule/ass. At the same time, methaneemissionfromswinewasalsotakenintoconsideration.IPCC 2006 Tier 1 method was adoptedto estimate CH4 and N2O emissions from entericfermentationandmanuremanagement in thelivestocksector.

Table 3.8: Total GHGemissions fromagriculture in 2000

CH4 CO N2O NOx(Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg)

1. Rice cultivation 507.23 - - - 10651.82. Emission fromagricultural soils - - 8.2 - 2542(a) N2O Direct emissions - - 7.45 - 2309.5(b) N2O Indirect emissions - - 0.75 - 232.53. Field burning of crop residues 0.024 0.81 0.0006 0.022 1.61

TOTAL 507.254 - 8.2006 0.022 13195.41

Source Total GHGemissions* CO2eq.(Gg)

CH4 CO N2O NOx(Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg)

1. Rice cultivation 507.23 - - - 10651.82. Emission fromagricultural soils - - 8.2 - 2542(a) N2(a) N2(a) N ODirect emissions - - 7.45 - 2309.5(b) N2(b) N2(b) N O Indirect emissions - - 0.75 - 232.53. Field burning of crop residues 0.024 0.81 0.0006 0.022 1.61

TOTAL 507.254 - 8.2006 0.022 13195.41

Source Total GHGemissions* CO2Total GHGemissions* CO2Total GHGemissions* CO eq.(Gg)

Considering itskeysourcecategorystatus,anattemptwasmade to estimate the CH4emission coefficientfor cattle and buffalo. For this purpose, the cattleandbuffalopopulations havebeendivided into dairyand non-dairy categories,with different age groups(LBVD2000).

To estimate CH4 emission fromthe livestock sector,coefficients for cattle andbuffalo fromIndia’s initialnational communication 2004 were used, becauseMyanmar’s cattle and buffalo breeding and feedingsystem as well as breed characterization are verysimilar to India.

Table 3.9: Estmation of GHGemissions from agriculture sector

Years 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

CH4 349.33 485.18 507.23 514.06 511.32 523.69 540.09 589.81

N2O 5.53 7.07 8.2 8.53 8.67 9.05 9.49 10.19

CH4 0.0174 0.0214 0.024 0.0249 0.0247 0.0255 0.0264 0.0282N2O 0.0004 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0007 0.0007 0.0007NOX 0.0161 0.0198 0.022 0.0231 0.0229 0.0236 0.0245 0.0262CO 0.5913 0.729 0.81 0.8488 0.843 0.8696 0.9003 0.9623Total(Gg CO2 e)

15,546.81

Emissions fromRice Cultivation (Gg)

Emissions fromAgricultural Soils (Gg)

Emissions fromField Burning of Agricultural Residues (Gg)

9,051.39 12,381.94 13,195.41 13,441.23 13,427.08 13,804.73 14,285.58

Years 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

CH4 349.33 485.18 507.23 514.06 511.32 523.69 540.09 589.81

N2O 5.53 7.07 8.2 8.53 8.67 9.05 9.49 10.19

CH4N2O 0.0004 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0007 0.0007 0.0007NOXCO 0.5913 0.729 0.81 0.8488 0.843 0.8696 0.9003 0.9623Total(Gg CO2(Gg CO2(Gg CO e)

Emissions fromRice Cultivation (Gg)

Emissions fromAgricultural Soils (Gg)

Emissions fromField Burning of Agricultural Residues (Gg)0.0174 0.0214 0.024 0.0249 0.0247 0.0255 0.0264 0.02820.0174 0.0214 0.024 0.0249 0.0247 0.0255 0.0264 0.02820.0174 0.0214 0.024 0.0249 0.0247 0.0255 0.0264 0.02820.0174 0.0214 0.024 0.0249 0.0247 0.0255 0.0264 0.02820.0174 0.0214 0.024 0.0249 0.0247 0.0255 0.0264 0.02820.0174 0.0214 0.024 0.0249 0.0247 0.0255 0.0264 0.02820.0174 0.0214 0.024 0.0249 0.0247 0.0255 0.0264 0.02820.0174 0.0214 0.024 0.0249 0.0247 0.0255 0.0264 0.0282

O 0.0004 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0007 0.0007 0.0007O 0.0004 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0007 0.0007 0.0007O 0.0004 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0007 0.0007 0.0007O 0.0004 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0007 0.0007 0.0007O 0.0004 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0007 0.0007 0.0007O 0.0004 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0007 0.0007 0.0007O 0.0004 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0007 0.0007 0.0007O 0.0004 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0007 0.0007 0.00070.0161 0.0198 0.022 0.0231 0.0229 0.0236 0.0245 0.02620.0161 0.0198 0.022 0.0231 0.0229 0.0236 0.0245 0.02620.0161 0.0198 0.022 0.0231 0.0229 0.0236 0.0245 0.02620.0161 0.0198 0.022 0.0231 0.0229 0.0236 0.0245 0.02620.0161 0.0198 0.022 0.0231 0.0229 0.0236 0.0245 0.02620.0161 0.0198 0.022 0.0231 0.0229 0.0236 0.0245 0.02620.0161 0.0198 0.022 0.0231 0.0229 0.0236 0.0245 0.02620.0161 0.0198 0.022 0.0231 0.0229 0.0236 0.0245 0.0262

CO 0.5913 0.729 0.81 0.8488 0.843 0.8696 0.9003 0.9623CO 0.5913 0.729 0.81 0.8488 0.843 0.8696 0.9003 0.9623CO 0.5913 0.729 0.81 0.8488 0.843 0.8696 0.9003 0.9623CO 0.5913 0.729 0.81 0.8488 0.843 0.8696 0.9003 0.9623CO 0.5913 0.729 0.81 0.8488 0.843 0.8696 0.9003 0.9623CO 0.5913 0.729 0.81 0.8488 0.843 0.8696 0.9003 0.9623CO 0.5913 0.729 0.81 0.8488 0.843 0.8696 0.9003 0.9623CO 0.5913 0.729 0.81 0.8488 0.843 0.8696 0.9003 0.9623

15,546.819,051.39 12,381.94 13,195.41 13,441.23 13,427.08 13,804.73 14,285.589,051.39 12,381.94 13,195.41 13,441.23 13,427.08 13,804.73 14,285.589,051.39 12,381.94 13,195.41 13,441.23 13,427.08 13,804.73 14,285.589,051.39 12,381.94 13,195.41 13,441.23 13,427.08 13,804.73 14,285.589,051.39 12,381.94 13,195.41 13,441.23 13,427.08 13,804.73 14,285.589,051.39 12,381.94 13,195.41 13,441.23 13,427.08 13,804.73 14,285.589,051.39 12,381.94 13,195.41 13,441.23 13,427.08 13,804.73 14,285.58


2012

Table 3.12: Total GHGemission from livestockin 2000

Entericfermentation

Manuremanagement

(Gg) (Gg )1 Cattle 305.43 17.1

2 Buffalo 83.78 5.39

3 Sheep 1.95 0.084 Goats 7.08 0.31

5 Horses 2.11 0.26

6 Mules and asses 0.1 0.017 Swine 3.97 27.82

8 Poultry - 1.1Sub-total 404.43 52.07

No KindofAnimal

CH4 Emissions

Entericfermentation

Manuremanagement

(Gg) (Gg )1 Cattle 305.43 17.1

2 Buffalo 83.78 5.39

3 Sheep 1.95 0.084 Goats 7.08 0.31

5 Horses 2.11 0.26

6 Mules and asses 0.1 0.017 Swine 3.97 27.82

8 Poultry - 1.1Sub-total 404.43 52.07

No KindofAnimalNo KindofAnimal

CH4CH4CH Emissions

Database and trend of GHG emissions forlivestock sector of Myanmar

Database for total livestock population, and milkproduction in livestock sector ofMyanmar during1990-2005 is presented inAppendix IV. MethaneandN2O emissions in livestock sector during 1990-2015 are presented in (Table 3.13).CH4andN2O emissions in livestock sector during2000-2005 tended to rise because of increasednumberof livestock.

Page 35

Manure managementThe inventories of CH4 and N2O emissions fromanimalmanuremanagementsystemsinvolved11maindomesticanimalsandpoultry(swine,non-dairycattle,dairycattle,buffalo,goat, sheep,camel,donkey,mule/ass,horseandchicken).Amongthem,emissions frommanuremanagement systems for swine, non-dairycattle, goat, sheep and chickenwere the keysources.Based on the data availability and the importance ofthe emission sources,methodswere determined forcalculating CH4 and N2O emissions from animalmanuremanagementsystems. Since therehavebeennoactualmeasurements for emissions factors,Tier 1method with default emission factors of the IPCC2006 guidelines was applied (Table 3.11).


Table 3.10: Animal population census(number inmillions)

No. Kindof Animal 2000-01

1 Cattle 10.98

2 Buffalo 2.44

3 Sheep & Goat 1.8

4 Pigs 3.97

5 Poultry 55.21

No. Kindof Animal 2000-01No. Kindof Animal 2000-01

1 Cattle 10.98

2 Buffalo 2.44

3 Sheep & Goat 1.8

4 Pigs 3.97

5 Poultry 55.21

Animal typeEnteric fermentation,kg/head-year

Manuremanagement,kg/head-year

Dairy cattle 43 31

Non-dairy cattle

0-1 yr 9 11-3 yr 23 1

Adult 32 1

Dairy buffalo 50 31Non-dairy buffalo

0-1 yr 8 2

1-3 yr 22 2Adult 44 2

Sheep 5 0.2

Goat 5 0.22Horses 18 2.19

Mules andAsses 10 1.2

Swine 1 7Poultry - 0.02

Animal typeEnteric fermentation,kg/head-year

Manuremanagement,kg/head-year

Dairy cattle 43 31

Non-dairy cattle

0-1 yr 9 11-3 yr 23 1

Adult 32 1

Dairy buffalo 50 31Non-dairy buffalo

0-1 yr 8 2

1-3 yr 22 2Adult 44 2

Sheep 5 0.2

Goat 5 0.22Horses 18 2.19

Mules andAsses

SwinePoultry

1.210

710.02-

Table 3.11: Emission coefficients forCH4 emission in livestock sector

Total GHG emission from livestock in 2000

CH4 emissions from the livestock sector from theyear 1998 to 2002 increased by 1.25%. annually.The inventorywas conductedmostlyusing 2000 asthe base year. CH4 emissions from entericfermentation andmanuremanagementwere 404.43Gg and 52.07 Gg, respectively, resulting the totalmethane emission valueof 456.50Gg .The greatestamount ofmethane (27.82 Gg), was released frommanuremanagement of swine followedbynon-dairycattle (Table 3.12).

2012

Page 36

Table 3.13: Estimation of GHGemission from livestock sector

GHG 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

CH4 (Gg) 378.38 404.83 456.5 469.29 484.11 495.49 506.49 519.23

N2O (Gg) 0.14 0.17 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25

Total (Gg CO2e) 7990.79 8554.35 9648.31 9919.57 10233.98 10476.59 10709.42 10980.15

GHG 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

CH4CH4CH (Gg) 378.38 404.83 456.5 469.29 484.11 495.49 506.49 519.23

N2N2N O (Gg) 0.14 0.17 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25

Total (Gg CO2Total (Gg CO2Total (Gg CO e) 7990.79 8554.35 9648.31 9919.57 10233.98 10476.59 10709.42 10980.15

Table 3.14: Forest types and areas inMyanmar in 2000

Forest typeForestType Area

(Myanmar) (IPCC) (ha)Tropical evergreen forest

Tropicalrain forest 5,528,640 16

Mixeddeciduousforest

Tropicalmoistdeciduousforest

13,476,060 39

Dry forestTropicaldry forest 3,455,400 10

DipterocarpsforestTropicaldry forest

1,727,700 5

Hill andtemperateevergreenforest

Subtropical mountainsystem

8,984,040 26

Beach anddune forest

Tropicalrain forest

1,382,160 4

TOTAL 34,554,000 100

%of totalforest area

Forest typeForestType AreaType Area

(Myanmar) (IPCC) (ha)(Myanmar) (IPCC) (ha)(Myanmar) (IPCC) (ha)Tropical evergreen forest

Tropicalrain forest 5,528,640 16

Mixeddeciduousforest

Tropicalmoistdeciduousforest

13,476,060 39

Dry forestTropicaldry forest 3,455,400 10

DipterocarpsforestTropicaldry forest

1,727,700 5

Hill andtemperateevergreenforest

Subtropical mountainsystem

8,984,040 26

Beach anddune forest

Tropicalrain forest

1,382,160 4

TOTAL 34,554,000 100

%of totalforest area


Theannual increases in biomass carbonstocks in theland use change and forestry sectorwere calculatedfor the followingcategories:1. Natural forests2. Forest plantations3. Homegarden trees4. Roadside trees

Annual increase in biomass carbon stocks bynatural forestsAnnual increase in biomass carbon stocksbynaturalforests ofMyanmar for the year2000was calculatedbyusingEquation 2.9 of IPCC 2006Guidelines.Increaseofcarbonstocks (includingabovegroundandbelowground biomass) in the forest land remainingas forest land in Myanmar for the year 2000 wasestimated tobe35,410.53GgofCarbon (129838.59Gg of CO2) (Table 3.15).

Annual increase in biomass carbon stocks byforest plantationsForestplantationsestablishedbydepartmental taungyasystem accounted for 658 595 ha during the period1963 to 2000. The planted species included Teak(Tectona grandis), Pyinkado (Xyia xylocarpa),Padauk (Pterocarpus macrocarpus), Tinyu (Pinusspp), Eucalypt (Eucalyptus spp) and others.Based on these values, increases in carbon stocks offorest plantations with different species werecalculated. Since thedocumenteddata for thepresentstatus on the total area of the forest plantations arenotavailable, it isassumedthatall theforestplantationsestablished during the period 1963 to 2000 are stillmaintained.

Increase of carbon stocks (including above- andbelow-ground biomass) of the forest plantations inMyanmar for the year 2000 was estimated to be3,204.56 Gg of Carbon(11,750.04 Gg of CO2( Table 3.15).

3.5 Land Use Change and ForestrySector

The forest resource assessment (FRA 2005)conductedbytheFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO) in cooperation with the ForestDepartment(FD) of Myanmar has indicated thatMyanmar is still endowedwith a forest-covered areaof 52% of the country’s total land area of 676,577km2. This is one of the highest forest cover in theAsia-PacificRegion.Closed forests (i.e. good forests)account for 37.4%, while open forests constitute14.9%. The forest types and areas, along with therespective IPCC-classifications, are shown in (Table3.14).

2012

(a) Total annual CO2 removal by differentactivities for the year 2000Total annual increase in biomass carbon stocks bydifferent activities in the landusechangeand forestrysector for the year 2000 was estimated to be38,787.96 Gg of carbon (142,221.19 Gg of CO2).The summary for the annual increase in biomasscarbon stocks bydifferent activities inMyanmar forthe year 2000 is shown in (Table 3.15).

Annual decrease in biomass Carbon StocksAnnual decreases in biomass carbon stocks due tobiomass losses for the year 2000were calculated forthefollowingactivities:

1. Loss of carbon bywood removal2. Loss of carbon by harvested woodproducts (HWP)3. Loss of carbon by fuelwood removal4. Biomassburningfollowinglandclearing(i) Site preparation for forestplantations

(ii) Shiftingcultivation(iii) Deforestation

Loss of carbon by wood removalTotal amount of industrial roundwood harvested inthe year 2000 was 2,161,980 m3 (CSO, 2007).Annual carbon loss in biomass bywood removal (ie.industrial roundwood) for the year 2000 wasestimated to be 2,177Gg of carbon.

Page 37


Annual increase in biomass carbon stocks byhome garden treesHome gardens are common inMyanmar and theyplay an important role in fulfilling householdrequirements. Based on the available data fromdifferentstudies,averagenumberof treesineachhomegarden, planted species,numberof households (ruraland urban), and average growth ratewere collectedand annual biomass growths in home gardenscalculated.

Annual increase in biomass carbon stocks byhomegarden trees in Myanmar for the year 2000 wasestimated to be 128. 55 Gg of Carbon (470.07 Ggof CO2). (Table 3.15)

Annual increase in biomass carbon stocks byroadside treesTotal length of roads in the Union of Myanmar in2000-2001 was estimated to be about 28,600 km.Thenumberof roadside treeswere calculated basedon the total length of the roads, the spacingbetweenthe planted trees and the rows, and later convertedto plantation areas (Woodlots are not included).Theaboveground biomass growthwas again estimatedby using Equation 2.9 and 2.10 in IPCC 2006.Species composition, growth rates of the commonspecies planted and age of the roadside trees weretaken intoaccount in determining thedefault values.Annual increase inbiomasscarbonstocksbyroadsidetrees ofMyanmar in 2000was estimated to be 44.32Gg of Carbon (162.49 Gg of CO2) (Table 3.15).

Table 3.15:Annual increase in carbon stocks and annualCO2removals in 2000

Percentage to total CO2removal

(% )

Natural forests 35, 410.53 129, 838.59 91.3

Forest Plantations 3,204.56 11,750.04 8.26

Home Garden Trees 128.55 470.07 0.33

Roadside Trees 44.32 162.49 0.11

TOTAL 38,787.96 142,221.19 100

ActivityAnnual increase incarbon stocks (Carbon,Gg)

Annual carbondioxide removal(Carbon dioxide, Gg)

Percentage to total CO2removal

(% )

Natural forests 35, 410.53 129, 838.59 91.3

Forest Plantations 3,204.56 11,750.04 8.26

Home Garden Trees 128.55 470.07 0.33

Roadside Trees 44.32 162.49 0.11

TOTAL 38,787.96 142,221.19 100

ActivityAnnual increase incarbon stocks (Carbon,Gg)

Annual carbondioxide removal(Carbon dioxide, Gg)

2012

Page 38

Biomass burning following land clearingGHGemissionsfromburningfollowingforestclearingwere estimated by using Equation 2.27 of IPCC2006.

Since Taungya system and shifting agriculture arecommonlydistributed invarious ecological zones ofMyanmarandreliabledataonbiomassstock forburntareas were not available, the default value for theamountof fuel actuallyburntwas assumed tobe42.2tons drymatter ha-1- (Table 2.4 of IPCC-2006).

Site preparation for forest plantationsThe total forest plantation area established in 2000was 30731 ha. Forest plantations in Myanmar areestablished for different purposes viz. commercial,local supply (fuel-wood), industrial, watershedconservation, etc.During landpreparation, not all theselected areas areburnt (eg.watershed conservationplantations).Theactual burnt area for sitepreparationin the year 2000 was 23,277 ha.

GHG emissions from biomass burning for sitepreparationof the forest plantations for theyear 2000were estimated to be 1,863.207GgCO2equivalent(Table 3.17).

Shifting cultivationIn this study, typical shifting cultivated areas (forestareas that were slashed and burnt for growing cashcropbut left fornatural regenerationafter someyears,


Loss of carbon by harvested wood productsHarvested Wood Product (HWP) is defined aswood-basedmaterial harvested from forests, theyareused for products such as furniture, panel board andpaper and paper-like products or for energy. HWPsexclude, however, logging residues that are left atharvested sites.

Since the technical details and complexityofHWPaccounting and its role in climate changemitigationhave made the topic incomprehensible, the HWPcontribution for the year 2000 was assumed to bezero for this study.

Loss of carbon by fuelwood removalAnnual carbon loss in biomass byfuelwood removalwascalculatedbyusingEquation2.13of IPCC2006.The default values for calculationswere taken from(Table 4.3), (Table 4.4) and (Table 4.5) of IPCC2006.

Total amount of fuelwood production inMyanmarfor the year 2000was 33,442,200m3 (CSO, 2007).Fuelwood removal volumes were converted toaboveground and belowground biomass. Finally,annual carbon loss in biomass of fuelwood removalfor the year 2000was calculated.Annual carbon loss in biomass byfuelwood removalinMyanmar for the year 2000 was estimated to be26,936.418 Gg of carbon (CO2 emissions fromfuelwood and charcoal combustionwere calculatedand described in the energy sector) (Table 3.16).

Table 3.16: Annual decrease in carbon stocks andGHGemissions by differentactivities in 2000

Activity Loss of carbon GHGemission RemarkWoodremoval 2,176.888 GgC Not accounted Not all the wood products are burntHarvestedwoodproducts Not estimated Not accounted Not needed to calculate in Tier 1 level

Fuelwoodremoval 26,936.418 GgC AccountedGHGemissions are further estimated inEnergy sector but not included in theNational Totals

Site preparation for forest plantations - 1,863.207 GgCO2eShifting cultivation - 1,200.674 GgCO2eDeforestation - 37,340.974 GgCO2e

Activity Loss of carbon GHGemission RemarkWoodremoval 2,176.888 GgC Not accounted Not all the wood products are burntHarvestedwoodproducts Not estimated Not accounted Not needed to calculate in Tier 1 level

Fuelwoodremoval 26,936.418 GgC AccountedGHGemissions are further estimated inEnergy sector but not included in theNational Totals

Site preparation for forest plantations - 1,863.207 GgCO21,863.207 GgCO21,863.207 GgCO eShifting cultivation - 1,200.674 GgCO21,200.674 GgCO21,200.674 GgCO eDeforestation - 37,340.974 GgCO237,340.974 GgCO237,340.974 GgCO e

2012

Table 3.17: GHGemissions by different activities in 2000

Total (CO2 equivalent)CO2 CO CH4 N2O NOx (Gg)(Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg)

Forest plantations 1, 552.017 102.158 6.68 0.196 1.572 1,863.21

Shiftingcultivation

1 ,000.140 65.832 4.304 0.127 1.013 1,200.67

Deforestation 31,104.35 2,047.38 133.867 3.937 31.498 37,340.97

TOTAL 33,656.51 2 ,215.365 144.851 4.26 34.083 40,404.86

ActivityEmissions Total (CO2 equivalent)

CO2 CO CH4CH4CH N2O NOx (Gg)(Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg)

Forest plantations 1, 552.017 102.158 6.68 0.196 1.572 1,863.21

Shiftingcultivation

1 ,000.140 65.832 4.304 0.127 1.013 1,200.67

Deforestation 31,104.35 2,047.38 133.867 3.937 31.498 37,340.97

TOTAL 33,656.51 2 ,215.365 144.851 4.26 34.083 40,404.86

ActivityEmissions

and that donot changepermanently toother landuse)where thenaturalvegetationcould lead toanewforestwereaccountedfor theestimation.Theaverageannualarea burnt for shifting cultivation for the year 2000(forest land remaining as forest land)was 15,000 hayr-1- (FD, 2000).

GHG emissions from biomass burning by shiftingcultivation for the year 2000 were estimated to be1,200. 674GgCO2equivalent (Table 3.17).

DeforestationGHGemissions fromdeforestation share the largestportionof theGHGemissions in landusechangeandforestrysectorofMyanmar.Deforestation in theyear2000was466,500 ha (FRA2005).All thedeforestedareas were not burnt. However the reliable data onthe land use change pattern (from forest land tograssland, cropland, settlement,water body, etc)wasnot available.Therefore, all thedeforested landswereassumed to be burnt in this study for conservativeestimation.

GHGemissionsfrombiomassburningbydeforestationfor the year 2000 were estimated to be 37,340.974GgCO2equivalent (Table 3.17).

(b) Total GHG emissioins by differentactivities for the year 2000The activities responsible for annual decrease inbiomasscarbonstocks in landusechangeand forestrysector could be divided into two groups. One is theactivitywhich caused the annual decrease in carbonstocks but could not be accounted for direct GHGemission (eg.woodremoval); anotherwas theactivitywhich could be accounted for directGHG emission(eg. biomass burning). GHG emissions by selectedactivities in this studyare shown inTable 3.16.

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In this study, thegreenhousegas emissions in the landuse changeand forestrysector for theyear 2000werebe estimated to be 40 404.855 Gg CO2e. Theactivities and their GHG emissions are shown in( Table 3.17).

(c) Net CO2 emissions/ removals in 2000

Total annual increase in biomass carbonstocks in theforestry sector bynatural forest, forest plantations,home garden trees and roadside trees accounted for38, 787.61Ggof carbon,whichmeans the land usechangeand forestrysector ofMyanmarhad removed142,221.19Gg ofCO2 from the atmosphere in year2000.

On the other hand, total carbon loss by woodremoval, fuelwood removal andHWPaccounted for29,113.31 Gg of Carbon. The total GHG emissionby biomass burning following land clearing wasestimated to be 40,404.855Gg of CO2e.

Therefore, the net annual CO2 removals of the landuse change and forestry sector ofMyanmar for theyear 2000 were estimated to be 101 816.38 Gg ofCO2e. The summary for the net CO2emissions/removals for the year 2000 is shown inTable 3.18 .

Database and trend of GHG emission / removalsfor the land use change and forestry sectorFollowing the same approach as incalculatingGHGemissions and removals for theYear 2000, those forthe years 1990, 1995 and 2001 to 2005 werecalculated. The database for each source/sinkcategory in land use change and forestry sector ispresented in Appendix V. Net CO2 emissions/removals during1990-2005 in the forestrysector aresummarized in Table 3.19.

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Table 3.18: GHGemissions / removals from land use change and forestry sectorin 2000

Activity CO2 emissions (Gg) CO2 removals (Gg) Net CO2 emissions/ removals (Gg)

Natural forests - 129,838.59 (-) 129,838.59Forest plantations 1,863.21 11,750.04 (-) 9,886.833

Home garden trees - 470.07 (-) 470.07Roadside trees - 162.49 (-) 162.49

Woodremoval - - -

Fuelwoodremoval (Energy sector) - -Harvestedwoodproducts (HWP) - - -

Shifting cultivation 1,200.67 - (+) 1,200.674

Deforestation 37,340.97 - (+) 37,340.974

TOTAL 40,404.86 142,221.19 (-) 101,816.38

Activity CO2Activity CO2Activity CO emissions (Gg) CO2emissions (Gg) CO2emissions (Gg) CO removals (Gg) Net CO2removals (Gg) Net CO2removals (Gg) Net CO emissions/ removals (Gg)

Natural forests - 129,838.59 (-) 129,838.59Forest plantations 1,863.21 11,750.04 (-) 9,886.833

Home garden trees - 470.07 (-) 470.07Roadside trees - 162.49 (-) 162.49

Woodremoval - - -

Fuelwoodremoval (Energy sector) - -Harvestedwoodproducts (HWP) - - -

Shifting cultivation 1,200.67 - (+) 1,200.674

Deforestation 37,340.97 - (+) 37,340.974

TOTAL 40,404.86 142,221.19 (-) 101,816.38

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Year Total annual CO2 emissions(Gg)

Total annual CO2removals (Gg)

Total net annual CO2emissions/removals (Gg)

1990 40 ,855.26 154 ,034.90 (-) 113 ,179.64

1995 40 ,784.58 147 ,906.36 (-) 107 ,121.78

2000 40 ,404.85 142 ,221.23 (-) 101 ,816.38

2001 40 ,445.35 141 ,015.22 (-) 100,569.87

2002 40 ,425.18 139 ,825.50 (-) 99 ,400.32

2003 40 ,384.44 138 ,674.57 (-) 98 ,290.13

2004 40 ,447.27 137 ,473.85 (-) 97 ,026.58

2005 40 ,484.01 136 ,258.74 (-) 95 ,774.73

Year Total annual CO2 emissions(Gg)

Total annual CO2Total annual CO2Total annual COremovals (Gg)

Total net annual CO2emissions/removals (Gg)

1990 40 ,855.26 154 ,034.90 (-) 113 ,179.64

1995 40 ,784.58 147 ,906.36 (-) 107 ,121.78

2000 40 ,404.85 142 ,221.23 (-) 101 ,816.38

2001 40 ,445.35 141 ,015.22 (-) 100,569.87

2002 40 ,425.18 139 ,825.50 (-) 99 ,400.32

2003 40 ,384.44 138 ,674.57 (-) 98 ,290.13

2004 40 ,447.27 137 ,473.85 (-) 97 ,026.58

2005 40 ,484.01 136 ,258.74 (-) 95 ,774.73

Table 3.19: Summary for net CO2 emissions / removals

Net GHG removal in land use change and forestrysector shows amajor carbon sink. CO2 removal byland use change and forestry sector can compensatethe total emission bydifferent sectors.However, thetrend of net GHG removal during 1990-2005 haspointed out the constant decline becauseof decreasein natural forest area.

3.6. Waste Sector

GHG emissions from solid waste, domestic andcommercialwastewater wereestimated for thewastesector in Myanmar following the IPCC 2006Guidelines. Like inmost developing countries, onlyvery limited information was availabled onwastequantities and waste management practices.

Therefore, themethane emissions from the wastesectorwere estimatedmainly frompopulation datain urban areas.

For theactivitydata,MunicipalSolidWasteobtainedfromYangonCityDevelopmentCommittee (YCDC)and the Statistical Year Book of Myanmar wereapplied in the calculations.

Methaneemissions fromwaste sector was estimatedfrom twodifferent categories, namely(1) disposal ofsolid waste and (2) treatment of domestic andcommercialwastewater.

2012

and sludge, are common both in developed anddeveloping countries.The advantages of biologicaltreatments include reduced volume in the wastematerial, stabilization of the waste, destruction ofpathogens in the waste material, and production ofbiogas for energy use. However, they are not yetpracticed in Myanmar. The dumping of these solidwastes released 133.31 Gg of CH4, equivalent to2,799.51Gg of CO2 emitting into the atmosphere.

WastewaterEmissions fromdomesticandcommercialwastewatertreatments were estimated according to the IPCC2006 Guidelines, in which the urban population anddefault valueswere applied. It was assumed that 30%of total population (15.3 million) lived in urban areasin the year 2000.CH4 emission from domestic and commercialwastewater was estimated to be 0.083 Gg in 2000.Degradable Organic Component (DOC) for 1000persons per year and the fraction of DOC removedas sludge were 14,600 kg and 0.09 respectively inthecalculation.Totalmethaneemissionfromdomesticandcommercialwastewaterandsludgewasestimatedto be 1.257 Gg and 1.198 Gg respectively.

Methane emission from waste sector in 2000For the year 2000, the total methane emissions fromwaste sector were estimated to be 134.57 Gg. ofwhich the disposal of solid waste contributed 133.31Gg(99%), and domestic andcommercial wastewatertreatment contributed 1.198 Gg (1%) of CH4emission.

Database and trend of GHG emission for wastesectorData for total CH4 emissions from the disposal ofsolid wastecontributedanddomesticand commercialwastewater were described in Table 3.20.The trends of estimated methane emissions fromwaste sector of Myanmar were increasing due to theincrease of total population especially in urban area.

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Urban infrastructural services and the wastesgenerated in the urban areas produce GHGs due todecomposition oforganic materials. However, in thecities and large towns, solid waste is decomposed bylandfilling,especiallyinlow-lyingareaslocatedinsub-urban areas. Due to the piling of waste over years,anaerobic conditions develop and hence thesedumping sites generate large quantities of biogascontaininga fairlylarge amount of methane.

In rural areas and small towns, there is no systematicwaste management system. It can be assumed thatno CH4 is generated as anaerobic conditions do notdevelop in these areas.

As the waste generated in the rural part is typicallyscattered in the agricultural fields rather than in solidwaste disposal sites, they tend to decay aerobicallygeneratingextremelylowCH4 emissions. Hence,onlythe urban population was taken into account for theestimation of solid waste in this chapter.

Total population in Myanmar in 2000 was 50.125millions of which the population in urban area was15.03 million. In general, amount of solid waste wasabout 0.278kgper capita accordingto the calculationof YCDC. It was also assumed that total generatedwastes were 1,514.12 Gg and 80 %(1,211.9 Gg)were taken to the SolidWaste DisposalSite (SWDS)in the year 2000.

Waste incinerationis thecombustionofsolidandliquidwaste in controlled incineration facilities. It wasassumed that about 8 percent of waste collected wasincinerated and open-burned in sub-urban townshipsand quarters. Information on basic data such asamount of waste, waste sorting, and waste treatmentpracticewerenotavailable.Therefore emissions fromincineration and open burning were not included inthis study.

Biological treatments of solid wastes, that arecompostingandanaerobicdigestionsoforganicwaste,such as food waste, waste from gardens and parks

Solid WasteWaste includes agricultural waste (mainly cropresidues), livestockwaste(farmingmanure), industrialwaste and domestic/municipal waste.

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3.7. GHG inventory in Myanmar forthe year 2000

GHG emissions in Myanmar for the year 2000SummaryofGHGemissions inMyanmarfor theyear2000 is presented in Table 3.21 with a total netemission amounting to – 67,820.5GgCO2e. TotalCO2 emission in Myanmar for the year 2000 wasestimated to be 41,563.75 Gg.

Emissions fromenergysectorhavebeenestimated at7,863.47 Gg CO2e. Emissions from traditionalbiomassburned forenergyaccounted for 28,297.82GgCO2e. However, theseemissions arenot includedin the calculation of national totals since theyare farless than the total net emissions andwithin the rangeof sustainability. Itwas reportedonlyfor informationin this study.

CH4 was emitted from agriculture and livestocksector emitted 963.73 Gg of CH4 ; forestry sectorproduced the largest amount of GHGemissions of40,404.73 Gg CO2e.

GHG removals in Myanmar for the year 2000Due to the biomass growth in natural forests, forestplantations, road side trees and home garden trees,landusechangeandforestrywas theonlysectorwhichabsorbedCO2 in thecountryamouting to142,221.19Gg. The country’s net emissions turned out to be

Table 3.20 Estimation of CH4emission forwaste sector

YearFromSWDs

FromDomestic &Commerical waste-water

FromSludge

TotalEmissions

2000 133.31 Gg 1.198 Gg 0.059 Gg 134.57 Gg

2001 136.05 Gg 1.222 Gg 0.060 Gg 137.206 Gg

2002 138.01 Gg 1.240 Gg 0.061 Gg 139.311 Gg

2003 141.59 Gg 1.272 Gg 0.063 Gg 142.925 Gg

2004 144.396 Gg 1.297 Gg 0.064 Gg 145.757 Gg

2005 147.32 Gg 1.320 Gg 0.065 Gg 148.70 Gg

2010 157.32 Gg 1.420 Gg 0.070 Gg 159.44 Gg

2015 172.690 Gg 1.550 Gg 0.076 Gg 174.30 Gg

2020 188.650 Gg 1.700 Gg 0.083 Gg 190.40 Gg

YearFromSWDs

FromDomestic &Commerical waste-water

FromSludge

TotalEmissions

2000 133.31 Gg 1.198 Gg 0.059 Gg 134.57 Gg

2001 136.05 Gg 1.222 Gg 0.060 Gg 137.206 Gg

2002 138.01 Gg 1.240 Gg 0.061 Gg 139.311 Gg

2003 141.59 Gg 1.272 Gg 0.063 Gg 142.925 Gg

2004 144.396 Gg 1.297 Gg 0.064 Gg 145.757 Gg

2005 147.32 Gg 1.320 Gg 0.065 Gg 148.70 Gg

2010 157.32 Gg 1.420 Gg 0.070 Gg 159.44 Gg

2015 172.690 Gg 1.550 Gg 0.076 Gg 174.30 Gg

2020 188.650 Gg 1.700 Gg 0.083 Gg 190.40 Gg

-67,820.50 Gg CO2e (67.8 million tons of CO2).Therefore,Myanmar can be said to be a green cityowing to its vast extent of natural forests.

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Table 3.21.Summary Table: GHG emissions and removals in Myanmar in 2000

CO2 CO2 CH4 N2 O CO NO x NMVOCs SOx SF 6 ODS

Emissions Removals (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg)

(Gg) (Gg)Total national emissions and removals 41563.75 142221.2 1248.79 12.94 2216.18 34.1 4.57 - 0.003 0.11

1. Energy 7658.65 - 5.62 0.28 - - - - - -

A. Fuel conversion (sectoral approach)

1. Energy Industries 2323.02 - - - - - - - - -

2. Manufacturing industries and construction 784.83 - - 0.08 - - - - - -

3. Transport 2129.98 - 0.46 0.1 - - - - - -

4. Other sectors

(Commercial institution) 888.55 - - - - - - - - -

(Residential) 42.87 - - - - - - - - -

(Agriculture/Forestry/Fishery) 596.9 - - 0.1 - - - - - -

5.Other (please specify) 892.5 - - - - - - - - -

B. Fugitive emissions from fuels

1. Solid fuels (Coal mining) - - 0.53 - - - - - - -

2. Oil and natural gas - - 4.63 - - - - - - -

2. Industrial processes 241.2 - - - - - 4.57 - 0.003 0.11

A. Mineral products 32.48 - - - - - - - - -

B. Chemical industry 0.8 - - - - - 4.57 - - -

C. M etal production 4.34 - - - - - - - - -

D. Cement production 203.23 - - - - - - - - -

E. Production of halocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride

F. Consumption of halocarbons and sulphurhexafluoride

G. Other (please specify)

(Carbide for acetylene production) 0.35 - - - - - - - - -

(Refrigeration & air conditioning) - - - - - - - - - 0.11

(Electrical Equipment) - - - - - - - - 0.003 -

3. Solvent and other product use 7.39 - - - - - - - - -

4. Agriculture - - 963.75 8.4 0.81 - - - - -

A. Enteric fermentation - - 404.43 0.1743 - - - - - -

B. M anure management - - 52.07 0.0257 - - - - - -

C. Rice cultivation - - 507.23 - - - - - - -

D. Agricultural soils - - - 8.2 - - - - - -

E. Prescribed burning of savannahs

F. Field burning of agricultural residues - - 0.024 0.0006 0.81 - - - - -

G. Other (please specify) - - - - - - - - - -

5. Land-use change and forestry 33656.51 142221.19 144.85 4.26 2215.37 34.08 - - - -

A. Changes in forest and other woody biomass 2552.157 11750.04 10.983 0.323 167.99 2.582 - - - -

GREENHOUSE GAS SOURCE AND SINKCATEGORIES

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* Traditional biomass fuel combustion: Not included in national GHG inventory calculations.Notes: Shaded cells do not require entries.a The following standard indicators should be used, as appropriate, for emissions by sources and removals by sinks ofGHgs: NO (not occurring) for activities or processes that do not occur for a particular gas or source/sink category withina country, NE (not estimated) for existing emissions and removals which have not been estimated, NA (not applicable) foractivities in a given source/sink category which do not result in emissions or removals of a specific gas, IE (Includedelsewhere) for emissions and removals estimated but included in elsewhere in the inventory (Parties should indicate wherethe emissions or removals have been included), C (confidential) for emissions and removals which lead to the disclosure ofconfidential information.b Do not provide an estimate of both CO

2emissions and CO

2removals. “Net” emissions (emissions – removals) of CO

2

should be estimated and a single number placed in either the CO2

emissions or CO2

removals column, as appropriate. Notethat for the purpose of reporting, the signs for removals are always (-) and for emissions (+).

B. Forest and grassland conversion 31104.35 - 133.867 3.937 2047.38 31.498 - - - -

C. Abandonment of managed lands - 129838.59 - - - - - - - -

D. CO2 emissions and removals from soils NE NE

E. Other (please specify)

(Home gardens) - 470.07 - - - - - - - -

(Road side trees) - 162.49 - - - - - - - -

6. Waste - - 134.57 - - - - - - -

A. Solid waste disposal on land - - 133.31 - - - - - - -

B. Waste water handling - - 1.257 - - - - - - -

C. Waste incineration - - - - - - - - - -

D. Other (please specify) - - - - - - - - -

7. Other (please specify)

Memo items

International bunkers

Aviation

Marine

CO2 emissions from biomass 27475.3 - 7.36 0.98 - - - - - -

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The Trend of GHG emissions in MyanmarThetrendanalysis inEnergySector, includingindustrialprocesses and product use, for the short term (2000-2005) indicated manyfluctuations inestimatingGHGemission.ThemainGHGsources in thesector includeenergy industries and transportation which areresponsible for most CO2 emissions. Thus, theindustrial and economic development will largelyinfluence the GHG emissions from energy sector.NMVOC, ODS, SF6 emissions also show substantialamount. However, those GHGs are covered byMontreal Protocol and have to be deducted fromindustrial sector. Thus, the trend for NMVOC, ODS,SF6 emissions are expected to be decrease.

The trends for GHG emissions in agriculture andlivestock sectors clearlyhighlighted a sharp increasein short-term (2000-2005) periods. Due to theincrease in the net sown area and more inputs inagricultural systems and the increased domesticanimals in livestock sector, the CH4 and N2Oemissions are likely to increase.

Waste sector also shows increase in CH4 emissionsdue to the population growth and increased urbanpopulation. The CH4 emission is likely to drasticallyincrease for both short- and long- terms.Land use change and forestry sector was the majorGHGemitter in thecountry.Themajoremissionscamefromdeforestation,shiftingcultivationandlandclearingfor forest plantations.

The total annual CO2 removals bynatural forests aredecliningsteadilyduetodeforestationanddegradation.Since forests constitute both a source and a sink ofCO2,, vitally important that they are protected,conserved and manged in a sustainable manner.

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Appendix I: Energy Sector Database

Table 3A1.1: Energy SectorDatabase: Fuel production, import and export

Table 3A1.2: Energy SectorDatabase: Fuel consumption (TJ)

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Crude oil (gal) 144,693,019 168,687,423 223,357,902 250,602,772 261,735,659 278,850,523Sub-bituminous coal(Ton) 146,583 97,239 115,175 169,728 230,384 201,830

Natural gas

(drymmcf)

Crude oil (gal) 106,581,618 218,934,181 101,034,966 8,637,051

Gasoline (gal) 12,236,000

Diesel (gal) 117,333,000

PetroleumCoke (Ton) 32,951 33,457 34,510 25,160 21,686 19,515

Natural Gas (mmcf) 246,425 242,787 295,598 304,600 353,408 368,913

Import

Export

Production

299,388 310,502 331,419 349,965 426,171437,729

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Crude oil (gal) 144,693,019 168,687,423 223,357,902 250,602,772 261,735,659 278,850,523Sub-bituminous coal(Ton) 146,583 97,239 115,175 169,728 230,384 201,830

Natural gas

(drymmcf)

Crude oil (gal) 106,581,618 218,934,181 101,034,966 8,637,051

Gasoline (gal) 12,236,000

Diesel (gal) 117,333,000

PetroleumCoke (Ton) 32,951 33,457 34,510 25,160 21,686 19,515

Natural Gas (mmcf) 246,425 242,787 295,598 304,600 353,408 368,913

Import

Export

Production

299,388 310,502 331,419 349,965 426,171437,729

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Gasoline 15,327.48 13,867.23 14,593.62 16,899.61 16,899.60 16,908.56

Jet Kerosene 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09

Residual fuel oil 5,861.48 4,992.53 6,110.50 5,386.09 4,633.81 3,893.72

LPG 712.25 730.51 721.19 596.37 558.35 463.38

Diesel oil 48,741.16 39,259.07 45,049.61 44,349.38 38,603.01 41,113.34

Sub-bituminous Coal 1,296.97 3,423.92 2,623.09 3,106.32 4,854.53 4,894.06

Natural gas (dry) 41,698.39 37,477.68 43,095.36 48,831.25 66,466.94 52,397.01SolidBiomass 248,509.71 254,868.29 260,509.87 268,977.70 297,684.23 275,013.21

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Gasoline 15,327.48 13,867.23 14,593.62 16,899.61 16,899.60 16,908.56

Jet Kerosene 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09


LPG 712.25 730.51 721.19 596.37 558.35 463.38

Diesel oil 48,741.16 39,259.07 45,049.61 44,349.38 38,603.01 41,113.34


Natural gas (dry) 41,698.39 37,477.68 43,095.36 48,831.25 66,466.94 52,397.01SolidBiomass 248,509.71 254,868.29 260,509.87 268,977.70 297,684.23 275,013.21

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Appendix I: Energy Sector Database

Table 3A1.3: Energy SectorDatabase: Fuel consumption by sub-sectors (TJ)

Table 3A1.4: Energy SectorDatabase:Traditional biomass burned

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Natural Gas (dry) 41,616.62 37,997.02 43,019.12 48,749.48 66,301.21 50,805.92

Gasoline 171.75 141.02 134.52 117.73 132.99 128.23


LPG 25.59 25.26 26.15 25.89 25.56 25.01

Diesel oil 2,818.63 2,313.28 2,410.85 2,387.12 2,253.50 2,025.35


Gasoline 12,178.85 11,019.19 12,083.21 14,300.72 14,371.26 14,235.68

Jet Kerosene 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09

Diesel oil 16,277.95 15,219.07 21,208.23 19,295.85 19,148.88 17,379.87

Sub-bituminous Coal 27.86 113.52 56.24 160.99 136.74 0.06

Natural gas (dry) 81.76 80.66 76.24 81.76 165.74 1,591.09

Gasoline 2,976.88 2,707.03 2,375.89 2,481.15 2,395.35 2,544.64

LPG 686.65 705.24 695.04 570.48 532.78 438.37

Diesel oil 29,644.58 21307.15 21026.33 22189.13 16747.49 21,633.24

Solidbiomass 248,509.71 254,868.29 260,509.87 268,977.70 297,684.23 275,013.21

Energy andTransformation Industries

Industry andConstruction

Transport

Small Combustion

Biomass

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Natural Gas (dry) 41,616.62 37,997.02 43,019.12 48,749.48 66,301.21 50,805.92

Gasoline 171.75 141.02 134.52 117.73 132.99 128.23


LPG 25.59 25.26 26.15 25.89 25.56 25.01

Diesel oil 2,818.63 2,313.28 2,410.85 2,387.12 2,253.50 2,025.35


Gasoline 12,178.85 11,019.19 12,083.21 14,300.72 14,371.26 14,235.68

Jet Kerosene 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09 1,293.09

Diesel oil 16,277.95 15,219.07 21,208.23 19,295.85 19,148.88 17,379.87

Sub-bituminous Coal 27.86 113.52 56.24 160.99 136.74 0.06

Natural gas (dry) 81.76 80.66 76.24 81.76 165.74 1,591.09

Gasoline 2,976.88 2,707.03 2,375.89 2,481.15 2,395.35 2,544.64

LPG 686.65 705.24 695.04 570.48 532.78 438.37

Diesel oil 29,644.58 21307.15 21026.33 22189.13 16747.49 21,633.24

Solidbiomass

Energy andTransformation Industries

Industry andConstruction

Transport

Small Combustion

Biomass

248,509.71 254,868.29 260,509.87 268,977.70 297,684.23 275,013.21248,509.71 254,868.29 260,509.87 268,977.70 297,684.23 275,013.21248,509.71 254,868.29 260,509.87 268,977.70 297,684.23 275,013.21248,509.71 254,868.29 260,509.87 268,977.70 297,684.23 275,013.21248,509.71 254,868.29 260,509.87 268,977.70 297,684.23 275,013.21248,509.71 254,868.29 260,509.87 268,977.70 297,684.23 275,013.21

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Total population 50,125,000 51,138,000 52,171,000 53,224,000 54,299,000 553,936,000

Total annual fuelwoodconsumption (kt dm) 15,725.33 16,086.80 16,406.79 16,781.97 17,034.29 17,366.89Per capita fuelwoodconsumption (ton) 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.35

Charcoal consumption(kt dm) 108.29 132.69 154.7 243.36 133 138.64

Population Characteristics

Fuelwood

Charcoal

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Total population 50,125,000 51,138,000 52,171,000 53,224,000 54,299,000 553,936,000

Total annual fuelwoodconsumption (kt dm)Per capita fuelwoodconsumption (ton)

Charcoal consumption(kt dm) 108.29 132.69 154.7 243.36 133 138.64

Population Characteristics

Fuelwood

Charcoal

15,725.33 16,086.80 16,406.79 16,781.97 17,034.29 17,366.8915,725.33 16,086.80 16,406.79 16,781.97 17,034.29 17,366.8915,725.33 16,086.80 16,406.79 16,781.97 17,034.29 17,366.8915,725.33 16,086.80 16,406.79 16,781.97 17,034.29 17,366.8915,725.33 16,086.80 16,406.79 16,781.97 17,034.29 17,366.8915,725.33 16,086.80 16,406.79 16,781.97 17,034.29 17,366.89

0.31 0.32 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.350.31 0.32 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.350.31 0.32 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.350.31 0.32 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.350.31 0.32 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.350.31 0.32 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.35

2012

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Appendix II: Industrial Processes and Product Use Sector Database

Table 3A2.1: Industrial Processes and Product Use SectorDatabase: Production in IndustrialProcesses of Myanmar

Appendix III: Agricultural SectorDatabase

Table 3A3.1: Agricultural SectorDatabase:Theharvested area and production of fourmajor cropsinMyanmar for the years 1990, 1995, 2000, and 2001-2005

Production 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Cement (kt) 407.67 383.12 475.36 587.38 534.56 542.1

Limestone (kt) 39.93 28.41 43.32 46.93 38.33 20.09

Iron (kt) 2.76 2.76 2.76 2.76 2.76 2.76

Steel (kt) 7.59 7.59 7.59 7.59 7.59 7.59

Glass (kt) 15.03 13.91 15.95 14.19 13.7 9.71

Urea (kt) 160 39 61 142 95 100

Alcohol (hl) 242,393 246,757 235,801 197,887 208,343 185,750

Beer (hl) 55,007 87,465 85,964 84,374 113,332 94,830

Sugar (kt) 92.94 113.79 74.33 54.06 52.92 38.12

Shrimp(kt) 1.02 1.18 0.95 1.05 1.03 1.03

Biscuit (kt) 1.54 1.66 2.24 2.1 2.43 2.19

CalciumCarbideUse (kt)

0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

Production 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Cement (kt) 407.67 383.12 475.36 587.38 534.56 542.1

Limestone (kt) 39.93 28.41 43.32 46.93 38.33 20.09

Iron (kt) 2.76 2.76 2.76 2.76 2.76 2.76

Steel (kt) 7.59 7.59 7.59 7.59 7.59 7.59

Glass (kt) 15.03 13.91 15.95 14.19 13.7 9.71

Urea (kt) 160 39 61 142 95 100

Alcohol (hl) 242,393 246,757 235,801 197,887 208,343 185,750

Beer (hl) 55,007 87,465 85,964 84,374 113,332 94,830

Sugar (kt) 92.94 113.79 74.33 54.06 52.92 38.12

Shrimp(kt) 1.02 1.18 0.95 1.05 1.03 1.03

Biscuit (kt) 1.54 1.66 2.24 2.1 2.43 2.19

CalciumCarbideUse (kt)

0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

CropProduction 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Rice :

HarvestedArea (,000 ha) 6,033 6,302 6,412 6,377 6,528 6,808 7,384

CropProduction ( ,000 MT ) 4,760 18,580 21,324 21,916 21,805 23,136 24,752 27,683

13,748

Wheat :

HarvestedArea (,000 ha) 91 80 79 83 95 108 112

CropProduction (,000 MT ) 136 78 94 96 107 124 152 159

121

Maize :

HarvestedArea (,000 ha) 125 162 211 251 268 284 293 320

CropProduction ( ,000 MT ) 184 275 365 532 603 704 784 918

Sugarcane :


CropProduction (,000 MT ) 1,930 3,251 5,894 7,211 6,429 7,030 7,311 7,187

CropProduction 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005CropProduction 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005CropProduction 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005CropProduction 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005CropProduction 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Rice :

HarvestedArea (,000 ha) 6,033 6,302 6,412 6,377 6,528 6,808 7,384

CropProduction ( ,000 MT ) 4,760 18,580 21,324 21,916 21,805 23,136 24,752 27,683

13,748

Wheat :

HarvestedArea (,000 ha) 91 80 79 83 95 108 11291 80 79 83 95 108 11291 80 79 83 95 108 11291 80 79 83 95 108 112

CropProduction (,000 MT ) 136 78 94 96 107 124 152 159136 78 94 96 107 124 152 159136 78 94 96 107 124 152 159136 78 94 96 107 124 152 159136 78 94 96 107 124 152 159

121

Maize :


CropProduction ( ,000 MT ) 184 275 365 532 603 704 784 918

Sugarcane :

HarvestedArea (,000 ha) 44 64 133 161 142 149 140 12944 64 133 161 142 149 140 12944 64 133 161 142 149 140 12944 64 133 161 142 149 140 12944 64 133 161 142 149 140 129

CropProduction (,000 MT ) 1,930 3,251 5,894 7,211 6,429 7,030 7,311 7,1871,930 3,251 5,894 7,211 6,429 7,030 7,311 7,1871,930 3,251 5,894 7,211 6,429 7,030 7,311 7,1871,930 3,251 5,894 7,211 6,429 7,030 7,311 7,1871,930 3,251 5,894 7,211 6,429 7,030 7,311 7,187

2012

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Appendix III: Agricultural SectorDatabase

Table 3A3.2: Agricultural SectorDatabase: Total harvested area, variety of rice in terms ofgrowing time and irrigation types inMyanmar for the years 1990, 1995, 2000, and 2001-2005.

Table 3A3.3:Agricultural SectorDatabase: Use of fertilizers in agriculture sector

1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005Total harvestedarea (,000 ha) 4,617 5,852 6,302 6,220 6,185 6,332 6,603 7,163Areacultivatedwith short-termvariety (,000 ha) 869 1,767 1,853 1,853 1,845 1,892 1,879 2,100Season lengthof short-termvariety (days) 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110Areacultivatedwithmedium-termvariety (,000 ha) 2,939 3,059 3,189 3,277 3,256 3,330 3,567 3,808

Season lengthofmedium-termvariety (days) 135 135 135 135 135 135 135 135

Areacultivatedwith long-termvariety (,000 ha) 809 1,026 1,071 1,090 1,084 1,110 1,157 1,255

Season lengthof long-termvariety(days) 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170Irrigatedrice% 18.3 29.3 29.4 28.9 28.9 29 27.6 28.4

Rain-fed: Favorable FloodProne 49.7 38.7 38.6 39.1 39.1 39 40.4 39.6DroughtProne 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Deepwater rice 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 20051990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 20051990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 20051990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 20051990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005Total harvestedarea (,000 ha) 4,617 5,852 6,302 6,220 6,185 6,332 6,603 7,163Areacultivatedwith short-termvariety (,000 ha) 869 1,767 1,853 1,853 1,845 1,892 1,879 2,100869 1,767 1,853 1,853 1,845 1,892 1,879 2,100869 1,767 1,853 1,853 1,845 1,892 1,879 2,100869 1,767 1,853 1,853 1,845 1,892 1,879 2,100869 1,767 1,853 1,853 1,845 1,892 1,879 2,100Season lengthof short-termvariety (days) 110 110 110 110 110 110 110 110Areacultivatedwithmedium-termvariety (,000 ha) 2,939 3,059 3,189 3,277 3,256 3,330 3,567 3,8082,939 3,059 3,189 3,277 3,256 3,330 3,567 3,8082,939 3,059 3,189 3,277 3,256 3,330 3,567 3,8082,939 3,059 3,189 3,277 3,256 3,330 3,567 3,8082,939 3,059 3,189 3,277 3,256 3,330 3,567 3,808

Season lengthofmedium-termvariety (days) 135 135 135 135 135 135 135 135

Areacultivatedwith long-termvariety (,000 ha) 809 1,026 1,071 1,090 1,084 1,110 1,157 1,255809 1,026 1,071 1,090 1,084 1,110 1,157 1,255809 1,026 1,071 1,090 1,084 1,110 1,157 1,255809 1,026 1,071 1,090 1,084 1,110 1,157 1,255809 1,026 1,071 1,090 1,084 1,110 1,157 1,255

Season lengthof long-termvariety(days) 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170Irrigatedrice% 18.3 29.3 29.4 28.9 28.9 29 27.6 28.418.3 29.3 29.4 28.9 28.9 29 27.6 28.418.3 29.3 29.4 28.9 28.9 29 27.6 28.418.3 29.3 29.4 28.9 28.9 29 27.6 28.418.3 29.3 29.4 28.9 28.9 29 27.6 28.4

Rain-fed: Favorable FloodProne 49.7 38.7 38.6 39.1 39.1 39 40.4 39.6DroughtProne 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12

Deepwater rice 17 17 17 17 17 17 1717 17 17 17 17 17 1717 17 17 17 17 17 1717 17 17 17 17 17 1717 17 17 17 17 17 17 17

Types of inputs

(,000 kg N )

Nitrogen Fertilizer Application184,179 230,976 259,236 264,968 267,626 277,118 289,396 308,359

Animal manure application 32,691 42,358 49,349 50,793 51,501 53,402 55,819 59,246

Plant residues application 249,630 324,929 362,408 373,300 372,166 391,177 416,710 473,399

2004 20051990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003

Types of inputs

(,000 kg N )

Nitrogen Fertilizer Application184,179 230,976 259,236 264,968 267,626 277,118 289,396 308,359

Animal manure application 32,691 42,358 49,349 50,793 51,501 53,402 55,819 59,24632,691 42,358 49,349 50,793 51,501 53,402 55,819 59,24632,691 42,358 49,349 50,793 51,501 53,402 55,819 59,24632,691 42,358 49,349 50,793 51,501 53,402 55,819 59,24632,691 42,358 49,349 50,793 51,501 53,402 55,819 59,24632,691 42,358 49,349 50,793 51,501 53,402 55,819 59,246

Plant residues application 249,630 324,929 362,408 373,300 372,166 391,177 416,710 473,399Plant residues application 249,630 324,929 362,408 373,300 372,166 391,177 416,710 473,399Plant residues application 249,630 324,929 362,408 373,300 372,166 391,177 416,710 473,399Plant residues application 249,630 324,929 362,408 373,300 372,166 391,177 416,710 473,399Plant residues application 249,630 324,929 362,408 373,300 372,166 391,177 416,710 473,399

2004 20052004 20051990 1995 2000 2001 2002 20031990 1995 2000 2001 2002 20031990 1995 2000 2001 2002 20031990 1995 2000 2001 2002 20031990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003


2012

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Table 3A3.4: Agricultural SectorDatabase:Annual burning of crop residues in agriculture sector

Annual burning of CropResidues 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005Rice :Annual burning area (20% of Total harvestedarea) 952 1,207 1,260 1,282 1,275 1,306 1,362 1,477Mass of fuel available for combustion ( ton / ha ) 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5Annual burning of CropResidues (MT) 5,236 6,639 6,930 7,051 7,013 7,183 7,491 8,124Wheat :Annual burning area (85 % of Total harvestedarea) 116 77 68 67 71 81 92 95Mass of fuel available for combustion ( ton / ha ) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4Annual burning of CropResidues (MT) 464 308 272 268 284 324 368 380Maize :

Annual burning area (35 % of Total harvestedarea) 44 57 74 88 94 100 102 112Mass of fuel available for combustion ( ton / ha ) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10Annual burning of CropResidues (MT) 440 570 740 880 940 1,000 1,020 1,120Sugarcane :Annual burning area (100% of Total harvestedarea) 45 64 133 158 142 146 140 129Mass of fuel available for combustion ( ton / ha ) 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5Annual burning of CropResidues (MT) 293 416 865 1,027 923 949 910 839

Annual burning of CropResidues 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 20051990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 20051990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 20051990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 20051990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005Rice :Annual burning area (20% of Total harvestedarea) 952 1,207 1,260 1,282 1,275 1,306 1,362 1,477Mass of fuel available for combustion ( ton / ha ) 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5Annual burning of CropResidues (MT) 5,236 6,639 6,930 7,051 7,013 7,183 7,491 8,124Wheat :Annual burning area (85 % of Total harvestedarea) 116 77 68 67 71 81 92 95116 77 68 67 71 81 92 95116 77 68 67 71 81 92 95116 77 68 67 71 81 92 95116 77 68 67 71 81 92 95Mass of fuel available for combustion ( ton / ha ) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4Annual burning of CropResidues (MT) 464 308 272 268 284 324 368 380464 308 272 268 284 324 368 380464 308 272 268 284 324 368 380464 308 272 268 284 324 368 380464 308 272 268 284 324 368 380Maize :

Annual burning area (35 % of Total harvestedarea) 44 57 74 88 94 100 102 112Mass of fuel available for combustion ( ton / ha ) 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10Annual burning of CropResidues (MT) 440 570 740 880 940 1,000 1,020 1,120Sugarcane :Annual burning area (100% of Total harvestedarea) 45 64 133 158 142 146 140 12945 64 133 158 142 146 140 12945 64 133 158 142 146 140 12945 64 133 158 142 146 140 12945 64 133 158 142 146 140 129Mass of fuel available for combustion ( ton / ha ) 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.56.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.56.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.56.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.56.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5Annual burning of CropResidues (MT) 293 416 865 1,027 923 949 910 839293 416 865 1,027 923 949 910 839293 416 865 1,027 923 949 910 839293 416 865 1,027 923 949 910 839293 416 865 1,027 923 949 910 839

Appendix IV: Livestock Sector Database


1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Cattle 9.3 9.86 10.98 11.24 11.57 11.75 11.94 12.15

Dairy cows 0.17 0.18 0.2 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.23

Cattle other than

dairy cows

Buffalo 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7

Sheep 0.29 0.32 0.39 0.4 0.4 0.46 0.49 0.52

Goat 1.06 1.18 1.41 1.48 1.48 1.67 1.76 1.91

Horses, mule

andasses

Swine 2.28 2.97 3.97 4.26 4.62 4.98 5.36 5.78

Poultry 27.28 34.32 55.21 63.03 70.56 81.59 86.97 95.54

Milk production

(kg/head/year)2,196 2,4801,198 1,271 1,825 1,849 1,929 1,985

11.72 11.92

0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13

9.13 9.68 10.78 11.03 11.36 11.53

1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Cattle 9.3 9.86 10.98 11.24 11.57 11.75 11.94 12.15

Dairy cowsDairy cowsDairy cows 0.17 0.18 0.2 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.230.17 0.18 0.2 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.230.17 0.18 0.2 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.23

Cattle other than

dairy cows

Buffalo 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7

Sheep 0.29 0.32 0.39 0.4 0.4 0.46 0.49 0.52

Goat 1.06 1.18 1.41 1.48 1.48 1.67 1.76 1.91

Horses, mule

andasses

Swine 2.28 2.97 3.97 4.26 4.62 4.98 5.36 5.78

Poultry 27.28 34.32 55.21 63.03 70.56 81.59 86.97 95.54

Milk production

(kg/head/year)2,196 2,4801,198 1,271 1,825 1,849 1,929 1,985

11.72 11.92

0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13

9.13 9.68 10.78 11.03 11.36 11.53

Table 3A4.1: Livestock SectorDatabase: Total livestock population (million head) andmilkproduction

2012

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AppendixV: Land UseChange and Forestry SectorDatabase

Table 3A5.1: Land Use Change and Forestry SectorDatabase - Annual increase of carbonstocks (in terms of above- and belowground biomass) in natural forests ofMyanmar

Table 3A5.2: Land Use Change and Forestry SectorDatabase - Annual increase of carbonstocks (in terms of above- and belowground biomass) in forest plantations ofMyanmar

Table 3A5.3: LandUse Change and Forestry SectorDatabase - Annual carbon Removal andCO2 removal fromhome-garden trees

Carbon (Gg) Carbon dioxide (Gg)

1990 40,191. 161 147,367. 589

1995 37,800. 843 138,603. 089

2000 35,410. 525 129,838. 590

2001 34,930. 924 128,080. 054

2002 34,453. 917 126,331. 028

2003 33,994. 860 124,647. 819

2004 33,516. 575 122,894. 108

2005 33,038. 892 121,142. 605

YearAnnual increase of carbon stocks

Carbon (Gg) Carbon dioxide (Gg)

1990 40,191. 161 147,367. 589

1995 37,800. 843 138,603. 089

2000 35,410. 525 129,838. 590

2001 34,930. 924 128,080. 054

2002 34,453. 917 126,331. 028

2003

2004

2005

YearAnnual increase of carbon stocks

124,647. 81933,994. 860

122,894. 10833,516. 575

121,142. 60533,038. 892

Carbon (Gg) Carbon dioxide(Gg)

1990 347,735 1,676.97 6,148.88

1995 496, 355 2,379.92 8,726.36

2000 658,595 3,204.56 11,750.04

2001 689,364 3,352.35 12,291.94

2002 720,773 3,501.96 12,840.51

2003 750,485 3,643.63 13,359.96

2004 780,840 3,791.18 13,900.99

2005 811,337 3,933.28 14,422.02

YearCumulativeplantation area(ha)

Annual increase of carbonstocks

Carbon (Gg) Carbon dioxide(Gg)

1990 347,735 1,676.97 6,148.88

1995 496, 355 2,379.92 8,726.36

2000 658,595 3,204.56 11,750.04

2001 689,364 3,352.35 12,291.94

2002 720,773 3,501.96 12,840.51

2003 750,485 3,643.63 13,359.96

2004 780,840 3,791.18 13,900.99

2005 811,337 3,933.28 14,422.02

YearCumulativeplantation area(ha)

Annual increase of carbonstocks

YearRuralPopulation

C removal fromRural Home-gardentrees (Gg C)

UrbanPopulation

C removalfromUrbanHome-gardentrees (Gg C)

Annual Cremoval fromHome-gardentrees (Gg C)

Annual CO2removal fromHome-gardentrees (Gg CO2)

1990 30,671,072 97.197 10.114,928 7.133 104.33 382.543

1995 33,647,489 106.636 11,096,512 7.825 114.461 419.69

2000 37,694,000 119.46 12,431,000 8.766 128.226 470.162

2001 38,455,776 121.874 12,682,224 8.944 130.818 479.666

2002 39,232,592 124.336 12,938,408 9.124 133.46 489.352

2003 40,024,448 126.845 13,199,552 9.308 136.153 499.228

2004 40,832,848 129.407 13,466,152 9.496 138.903 509.311

2005 41,657,792 132.022 13,738,208 9.688 141.71 519.603

YearRuralPopulation

C removal fromRural Home-gardentrees (Gg C)

UrbanPopulation

C removalfromUrbanHome-gardentrees (Gg C)

Annual Cremoval fromHome-gardentrees (Gg C)

Annual CO2removal fromHome-gardentrees (Gg CO2)

1990 30,671,072 97.197 10.114,928 7.133 104.33 382.543

1995 33,647,489 106.636 11,096,512 7.825 114.461 419.69

2000 37,694,000 119.46 12,431,000 8.766 128.226 470.162

2001 38,455,776 121.874 12,682,224 8.944 130.818 479.666

2002 39,232,592 124.336 12,938,408 9.124 133.46 489.352

2003 40,024,448 126.845 13,199,552 9.308 136.153 499.228

2004 40,832,848 129.407 13,466,152 9.496 138.903 509.311

2005 41,657,792 132.022 13,738,208 9.688 141.71 519.603

2012

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2011Chapter 3 National Greenhouse Gas Inventory


Table 3A5.4: Land Use Change and Forestry SectorDatabase :Annual carbon removal andCO2removal by roadside trees

Table 3A5.5: Land Use Change and Forestry Sector Database :Annual loss of carbon due towood removals

Table 3A5.6: Land Use Change and Forestry Sector Database :Annual loss of carbon fromfuelwood removal

YearLength of Roads(mile)

Length ofRoads (km)

C removal byroadside trees(Gg C)

CO2 removalby roadsidetrees (Gg CO2 )

1990 14,951 24,056.16 37.059 135.884

1995 17,299 27,834.09 42.879 157.224

2000 17,874 28,754.44 44.297 162.442

2001 17,996 28,955.56 44.607 163.558

2002 18,112 29,142.21 44.894 164.613

2003 18,936 29,663,524 45.698 167.558

2004 18,640 29,991.76 46.203 169.441

2005 19,201 30,894,409 47.594 174.51

YearLength of Roads(mile)

Length ofRoads (km)

C removal byroadside trees(Gg C)

CO2 removalby roadsidetrees (Gg CO2 )

1990 14,951 24,056.16 37.059 135.884

1995 17,299 27,834.09 42.879 157.224

2000 17,874 28,754.44 44.297 162.442

2001 17,996 28,955.56 44.607 163.558

2002 18,112 29,142.21 44.894 164.613

2003 18,936 29,663,524 45.698 167.558

2004 18,640 29,991.76 46.203 169.441

2005 19,201 30,894,409 47.594 174.51

annual volume offuelwood

(m3) (ton C) (Gg C)

1990 25,078,200 26,336,915 26,336.92

1995 24,876,600 25,133,234 25,133.23

2000 26,10,600 26,278,933 26,278.93

2001 26,560,800 26,834,810 26,834.81

2002 27,137,600 29,200,149 29,200.15

2003 27,763,400 29,852,287 29,852.29

2004 28,229,600 30,375,125 30,375.13

2005 28,761,600 30,947,854 30,947.85

YearAnnual loss of carbon dueto fuelwoodremovals


(m3(m3(m ) (ton C) (Gg C)

1990 25,078,200 26,336,915 26,336.9225,078,200 26,336,915 26,336.92

1995 24,876,600 25,133,234 25,133.23

2000 26,10,600 26,278,933 26,278.9326,10,600 26,278,933 26,278.93

2001 26,560,800 26,834,810 26,834.81

2002 27,137,600 29,200,149 29,200.1527,137,600 29,200,149 29,200.15

2003 27,763,400 29,852,287 29,852.29

2004 28,229,600 30,375,125 30,375.1328,229,600 30,375,125 30,375.13

2005 28,761,600 30,947,854 30,947.8528,761,600 30,947,854 30,947.85

YearAnnual loss of carbon dueto fuelwoodremovals


(m3) (ton C) (Gg C)

1990 25,078,200 26,336,915 26,336.92

1995 24,876,600 25,133,234 25,133.23

2000 26,10,600 26,278,933 26,278.93

2001 26,560,800 26,834,810 26,834.81

2002 27,137,600 29,200,149 29,200.15

2003 27,763,400 29,852,287 29,852.29

2004 28,229,600 30,375,125 30,375.13

2005 28,761,600 30,947,854 30,947.85

YearAnnual loss of carbon due to fuelwood

removalsannual volume offuelwood

(m3) (ton C) (Gg C)

1990 25,078,200 26,336,915 26,336.9225,078,200 26,336,915 26,336.92

1995 24,876,600 25,133,234 25,133.23

2000 26,10,600 26,278,933 26,278.9326,10,600 26,278,933 26,278.93

2001 26,560,800 26,834,810 26,834.81

2002 27,137,600 29,200,149 29,200.1527,137,600 29,200,149 29,200.15

2003 27,763,400 29,852,287 29,852.29

2004 28,229,600 30,375,125 30,375.1328,229,600 30,375,125 30,375.13

2005 28,761,600 30,947,854 30,947.852005 28,761,600 30,947,854 30,947.85

YearAnnual loss of carbon due to fuelwood

removals

2012

Table 3A5.9: Land Use Change and Forestry Sector Database : GHGemissions fromdeforestation

DeforestedTotal (CO2equivalent)

Area (Gg)

(ha) CO2 CO CH4 N2O NOx(Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg)

1990 466 500 31,104.35 2,047.38 133.867 3.937 31.498 37,340.97

1995 466 500 31,104.35 2,047.38 133.867 3.937 31.498 37,340.97

2000 466 500 31,104.35 2,047.38 133.867 3.937 31.498 37,340.97

2001 466 457 31,101.49 2,047.19 133.855 3.937 31.495 37,337.53

2002 466 457 31,101.49 2,047.19 133.855 3.937 31.495 37,337.53

2003 466 457 31,101.49 2,047.19 133.855 3.937 31.495 37,337.53

2004 466 457 31,101.49 2,047.19 133.855 3.937 31.495 37,337.53

2005 466 457 31,101.49 2,047.19 133.855 3.937 31.495 37,337.53

Reporting year

EmissionsDeforestedTotal (CO2equivalent)

Area (Gg)

(ha) CO2 CO CH4CH4CH N2O NOx(Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg)

1990 466 500 31,104.35 2,047.38 133.867 3.937 31.498 37,340.97

1995 466 500 31,104.35 2,047.38 133.867 3.937 31.498 37,340.97

2000 466 500 31,104.35 2,047.38 133.867 3.937 31.498 37,340.97

2001 466 457 31,101.49 2,047.19 133.855 3.937 31.495 37,337.53

2002 466 457 31,101.49 2,047.19 133.855 3.937 31.495 37,337.53

2003 466 457 31,101.49 2,047.19 133.855 3.937 31.495 37,337.53

2004 466 457 31,101.49 2,047.19 133.855 3.937 31.495 37,337.53

2005 466 457 31,101.49 2,047.19 133.855 3.937 31.495 37,337.53

Reporting year

Emissions

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Table 3A5.8: Land Use Change and Forestry Sector Database : GHGemissions from shiftingcultivated areas for 1990, 1995, and 2000- 2005

PlantationArea

Total (CO2equivalent)

(ha) CO2 CO CH4 N2O NOx (Gg)

(Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg)

1990 28 904 1,927.20 126.854 8.294 0.244 1.952 2,313.62

1995 28 021 1,868.33 122.979 8.041 0.236 1.892 2,242.94

2000 23 277 1,552.02 102.158 6.68 0.196 1.572 1,863.21

2001 23 826 1,588.62 104.568 6.837 0.201 1.609 1,907.15

2002 23 574 1,571.82 103.462 6.765 0.199 1.592 1,886.98

2003 23 065 1,537.88 101.228 6.619 0.195 1.557 1,846.24

2004 23 850 1,590.22 104.673 6.844 0.201 1.61 1,909.07

2005 24 309 1,620.83 106.687 6.976 0.205 1.641 1,945.81

Reporting year EmissionsPlantationArea


(ha) CO2 CO CH4 N2O NOx (Gg)


1990 28 904 1,927.20 126.854 8.294 0.244 1.952 2,313.62

1995 28 021 1,868.33 122.979 8.041 0.236 1.892 2,242.94

2000 23 277 1,552.02 102.158 6.68 0.196 1.572 1,863.21

2001 23 826 1,588.62 104.568 6.837 0.201 1.609 1,907.15

2002 23 574 1,571.82 103.462 6.765 0.199 1.592 1,886.98

2003 23 065 1,537.88 101.228 6.619 0.195 1.557 1,846.24

2004 23 850 1,590.22 104.673 6.844 0.201 1.61 1,909.07

2005 24 309 1,620.83 106.687 6.976 0.205 1.641 1,945.81

Reporting year Emissions

Source of AreaTotal (CO2equivalent)

Emission (ha) CO2 CO CH4 N2O NOx (Gg)


Shiftingcultivation

15 000 1,000.14 65.832 4.304 0.127 1.013 1,200.67

EmissionsSource of Area


Emission (ha) CO2 CO CH4CH4CH N2O NOx (Gg)


Shiftingcultivation

15 000 1,000.14 65.832 4.304 0.127 1.013 1,200.67

Emissions

Table 3A5.7: Land Use Change and Forestry Sector Database : GHGemissions from sitepreparation for forest plantations

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Chapter 4 Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment

chapter 4

Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment

4.1. Introduction

As Myanmar is located in the centre of the southwestmonsoon, heavy rain induced floods occur in manyparts of the country. The coastal area, with its shoreline coveringmore than 50%of theentire eastern sideof the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea, isparticularly prone to cyclones and associated strongwind, heavyrain and storm surge. Drought is no lessfrequent event particularlyin the central Myanmar.

Since 70% of the population resides in rural areasand dependson agriculture, livestock andfisheryandforest resources, their livelihood is largely influencedby climate conditions. In other words, Myanmareconomyissensitiveandvulnerable toclimatechange,climate variabilityand natural disasters.

In 2000-2001, net sown area covers 10.41 millionhectares where 6.39 million hectares were occupiedby paddy fields (Ministry of Information 2002).Agricultural works are centered on the production ofpaddy not only for domestic consumption but alsofor foreign currencyearning. Summer cultivation ofrice was initiated in 1992-93 and has been extendedsince then. Rice cultivation is currently targeted toreach up to 8.09 million hectares. During the periodof 1988 to 2002, Myanmar implemented 129irrigation projects includingThaphanseik dam whichis the largest in SoutheastAsia.

Regarding the health care system of Myanmar, therewas one doctor for every2100 persons and the nurseto population ratio was one to 2185 in 2009.Accessto health care services has also been improved bythe provision of rural health centers and sub-centersin villages. It enables some measures such asimmunization and vaccinationare among the prioritymeasures taken under the health care system.Myanmar has abundant water resources that benefitagriculture and power generation. Of the four majorrivers systems, theAyeyarwady is economically themost important one. Some low lying areas along theriver course are subject to inundation due to normal

floods in the rainyseason. Whenmonsoon intensifiedand widespread heavyrains last long,multiple floodsoccur along the rivers posing danger to the lowerreaches, particularly theAyeyarwadyDelta. Meltingof snow and glacier in the Himalayan mountaincomplex in the far north is somehow important tomaintain river flows during dryseason.

In the Indo-Myanmar bio-geographical realm,Myanmar is one of the few countries where abouthalf of the total country land area is covered withforests. Forests of Myanmar are valuable in terms ofsupply of forest products and services, revenuegeneration, export earnings and environmentalconservation. Forest protection and sustainablemanagement of natural forests, plantation forests andcommunityforests are among the priorities.

Biodiversityand forests are tightlycoupled together.Myanmar has a longand rich tradition of biodiversityconservation and its forest management systempromotes conservation of the environment, forestecosystem and flora and fauna. The Government haslong been strongly committed to biodiversityconservation.

The fishery sector plays an important role inMyanmar’s economy. The ecosystems of coastalareas, islands and marine are all interdependentlyrelated in the fisherysector. Sustainable managementof these ecosystems is vital for fishery.

Although Myanmar Sea is still clean and pollutionfree, increasing temperature affects marine and freshwater ecosystems. Increasing population anddevelopment activities can cause considerable stresson the coastal and marine environment.

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4.2 Climate Change Scenarios forMyanmar

Background“Model for the Assessment of Greenhouse gasInduced Climate Change SCENario GENerator(MAGICC/ SCENG-EN) version 5.3” is used toconstruct climate scenarios forMyanmar to undergothe vulnerabilityand adaptation study. UserManual(Wigley, 2008) suggested that the user can selectPolicy scenarioWRE450 and Reference scenarioA1TMES.

WRE450 scenario followed the IS92a “Business asusual” pathway for the initial period of 10-30 years(longer forhigherstabilization levels), beforecurvingaway to reach the stabilization target. Emissions for

A1TMES are defined only to 2100 which are thesame as the default setting forMAGICC, to run to2100. In order to characterize the present-day orrecent climate in the regions of Myanmar,climatological data from seven selected stationsobtained from theDMH are utilized for a baselineperiod 1971-2000.

In the scenarios background, the forcing controls ofcarbon cyclemodel aremiddle, carbon cycle climatefeedback is on, aerosol forcing ismiddle, sensitivityis3.0 oC, thermohalinecirculation isvariable,verticaldiffusion is2.3 sq. cm/s, and icemelt ismiddle. Thebrief descriptions of themodels used in this studyareshown in (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: Brief description of themodels applied

Model Country Horizontal resolution Modeling centre andReference

3.2° × 5.6°

Geophysical FluidDynamics Laboratory

WetheraldandManabe, (1986)

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction andResearch,

Gordon et al . (2000)Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction andResearch

Mitchell andJohns,1997UKHadGEM1 UK 2.5°× 3.75°

2.2° × 3.8°

CSIRO-30 Australia

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial ResearchOrganization (CSIRO), Gordon andO’Farrell, 1997

GFDLCM20 USA

UKHadCM3 UK 2.5°× 3.75°

Model Country Horizontal resolution Modeling centre andReferenceModel Country Horizontal resolution Modeling centre andReference

3.2° × 5.6°

Geophysical FluidDynamics Laboratory

WetheraldandManabe, (1986)

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction andResearch,

Gordon et al . (2000)

2.2° × 3.8°

CSIRO-30 Australia

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial ResearchOrganization (CSIRO), Gordon andO’Farrell, 1997

GFDLCM20 USAUSA

UKHadCM3 UK 2.5°× 3.75°

Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction andResearchUK 2.5°× 3.75°UK 2.5°× 3.75°UK 2.5°× 3.75°UK 2.5°× 3.75°UK 2.5°× 3.75°UKHadGEM1

Mitchell andJohns,1997

The geographical area ofMyanmar is divided intoseven regions which are assumed presentable by

the selected stations and locations as shown in(Table 4.2) and (Figure 4.1) respectively.

Table 4.2: Stations used for each grid region ofMyanmarAboveMean RepresentationSea Level of the country

Deg Min Deg Min (m)Myitkyina 25 22 97 24 145 Northern Hilly regionMandalay 21 59 96 6 93 Central Plain dry zoneKengtung 21 18 99 37 827 Eastern Hilly regionSittway 20 8 92 53 5 Western CoastalMingladon(Yangon)

16 59 96 11 28 Lower Myanmar Delta

Pathein 16 46 94 42 4 Ayeyawady Delta Plain coastal

Dawei 14 6 98 13 16 Southern Coastal

StationLocation

RemarkLat long

AboveMean RepresentationMean RepresentationSea Level of the country

Deg Min Deg MinDeg Min Deg MinDeg Min Deg Min (m)Myitkyina 25 22 97 24 145 Northern Hilly regionMandalay 21 59 96 621 59 96 621 59 96 6 93 Central Plain dry zoneKengtung 21 18 99 37 827 Eastern Hilly regionSittway 20 8 92 5320 8 92 5320 8 92 53 5 Western5 Western CoastalMingladon(Yangon)

16 59 96 11 28 Lower Myanmar Delta

Pathein 16 46 94 4216 46 94 4216 46 94 4216 46 94 42 4 Ayeyawady Delta Plain coastal4 Ayeyawady Delta Plain coastal

Dawei 14 6 98 1314 6 98 1314 6 98 1314 6 98 13 16 Southern Coastal16 Southern Coastal

StationLocation

RemarkLat long

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Figure 4.1: Location of selected stations forclimate change scenarios forMyanmar

With reference scenario A1TMESA1TMES isoneof the six illustrative scenarios fromthe IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios(SRES). In reference scenarioA1TMES ,A1Tstandsfor theemissionstoryline inwhichthescenario familydescribes a future world of very rapid economicgrowthandnon-fossilenergysourcesandMESstandsfor theModel forEnergySupplyStrategyAlternativesandtheirGeneralEnvironmental impact(MESSAGE).

Comparison of mean temperature andprecipitation observed versus model outputs(1971-2000)In general the temperature outputs of the models(CSIRO,GFDL,UKHadCM3 andUKHadGEM1)are agreeablewith the observed values and seasonalvariation forall partsofMyanmar(except fornorthernmountainous region and the southernnarrowcoastal

strip where it needs additional considerations). Itsuggests thatensemblemodeloutput for the interestedscenarios period is appropriate at thepresentmomentfor temperature field. See ( Figure 4.2 to 4.8).

Mean Temperature forMyitkyinaObserbed (1971-2000)Vs Model Scenarios (1971-2000)

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Tem

p(C

)

CISRO

GFDL

UKHADCM3

UKHADGEM1

71-2000 Obs

Figure 4.2

MeanTemperatureforMandalayObserved(1971-2000)Vs ModelScenarios(1971-2000)

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Tem

p(C)

CISRO

GFDL

UKHADCM3

UKHADGEM1

71-2000Obs

Figure 4.3

Mean Temperature for SittwayObserved(1971-2000)Vs Mod el Scenarios(1971-2000)

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Tem

p(C)

)

CISROGFDL

UKHADCM3

UKHADGEM171-2000 Obs

Figure 4.4

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Figure 4.5

MeanTemperatureforYangonObserved(1971-2000)VsModelScenarios(1971-2000)

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Tem

p(C)

CISRO

GFDLUKHADCM3

UKHADGEM171-2000Obs

Figure 4.6

MeanTemperatureforPatheinObserved(1971-2000)VsModelScenarios(1971-2000)

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00


Tem

p(C)

CISRO

GFDL

UKHADCM3

UKHADGEM1

71-2000 Obs

Figure 4.7

MeanTemperatureforDaweiObserved (1971-2000)Vs Model Scenarios (1971-2000)

23.00

24.00

25.00

26.00

27.00

28.00

29.00

30.00


Tem

p(C

)

71-2000Obs

CISRO

GFDL

UKHADCM3

UKHADGEM1

The precipitationmodeloutputsarecloselycorrelatedto one another even though they are not close to thereal precipitationof the regions. Themodels do showthe seasonal variation satisfactorily despite of thecomplexityof the geographical nature of the regionswhich calls forextended studies. It also suggests thatensemble modeloutput for the precipitation field willbe advantageous for the interested climate changescenarios. See ( Figure 4.9 to 4.15).

Comparisonof the Model outputs& Observedvalues for Myitkyinaduring1971-00

0.00

100.00

200.00

300.00

400.00

500.00

600.00


Month

Prec

ipita

tion(

mm

) CISRO

GFDLUKHadCM3

UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.9Comparison of the Model output & Observed values for Mandalay

during 1971-00

0.00

50.00

100.00

150.00

200.00

250.00

300.00

350.00

400.00


Months

Prec

ipita

tion(

mm

)

CISRO

GFDLUKHadCM3

UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.10

Mean TemperatureforKengtongObserved(1971-2000)VsModel Scenarios (1971-2000)

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00


Tem

p(C)

71-2000 Obs

CISRO

GFDL

UKHADCM3

UKHADGEM1

Figure 4.8

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Comparison of the Model output & Observed v alues for Sittwe during1971-00

0.00

200.00

400.00

600.00

800.00

1000.00

1200.00


Month

Prec

ipita

tion(

mm

)

CISRO

GFDLUKHadCM3

UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.11

Comparison of the Model outputs& Observed valuesfor Kengtungduring 1971-00

0.00

50.00

100.00

150.00

200.00

250.00

300.00


Month

Prec

ipita

tion(

mm

) CISROGFDL

UKHadCM3UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.12

Comparison of the Model outputs & Observed values forMingaladon(Yangon) during 1971-00

0.00

100.00

200.00

300.00

400.00

500.00

600.00

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov DecMonth

Prec

ipita

tion(m

m) CISROGFDLUKHadCM3UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.13

Comparison of the M odel outputs & Observe d values for Patheinduring 1971-00

0.00

100.00

200.00

300.00

400.00

500.00

600.00

700.00


Month

Prac

ipit

atio

n(m

m)

CISRO

GFDL

UKHadCM3UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.14

Comparison of Model Results &Observed values for Daweiduring 1971-00

0.00

200.00

400.00

600.00

800.00

1000.00

1200.00

1400.00


Month

Pre

cip

itati

on(m

m)

CISROGFDL

UKHadCM3UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.15

With policy scenario WRE450WRE450 uses CO2 emission that leads to CO2concentrationstabilizationat450ppmalongtheWREpathwaywithcompatiblenon-CO2 gasemissions thatfollow the extended MiniCAM Level 2 (the MiniClimateAssessment Model) stabilityscenario whereCO2 stabilization is set at 450 ppm.According to the“IPCC Climate Change 1995, the science of climatechange”, the CO2 concentration was about 340 ppmin the year 2000.

Comparison of mean temperature andprecipitation observed versus model outputs(1971-2000)In general the temperature outputs of the models(CSIRO, GFDL, UKHadCM3 and UKHadGEM1)are agreeable with the observed values and seasonalvariation for all parts of Myanmar except for thesouthernnarrowcoastal stripwhere itneedsadditionalconsiderations. It indicates thatensemblemodeloutputfor the interested scenarios period is appropriate atpresent for temperature field. See ( Figure 4.16 to4.22).

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(WRE450)MeanTemperatureforMyitkyinaObserved (1971-2000)VsModel Scenerios(1971-2000)

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00


Month

Temp

eratur

e(°C

)

CISROGFDLUKHadCM3

UKHadGEM171-00

Figure 4.16

(WRE450)Mean Temperature forMandalayObserved(1971-2000) Vs Model Scenerios(1971-2000)

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00


Month

Tem

per

atu

re(°

C)

CISRO

GFDL

UKHadCM3

UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.17

(WRE450)Mean Temperature forSittweObserved(1971-2000) Vs Model Scenerios(1971-2000)

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00


Month

Temp

eratur

e(°C)

CISROGFDL

UKHadCM3

UKHadGEM171-00

Figure 4.18

(WRE450)Mean Temperaturefor KengtungObserved(1971-2000)VsModel Scenerios(1971-2000)

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00


Month

Tem

pera

ture(°

C)

CISROGFDLUKHadCM3UKHadGEM1

71-00

(WRE450) Mean Temperature for MingaladonObserved(1971-2000) Vs Model Scenerios(1971-2000)

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00


Month

Tem

pera

ture

(°C

)

CISRO

GFDL

UKHadCM3

UKHadGEM1

71-00

(WRE450)MeanTemperatureforPatheinObserved(1971-2000)VsModelScenerios(1971-2000)

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00


Month

Temp

eratur

e(°C)

CISRO

GFDL

UKHadCM3

UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.21

Figure 4.19

Figure 4.20

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(WRE450)Mean Temperaturefor DaweiObserved(1971-2000) Vs Model Scenerios(1971-2000)

22.00

23.00

24.00

25.00

26.00

27.00

28.00

29.00

30.00


Month

Tem

pera

ture(

°C)

CISROGFDLUKHadCM3UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.22

The model precipitationoutputsare closelycorrelatedto each other even though theyhave differences fromtheobservedprecipitationsof the regions.Themodelsdo show the seasonal variation satisfactorilydespiteof the complexity of the geographical nature of theregions which calls for extended studies. It alsosuggests that ensemble model output for theprecipitation field will be advantageous for theinterested climate change scenarios in Myanmar forthe time being. See( Figure 4.23 to 4.29).

(WRE450)Precipitation for MyitkyinaObserved(1971-2000) VsModel scenerios(1971-2000)

0.00

100.00

200.00

300.00

400.00

500.00

600.00

Jan Feb

Mar Apr

May Jun Jul

Aug

Sep Oc

tNo

vDec

Month

Precip

itation

(mm)

CISRO

GFDL

UKHadCM3

UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.23

(WRE450)Precipitation for MandalayObserved(1971-2000) VsModel Scenerios(1971-2000)

0.00

50.00

100.00

150.00

200.00

250.00

300.00

350.00

400.00


Month

Prec

ipitat

ion(m

m)

CISROGFDLUKHadCM3

UKHadGEM171-00

Figure 4.24

(WRE450)Precipitationfor SittweObserved(1971-2000)Vs ModelScenerios(1971-2000)

0.00

200.00

400.00

600.00

800.00

1000.00

1200.00


Month

Precip

itatio

n(mm

)

CISRO

GFDL

UKHadCM3UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.25

(WRE450)PrecipitationforKengtungObserved(1971-2000)VsModelScenerios(1971-2000)

0.00

50.00

100.00

150.00

200.00

250.00

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Month

Prec

ipitat

ion(m

m)

CISRO

GFDLUKHadCM3UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.26

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(WRE450)Prec ipitation for Minga ladonObs erbed(1971-2000) Vs Model Scenerios( 1 971-2 000)

0.00

100.00

200.00

300.00

400.00

500.00

600.00

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May Ju

n Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Mon th

Prec

ipita

tion(

mm)

CISRO

GFDL

UKHadCM3

UKHadGEM1

71- 00

Figure 4.27

(WRE450)Precipitationfor PatheinObserved(1971-2000) Vs Model Scenerios(1971-2000)

0.00

100.00

200.00

300.00

400.00

500.00

600.00

700.00

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Month

Precip

itatio

n(mm)

CISRO

GFDL

UKHadCM3

UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.28

(WRE450)PrecipitationforDaweiObserved(1971-2000)VsModelScenerios(1971-2000)

0.00

200.00

400.00

600.00

800.00

1000.00

1200.00

1400.00


Month

Prec

ipita

tion(

mm

) CISRO

GFDLUKHadCM3UKHadGEM1

71-00

Figure 4.29

Climate scenarios

The ensemble models of CSIRO, GFDL,UKHadCM3, and UKHadGEM1 have beenemployedtocarryoutextensivestudyusingMyanmardata so as to be familiar with the software and also tobe applicable with high confidence in the productionofclimatescenariosofvariousclimaticelementsunderthe referencescenarioA1TMES.Theensemblemodelresults of seasonal change in temperature andprecipitationplausible forMyanmarclimatescenariosfor 2001-2020, 2021-2050, 2051-2100 areseparately discussed.Temperature and precipitationchanges are with reference to the base line period of1971-2000, unless otherwise mentioned. Scenariochanges are also based on the model results of thebase line period.

Climate scenario for 2001-2020

The temperature scenario of 2001-2020 shows 0.5-0.7°C increase during the whole year in lowerMyanmar areas and for the remaining area, 0.6°Cduring June-November and it increases to 1.0-1.2°Cin the other months as shown in ( Figure 4.30).

Se asonal Tempera ture Change s(°C) for 2001-2020 fromMode l Ensemble Scenerio

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

MYK STWE MDLY KTNG PTN MGD N DWI

Tem

pC

hang

e(°C

)

DJF

MAM

JJA

SON

Figure 4.30

In the precipitation scenario, there is an increase ofabout 4% during March- November in the wholecountry. Record high maximum temperature maybeexpected. In the cool season of December- February,there is 30-45% rainfall deficit in the north, west,central and eastern regions and it is less than 12% inthe remaining areas as shown in (Figure 4.31).

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Climate scenario for 2021-2050The temperature scenario shows 1.4-1.7°C increasein June – November in the whole country.The north,west, central and eastern parts of the regions are 2.3– 2.8 °C warmer during December- May, as shownin ( Figure 4.32).

In the case of precipitation, 45 to 80% below normalconditions are projected during the cool season from

SeasonalMeanPrecipitationchanges(%)for2001-2020fromModelEnsembleScenarios

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

10

MYK SITTWE MDY KTN PATHEIN YANGON DAWEI

Pre

cipi

tati

onC

hang

es(%

)

DJFMAM

JJA

SON

Figure 4.31

December to February in the whole country exceptthe lower Myanmar regions and the southern part. Inthe remaining months there is an indication of about10 % increase of precipitation in the whole country,as shown in Figure (4.33). It means that Myanmar isgoingtobewarmerwithmorerain than in2001-2020.

Seasonal Temperature Changes(°C) for 2021-2050from Model Ensemble Scenerio

0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

MYK STWE MDLY KTNG PTN MGDN DWI

Tem

pera

ture

cha

nge

(°C

) DJF

MAM

JJA

SON

Figure 4.32

SeasonalMeanPrecipitationchanges (%)for2021-2050fromModelEnsembleScenarios

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20


Prec

ipita

tion

Chan

ges(

%)

DJF

MAM

JJA

SON

Figure 4.33

Climate scenario for 2051-2100

Temperature scenario shows an increase of 1.25-1.6ºC increase in June to November, increases toabout 2.0ºC in March to May and 2.5ºC increasesduring December to February in the north, west,central and eastern part of the country. It generally iswarmer in cool season in the country as shown inFigure 4.34. The range of warming is about the sameas in 2021-2050. As for the precipitation, the whole

It indicates that, there will be less cloudyskies in thecountry, late onset and early withdrawal of themonsoon into the country shortening the southwestmonsoon duration, decreasingstrong monsoon daysmore but intensive rain events followedbymore flashfloods and erosion, more windy days and increasingdrought event. There will be intense heat, high rate ofevapotranspiration, and water stress especially in thenormally water scarce areas. The warming over thecountry, more or less reflects the relative warming ofsea surface temperature in the Bay of Bengal earlierthan normal date so that earlier cyclogenesis is verylikely. Since the upper tropospheric level is stilldominated bythe westerlies, there is a high tendencythat the cyclonic disturbances take early recurvatureand move to the east towards Myanmar coast,particularly in the pre-monsoon months ofApril andMay. The intensive rains will cause flash floods,severefloodsandsoil erosionsduringtherainyseason.In thecool season, high deficit rainfall indicates waterdemandforsomewintercultivationparticularlyin thenorth, west, central and eastern parts of the country.

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countrywill generally receive about 10% increaseduringMarch toNovember and deficient rain of upto 80% is likely during the cool months fromDecember to February as shown in(Figure 4.35).The rangeof changeof precipitation ispractically the same as in 2021-2050.


Seaso nal Tem perature Ch ang es(°C ) fo r 2051 -2100fro m M o del Ensemb le Scenario

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

MY K S TW E M DLY K TNG P TN MG D N DW I

DJF

MAM

JJA

S O N

Tem

pera

ture

Cha

nge

(° C)

r

Figure 4.34

Seasonal MeanPrecipitationchanges(%)for 2051-2100fromModelEnsembleScenarios

-100

-80

-60

-40

-20

0

20


Prec

ipitat

ionCh

ange

s(%)

DJF

MAM

JJA

SON

Figure 4.35

With PRECIS A2 emission scenariosRegional Climate Impact Studies (PRECISModel)with 20 km x 20 km resolution, operated bySouthEastAsia SysTemAnalysis Research andTrainingRegional Center (SEA START RC) applies A2emissionscenario. Its storylinewerewas that “World”was differentiated, “Economy” was regionallyoriented; “Per Capita Growth” was at the lowest,“Population” was continuously increasing,“Governance”was self-reliancewith preservationoflocal identities and “Technology”was slowest andmost fragment development.

Comparison of mean temperature andprecipitation observed versus model output forthe period (1971-2000)Comparison between output and observed values oftemperature for the period 1971-2000 show thatregarding temperature,model output is 1.7ºC coolerat Sittway and 1.0ºC warmer at Dawei.It is closed to observed values at other localities.Model output standard deviation values are mostlyin agreement between observed andmodel exceptSittway wheremodel output is about onehalf of theobserved value 0.86 ºC as shown in ( Table 4.3).

Regardingannual rainfallmeanvaluesmodel outputis 30%higher atMyitkyina and 30% less at Dawei.There is notmuch difference in other locations. Thestandard deviations are reasonably in agreement forall locations except for Myitkyina (26% less),Mandalay (16%less) and for Sittway (35% more).

Table 4.3: Comparison between observed andmodel output

MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEV

Myitkyina 24.4 0.37 24.3 0.45 1668 268 2203 197

Mandalay 27.6 0.57 27.7 0.66 812 195 931 164

Sittway 25.7 0.86 24 0.39 4593 660 4117 891

Kengtung 23.2 0.46 23.3 0.44 1250 185 1314 198

Mingladon (Yangon)27.5 0.38 27.4 0.45 2661 353 2661 344

Pathein 27.1 0.64 27.2 0.41 2843 400 2960 497

Dawei 26.6 0.36 27.6 0.34 5376 737 3547 850

Station1971-2000 Mean Temp(°C) 1971-2000 Rainfall(mm)

Observed A2 Output Observed A2 Output

MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEV

Myitkyina

Mandalay

Sittway

Kengtung

Mingladon (Yangon)

Pathein

Dawei

Station1971-2000 Mean Temp(°C) 1971-2000 Rainfall(mm)

Observed A2 Output Observed A2 Output

MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEVMEAN STDEV MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEVMEAN STDEV MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEV

24.4 0.37 24.3 0.45 1668 268 2203 19724.4 0.37 24.3 0.45 1668 268 2203 19724.4 0.37 24.3 0.45 1668 268 2203 19724.4 0.37 24.3 0.45 1668 268 2203 19724.4 0.37 24.3 0.45 1668 268 2203 19724.4 0.37 24.3 0.45 1668 268 2203 19724.4 0.37 24.3 0.45 1668 268 2203 19724.4 0.37 24.3 0.45 1668 268 2203 197

27.6 0.57 27.7 0.66 812 195 931 16427.6 0.57 27.7 0.66 812 195 931 16427.6 0.57 27.7 0.66 812 195 931 16427.6 0.57 27.7 0.66 812 195 931 16427.6 0.57 27.7 0.66 812 195 931 16427.6 0.57 27.7 0.66 812 195 931 16427.6 0.57 27.7 0.66 812 195 931 16427.6 0.57 27.7 0.66 812 195 931 164

25.7 0.86 24 0.39 4593 660 4117 89125.7 0.86 24 0.39 4593 660 4117 89125.7 0.86 24 0.39 4593 660 4117 89125.7 0.86 24 0.39 4593 660 4117 89125.7 0.86 24 0.39 4593 660 4117 89125.7 0.86 24 0.39 4593 660 4117 89125.7 0.86 24 0.39 4593 660 4117 89125.7 0.86 24 0.39 4593 660 4117 891

23.2 0.46 23.3 0.44 1250 185 1314 19823.2 0.46 23.3 0.44 1250 185 1314 19823.2 0.46 23.3 0.44 1250 185 1314 19823.2 0.46 23.3 0.44 1250 185 1314 19823.2 0.46 23.3 0.44 1250 185 1314 19823.2 0.46 23.3 0.44 1250 185 1314 19823.2 0.46 23.3 0.44 1250 185 1314 19823.2 0.46 23.3 0.44 1250 185 1314 198

27.5 0.38 27.4 0.45 2661 353 2661 34427.5 0.38 27.4 0.45 2661 353 2661 34427.5 0.38 27.4 0.45 2661 353 2661 34427.5 0.38 27.4 0.45 2661 353 2661 34427.5 0.38 27.4 0.45 2661 353 2661 34427.5 0.38 27.4 0.45 2661 353 2661 34427.5 0.38 27.4 0.45 2661 353 2661 34427.5 0.38 27.4 0.45 2661 353 2661 344

27.1 0.64 27.2 0.41 2843 400 2960 49727.1 0.64 27.2 0.41 2843 400 2960 49727.1 0.64 27.2 0.41 2843 400 2960 49727.1 0.64 27.2 0.41 2843 400 2960 49727.1 0.64 27.2 0.41 2843 400 2960 49727.1 0.64 27.2 0.41 2843 400 2960 49727.1 0.64 27.2 0.41 2843 400 2960 49727.1 0.64 27.2 0.41 2843 400 2960 497

26.6 0.36 27.6 0.34 5376 737 3547 85026.6 0.36 27.6 0.34 5376 737 3547 85026.6 0.36 27.6 0.34 5376 737 3547 85026.6 0.36 27.6 0.34 5376 737 3547 85026.6 0.36 27.6 0.34 5376 737 3547 85026.6 0.36 27.6 0.34 5376 737 3547 85026.6 0.36 27.6 0.34 5376 737 3547 85026.6 0.36 27.6 0.34 5376 737 3547 850

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Climate scenario for 2001-2020The temperature has become 0.4 to 0.7ºCwarmer inthewholecountry.Thestandarddeviationof themeantemperature is large with 0.69ºC at Mandalay and0.58ºC atMyitkyina. It is generally less than 0.5ºCelsewhere as shown in (Table 4.4). It means thatUpper and CentralMyanmar can experiencemoreclear skydayswhichmay lead to drought situation.

Annual rainfall will be increasing by 228 mm atMyitkyina, 106mmatMandalay, 45mmat Patheinand 26mmatKengtung. It will be decreasing by58mm at Dawei, 57 mm at Yangon and 44 mm atSittway. Annualrainfallwilldeviatebymorethan18%atMandalay, Sittway, Pathein and Dawei, and thedeviation will be more than 14% at Myitkyina,Kengtung and Yangon. The large deviation is theindication of the likelihood of floods or droughts inthe region concerned.

Table 4.4: Climate scenario for 2001 to 2020

Climate scenarios in 2021-2050Temperature is increasingby1.4°C atYangon, 1.2°Cat Pathein, 1.1°C atMyitkyina, Sittway andDawei,1.0°C at Kengtung, and 0.8°C at Mandalay. Thestandard deviation of temperature is 0.4 to 0.6°C inthewhole country.

Rainfallwill increaseby661mmatSittway, 292mmat Pathein, 197mm atMyitkyina, 154mm each atMandalay and Dawei, 144 mm atYangon, and 36mmatKengtung.Alarge standarddeviationof 1,130mmwasnoted at Sttwayas shown in (Table 4.5).It shows that there is larger rainfall variability in theregion. Theremaybeperiods of heavier rains andlongdryspells.


MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEVMyitkyina 24.9 0.58 2431 346Mandalay 28.1 0.69 1037 202Sittway 24.6 0.33 4073 790Kengtung 23.7 0.47 1340 218Mingladon(Yangon)

28.1 0.28 2604 437

Pathein 27.8 0.23 3005 556Dawei 28.1 0.17 3489 692

Station2001-2020(A2 output)

Annual Mean Temperature(°C) Annual Rainfall(mm)

MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEVMyitkyina 24.9 0.58 2431 3460.58 2431 3460.58 2431 346Mandalay 28.1 0.69 1037 202Sittway 24.6 0.33 4073 7900.33 4073 7900.33 4073 790Kengtung 23.7 0.47 1340 218Mingladon(Yangon)

28.1 0.28 2604 4370.28 2604 4370.28 2604 437

Pathein 27.8 0.23 3005 556Dawei 28.1 0.17 3489 6920.17 3489 6920.17 3489 692

Station2001-2020(A2 output)

Annual Mean Temperature(°C) Annual Rainfall(mm)Annual Mean Temperature(°C) Annual Rainfall(mm)

MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEVMyitkyina 25.4 0.52 2400 331Mandalay 28.5 0.58 1085 158Sittway 25.1 0.35 4778 1130Kengtung 24.3 0.46 1350 166Mingladon(Yangon) 28.8 0.51 2805 367

Pathein 28.4 0.42 3252 499Dawei 28.7 0.38 3701 876

Station2021-2050 (A2 output)

Annual Mean Temperature(°C) Annual Rainfall (mm)

MEAN STDEV MEANMyitkyina

Mandalay

Sittway

Kengtung

Mingladon(Yangon)

Pathein

Dawei

Station2021-2050 (A2 output)

Annual Mean Temperature(°C) Annual Rainfall (mm)Annual Mean Temperature(°C) Annual Rainfall (mm)STDEV MEAN STDEV

33124000.5225.4

15810850.5828.5

113047780.3525.1

16613500.4624.3

36728050.5128.8

49932520.4228.4

87637010.3828.7

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Climate scenario for 2051-2100The scenario indicates the increases of 3.5°C atMyitkyina and Yangon, 3.3°C at Pathein, 3.2°C atSittway, 3.1°C atKengtung, 3.0°C atMandalay and2.8°C at Dawei from 1971-2000 baseline data duetodecreasingcloudinesscoveragewhich supports theweak monsoon climate scenario for 2051-2100.Maximum standard deviation is 1.0ºC atMyitkyinaand the lowest is 0.7ºC atDawei. Periods of droughtare likely atMyitkyina,Mandalay, Sittway, Pathein

andYangonwhere the standard deviation of meantemperature is generally about 0.9ºC as shown in(Table 4.6).

Regardingtheannualprecipitation, there isan increaseof 1582mmat Sittway, 674mmatDawei, 667mmatMyitkyina, 633mmatPathein, 414mmatYangon,271 mm at Mandalay and 209 mm at Kengtung.Maximumstandarddeviation is1358mmatSittway,followedby902mmatDaweiand485mmatPathein.


* (PRECIS computes only up to 2099)

MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEVMyitkyina 27.8 1.012 2870 400Mandalay 30.7 0.948 1202 301Sittway 27.2 0.888 5699 1358Kengtung 26.4 0.794 1523 266Mingladon(Yangon) 30.9 0.904 3075 401

Pathein 30.5 0.857 3593 485Dawei 30.4 0.727 4221 902

Station2051-2099

*(A2 output)

Annual Mean Temperature(°C) Annual Rainfall (mm)

MEAN STDEV MEAN STDEVMyitkyina 27.8 1.012 2870 4002870 400Mandalay 30.7 0.948 1202 301Sittway 27.2 0.888 5699 13585699 1358Kengtung 26.4 0.794 1523 266Mingladon(Yangon) 30.9 0.904 3075 4013075 401

Pathein 30.5 0.857 3593 485Dawei 30.4 0.727 4221 9024221 902

Station2051-2099

*(A2 output)

Annual Mean Temperature(°C) Annual Rainfall (mm)Annual Mean Temperature(°C) Annual Rainfall (mm)

4.3. Vulnerability and AdaptationAssessment

Potential hazard levelsThe climate change impacts,which are likely in thetropical coastal regions due to globalwarming areprojected in IPCC Reports. The increasingfrequency of cyclones and accompanying strongwinds, storm surge, floods or inundation, intenserains, extreme temperatures, droughts and sea levelrise are climate change-related impacts to whichMyanmar has to payserious attention.

Cyclone and strong windsThe potential hazard level for cyclone and strongwinds inMyanmarmaybe classified as “High” forthecoastal regionswhere there is ahistoryofcyclonelandfalls; “Medium”for theregionshavingcommonborder or next to the high potential regions andregionswith thehistoryof frequent strongwind; and“Low” for the regions which have strong winds

damages due to squalls. There are evidences ofcyclonestrongwindsdevastatinganumberof regionsalong the track such asGwa cyclone ofMay, 1982.No region is free from the strong wind hazard asrainstorms andsqualls canoccur all over the country.

Flood and storm surgeThepotential hazard level for flood and storm surgeis classified as “High” for low flat regions, wherefloods are used to occur at least every other yearcaused by one of the large river systems ofAyeyarwady, Chindwin, Sittaung andThanlwin orby storm surge, “Medium” for the region withmoderate floods and flash floods history, “Low” forthe regionwith the flash floodhistory.

Intense rainThe potential hazard level for intense rain may beclassified as “High” for the regions having longexposure to the southwest monsoon flow from theBay of Bengal and theAndaman Sea; “Medium”for lower Myanmar and northwestern part of the

2012

country and regions with some intense rain history;and “Low” for the regions with a few heavy rainfallhistory.

Extreme day temperatureIn the case of extreme daytemperature, the potential

hazard level may be classified as “High” for theregions with high annual mean temperature andrelativelyflat regions in central dryzone; “Medium”for thetransitional zones, andBagoRegionandKayahState; “Low” for themountainous regionsandregionswith low annual mean temperature.

DroughtThepotentialhazardlevel fordroughtmaybeclassifiedas “High” for the regions in dry zone, “Medium”for Bago Region and eastern mountain ranges, and“Low” for the remaining regionsexceptYangon andTanintharyiRegions.

Sea level riseThe potential hazard level for sea level rise may beclassified as “High” for coastal deltaic region withextensive flat lowland,“Medium” fortheregionwithshort coastal strip or narrow coastal strip, “Low”forthe region with tide effects and coastal areas withhigher ground; and “None” for inland areas.According to “IPCC 2007, Impacts,Adaptation andVulnerability”, there would have an accelerated risein sea level of 0.2-0.6m or more by 2100 as a resultof climate change. It should be noted that Pathein inAyeyarwadyDelta is4 m above meansea level whichis situated about 100 km from shore line. Thereforeshore line can be potentially retreated about 10 kmdue to sea level rise of 0.5 m at the end of 2100.

Thepotentialhazard levels forclimatechangeimpactsdue to globalwarmingmayassume apattern which ispresented in (Figure 4.36).

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Figure 4.36: The potential hazard levels for climate change features due to global warming.

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Vulnerability of different sectors

Agriculture

Myanmar is an agricultural country with about 11million hectares of cultivated land, beinggrown byabout 60 crops. In 2006-07, agricultural sectoraccounted for 37%of the country’sGrossDomesticProduct (GDP) and 13.3% of its export earnings(MyanmarAgricultureinBrief,MinistryofAgricultureand Irrigation, 2008). Crop production is themajoragricultural activity and is largely dependent onweather.After 1988, the Government put forwardcontinuous efforts in the construction of dams andreservoirs throughout the country byutilizing largecapital investment, man power and machineries.Availabledomestic resourcesandexpertisewereusedformaking somemachineries.As a result, irrigationfacilitiesnowexist ingroups in localizedzonesacrossthecountry.Irrigationcoverageincreased from12.5%of the sown area in 1987-88 to 18.0% in 2006-07.

Soils and climatic conditions in many parts ofMyanmar favorricecultivationandMyanmarisarice-surpluscountry.Rice is theprincipalagricultural crop,and is the staple food of the entire population.Myanmar isoneof thecountrieswith thehighest levelof per capita rice consumption in theworld.

Rice production in the country has increasedsignificantlydue to introductionof summer rice.Theutilization of high yielding varieties together withadvanced agricultural practices andproper irrigationsystem also help increase rice production. Riceproduction of 21 million tons in 2000-2001 hadincreased to over 31 million tons in 2007-2008 asshown in (Table 4.7).

Table 4.7:Annual rice production inMyanmar

*Metric tonSource: Department ofAgricultural Planning,Ministry ofAgriculture and Irrigation, 2009.

Sown Harvested Yield Production

('000 ha) ('000 ha) (Mt*/ ha) ('000 Mt*)

1995-96 6138 6033 3.08 18580

2000-01 6359 6302 3.38 21324

2002-03 6488 6377 3.42 21805

2004-05 6858 6808 3.64 24752

2005-06 7389 7384 3.75 27683

2006-07 8125 8074 3.83 30924

2007-08 8090 8011 3.93 31451

YearSown Harvested Yield ProductionSown Harvested Yield ProductionSown Harvested Yield Production

('000 ha) ('000 ha) (Mt*/ ha) ('000 Mt*)('000 ha) ('000 ha) (Mt*/ ha) ('000 Mt*)('000 ha) ('000 ha) (Mt*/ ha) ('000 Mt*)

1995-96 6138 6033 3.08 185806138 6033 3.08 185806138 6033 3.08 18580

2000-01 6359 6302 3.38 213246359 6302 3.38 213246359 6302 3.38 21324

2002-03 6488 6377 3.42 218056488 6377 3.42 218056488 6377 3.42 21805

2004-05 6858 6808 3.64 247526858 6808 3.64 247526858 6808 3.64 24752

2005-06 7389 7384 3.75 276837389 7384 3.75 276837389 7384 3.75 276837389 7384 3.75 27683

2006-07 8125 8074 3.83 309248125 8074 3.83 309248125 8074 3.83 309248125 8074 3.83 30924

2007-08 8090 8011 3.93 314518090 8011 3.93 314518090 8011 3.93 314518090 8011 3.93 31451

Year

Although riceyield andproduction inMyanmarhavebeen showing positive trends, some interruptionscould take place if therewould have severe climatechange impacts due toglobalwarming.

Water resourcesMyanmar has eight river basins namely Chindwin,UpperAyeyarwady, LowerAyeyarwady, Sittaung,Rakhine, Tanintharyi, Thanlwin and Mekong.According to2003data, the annual averagepotentialof surfacewater is 827.946 km3 and groundwater is494.713 km3and theyare given in (Table 4.8).

Water withdrawals in Myanmar have been in theincreaseparticularlyin the agricultural sector (Table4.9) shows totalwater use in different sectors for theyear 2004-2005 (ZawWin, 2006). It is found that

agricultural sector is by far the largest water user inMyanmar.Previously,government investmentstrategywith respect to the irrigation was strongly orientedtowards increasing thewater supplybydevelopingstorage capacity, particularly construction of dams,weirs and sluice gates.

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Table 4.8:Annual average water resources potential (km3) by river basin

Source:Water Resources Management in Myanmar, 2003. Ministry ofAgriculture and Irrigation

Surface water Ground water

(km3/yr) (km3/yr)Region 1, Chindwin 104.72 57.578Region 2, Upper Ayeyawady 171.969 92.599

Region 3, Lower Ayeyawady 229.873 153.249

Region 4, S ittaung 52.746 28.402

Region 5, Rakhine 83.547 41.774

Region 6, Taninthayi 78.556 39.278

Region 7, Thanlwin 95.955 74.779

Region 8, Mekong 10.58 7.054

Total 827.946 494.713

Region/ River basinSurface water Ground water

(km3/yr) (km3/yr)Region 1, Chindwin 104.72 57.578Region 2, Upper Ayeyawady 171.969 92.599

Region 3, Lower Ayeyawady 229.873 153.249

Region/ River basin

28.40252.746Region 4, S ittaung41.77483.547Region 5, Rakhine39.27878.556Region 6, Taninthayi

74.77995.955Region 7, Thanlwin

7.05410.58Region 8, Mekong

494.713827.946Total

Table 4.9:Water usage (km3) inMyanmar

Sector Surface water Groundwater Total Percent

Irrigation 40.69 0.81 41.5 91

Domestic 1.15 2.55 3.7 8

Industrial 0.32 0.08 0.4 1

Total 42.16 3.44 45.6 100

Sector Surface water Groundwater Total Percent

Irrigation

Domestic

Industrial

Total

0.81 41.5 910.81 41.5 910.81 41.5 9140.69

2.55 3.7 82.55 3.7 82.55 3.7 81.15

0.08 0.4 10.08 0.4 10.08 0.4 10.32

3.44 45.6 1003.44 45.6 1003.44 45.6 10042.16

In recent decades water resources in the DryZonewere highlyvulnerable to climate change. Projectedimpacts indicate that increasingnumberof reservoirswill experience seasonalwater shortagewhile therewill be year round shortage of water in somereservoirs. These water-shortage situationsprompted initiationof riverwater pumpingprojects,withprioritybeinggiven to theDryZone.Theprojectsmake the best use of existing water resources ofperennial rivers and streams. It creates an enablingenvironment for the farmers by securing wateravailability in all seasons. River water pumpingprojects already implemented in the Dry Zone isshown in (Table 4.10) and location of pump sites isshown in (Figure 4.37). However, since all theprojects are situated on the bank of the rivers, theyarevulnerable toanumberof factors suchas erosion,changes ofwater course, emergence of sand duneby intense rains and high floods, drought and lowwater inputs due to climate change.

In fact, groundwater is a major component of theavailable water resources. In the coming years thegroundwaterutilization is likelyto increasemanifold

because of the expansion of irrigated agriculture forincreased food production. At present, WaterResourcesUtilizationDepartmentunder theMinistryofAgriculture and Irrigation is implementing twogroundwater irrigation projects inMeiktila, Thazi,Pyawbwe andYamethin Townships, in MandalayRegion, where extreme droughts occurred in 2008and 2009. However, renewable groundwater isdirectly tied up to the near surface hydrologicprocesses. It is also intricately tied to the overallhydrologic cycle and could be directly affected byclimate change. In many cases, the rate ofgroundwater withdrawals exceeds the rate ofrecharge, resulting in over exploitation of renewablegroundwater aquifer. For example, the amount ofinitial discharge of free-flowing artesianwells under“Yinmabin99PondsProject” inSagaingRegionwas3.1m3per second at the completion of the project in1995. It brought about gradual decrease in thedischargeof free flow, andbytheyear 2000dischargehad dropped to 0.61 m3 per second. Thus, climatechangecoulddirectlyaffect thegroundwater rechargerate and therefore the sustainability of renewablegroundwater aswell.

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Table 4.10:Completed riverwaterpumping projects in DryZone

Source:Water Resources Utilization Department (WRUD), 2009.

Irrigable areas Irrigable areas Irrigable areas Irrigable areas(ha) (ha) (ha) (ha)

1 Sagaing 4 28,329 11 10,530 37 13,977 52 52,836

2 Magway 4 13,355 24 18,335 23 3,157 51 34,847

3 Mandalay 8 23,148 20 11,307 49 9,822 77 44,277

Total 16 64,832 55 40,172 109 26,956 180 131,960

No of sites No of sitesSr. No Regions

Special projects(electric)

WRUD's schemesTotal

Electric Diesel

No of sites No of sitesIrrigable areas Irrigable areas Irrigable areas Irrigable areas(ha) (ha) (ha) (ha)

1 Sagaing 4 28,329 11 10,530 37 13,977 52 52,836

2 Magway 4 13,355 24 18,335 23 3,157 51 34,847

3 Mandalay 8 23,148 20 11,307 49 9,822 77 44,277

Total 16 64,832 55 40,172 109 26,956 180 131,960Total 16 64,832 55 40,172 109 26,956 180 131,960Total 16 64,832 55 40,172 109 26,956 180 131,960Total 16 64,832 55 40,172 109 26,956 180 131,960Total 16 64,832 55 40,172 109 26,956 180 131,960

No of sites No of sitesSr. No RegionsSr. No RegionsSr. No Regions

Special projects(electric)

WRUD's schemesTotal

Electric Diesel

No of sites No of sites

Due to climate change, extreme events such as highfloods have occurred inAyeyarwadydelta.Althoughembankmentsweredesignedtoexceed thepreviouslyknownhigh floodswith freeboard,maximumwaterlevels often exceeded from time to time. Therewere4incidentsconcerningwith thefailureofembankmentin thedeltawithsomecasualtiesanddamages.Astudyon maximum water levels at a key station in deltashowed that therewasa rising trendandconsiderablemagnitude could be expected. In addition, there areproblems of saline intrusion during the dry seasonowing to the low volume of fresh water in the riversystems.

Today, climate scientists predict that globalwarmingwill havoc countries lying in the coastal seas andSoutheast Asia will be the region hardest-hit.Ayeyarwadydeltawouldbe endangeredbyrisingsealevel and storm surge. Rising sea level may lead toincreased saline intrusion into coastal and islandaquifers.

2012 Chapter 4 Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment

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Figure 4.37: Location of pump sites in Dry Zone

Ministry of Agriculture and IrrigationWater Resources Utilization Department

River Water Pumping Stations along Ayeyawaddy-Chindwin River in Sagaing, Mandalay and Magway Regions

2012Chapter 4 Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment

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Table 4.11: Health concerns and related problems due to climate change

Health concerns Relatedproblems due to climate change

Temperature - related Heat & cold - related illness

morbidity Cardiovascular System (CVS) illness

Change of patterns of diseasesMalaria, Filarial, Dengue & other diseases of pathogenscarriedbymosquitoes, ticks & vectors.Diarrhea, Cholera & poisoning causedby biological &chemical contaminants in water

Damaged public health infrastructure due to cyclones

Injuries & illness

Social & Mental stress due to disasters & displacement.

Health effects due toinsecurity in foodproduction Malnutrition & hunger especially in children.

Vector borne diseasesHealth effects of extremeweather

Health concerns Relatedproblems due to climate change

Temperature - related Heat & cold - related illness

morbidity Cardiovascular System (CVS) illness

Change of patterns of diseasesMalaria, Filarial, Dengue & other diseases of pathogenscarriedbymosquitoes, ticks & vectors.Diarrhea, Cholera & poisoning causedby biological &chemical contaminants in water

Damaged public health infrastructure due to cyclones

Injuries & illness

Social & Mental stress due to disasters & displacement.

Health effects due toinsecurity in foodproduction Malnutrition & hunger especially in children.

Vector borne diseasesHealth effects of extremeweather

insecurity in foodproduction Malnutrition & hunger especially in children.

Public healthIncrease in water-related and heat stress healthdiseases could be expected as the foremost effect ofclimate change on health sector. Water can getpollutedduring floods,droughts and typhoonswhichare considered tobe closelyrelated to climate changeand preventive and curativemeasures are needed tocontrolwater-relatedproblems.Rising temperatures

can lead to increased heat stress, heat exhaustion,dehydration, etc. Public awareness and education topreventhealthproblemswhichmaybecausedbyheatstress should be raised. .The following (Table 4.11)shows the health concerns to vulnerabilities due toclimatechange.

MalariaInMyanmar,malaria is oneof the notorious endemicvector-borne diseases with high morbidity andmortality rate. Based on the reports of clinicalsuspected malaria cases and malaria deaths inMyanmar from 1995 to 2004, some inferences aremade below. Occurrence of malaria epidemics inStates/Regions and their causes are shown in(Figures 4.38 and 4.39).

Theinferencesonmalariamorbidityandmortalityare:1. Malaria-related outpatient cases haveincreased due to increasing malaria casesalthough total outpatients in hospitals aredecreasing.2. Outpatient cases are increasing due toincreasingnumbersofhealth facilities andbetter services in some areas.

3. Malaria inpatients and death cases arereduced because of improved health facilitycoverage andwide availabilityof artesunateimplementationpolicy.4. Malariamorbidityandmortality aredeclining in thewhole countryexcept inRakhineState.

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Ca uses of M alaria Epidemics in M yan mar (1991-2004)

0 5 10 15 20 25

Floods

Prawn breeding

Changes in Agricultural Practices

Climatic changes

Imported malaria cases

Unusual rainfall

New Settlement

Increased breeding sources

Population Migration

Frequencie s

Figure 4.39: Causes of malaria epidemics in Myanmar (1991 to 2004)

(Figures 4.38 and 4.39) show that frequencies ofoccurrence of epidemics are more in Shan andRakhine States, and Mandalay and TanintharyiRegions. Majorcauses include populationmigration,increased breeding sources, new settlement andunusual rainfalls, and they represent the effects ofclimate change. Increased rainfalls due to climatechange may result in malaria epidemics. Potentialhealth effects of climate variability and change areshown in (Figure 4.40).

Sta te /D iv is io n 1

991

1992

199

3

1994

199

5

1996

19 9

7

2002

200

3

2004

1998

199

9

2000

200

1

S hanR akh in eC hinK ach inM o nK ayinK aya hB agoM agwa yM anda layAye yaw add yS aga in gT anintha yiY ang on

Sta te /D iv is io n 1

991

1992

199

3

1994

199

5

1996

19 9

7

2002

200

3

2004

1998

199

9

2000

200

1

State & Division-w ise M alaria Epidemics in M yanmarState & Region-w ise M alaria Epidem ics in M yanmar

Figure 4.38: State and Region-wise malaria epidemics in Myanmar (1991 to 2004)

Figure 4.40: Potential health effects of climate variability and change

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ForestryMajor forest types found in Myanmar are TidalForests, Beach and Dune Forests, Swamp Forests,Evergreen Forests, Mixed Deciduous Forests, DryForests, Deciduous Dipterocarp or Indaing Forestsand Hill Forests.

Many of these forest areas have been destroyed bycyclones, strongwinds, floods, extreme temperaturesand droughts in addition to the human pressure. Thedominant typeof forest in the countryis thedeciduousforest that sheds leaves during dry season when theclimate is extremelyhot to catch fireeasily.Therewasa maximum evidence of35,333 forest fire cases perday during the second ten days of March 2008, inShan State.

It is interesting to note the social attitudes towardsforest conservation. In the Dry Zone of CentralMyanmar, agriculture is now at its upper limit andfurtherhorizontalexpansionisalmost impossible.Theagricultural lands under private ownership are nowbeingmanagedintensivelyandscientifically.The1995surveys had observed these management practicesin some areas. The good practices have beenspreadingtootherprivate landsundercultivation.Treeplanting in private lands as well as in religiouscompounds is now-a-day a common practice in theDryZone.All religious premises either monasteriesor pagodas arewell kept under good tree cover. Deitygod places have more dense cover because peoplehardly cut down trees from these small local gods’premises. To reduce deforestation and forestdegradation, cutting of trees for firewood has beenprohibited in the dryzone bylocal authorities. Localpeople have properly solved the firewood shortageon their own. The grove of wild jujube (Zizyphusjujuba) plants which are now privately owned areconsidered as a gold mine. The cotyledon fruitseeds are now being used as a high-energy fuel inspecial stoves developed by local people. Thesestoves are used mainly for toddy juice industry andevenforbrick-bakingindustrywhicharecitedasmainconsumers of fuelwood in the area.Pigeon pea stalkswhich are usually burned as a waste in Shan Statehave now become a major fuel in the dry zone. A


local folkfrom MyeThin Dwinvillage explained thattheir annual pagoda festival which usuallyneeds 12cartloads of firewood now needs onlythree cartloadsof pigeon pea stalks, thanks to a villageengineer fromMye Thin Dwin, who has modified some gasifiers.Further developments should be encouraged andextended. For protected forest areas, if they areprotected sufficientlywill become well covered withtree vegetation, improving environmental stability.However it is veryessential that management systemis efficient and effective. Work of 5 or 6 years periodcan be destroyed within days by extreme events.

Managing the common land by the local people andauthorities is also a helpful means to the developmentof forests. Good examples can be seen in Mye ThinDwin community forest project and War Khin Gyiarea project. Dry Zone Greening Department(DZGD)hasbeenimplementingthefirstproject jointlywith JapanInternationalCooperationAgency(JICA),and the second one was implemented by the ForestDepartment (FD) jointly with Japan InternationalForestry Promotion and Cooperation Center(JIFPRO). User groups are assured of theirownership and they have to take the responsibilitiesfor managing their community forests. The projectsare verysuccessful and awareness of local people onthe values of forests is really significant. Villagewoodlots have been successfully established by FDwith peoples participation since 1970s.

Present land tenure laws were written in colonialBritish times. Most of these laws encouraged newagricultural expansionat a time whenpopulation waslow compared to the agriculture area. In the past,expansion of agriculture onto new lands had neverbeenundersound land useplanningin Myanmar. DryZone cases clearly show how people can manage ifthe land is entirely entrusted to them in the name ofprivate ownership. Sustained production could beexpected only from the privately owned lands Landtenure laws should be reviewed and updated asappropriate not only for the benefits of local farmersbut also for the country as a whole.

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Coastal zoneMyanmar has three coastal regions, and they areRakhine,AyeyarwadyDeltaandTanintharyi.Differenttypes of coasts are found: coastal banks aregenerallysteep in Rakhine; mangroves and sandy beachescommon in theAyeyarwadyDelta; androckyislands,rock pinnacles, mangroves and coral reefs in theTanintharyi.TheMyeikarchipelagonearTanintharyicoast comprisesmore than 800 islands.

TheMyeikArchipelago is one of the few areas leftonearthwhere therestill existsacontinuous transitionfrom rain forest to coastalmangrove swamps.

Coral reefsThe vast and diverse coral reefs of MyeikArchipelagoareof immense ecologicalandeconomicimportance for the country. But, the sea level rise islikely to affect the social and economic situation ofthe coastal areas includingMyeikArchipelago reefssignificantly.Recentriskanalysisofcoralreefssuggeststhat between 24% and 30% of the reefs inAsia areprojected to be lost during the next 2 to 10years and10 to 30 years respectively. A new study suggeststhat coral reefs, which were severely affected byabnormallyhighSseaSurfaceTemperature (SST) inrecent years, contain some coral species and theirreef-associatedmicro-algae symbionts that show fargreater tolerance to higher SST than others. Coralreefs of South and Southeast Asia are reported tohave been destroyed in 1998, largelydue to coralbleaching induced by the 1997-98 El Nino event.Coral reefs from neighbouring countries areexperiencing coral bleaching, so coral reefs ofMyanmarwill face similar threats caused by risingsea temperature. In2004,Tsunamialsoaffected someof the coral islands and sandy beaches along theArchipelago. The Tsunami destroyed coral andtransported debris to the shore. Due to 2º to 4º Crise of SST above the current threshold SST,increases in cyclone intensity are predicted inSoutheastAsia.

Thedestructiveeffects ofclimatechangeandhuman-inducedpressuredamage thecoral reefs in this region.Ifcoral reefsarebleaching, theproductionof lucrativefish, fishfarming,pearloysterculture, farmingofdeepsea lobster and seaweedwill all be threatened anddamaged.Manyspeciesofmarinefisheswilldisappear

and somewill seek migration to the colder region.Some native species of whale and dolphinwill alsomove to the areas of coldwater too.

Coastal erosionMany sandy beaches along the coastal areas ofMyanmar facewith the problems of coastal erosionduetostructuraldevelopment,changes inlivingpatternand recreational activities which are undertaken topromote ecotourism development. Thesedevelopments and changes initiate the enhancingdegradationof themarine turtlenestingbeaches, suchas Maungmakan beach in Tanintharyi coastalregion.Someof the islands locatedalong theRakhinecoastal area are also affected by sea waves duringmonsoonseason.Theseislandsareessential resourcesfor themarine fisheries production. For example inThandweDistrict,Kalayaungvillage tract faced theproblemof coastal erosion. In this village tract, twooutof threevillageswerealreadydisplacedbycoastalerosion. Since the villagers become uncomfortablewithmonsoon season, somemove to other villagesand some are seeking shelter at the monastery oftheir village.The situation could bemore difficult ifsea level rise due to climate changecontinues to takeplace.

Biodiversity

Forest wildlife and wild plants

Myanmar isoftencitedasbeing rich in biodiversityinAsia. By nature, forests are highly vulnerable toclimate extremes such aswarming anddrought. Butspecific studies are needed for this issue.Wildlifespecies andwild plants are abundant inMyanmar asshown in (Table 4.12).Table 4.12: Wildlife species and wild plants inMyanmar

No Description Number of species

1 Birds 1000

2 Mammals 300

3 Reptiles 3604 Butterflies 1200

5* Plant species 7000

No Description Number of species

1 Birds 1000

2 Mammals 300

3 Reptiles 3604

5*

Butterflies 1200Butterflies 1200

Plant species 7000Plant species 7000

Source: Asian Disaster Preparedness Center -ADPC, 2009: Forest Fire, Hazard Profile ofMyanmar and *MyanmarAgenda 21

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However, many species of wildlife and wild plantsare highly endangered and at risk of extinction.Strenuous efforts through the establishment of anetwork of protected areas are needed to arrest thebiodiversityloss.Myanmarhasestablished30wildlifesanctuaries and six national parks by the year 2009(ADPC, 2009).

Fresh water fishes

Verylittle is knowninMyanmarabout freshwater andmarine fishes and priority should be given to carryout studies in this area. The number of fish speciesrecorded in Myanmar is 196 (Denerstein et al.1993).Giant Catfish (Pangasianodon gigas), and AsianArowana (Scleropages formosus),are endangered.According to the 2004 IUCN Red List of ThreatenedSpecies (BI 2005) they both are listed to be presentin Myanmar. However neither species has beenconfirmed as yet.

Marine fish speciesThe commercially important marine fish species arechanging inMyanmar coastal waterseveryyear.Withdecrease in size and quantityof fish herds, the recordof Catch Per Unit (CPU) is decreasing in the coastalwaters.

TheSSTisdifferent alongthecoast fromthesoutherncoastal area (Tanintharyi) to northern area (Rakhine).Fishing fleet moved every year up to the Rakhinecoastal area, and found that the marine fish speciescomposition, size and quantityhad changed betweenthe southern and the northern areas.

Marine turtlesMarine turtlesare longlived,highlymigratoryreptilesthat can be found in the tropical and sub-tropicaloceans worldwide. Of the seven living turtle specieswhich are found around the world, six are known toreside in Southeast Asia. Myanmar has 5 species,namely, Green turtle (Chelonia mydas), Loggerhead(Caretta caretta), Hawksbill (Eretmochelysimbricata), Leatherback (Dermochely coriacea)and Olive Ridely (Lepidochelys aolivace). Theyarecurrently considered as endangered species.Conservation of marine turtles can be done onlythrough international cooperation as they are theshared resource of the world. The habitats of marine

turtles should also be adequately protected andefficientlymanaged.

Sea grass bedsSand sedimentation on sea grass beds in coastalwaters along the beaches and between the islands ofMyeikArchipelago is increasing, and it is attributableto heavyrains. Sand sediments coveringthesea grassbeds threaten the habitats of dugongs and sea turtles.The production ofgiant tigershrimpand seacucumber isalso threatenedbysand sedimentation.

Mangrove ecosystemsIn some coastal areas of Asia, a 30 cm rise in sealevel canresult in45mof landwarderosion (Tun,M.T.2009). Since sea level rise tends to aggravate thecurrentlyeroding coastal areas, mangrove forests andswamp areas along the Myanmar coast will be facingthisproblem.Thetropical cycloneNargisandTsunaminotonlydestroyedmangroveecosystemsinthecoastalarea of Myanmar, but also brought about undesirablesocial, economic and environmental effects on thearea. Mangroves provide products such as charcoal,firewood and housing materials and they provideservices such as feeding and spawning grounds foraquatic species, nesting place for wildlife andprotectionagainststrongwindsandseawater intrusionas bio-shield. Loss of mangrove ecosystems meansloss of these products and services.

Marine mammalsIt is widely recognized that climate change impactson marine mammals will be mediated primarily viachanges in preydistribution and abundance. SST is agoodpredictorformarinemammaldistribution.Afewspecies may move between different temperaturezones duringregular migration.

Plankton boomingDuring the Myanmar-India Joint OceanographyCruise conducted in 2002, the occurrencesof patchesof phytoplankton (Trichodesmiun) blooms wereobserved to the west of 96º east. The phytoplanktonblooms appear to be common in stratified surfacelayers where the surface nitrate was in traceableconcentration. It is the indication of plankton

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blooming. Studies found that increase in nitrateconcentration inseawaterswascausedbyland-basedpollution.Rainswithhigh intensityover themainlandMyanmarwould bring down pollutants into the seaswiftly, contributingto increasednitrateconcentrationin seawaters.

4.4. Vulnerability Indices and Mapsfor Key Socio-economic Sectors

MethodologyMyanmar iscommitted todisclosingthevulnerabilityindices toclimatechangeimpacts intheInitialNational

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Communication for which Myanmar has littleexperience.The index is the complex representationof key socio-economic information for all localitiesbyapplyingvariousmathematicalmodels. In a shortperiod of time, it is hard to effectively undertakecapacitybuildingin theareasof technology,expertise,humanresources andinstitution.Thereforea tentativeapproach that could generally represent thevulnerability index is explored basedpartiallyon thepresentation ofGeorgeManful (2008), as shown in(Table 4.13).

Table 4.13: Vulnerability of key sectors to the impacts of climate change

Vulnerability: -2 - Highly vulnerable Level of Confidence: VH -VeryHigh-1 - Moderately vulnerable H - High0 - Slightly or not vulnerable M - Medium+1 - Moderately resistant L - Low+2 - Most resist VL-Very Low

Sub-regions Food and fibre BiodiversityWaterresource

Coastalecosystem

HumanhealthSettlements

Landdegradation

North Asia +1/H -2/M +1/M -1/M -1/M -1/M -1/M

TibetanPlateau

+1/L -2/M -1/M Notapplicable

Noinformation

Noinformation

-1/L

East Asia -2/VH -2/H -2/H -2/H -1/H -1/H -2/H

South Asia -2/H -2/H -2/H -2/H -2/M -1/M -2/H

South-EastAsia

-2/H -2/H -1/H -2/H -2/H -1/M -2/H

-1/M -2/HCentralAsia andWest Asia

-2/H -1/M -2/VH -1/L -2/M

Sub-regions Food and fibre BiodiversityWaterresource

Coastalecosystem

HumanhealthSettlements

Landdegradation

North Asia +1/H -2/M +1/M -1/M -1/M -1/M -1/M

TibetanPlateau

+1/L -2/M -1/M Notapplicable

Noinformation

Noinformation

-1/L

East Asia -2/VH -2/H -2/H -2/H -1/H -1/H -2/H

South Asia -2/H -2/H -2/H -2/H -2/M -1/M -2/H

South-EastAsia

-2/H -2/H -1/H -2/H -2/H -1/M -2/H

-1/M -2/HCentralAsia andWest Asia

-2/H -1/M -2/VH -1/L -2/M

Thevulnerabilityofa region ispresentedwithnumberand letter combined.To represent thevulnerabilityofa sector of thecountrywith index, the affectedextentof area or community such asHigh,Medium, Low

and None (if not applicable) and the level ofconfidence such asHigh,Medium, andLow shouldbe considered as follows and shown in the ( Table4.14).

Table 4.14:Quantification of levels for vulnerability assessment

Vulnerability indexmaybe calculated for agiven region bysystematic considerationon each socio-economicsector as follows.Indicator score = Impact level x Confidence levelSector score =Mean of indicator score of a sectorVulnerability Index =Mean of all sector scores x Population density level

LowMediummmm High

Vulnerability level of an indicator 1 2 3

Confidence level of an indicator 1 2 3

Population level of a region 1 2 3

Description of levelQuantification of level

LowMediummmm High

Vulnerability level of an indicator 1 2 3

Confidence level of an indicator 1 2 3

Population level of a region 1 2 3

Description of levelQuantification of level

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In this context the equation used for thevulnerability indices is as shownbelow:-

where VI =VulnerabilityIndex,CL= ConfidenceLevel,AL= AffectedLevel,PD= PopulationDensityLevel,

i = Number of climate change impacts; i = 1, l = 6 (in this context),j = Number of indicators for a sector; j = 1, m = 3 (in this context),k = Number of sectors; k = 1, n = 6 (in this context).

4.5. Climate Change ImpactParameters and KeySocio-Economic Sectors

Climate change impact parameters andVulnerability Level (VL)Themeteorologists and climatologists fromDMHhave indentified the following six climate changeimpact parameters:

1. Cyclone and strongwinds,2. Flood and storm surge,3. Intense rain,4. Extreme day temperature,5. Drought and6. Sea level rise.

TheirVulnerabilityLevel (VL) and its “Criteria andScores” for the States andRegions ofMyanmar arejudgedbythemeteorologists andclimatologists fromDMH, as threeLevels –High (H),Medium (M) andLow (L), numerically3, 2 and 1. The score of zeroorNone (N) indicates that the effect is not applicableat all, see ( Table 4.15).

Key socio-economic sectors and Confidence Level(CL)TheVulnerabilityandAdaptationAssessmentTeammembers indentifiedsix keysocio-economic sectors.Each sector has three indicatorswhich are to beusedfor evaluatingvulnerabilityscores. These indicatorswere determined by team members based on theavailable baseline data. The assumption for theunavailable datawasmade and scoreswereworkedout based on experts’ opinions.

Thedataused in the indicators of the sectors to assessthe score levelsof confidenceare takenfromthedata/statistics ofMyanmarProgressiveReport,MyanmarAgriculture Statistics, Department of Health,Department of Fisheries, Forest Department andChronicle of National Development Comparisonbetween PeriodPreceding 1988 andAfter 1988 (upto 31-12-2008) togetherwith the expert opinion.

TheConfidenceLevel (CL) of the indicators fromall sectors for the States and Regions ofMyanmarare shown in (Table 4.15).

Affected Level (AL)TheAffectedLevel (AL) is the last or 3rd basic factorof the climate change impact on the key socio-economic sectors for the calculationofVulnerabilityIndices (VI). It is derived from the 1st and 2nd factorsof theVulnerability Level (VL) andConfidenceLevel (CL) by the teammembers.

Vulnerability Indices (VI) and mapsIn accordance with the specified equation of theVulnerability Index (VI), Sector Scores (S) andtheirMean Score (SM) areworked out for the Statesand Regions. The vulnerabilitymaps of key socio-economic sectors for the States and Regions ofMyanmar are shown in ( Figure 4.41), and“Population density of the States and Regions ofMyanmar” is shown in ( Figure 4.42) as the secondmap. The third map is “Vulnerability indices oftheoverall keysocio-economic sectors for theStatesandRegions ofMyanmar” and it is shown in (Figure4.43).

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Table 4.15: Identification and justification “Confidence Level (CL)” of climate change impacts onthe Indicators of the key socio-economic sectors

Sector Indicator Identification& justification(1) Crop yield and productionchanges

H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.

(2) Crop pattern change H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.(3) Pest & disease H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.

H= Above 2,000 villages

M= 1,000 to 2,000 villages

L= Less than 1,000 villages

H= Above 100MegawattsM= 50 to 100MegawattsL= Less than 50MegawattsH= Above 50Dams

M= 10 to 50DamsL= Less than 10Dams

(1)Malaria H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.( 2) Diarhorea H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.

(3) Unavailability of safe water H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.H= Above 5,000

M= 1,000 to 5,000L= Less than 1,000

H= Above 100,000

M= 40,000 to 100,000

L= Less than 40,000

H= Above 2,000

M= 750 to 2,000

L= Less than 750(1) Fish yields and productionchanges


(2)Mangrove ecosystem H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.

(3) Coral reef H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.(1) Forest biomass (growingstock)

H= Above 1,000mcm

M= 500 to 1,000mcmL= Less than 500mcm

(2)Habitat loss (Closed forestfrom1975-2006)

H=Above 1,000 Sqml (Max= 3600.2Sqml)M= 500 to 1,000 SqmlL= 0 to Less than 500 SqmlN= less than zero [Min = (-)21.0 Sqml] Sqml ]

(3) Fishery species composition H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.

Biodiversity

Agriculture

Public Health

(1) Rural water supply coverage

(2) Supply for hydro power

(3) Irrigation works andbeneficial area

Water Resources

Forestry

(1) Forest cover (000 ha. ofNatural forest)

(2) Forest fire (Number ofoccurrence per year )

(3) Species composition (000 ha.Closed forest)

Coastal Zone

Sector Indicator Identification& justification(1) Crop yield and productionchanges


(2) Crop pattern change H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.(3) Pest & disease H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.

H= Above 2,000 villages

M= 1,000 to 2,000 villages

L= Less than 1,000 villages

H= Above 100MegawattsM= 50 to 100MegawattsL= Less than 50MegawattsH= Above 50Dams

M= 10 to 50DamsL= Less than 10Dams

(1)Malaria H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.( 2) Diarhorea H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.

(3) Unavailability of safe water H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.H= Above 5,000

M= 1,000 to 5,000L= Less than 1,000

H= Above 100,000

M= 40,000 to 100,000

L= Less than 40,000

H= Above 2,000

M= 750 to 2,000

L= Less than 750(1) Fish yields and productionchanges


(2)Mangrove ecosystem H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.

(3) Coral reef H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.(1) Forest biomass (growing H= Above 1,000mcm

M= 500 to 1,000mcmL= Less than 500mcm

(2)Habitat loss (Closed forestfrom1975-2006)

H=Above 1,000 Sqml (Max= 3600.2Sqml)M= 500 to 1,000 SqmlL= 0 to Less than 500 SqmlN= less than zero [Min = (-)21.0 Sqml] Sqml ]

(3) Fishery species composition H,M, L is defined by Expert opinion.

Biodiversity

AgricultureAgriculture

Public Health

(1) Rural water supply coverage

(2) Supply for hydro power

(3) Irrigation works andbeneficial area

Water Resources

Forestry

(1) Forest cover (000 ha. ofNatural forest)

(2) Forest fire (Number ofoccurrence per year )

(3) Species composition (000 ha.Closed forest)

Coastal ZoneCoastal Zone

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Figure 4.41: Vulnerability scores of the key socio-economic sectors for the States and Regionsof Myanmar

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Figure 4.42: Population density of the States and Regions of Myanmar

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Figure 4.43: Vulnerability indices of the overall key socio-economic sectors for the Statesand Regions of Myanmar

InMyanmar, thehighest sector score forVulnerabilityis the Public Health sector followed byBiodiversity ,Water Resources , Forestry , Coastal Zone andAgriculture sectors.

The Public Health sector score is maximum (5.3) inAyeyarwady Region followed by Rakhine State,Tanintharyi Region, Bago Region and (3.9) in MonState. It is minimum (2.0) in Chin State.

In Biodiversity sector, score is maximum (4.7) inSagaing Region followed by Rakhine State, BagoRegion,AyeyarwadyRegionandTanintharyi Region,and (2.0) in MonState. It isminimum (1.1) inYangonRegion.

In Water Resources sector, score is maximum (4.5)in Mandalayand Bago Regions followed bySagaing,Ayeyarwady and Magway Regions. It is minimum(0.9) in Kachin and Rakhine States.

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Tropical stormsTropical storms in theBayofBengal are important asthe rain producing phenomena on one part, and asthepotentialhazards on theother. Theglobal climatechange scenarios indicate that tropical stormfrequency and intensity are on the increasing trendand their tracks aregoing tobeabnormal.After 2002,Myanmar coast has been crossed by the cycloneeveryyear except 2005. ThereforeMyanmar needsintensive studies on this issue. The examples ofpossible research areas are provided in (Table4.18).

In Forestry sector, score is maximum (3.4) inMagway Region followed by Mandalay, Bago,AyeyarwadyRegionsandKayahState. It isminimum(0.7) inTanintharyiRegion.

InCoastal zone sector, score ismaximum (2.9) inAyeyarwady Region followed by Rakhine State,Yangon,BagoRegion andMonState. It isminimum(1.3) inTanintharyiRegion.There is no score in theeight inlandStates andRegions.

InAgriculture sector, score is maximum (1.6) inAyeyarwady Region followed by Bago, Sagaing,MandalayandMagwayRegions, It isminimum(0.2)inChinState.

Vulnerability index is maximum with (6.13) inAyeyarwadyRegion andminimum is (1.19) inChinState.The index is relativelyhigh inAyeyarwadyandYangonRegions followedbyMandalayRegion,MonState andBagoRegion. It is relativelylow inSagaingRegionandRakhineState. It is lowestin theremainingStates andRegionswithminimuminChinState.

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4.6. Targeted Researches

Global warming, climate change and sea level riseare theglobal issues towhich high attention arepaidbyallnationsparticularlytheagriculturalcountries likeMyanmar. Adaptation strategies and measuresadaptive toclimatechange impacts canbeeffectivelyundertaken if various aspects of climate and climatevariabilityarewell understood.

Climate variabilityClimate variability ismeant the variation of climateparameters. These are temperature, rainfall, rainydays,humidity, sunshinehours, solar radiation, thunderstormdays,soil temperatureandmoisture, river stagesand run off, floods levels, etc., which representmeteorological/hydrological relatedelements.

Studiesonclimatevariabilitywill includestudiesrelatedto rainfall intensity, area coverage, duration of thespells,monthofoccurrence, and timehourof thedayof occurrence, spatial and temporal distributions.Extreme climate events are also important areas tobe studied. Possible research areas on climatevariability are shown in (Table 4.16).

Table 4.16: Possible research areas for the study of climate variability

No Research areas on climate variablity

1 Variability of south wes t monsoon onset/withdrawal over Myanmar.

2 Variability of monthly rainfalls in Deltaic Ayeyarwady Region.

3 Variability of heavy rain spells in Dry Zone of Myanmar.

4 Variability of dry spells in different areas of Myanmar.

5 Variability of rains in the pre-monsoon and the pos t monsoon periods .

6 Variability of dry season rainfalls in Myanmar.

7 Extreme climatic events and their impacts on the production of major crops .

8 Some synoptic s ituations respons ible for the extreme rainfall episodes in Central Myanmar.

No Research areas on climate variablity

1 Variability of south wes t monsoon onset/withdrawal over Myanmar.

2 Variability of monthly rainfalls in Deltaic Ayeyarwady Region.

3 Variability of heavy rain spells in Dry Zone of Myanmar.

4 Variability of dry spells in different areas of Myanmar.

5 Variability of rains in the pre-monsoon and the pos t monsoon periods .

6 Variability of dry season rainfalls in Myanmar.

7 Extreme climatic events and their impacts on the production of major crops .

8 Some synoptic s ituations respons ible for the extreme rainfall episodes in Central Myanmar.

Climate change

Climate variability comprisesmany aspects and sodoes theclimatechange.Climatechangestudies focuson magnitude, intensity, and spatial and temporaldistributions,characteristicfeatures representingshort-term,medium-term and long-term aspects. Climatechange studieswill focus on themagnitude, intensityand spatial and temporal distributions of rains, dryspells, extreme events and short-term to long-termcharacteristic features of climate. Possible researchareas on climate change are shown in (Table 4.17).

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Table 4.17: Possible research areas on climate change

No Research areas on climate change

1 Climate change aspect of south west monsoon onset/withdrawal over Myanmar.

2 Climate change of monthly rainfalls in Myanmar.

3 Climate change aspect of heavy rain spells in Dry Zone of Myanmar.

4 Climate change aspect of dry spells in different areas of Myanmar.

5 Climate change aspect of rains in the pre-monsoon and the post monsoon periods.

6 Climate change aspect of dry season rainfalls in Myanmar.

7 Assessment of extreme climatic events.

8 Changing patterns of extreme climates in Myanmar.

9 Analysis of climate change scenarios for sub states and division levels.

No Research areas on climate change

1 Climate change aspect of south west monsoon onset/withdrawal over Myanmar.

2 Climate change of monthly rainfalls in Myanmar.

3 Climate change aspect of heavy rain spells in Dry Zone of Myanmar.

4 Climate change aspect of dry spells in different areas of Myanmar.

5 Climate change aspect of rains in the pre-monsoon and the post monsoon periods.

6 Climate change aspect of dry season rainfalls in Myanmar.

7 Assessment of extreme climatic events.

8 Changing patterns of extreme climates in Myanmar.

9 Analysis of climate change scenarios for sub states and division levels.

Table 4.18: Possible research areas on tropical storms

No Research Area

1 Tropical storm landfall frequency and distribution along Myanmar coast.

2 Vulnerability indexof tropical stormalong Myanmar coast.

3 Cyclonic stormassociated excessive rain spells in Myanmar.

4 Attempt to quantitative forecasting of cyclone rainfall in Myanmar.

5 Forecasting of cyclonic storm track in the Bay of Bengal.

6Study on the influence of the sea surface temperature pattern upon the cyclogenesis inthe Bay of Bengal and the Andaman sea.

7 Changing upper air circulations responsible for the abnormal movement of cyclones inthe Bay of Bengal.

8Regeneration of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal due to typhoon remnants of the SouthChina Sea.

9 Stormsurge prediction for Myanmar coastal zones.

10 Scenarios of different abnormal cyclone tracks and their potential impacts on Myanmar.

No Research Area

1 Tropical storm landfall frequency and distribution along Myanmar coast.

2 Vulnerability indexof tropical stormalong Myanmar coast.

3 Cyclonic stormassociated excessive rain spells in Myanmar.

4 Attempt to quantitative forecasting of cyclone rainfall in Myanmar.

5 Forecasting of cyclonic storm track in the Bay of Bengal.

Study on the influence of the sea surface temperature pattern upon the cyclogenesis inthe Bay of Bengal and the Andaman sea.

6

Changing upper air circulations responsible for the abnormal movement of cyclones inthe Bay of Bengal.

7

Regeneration of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal due to typhoon remnants of the SouthChina Sea.

8

Stormsurge prediction for Myanmar coastal zones.9

Scenarios of different abnormal cyclone tracks and their potential impacts on Myanmar.10

Table 4.19: Possible research areas on droughts and precipitation warming trend

No ResearchArea

1 Spatial frequency and distribution of drought in Myanmar.

2 Temporal distribution of drought and frequency in Myanmar.3 Changing pattern of drought frequency in Myanmar.4 Synoptic situations responsible for the significant drought ofMyanmar.

5 Synoptic situations responsible for the drought of a specific time in Myanmar.

6 Synoptic situations responsible for the extended drought duration in the Dry Zone ofMyanmar.

7 Hydrological features due to specific significant drought ofMyanmar.8 Impact of specific significant drought upon the water resources aspect of centralMyanmar.9 Potential threat of dry-zone drought upon the neighboring regions ofMyanmar.10 Potential impacts of cool-season drought in Myanmar.

No ResearchArea

1 Spatial frequency and distribution of drought in Myanmar.

2 Temporal distribution of drought and frequency in Myanmar.3 Changing pattern of drought frequency in Myanmar.4 Synoptic situations responsible for the significant drought ofMyanmar.

5 Synoptic situations responsible for the drought of a specific time in Myanmar.

6 Synoptic situations responsible for the extended drought duration in the Dry Zone ofMyanmar.

7 Hydrological features due to specific significant drought ofMyanmar.8 Impact of specific significant drought upon the water resources aspect of centralMyanmar.9 Potential threat of dry-zone drought upon the neighboring regions ofMyanmar.10 Potential impacts of cool-season drought in Myanmar.

Droughts and warming trend

Droughts are very frequent phenomena in centralMyanmar.These phenomena are not confined in thearea but spread to the nearbyregions. In the face ofworld-wide warming and the warming trend in

Myanmar, drought characteristic changes call forextensivestudies.Possibleresearch areasondroughtsandwarming trend are shown in (Table 4.19).

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Extreme climates in relation to El NinoMyanmar experienced the impacts of El Nino andENSO. It still needs detailed assessment of theseimpacts in different places of the country in termsofintensity, spatial extent anddurationof the impact.

With the sea level rise and warmer sea surfacetemperature induced by global warming,understanding the characteristic pattern of El Ninoimpacts on the climate of Myanmar would beadvantageous for identifying the climate changeadaptation measures. Possible study areas are asshown in the (Table 4.20).

Table 4.20: Possible study areas on extreme climates in relation to El NinoNo Study Area

1 Impact of El Nino upon the extreme temperatures of different States and Regions in Myanmar.2 Impact of El Nino upon the extreme heavy rainfalls of different States and Regions in Myanmar.

3 Impact of El Nino upon the extremely warmspell duration of different States and Regions in Myanmar.

4 Warming pattern in Myanmar in the early stage of El Nino.

5 Rainfall pattern in Myanmar in the early stage of El Nino.6 Drought characteristics during the period of El Nino.7 Significant climate pattern in Myanmar in the wake of El Nino.8 Significant intensity/track of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal during El Nino period.9 Flood frequency and duration along the Ayeyawady River systemdue to impact of El Nino.10 Abnormally low water level in dry season due to impact of El Nino.

No Study Area

1 Impact of El Nino upon the extreme temperatures of different States and Regions in Myanmar.2 Impact of El Nino upon the extreme heavy rainfalls of different States and Regions in Myanmar.

3 Impact of El Nino upon the extremely warmspell duration of different States and Regions in Myanmar.

4 Warming pattern in Myanmar in the early stage of El Nino.

5 Rainfall pattern in Myanmar in the early stage of El Nino.6 Drought characteristics during the period of El Nino.7 Significant climate pattern in Myanmar in the wake of El Nino.8 Significant intensity/track of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal during El Nino period.910Flood frequency and duration along the Ayeyawady River systemdue to impact of El Nino.Abnormally low water level in dry season due to impact of El Nino.

Theremayhave some cross-cutting issues betweensectors under the studies mentioned above andresearch should also address these issues. Theresearch works at various institutions are to beencouraged and supported by the government.To be fully abled to conduct research programs,Myanmar is in need of supports from local andinternationalnon-governmentalorganizations(NGOs) and international/regional bodies of theUnitedNations, amongothers.

Policy options for adequate adaptation andresponse strategiesThedegreeofclimatechange impact ishard topredictbut scenarios showplausible general situations. Thechanges in climate in theworldmight be faster thanas anticipated in the model output. The normalactivities of many communities, infrastructure,developments, investments, natural resources andhuman resources, and major enterprises may getconsiderablydisruptedor destroyedmerely just byasingle extreme event. Post-event restoration of thedamages will further delay the development of theregion inparticular, and the country in general.

For successful adaptation, responsible personnel inthekeysocio-economic sectorshave tobeconversantwith the tools and methodologies for data analysis

and assessment so as to enable to properly identifythe impact of climate and the climate change trend,which are likely to be dominant in the region. Then,these tools and methodologies of analysis andassessmenthave tobe transferred toanddisseminatedamong the stakeholders. Information which is aprerequisite requirement for themethodologies hasto be reliable, transparent and consistent.

The policy options for adequate adaptation andresponse strategies are to improve socioeconomicconditions across the country by upholding thenational economic objectives such as “developmentof agriculture as the base and all round developmentof other sectors of the economy as well”, and“development of the economyinvitingparticipationin termsof technicalknow-howandinvestments fromsources inside the country and abroad” as stated inthe “Four EconomicObjectives of State Peace andDevelopmentCouncilofMyanmar”.

Agricultural sectorMyanmar is making great efforts to enhance thedevelopment of agriculture sector to ensure foodsecuritywithin the countryand to step up the exportvolumesoas to generate increased foreignexchange.It will helpMyanmar tomake further investment to

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develop theoverall economyof thenation.Atnationallevel food production is sufficient for the country’sdomestic consumption. However, food situation insome parts of the country is unsecured, especially inthe dry zone, border areas and remote areas, due toharsh weather conditions, remoteness, and pooraccess to information on appropriate technology. Inorder to enhance food production, crop productionhas been intensified with the three main objectives asfollows:

i. To fulfill the needs of local consumption;ii. To export surplus agricultural products for

increased foreign exchange earnings; andiii. To provide assistance to rural development

based onagriculture.

In order to meet the above objectives, two differentapproaches have been designed for implementation.The first approach is cropping area expansion andthe second one is increasing per unit area productionby mobilizing all available resources. Croppingsystems will include double cropping, multiplecropping and mixed cropping on productive lands.

In addition, agricultural policy has been adopted bythe Government with a view to improving theagricultural sector and enhancing national economy.The policystipulates:

i. To allow freedom of choice in agriculturalproduction.

ii. To expand agricultural land and tosafeguard the rights of farmers.

iii. To encourage the participation of privatesector in the commercial productionof seasonal and perennial crops, and thedistribution of farm machineries and otherinputs.

Ricecultivationwillbeparticularlyencouragedtomeetat least the local demand in all States and Regions.Development of new drought resistant varieties andintercropping will be encouraged. Irrigation facilitiesincluding river water pumping system would beextended in areas where rain water is not enough.

For flood-prone areas,development of structures willbe intensified to prevent floods and inundation of lowlyingareas. Promotionofalternativecrops,adjustmentof planting and harvesting schedules, and floating

agricultural system in wetlands or areas subjected tolong-time inundation should be carried out.

As an agro-ecological based country, adaptation toclimate change is particularly important in order toprotect the production of staple food. In addition,incomefromtheagricultural sectorwithcropsofshortrotation represents the main income source for themajority of population in Myanmar. Year-roundcultivation of crops which are resistant to climatevariability shall be developed through coordinatedresearches. For this purpose regional/ nationalagricultural researchactivitiesneeds tobeencouragedand assisted technicallyand financially.

Measures relating to the introduction of high yield,resilient crop, systematic handling and application offertilizersandinsecticides,effective irrigatingmethodsetc. could be beneficial. Flexibility of cash cropselection might be encouraged in the event of severeclimate.

In order to maintain or regain soil fertility, rotation ofcropspecies,managementof irrigationandcontrollingthe loss ofsoil moisture maybe among the importantagriculturalpractices, callingforfurtherresearch.Lossand damage of harvested crops from the field to theconsumers shouldbe minimized.

Storage methods for staple food and other cropsduring the event of extreme disastrous climate shallhave to be transferred or exchanged between thecountries.Researchactivitiesfocusingonreplacementof seeds in cropping areas damaged by extremeevents should be encouraged. Seed replacementmethod for use in the crop-damaged areas may betransferred downto thegrass root levelof thecountry.

Water sector

Myanmar is an agro-based country wheredevelopment of agriculture is placed on top of thepriorityas itacts as thebase forall rounddevelopmentof other sectorsof the economy. Forboostingup cropproduction, availabilityof water is imperative and allpossible meansare therefore beingsought to improveaccess to water availability. . Measures were takenin accordance with annual investment plan under theguidanceandsupervisionof theMinistryofAgriculture

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and Irrigation. Measures undertaken to expandirrigationare:

To construct small and medium dams andweirs — this will deliver quick-yieldingsolution for low yields and low croppingintensities, and a large number of farmers inselected poverty-stricken areas can enjoythebenefits;

Toimprovethe managementofwaterstorageand to promote the use of runoff water fromupland watersheds

To rehabilitate and renovate the existinggovernment-maintainedirrigationfacilitiesandvillage irrigation works efficiency andeconomyin water storage and use — greateremphasis will be given to on-farm watermanagement;

To construct dams and sluices to impoundbackwater of theAyeyarwadyand Chindwinrivers during floods for late-rain cropping;

Toirrigatecultivatedlands throughriverwaterpumping;and

To irrigate cultivated lands by groundwatertapping.The agricultural sector is the basis oftheeconomyandthemainsourceoflivelihoodof rural areas, where about 70 percent of thepopulation live. Hence, Myanmar has laiddownandimplementedfiveruraldevelopmenttasks to bring progress to the whole nation.One of these is adequate supplyof water forirrigation and for domestic use.

Up to May 2009, a total of 360 dams and reservoirshave been constructed for irrigating 1.68 millionhectares of cropland. In parallel with the irrigationprojects,322pumpirrigationprojectsfrommainrivers,consisting of 129 electric-pumps and 193 diesel-pump irrigationprojects, and installation of8001 tubewells with a combined imigarted area of about 0.23million hectares wereundertaken. Irrigation coverageincreased from 12.5 percent of sown area in 1987-88 to 17.0 percent in 2008-2009. Rural water supplyis sufficient for 13.9 million out of 39.27 million ofrural populace.

The central DryZone where the annual rainfall is lowand unreliable has a high potential for crop

diversification. Severe droughts with increasedfrequency of occurrence due to climate change arethe most serious natural hazards facing the peopleliving in this area. In this region, the cultivated areasalongthemajorriversare irrigatedthroughriverwaterpump projects. In other regions, where runoff issignificant, reservoirs canbe constructed and gravityirrigation could be applied at cheaper cost. In areaswherehydro-geological conditionsare favorable tubewells are sunk for irrigation and domestic purposes.In the mountainous region where hydropower andirrigation are undertaken, there is a high potential foragricultural development on some low-lying flatlands.

Rice is the major crop in Delta Region where thepopulationdensityis thesecondhighest in thecountry.In this region,about40% of the areasare still affectedby flood damage and sea water intrusion.Construction of sluice gates and drainagecanals willprovide the benefits of irrigation, flood control andprevention of sea water intrusion.Advancedforecasting technologies and earlywarning systemsare essential in mitigating the affects of floods.

There is evidence that flooding is likely to become achallenging problem in the Delta and the DryZone.While floods can cause damages to agriculture,transport, and communication, theypose a growingconcern on the safetyof dams.Adaptation to droughtand chronic water shortage is another growingproblem. Increased intensity and decreasedfrequency of rainfalls in these regions will inducecertain changes in surface runoff and groundwatercharacteristics. Such changes will in turn disrupt theexisting land use pattern and management practices.Due todeforestationandlandcoverchanges inuplandwatersheds, someof the dams inMyanmarare facingtheheavysiltationproblems, threateningthelife spanof reservoirs.To reduce siltation, Forest Departmentshall continueandfurtherstepupitsannualoperationsof forest conservation and restoration in criticalwatersheds.

The coupled reservoir and irrigation system shouldbe developed. It will allow for the redistribution ofwater during wet seasons and for carry-over use inthe dry seasons of above-normal water years. Thesystem will thus minimize the impactsof drought.

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Otheradaptationmeasureshavebeen theuseof leveesand dams, which will protect communities againstheavy precipitation and high flood flows duringextreme wet periods. But, climate change mightchallenge these conventional measures, and moreaggressive strategies such as recharging aquifersartificially or developing integrated strategies thatoptimally operate reservoirs in combination withartificial rechargingof aquifers.

The Government has formulated national sustainabledevelopmentstrategywhichreflectsMyanmarAgenda21 and theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs)stipulated in the United Nations MillenniumDeclaration, 2000. InMyanmar,growth in agricultureproductivity has been achieved and it will raise theincomes of the rural poor and thus reduce poverty, apriorityMDG of the country.Adequate water supplyis one of the basic requirements for boosting up theproduction of crops. Accordingly, agriculturalinfrastructures are beingbuilt throughout the countrywithin a short span of time. However, rapidconstruction of irrigation facilities such as dams,reservoirs, weirs and river pumping stations mayeventually lead to contamination and depletion ofwater resources. Water management is seen as a keyarea to be addressed, and laws and regulations toprevent water-related environmental degradationshould be strengthened.

Although cause and effect of many environmentalissues are cross-cutting in nature, in Myanmar. Theministries are taking on development planning andprogramsprimarilyorientingon theirownsector-wisepolicies, strategies and targets. Sectoral coordinationandenvironmental implicationsparticularlyin theareaof cross-cutting issues are thus paid little attention.This leads the government to establish NationalCommission for EnvironmentalAffairs (NCEA) in1990.

To copewith the climate change impacts, the strategyforwaterresourcedevelopmentwill focusontheissuesof ever-increasing water demands and shortages. Itwill be similar to those strategies currently underpractice.Aprerequisite toadaptation is the applicationof an Integrated Water Resources Management(IWRM) strategy at both catchment and river basinlevels.

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Public health sector

Due to global warming, Myanmar climate also hasbecome markedlywarmer especially in recent years.The warming extends to the regions of higherelevations as well. Accordingly, the habitats formosquitoes and air born diseases are not confined tothe low lying plains only, but are expanding to themountainous regions of higher elevations. Malaria,cholera and dengue fevers, etc. maybecome all yearround normal diseases. Influenza cases may becomeextensive and high rate of mortalitymaybe expectedduringtheextremeevents,particularlyamongtheagedand infants. Basic medical care and needs should beprovided to the rural folks systematically to reducethe climate change impacts.

According to projected changes in the hydrologicalcycles, associated with global warming, increase inmorbidity and mortality due to diarrheal diseaseprimarily associated with floods and droughts areexpected in developing countries in East, South andSoutheast Asia (IPCC 2007). Increase in coastalwater temperature would exacerbate water toxicityand/or the outbreak of cholera. Natural habitats ofvector borne and water borne diseases are reportedto be expanding. Diseases originated in the tropicallow lying areas are likely to spread towards the highlandarea.Enhancementsofpubliceducationonhealthmatters are essential.

For successful adaptation, stakeholders involved inthis key sector have to be conversant with the IPCCtools and methodologies for analysis, assessment toproperlyidentifythe impact of climateand the climatechange trend likelydominant in the region. Then, thispractice should be disseminated among thestakeholders. Information which is prerequisiterequirement for the methodology has to be reliable,transparent and consistent to meet the internationalstandard.

Myanmar has reduced the import of ODS substancesand isnow usingnon-ODSchemicals in themedicine.

To mitigate health hazards, Myanmar is undertakingcertain measures such as improvement in theconstruction of housesand health infrastructures withnewdesigns, improvement inenvironmentalpractices

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and preparation and implementation of disastermanagement plans. . For disease control activities,vaccination against diseases, basic health care andpreventiveservicesandcommunityawareness raisingagainst the disease outbreaks are carried out.

The effectsof climate change onhealth include directeffects such as illness and deaths due to extremetemperatures, e.g. effect of heat wave in India in May2009. Similarly, storms and heavyrainsmayoccur insome areas and may cause floods. Not only watercontamination but also air pollution canarise in thesewater-flooded areas. Indirect effect is that there mighthave increased incidence of diseases and highmortality rates due to epidemics, such as malariaepidemic due tomosquitoes. Confoundingfactorsaresensitivityofhumanhealth toelementsofweatherandclimate, differing vulnerability and movements ofvectors.

Adaptation measures will include use of vaccinesagainst diseases, improved use of weather forecastsandearlywarnings, improvedenvironmentalpractice,preparation and implementation of disastermanagement plans, andimprovement inpublichealthinfrastructure. Disease surveillance and emergencyresponse capabilities should also be enhanced asimportant adaptation measures.

Forestry sectorMyanmar has been implementing a large number offorest conservation and development programs thathave thepotential to reduce thevulnerabilityof forestecosystems to the impactsof climatechange, and theyinclude, amongothers:

Enactment of new Forest Law in 1992,enactment of Protection ofWildlife,WildPlants and Conservation of NaturalAreasLaw in 1994, and promulgation ofMyanmar Forest Policy in 1995 andissuance of CommunityForestryInstructions in 1995 . These laws and forestpolicywill contribute to conservation offorest resources including biodiversityandreduction of forest fragmentation.

A large reforestation program to reducedemands on forests for timber, industrial

wood and fuel wood. It will lead toconservation of biodiversityand reductionof forest degradation.

Involvement of local communities in forestprotection and regeneration and creation oflong term stake in forest health, through theCommunityForestryprogram.

The performance and impacts of these measures inquantitative terms are however not clear.To preventthe deforestation and to increase reforestationparticularly in dry zone of Central Myanmar, it isessential to provide financial and technical supportsto the Dry Zone Greening Department. Increasedinvestments are needed for implementing mangrovereforestation works in the deltaic areas and coastalregion.Villagewoodlots shouldbeestablishedineachand every village or village track to meet the localdemand for timber and firewood and it should beincluded in the long term development / disasterpreparedness plans. Traditional slash and burnagricultural system prevailing in some mountainousareas maybe oriented to more sustainable livelihoodsystems.

With increased warming, forest areas are bound toexperiencehightemperatureseasytocatchfire.Forestfire at one place can wildly spread out to other areasduring dry summer. Forest fire managementencompassing standard layout, landscape planning,dead timber salvaging, , and wild life rescue is animportant policymatter. One of the policyobjectivesis to increase the extent of Permanent Forest Estateup to 30% of total land area of the country.

In forestry sector, appropriate land use andmanagement, plantingofstress-resistant tree species,controlof shiftingcultivationand increased efficiencyof wood industry are among the options which canimprove the forest adaptability to climate change.Therefore recommended adaptations are:

planting of more tolerant tree species, increased forest fire control, increased forest products processing

efficiency, use of wood substitute materials, provision of financial assistance to forest

communities affected byclimate change,

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provision of subsidyon substitute fuels andbuildingmaterials forpeople of hillyregions,

change from productive to protectivefunctionsofforestsandestablishmentofforestcorridors to assist migration through forests.

Coastal zone sectorEmphasis should be given to protect the coastal zoneerosion by structural defense and development ofmangrove forest zones.Establishment of settlementsinside the potentiallydanger zones which are at risksof sea level rise, storm surges and sea water intrusionis to be restricted with the help of law enforcement.Construction of storm shelters is necessary for eachof the village tracts in the deltaic region to escapefrom strong winds and sea waves. It is necessary toprovide local communities with facilities which canreceive weather news, weather forecasts and earlywarnings round the clock.All public ferries and boatsshould carry radio receivers to avoid any possiblemishap due to the extreme weather event. Coastalimpact development should be considered in thecoastal development plans.

For successful adaptation, stakeholders involved inthis key sector have to be conversant with the IPCCtools and methodologies for data analysis andassessment so as to ensure the proper identificationofclimatechangeimpactsandtheclimatechangetrendlikely to dominate in the region. Then themethodologies are to be disseminated among thestakeholders. Information which is a prerequisiterequirement for the methodology has to be reliable,transparent and consistent to meet the internationalqualitystandard.

Biodiversity sector

In this section, biodiversity of fishery will beemphasized. Myanmar Fisheries will promote thefishery products from both aquaculture and capturefisheries. To increase the production, support fromand collaboration with national and internationalscientists will be needed. The vision of the MyanmarFisheries is to promote total fishery production andto earn foreign exchange from the export of fisheryproducts.

Myanmar owes the richness of her fresh waterfisheries to the extensive river systems:Ayeyarwadywith a length of 2150 km, Chindwin (a tributary ofthe mainAyeyarwady) 844 km, Sittaung 536 km andThanlwin2400km.All these riverscanbeconsiderednationallyowned productive water assets. The otherresources such as Indaw Gyi Lake (the largest lakeof Myanmar in Kachin State), Inlay Lake, (famouslake in Shan State), ponds, reservoirs and dams willalso providefish for local consumptionannually.Thetotal inland fisheries production will increase by4.11mmt or 2.20 tons per hectare.

Myanmar will improve aquacultural practices byreplacing the traditional methodscurrentlyinusewithmodernized techniquessuch as Pen CultureandCageCulture for Seabass, Grouper and Milkfish speciesin the Rakhine and Tanintharyi coastal areas.

The main responsibilities of the DoF are to conserveaquatic resources, to undertake licensing andsurveillance byapplying the existing fisheries laws asnecessary. To ensure effective managementof fisheryresources, the Government has promulgated fourfisheries laws,namely:

1. The Law relating to the FishingRights ofForeign FishingVessel, promulgated onApril 25, 1990.

2. Myanmar Marine Fisheries Law,promulgated onApril 2, 1989.

3. Freshwater Fisheries Law, promulgated onMarch 4, 1991, and

4. Law relating toAquaculture, promulgatedon September 7, 1989.

Fattening of mud crab and processing of soft shellmud crab are the booming business in Kyun SuTownshipofTanintharyiRegion.Marinefinfishcultureusing net cages has also been a common practice inarea although seed production of marine finfish hasnot been successful as yet. Farmers have to collectseed from the wild. The species are groupers andsnappers. Marine circular net cages are made atMyeik in thesamearea. Farmingofseabass in earthenponds is another practice, currently gaining interestamong the farmers and private sector. It has beensuccessful to produce seabass recently. Moreover,experimental culture of seaweed,Eucheuma cottonihas been introduced in the area. The DoF intends to

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promote Pen Culture and Cage Culture for Seabass,Grouper and Milkfish along the Rakhine andTanintharyi coastal shore. As planned by the DoF,there would be a total of 200,000 ponds by 2031along the coastal shore. The sustainabilityof marineliving organisms is entirely dependent on coastalmangroves and coral reefs. The coastal islands andmangrove ecosystems provide environmen-talprotectionagainst tsunami,bankerosion,strongwindsand sea water intrusion.

In order to conserve fingerlings and juvenile shrimpsand to avoid conflict between the artisanal fishermenand the trawler, the DoF bans fishing by trawler inthe near-shore zone: fishing bytrawler is not allowedwithin five miles from the shore line for the Rakhinecoast and within ten miles for the Tanintharyi coast.In theTanintharyi coastal area,MyanmarhasdynamicMyeikArchipelago.Insular waters are characterizedbyanabundanceof coral reefsandextensiveseagrassbeds. The area is characterized by a large number ofrare and endangered species including five species ofmarine turtle and a number ofmarine mammals suchas dolphins, porpoises, whales, dugongs andelasmobranches such as whale shark and rays. TheDoF is exerting continuous efforts to conserve thesenational heritages with the followingobjectives:

To preserve and restore spawning, feedingand nesting habitats;

To make nesting beaches acceptable toturtles byeliminatingbeachpollutionthrough law enforcement;

To implement beach cleaning program andpreventexploitation activities;

To minimize wasteand to prevent pollutionof the marine environment, and

To increase public awareness andparticipation in sea turtle conservationthrough extension and education activities.

Adaptation optionsVulnerability index of different economic sectors ofstates and Regions has been presented based ondifferent level of vulnerability indicator scores. Forthe adaptation assessment reduction of vulnerabilitylevel indicatorwillenforcetheloweringofvulnerabilitylevel and strengthening of adaptation measures foreach sector.

Agriculture

The mean score of indicators is relatively high inSagaing, Mandalay, Magway,Bago andAyeyarwadyRegions.Theindicatorcouldbemanipulatedtoreducethe vulnerability to take effective adaptation optionssuch as;

a) Maintenance of the target crop yield andproduction under continuous watch and carewith advanced technologies and facilities

b) Preparation of crop calendars for variousregions.

c) Availabilityof seedsand seedlings of variousspecies

d) Proper utilization of fertilizers, pesticides,insecticides and water.

Water resourcesThe mean score of indicators is relatively high inSagaing, Mandalay, Magway,Bago andAyeyarwadyRegions.Therecommendedadaptation optionscouldbe:

a) Expansion of rural water supplycoverageb) Establishment of new water supplysourcesc) Compliance with irrigation regulations for

beneficial areasd) Application of integrated water resources

management strategyat different levels ofusage

Public healthThe mean score of indicators is relatively high inRakhine and Mon States, Bago, Ayeyarwady andTanintharyi Regions. The recommended adaptationoptions could be:

a) Eradication of malaria (mosquitoes) habitatin the areas

b) Extension of public education to limitdiarhorrea outbreak

c) Reservation of preventive pills andmedicines for epidemics

d) Securing financial support to make safewateravailablewithoutdifficulties

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Forestry

The mean score of indicators is relatively high inMandalay, Magway, Bago,AyeyarwadyRegions andKayah State. The recommended adaptation optionscould be:

a) Enforcement of forest regulationsb) Establishment of groups of forest fire

fightingvolunteersc) Control of slash and burn practice in the

forest areasd) Creation of alternative

livelihoodopportunities for forest dwellerse) Control of forest productsf) Conservation of wild life species

Coastal zoneThe mean score of indicators (defined byfish yieldsand production changes, mangroves ecosystem, andcoral reef)are relativelyhigh inRakhineState,Yangonand Ayeyarwady Regions. The recommendedadaptation options could be:

a) Enforcementoffishingregulations inmangrove areas

b) Rehabilitation andexpansion of mangroveforest areas

c) Encouragement to the people to conservecoral reefs for sustainable development

BiodiversityThe mean score of indicators (defined by forestbiomass, loss of habitat or closed forest and fisheryspecies)are relativelyhigh in RakhineState, Sagaing,Bago andAyeyarwadyRegions. The recommendedadaptation options could be:

a) Regulation of biomass extraction from theforest

b) Promulgation of special law and regulationsto protect species of near extinction

c) Encouragement tosetupspecialwildlifefundd) Creation of alternate livelihood means or

income generation opportunities.

In assessing the vulnerabilityof a sector, selection ofindicators for the specific purposes of the sectorshould begiven high priorityso that most appropriateadaptation options could be identified.Adaptation

Response strategiesGlobal warming and climate change impacts aregrowing issues that can impede the sustainabledevelopment of nations all over the world.Abnormaloccurrences of weather systems are taking place inmany parts of the world due to climate change. Toenable toproperlyrespondto thefutureclimatechangeimpacts, a nation needs to enrich its capacity toundertakeclimatechangeassessmentandvulnerabilityassessment of the key socioeconomic sectors byanalyzing observational data and model outputs onregular basis.

To be able to make proper assessment, the subjectof climate change impact has to be familiar to allstakeholders including ministries, institutions, non-governmental organizations and the private sector. Inthis regard, DMH has been organizing MonsoonForumssince2007 incooperationwithAsianDisasterPreparedness Centre. The forums generally reviewclimate projection, analytical results of observed dataand agricultural planning. The major output of theforums is the proposal for adaptation strategies.Therefore climate change oriented forums andworkshops are the indispensable corridors for thereview and exchange of data and for formulating themost appropriate policy and strategies. Researchprojects, covering the areas of climatechange impact,vulnerability to climate change and adaptationstrategies, may be carried out in collaboration withboth regional and international institutions. It maybenecessary to insist that Myanmar is financially andtechnicallyconstrained to undertake research studieson its own.Geographical setting of Myanmar isexposed to natural disasters such as cyclones, stormsurges, floods and drought. Myanmar people aretherefore used to adaptation to climate change.However, Myanmar has to respond to the adverseclimateswithhighvulnerablesituation.

mayfollow accordingto the “Prioritylistof the Statesand Regions for the sectors and indicators” in (Table4.21) and “Priority list of sectors for the States andRegions” in (Table 4.22).

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Table 4.21: Priority list of States and Regions for the sectors and indicators

Sr No Sector/Indicator Score States andRegions

1 Agriculture 1.56 Ayeyarwady(1) Crop yield and productionchanges 3 Ayeyarwady

(2) Crop pattern change 0.83 Ayeyarwady

(3) Pest & disease 1 Bago

(1) Rural water supply Coverage 8 Ayeyarwady

(2) Supply for hydro power 5 Sagaing(3) Irrigation works And beneficialarea 4.5 Bago

3 Public health 5.28 Ayeyarwady

(1) Malaria 4 Kachin

( 2) Diarhorea 8.5Rakhine, Ayeyarwady andTanintharyi

4 Forestry 3.44 Magway

5 Coastal zone 2.89 Ayeyarwady(1) Fish yields and productionchanges 3 Rakhine and Ayeyarwady

(2) Mangrove ecosystem 3.5 Mon, Bago and Yangon

(3) Coral reef 3.3 Rakhine

6 Biodiversity 4.67 Sagaing

(1) Forest biomass (growing stock) 5 Rakhine

(2) Habitat loss (closed forest from1975-2006)

5.5 Sagaing and Bago

(3) Fishery species composition 5 Sagaing

(3) Unavailability of safe Water4 Ayeyarwady

2 Water resources 4.5 Mandalay andBago

Mandalay, Magway andAyeyarwady

(2) Forest fire ( Total occurrenceper year )

5 Magway

(3) Species composition (1,000 ha:Closed forest)

3 Bago

(1) Forest cover (1000 ha: of Naturalforest)

2.67

Sr No Sector/Indicator Score States andRegionsScore States andRegions

1 Agriculture 1.56 Ayeyarwady(1) Crop yield and productionchanges 3 Ayeyarwady

Rakhine, Ayeyarwady andTanintharyi

0.83 Ayeyarwady0.83 Ayeyarwady(2) Crop pattern change

1 Bago1 Bago(3) Pest & disease

4.5 Mandalay andBago4.5 Mandalay andBagoWater resources2

(1) Rural water supply Coverage 8 Ayeyarwady(1) Rural water supply Coverage 8 Ayeyarwady(1) Rural water supply Coverage 8 Ayeyarwady

5 Sagaing5 Sagaing(2) Supply for hydro power

4.5 Bago4.5 Bago(3) Irrigation works And beneficialarea

5.28 Ayeyarwady5.28 Ayeyarwady3 Public health3 Public health

Kachin4(1) Malaria

8.5( 2) Diarhorea

4 Ayeyarwady4 Ayeyarwady(3) Unavailability of safe Water

3.44 Magway3.44 Magway4 Forestry4 Forestry

Mandalay, Magway andAyeyarwady

2.67(1) Forest cover (1000 ha: of Naturalforest)

5 Magway5 Magway(2) Forest fire ( Total occurrenceper year )

3 Bago3 Bago(3) Species composition (1,000 ha:Closed forest)

2.89 Ayeyarwady2.89 Ayeyarwady5 Coastal zone5 Coastal zone

3 Rakhine and Ayeyarwady3 Rakhine and Ayeyarwady(1) Fish yields and productionchanges

3.5 Mon, Bago and Yangon3.5 Mon, Bago and Yangon(2) Mangrove ecosystem

3.3 Rakhine3.3 Rakhine(3) Coral reef

4.67 Sagaing4.67 Sagaing6 Biodiversity6 Biodiversity

5 Rakhine5 Rakhine(1) Forest biomass (growing stock)

5.5 Sagaing and Bago5.5 Sagaing and Bago(2) Habitat loss (closed forest from1975-2006)

(3) Fishery species composition 5 Sagaing(3) Fishery species composition 5 Sagaing(3) Fishery species composition 5 Sagaing


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Table 4.22: Priority list of sectors for the States and Regions

Note:- P1, P2, P3, P4, P5 and P6 are represented for the sectors in priority.AG=Agriculture, PH = Public health,WR =Water resources,FR = Forestry,CZ= Coastal zone and BD= Biodiversity.

Sr. States

No And

Regions

1 Kachin PH BD FR WR AG - No CZ

2 Kayah PH BD FR WR AG - No CZ

3 Kayin PH BD FR WR AG - No CZ

4 Chin PH WR FR BD AG - No CZ

5 Mon PH CZ BD FR WR AG Coastal

6 Rakhine PH BD CZ FR AG WR Coastal

7 Shan WR PH BD FR AG - No CZ

8 Sagaing BD WR PH FR AG - No CZ

9 Mandalay WR PH FR BD AG - No CZ

10 Magway FR WR PH BD AG - No CZ

11 Bago WR PH BD FR CZ AGCoastalbut no CZ

12 Ayeyarwady PH WR BD CZ FR AG Coastal

13 Yangon PH CZ FR WR AG BD Coastal

14 Tanintharyi PH BD CZ WR FR AG Coastal

RemarksP1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6

Sr. States

No And

Regions

1 Kachin PH BD FR WR AG - No CZ

2 Kayah PH BD FR WR AG - No CZ

3 Kayin PH BD FR WR AG - No CZ

4 Chin PH WR FR BD AG - No CZ

5 Mon PH CZ BD FR WR AG Coastal

6 Rakhine PH BD CZ FR AG WR Coastal

7 Shan WR PH BD FR AG - No CZ

8 Sagaing BD WR PH FR AG - No CZ

9 Mandalay WR PH FR BD AG - No CZ

10 Magway FR WR PH BD AG - No CZ

11 Bago WR PH BD FR CZ AGCoastalbut no CZ

12 Ayeyarwady PH WR BD CZ FR AG Coastal

13 Yangon PH CZ FR WR AG BD Coastal

14 Tanintharyi PH BD CZ WR FR AG Coastal

RemarksP1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6

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With the global warming IPCC foreshadowsunprecedented extreme climates and increasingfrequencyof disasters among others, in the decadesto come. Therefore, Myanmar needs systematicstudies on the climate change adaptation strategieswith international/regionalcooperationandassistance.

Forprovidingclimate information to the internationalcommunities and centers, selected station ofDMHshould be equipped with Automatic WeatherObservingSystems (AWOS)andcomputers for dataquality control and analysis and data archive. DMHstaff should be upgraded thought capacity buildingrefresher courses andon- job trainings at the regionalclimate centers.Numerical climatemodel should befamiliarized and regional joint studies on adaptationstrategies performed.

Modern facilities must be provided to DMH foreffective dissemination of current climate, extremeclimate and climate related hazards.An informationsystem needs to be developed to ensure timelyinformation to thepublic, government agencies andkeysocio-economic sectors includingNGOs.DMHhas recognized the importance of improvedassessment of climate change to help identifyadaptation measures and response strategies mostsuited to the country. DMH will thus attempt toundertake the followingprioritized actions as shownin (Table 4.23) to ensure improved assessment ofclimatechange.

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Table 4.23: Prioritized action for improved assessment of climate change

No. Description Objectives

1Replacement of instruments for observation To upgrade the quality of the observation for improved

climate change assessment.

2Providing Automatic Weather Observing System(AWOS) to selected stations

To provide quality information to Regional / Globalclimate centers.

3 Data analysis with computer facilities

4 Capacity building for data archive Data analysis and numerical model.

Planning of schemes jointly

with experts from key-socioeconomic sectors

6 Workshop/ forumon climate changeTo raise the awareness and response strategies. Seekopportunities to do researches in key-economic sectors

5To study the past climate change/ severe climate impactupon key socioeconomic sectors.

No. Description Objectives

1Replacement of instruments for observation To upgrade the quality of the observation for improved

climate change assessment.

2Providing Automatic Weather Observing System(AWOS) to selected stations

To provide quality information to Regional / Globalclimate centers.

3 Data analysis with computer facilities

4 Capacity building for data archive Data analysis and numerical model.

To study the past climate change/ severe climate impactupon key socioeconomic sectors.

Planning of schemes jointly5with experts from key-socioeconomic sectors

To raise the awareness and response strategies. Seekopportunities to do researches in key-economic sectors

Workshop/ forumon climate change6

Climate change informationAccording to the “Climate Change 2007 of IPCC,impact, adaptationandvulnerability”,globalwarmingis evident in the data series of the period 1991-2005as acontinuousprocess. It is the result ofGreenhouseGases (GHGs) emission and changing socio-economic pressures such as population growth,urbanization, land-use change, etc. in addition tonatural climate forcing. It is difficult to differentiate aclimatevariabilityor climate change fromthe currentknowledge. Therefore, IPCC defines the climatechangeas anychange inclimateover time(timerangeis not specified but it should be at least one decadeormore).

Climate change may be occurring with differentpatternsofclimatevariablesandphysicalphenomena,some violently impending such as tropical cyclonesand floods,while someof themare slowlydamagingsuch as drought.

Asaresult ofglobalwarming, increasing temperatureand decreasing rainfall in centralMyanmarmayleadto theexpansionof thecountry’sDryZoneareawhereannual rainfall is less than1,000millimeters.

The late onset ofmonsoon consequentlydelays thepaddycropplanting andwill reducecrop yieldwhiletheearlywithdrawalofmonsoonwill adverselyaffecton the successful harvest and cropproductivity..Theunprecedented cyclonic track after landfall acrossMyanmarcoastwouldbringcopious rains andstrongwinds damaging the crops already ripened andwilldisturbharvestingactivities.

Normal livelihoodsofpeople, existing infrastructure,buildings, etc. in the coastal region can be severelydamagedbythetropical cyclones.Therefore,warningsystem should be upgraded, and effective follow-upresponse to the warning should be enforced orencouraged.Weather stations should be upgradedwith the digital sensors. Data compilation/dissemination shouldbe improvedbyrelevant up-to-date equipments and internet access.

Needs and concerns arising from adverse effectsof Climate ChangeThe loss and damages due to Cyclone “Nargis” intheAyeyarwadyDelta reflect, to a certain extent, thevulnerability level of thewhole countryaswell.As adevelopingcountry,people’s livelihoodmainlydependon the favorable climate conditions and naturalresources such as land, water and forest resources.

In agricultural sector, latemonsoon onsetwill delaythe agricultural activities such as soil preparation forpaddycultivation. This delaywill disturb the paddygrowinginthesubsequentmonths.Duringthegrowingseason, abnormal climatewill damage the crops. Inthe harvesting period attention has to be paidmoreto theadverseclimatewhichcandamage the ripeningcrop.Replenishmentofcultivating landsurgentlyinashortduration isverycostlyandveryriskydue largelyto the fact that crops grown under suitable climateconditionmaynormallygo out of phase.

Disruption inagricultural activitieswill affectnotonlythe livestock industry but also the socio-economic

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development of the nation. High prices of basiccommodities and higher transport costs will causeproblem to the general population of the country. Forexample, during the relief and recoveryperiod afterthe Cyclone “Nargis”of May2008, theprices ofbasicfood items had risen significantly, because of the fearthat there would have decreasd food supply from theAyeyarwady Delta. In fact, rice production from theAyeyarwadyDelta contributes onlyabout 10% of thecountry’s total rice consumption. This fear remainedover a couple of months, keeping high pricesunchanged.

Fresh water resources in the coastal areas are mainlythe impounded waters in ponds and reservoirs andthe groundwater. In the event ofcyclones, fresh waterstorage facilities were devastated by strong windsand sea water inundation. There were disruption ofmunicipal water supply and ground water supplyowing to problems in electricity supply. Watershortageproblemsinducenegative impacts,especiallyin the urban and downtown areas. Hygiene level inthese areas becomes low which maybe followed bythe outbreak of water borne diseases.

In theeventofclimateextremes,forestsarevulnerablenot onlyto the climate changebut also at high risks ofbeingover-exploited. Ifclimate-sensitivesectors suchas agriculture, livestock and fisheries are largelydisrupted byclimate extremes, food securityof ruralcommunitiescouldbeimpaired.Undersuchsituation,theyhavenoalternatives,buthave to turnto theforestsfor intensified exploitation of wood and non-woodforest products for their subsistence living, and theprocess mayfinallydestroy the forests.

DuringtheextremedryperiodduetoElNinoepisodesof the Pacific, most of the forests will become muchdrier. There will be more forest fires which will bedifficult to extinguish. Forests are veryvulnerable toextreme climate events, particularlysevere droughts.Rural communities inside and around the forestsshould therefore be supported financially andtechnically to enable them to adapt to the impacts ofextreme events.

4.7. ConclusionMyanmar,beinga tropical coastal country,withnorth-south running mountain ranges and river systems isendowed with substantialwater resources mainlydueto southwest monsoon. It is rich in biodiversity dueto natural extensive coverage of forests. Myanmarhas fertile rivervalleys, extensivedeltaicplain andhaslong coastal line with diverse marine resources. Theclimate is generallyfavorable for various agriculturalpractices, growth of forest stands and fisheryindustries, all of which support the livelihood ofmajorityofthepopulation.Extremeeventsandclimatevariabilitydisrupt the livelihoods of rural populace,particularly the farmers and the national sustainabledevelopment as a consequence. Cyclones from theBayof Bengalusuallycross the Rakhinecoast at leastabout once in every two years. Floods and droughtsin certain areas occur annually.

The landfall of Cyclone “Nargis” in 2008 overAyeyarwady Delta has proven that Myanmar isvulnerable tocyclonesoriginated in theBayofBengal,though it is very unusual in the cyclone history ofMyanmar. In the global context, climate changescenarios show increasing frequency of cyclones,intense rains, more floods and droughts, extremetemperatures and sea level rise. Therefore Myanmarhas to pay high attention to climate scenario of theIPCC.

According to the numerical model MAGICC/SENGEN, Myanmar will be warmer by1.25 – 1.60°C during June-November, 2.0°C during March-May and 2.5°C during December- February by theend of 2100. As for the precipitation, the wholecountrywillgenerallyexperience10%increaseduringMarch-November including rainyseason at the endof the year 2100. PRECIS model shows an increaseof temperature 2-3°C with standard deviation ofabout0.9°Cfor thewholecountry.Regardingrainfall,there is an increase of 1582 mm at Sittway, about600 mm at Myitkyina, Pathein and Dawei stationsand about 300 mm elsewhere in the country at theend of the year 2100. Scenario’s temperature andprecipitation are within the reasonable ranges in theSoutheast Asia region. Myanmar still needs moreexercises with the climate change related numericalmodel studies.

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In the vulnerabilityassessment, six potential climatechange impacts are selected such as tropical storm/strongwind, flood/ storm surge, intense rain, extremeday temperature, drought and sea level rise. Theclimate change impacts are applied to three selectedvulnerability indicators identified for each of the keysocio-economic sectors which are water resourcessector, agricultural sector, forestry sector, healthsector, coastal zone sector and biodiversity sector.The highest sector score is observed at public healthsector followed by sectors of biodiversity, waterresources, forestry, coastal zone and agriculture.

Being an agricultural country, measures are taken bythe Government to ensure the nation’s food securitywhich is one of the principal requisite for nationaldevelopment. There have proven progress in theirrigation system such as construction of newreservoirs and dams, installation of more river waterpumping stations and increased groundwaterharvesting. Systematic utilization of fertilizers andintroduction of some advanced technologies are alsobeing undertaken. Summer rice production andwetland cultivation in addition to rain fed cultivationare the practices being promoted. However,adaptation plans for this sector should be furtherenhanced for increased earning of foreign exchangeand national economic development.

Thevulnerabilityindexhavebeenestimatedbytreatingthe mean vulnerabilityscore with population densitylevel of States/Regions. The vulnerability index isrelativelyhighest inAyeyarwadyandYangonRegionsfollowedseriallybyMandalayRegion,MonStateandBago Region. It is low in the remaining States andRegions has the lowest Chin State.

For adequate adaptation measures and strategies, tobedeveloped,vulnerabilityanalysis isveryimportant.Vulnerabilityanalysis has been based on the selectedimpact indicators of the sector concerned, and theindicators were based on the available baseline dataand information.

Vulnerability and adaptation measures are to beenhanced through:

Improvement of monitoringsystems forflood, drought, water quality, pests anddiseases.

Institutional strengthening,capacitybuildingand networking.

Development andimplementation ofappropriate response strategies forsocioeconomic sectors.

Mainstreaming of adaptation measures andresponse strategies into development plans.

Promotion of national/ regional/international coordination.

Information about current climate change andpossibleclimateinthenearfuturemaybedisseminatedtimely and effectively to the key socioeconomicsectors and different stakeholders including publicthrough various media available, but with specialemphasis on the targeted region.ANational ClimateCentre should be established and dedicated staffassigned to the Centre so that climate changeinformation of the WMO standard is ensured and theimmediate need of DMH satisfied.

To reduce the vulnerability to the possible climatechange impacts, policies, legislations and othersupporting tools are to be developed collectively. Itwill help identifyand implementadaptationstrategies,ensuring thecontinuedprogress of Myanmar towardsa peacefulmodern developed country. In this context,institutional strengthening, technologyinnovationandtransfer, provision of advanced tools and equipment,enabling condition with adequate funds andcollaboration with relevant institutions and agenciesat the national, regional and international levels areindispensable.

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Chapter 5Mitigation Options Assessment and Strategies

5.1. Introduction

In accordance with the provisions of the Conventionand the Kyoto Protocol, Myanmar is under noobligation to quantify reduction or limitation ofgreenhouse gas emission. However, Myanmar hasbeen making efforts for the positive contributions tothe mitigation of greenhouse gas emission andprotectingglobalclimatebymakingmitigationoptionsassessment and strategies in key economic sectorsof the country.

This chapter describes emission reduction measuresand impact mitigation measures and strategies whichare applicable to the current national developmentplans in Myanmar. Emphases have been placed toidentifyavailable assets and barriers encountered forthe implementation of the mitigation strategies. Theassociated ministries of the State have to set upeffectivestrategicplans, schemesandprojects tocarryoutactivitieswithdirectorindirectreductionpotentialsfor GHG emissions. Moreover, measures formitigating emission of GHG and climate changeimpacts should be integrated in the nationaldevelopment programs.

5.2. Mitigation Options Assessmentfor Key Socio Economic Sectors

Foracomprehensiveassessmentofmitigationoptions,the same categories used in the GHG inventorywereapplied. These categories also represent the keysocio- economic sectors of Myanmar, suchas energy,industrial processes, agriculture, land use change andforestryandwaste. Inrelation to thereductionofGHGemissions, the assessments taken into account werehigher share of gas fuel (particularly in transportsector), development of less energy intensiveindustries,developmentofgoodagriculturalpractices,afforestation and reforestation in the forestry sector,enforcementoflegislativemeasuresinfluencingdirectlyor indirectly the GHG mitigation processes, and soon.

Energy, Industrial and Product Use SectorsThe mitigationassessment for energyisbased mainlyon pre-feasibilitycase studies of different aspects ofenergy and non-energy sectors. The mitigationanalyses include industrial processes, fossil fuels,renewable energy, thermal power plants, residentialandcommercial andtransportation. Myanmarfocusedits efforts onmitigatingemissionsarising from fossilfuels. The predominant greenhouse gas is CO2produced by the combustion of fossil fuels for bothstationary and mobile use. This is because of thetotal relianceof the economyon energyderived fromfossil fuels. Mitigationoptionperformedin thepresentstudy relied mainly upon desegregated analysis ormethods using emission coefficients which weredependent on a variety of parameters including thetype of end use device, as against using overallemissionsfromeachfuel typegiveninGHGinventoryreport.

Reduction of CO2 emissions depends on thedevelopment of conversion technologies andefficiency, and on fuel characteristics. Hence,mitigation options considered in the assessment toreduce CO2 emissions can be grouped into threecategories: (i) energy conservation or efficiencyimprovements, (ii) replacingcarbon-intensive energysources with less carbon-intensive sources and (iii)promotingnew and renewable sources ofenergy.Theoptions available for Myanmar in mitigating GHGemissions in these sectors are as follows:

(i) Hydro power projectMyanmarwithmanyrivers is endowednaturallywithabundant hydropower resources. Myanmar hasalready identified 267 sites with the total capacityof39,624MW.Existinghydropowerstationsgenerating(320) MW constitute only 1% of the total potentialresources of the country.

Chapter 5 Mitigation Options Assessment and Strategies

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Establishment of large hydroelectric plantscouldalsobe importantbut is a relativelycostlyoptioncomparedto small hydro power plants.

(ii) Solar electric panel to replace dieselgenerator

Today’s electricity supply in Myanmar is generatedby fuel generators and hydroelectric power plants.However, rural areas which are awayfrom NationalGrids cannot enjoy the electricitygenerated by thesesources.SinceMyanmarisalandofplentiful sunshine,solar energy is available all over the country.Photovoltaics(PVs) are the most attractive amongrenewable energyoptions. Due to thehigh initial costof thesolarenergygeneratingsystemandunfamiliaritywith it, solar electricity had not been popular in thepast in Myanmar. However, PV has become morecommon for larger application with the decline in thecost of thesolar panels and realizing the fact that solarenergyis relativelymostcost-effective in the longrun.Besides, the solar energy is attractive to consumersbecause it is reliable, clean, and environmentallyfriendly.

(iii) Electric vehicleAn electric car is an automobile that uses an electricmotor for propulsion, in place of more commonpropulsion methods such as the internal combustionengine. Electric cars produce no pollution at tail pipe,but their use increases demand for electricitygeneration . Vehicle greenhouse gas saving dependson how the electricity is generated. For electricvehicles, thereductionofcarbonemissionwill improvefurther if the electricity is generated fromrenewableenergy sources. For everyday use rather than longjourneys, electric cars are very practical forms oftransportations. In Myanmar, some electric vehiclesare now being used in the areas, such as hotel zones,zoological gardens, parks, etc.

(iv) Waste engine oil recyclingThe engine lubricant industry is a big business inMyanmar, with an annual consumption of about 4.5million gallons (20.24m liters) and turnover rangingfrom US$ 25 to40million.Small amount of lubricantoil is lost during use and the rest are released into theenvironment. Used lubricant, a valuable resource, iswasted if improperlydisposed off. It can also be usedas refinery feedstock to become part of crude oil.

Used oil canbe refined again andagain after blendingwith suitable additives and with no compromise onquality.

(v) HFCs recyclingRecovery and recycling of HFCs help to decreaseHFCemissionsduringequipmentserviceanddisposal.The approach involves the use of a refrigerantrecovery device that transfers refrigerant into anexternal storage container prior to servicing of theequipment. Once the recovery process and sourceoperations are complete, the refrigerant contained inthe storage container may be recharged back intothe equipment, cleaned through the use of recyclingdevices, sent to a reclamation facility to be purified.

This analysis assumed that 50 percent of emissionsare released duringequipment servicinganddisposal,while the remaining 50 percent occur as a result ofleakage duringnormal operations.

TransportAs transport sector is the largest consumer of fossilfuels, and consumption in this sector is projected toincrease more dramatically, mitigation options in thissector are given due consideration.

Much of the petroleum consumed in Myanmar is inthe transport sector where the use of other forms ofenergy is insignificant. As a result, it is a majorcontributor to GHG emissions. Better efficiency inthetransport sectoralsomeansreducedpollution fromexhaustemissions.Recenttrendsinfuelswitchingfromgasoline toCompressed Natural Gas (CNG)in motorvehicles due to financial benefits have alreadyhelpedto reduce GHG emissions in this sector. The primarymitigation options identified for GHG emissionmitigation in the transport sector are as follows:-

a) Road maintenanceb) Modal shift from road to rail (passenger &

freight)c) CNG vehicles and electric vehicles (In

terms of CO2 mitigation potential, the mostattractive option in the transport sector isfuel switching to CNG for Myanmar.)


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Renewable energyThe adoption of GHG abatement measures,particularly renewable energy production systemsavoidgenerationofotherpollutantemissionslikesulfurdioxide(SO2) and nitrous oxides (NOx), andcontribute to the country’s pursuit of sustainabledevelopment objectives. Broad introduction ofrenewableenergysourceswillnotonlyhelp tomitigateGHG emissions, but also increase the degree ofelectrification, especially in remote areas. Myanmarhas considered and identified these renewable energyresources as important response options to mitigateemissions of GHGs. They are emerging as a largesourceofuntappedalternativeenergieswithveryhighpotentials for uplifting Myanmar’s socio-economy.Studies on cost implication for these options aresupportiveoftheir integrationintotheGHGMitigationoption policy of Myanmar. In line with the poverty-alleviation plan and the rural energy developmenttarget, the MyanmarGovernment has implemented aseries of policies and measures to support new andrenewable energy development. Renewable energyis an important source of energy for lighting andheating processes at present in Myanmar. In spite ofincrease in generationof electricityfrom hydropowerinthecountry,biomassenergyisincreasinglybecominga potential source of domestic energy supply in thecountryside.

Based on years of experience under theGovernment’s rural electrification program, a newdirection would be to extend the use of PVs tosupplementhouseholdelectricitysupplyinurbanareasand to reduce load dependency on the national grid.Electricitygeneratedfromhouseholdscanalsobesoldto utilities, reducing the investment required forinstalling generation plants to meet peak demand.Reducing load dependency will allow for moreeffective management of the nation’s electricitygrid,because daytime demand levels can be lowered ashouseholds switch to supplyvia PVs. CO2 emissionreduction potential and cost effectiveness for someidentified mitigation options are given in(Table 5.1).These abatement assessments have shown thatsignificant amounts of GHG emissions can bereduced in these sectors through certainabatement options.

Agriculture sectorAgricultureThe agriculture sector is characterized by largeregional differencesandpossiblemitigation measureswhich varywith theemission levelsand managementpractices indifferentregions.Comprehensiveanalysesof land use, cropping systems and managementpractices are needed at regional level for theeffectivenessofvariousmitigationmeasures.Optionsfor reducing emissions, such as improved farmmanagement and increased efficiency of nitrogenfertilizer use, will maintain or increase agriculturalproductionwithpositiveenvironmental effects.Thesemultiple benefitswill result in high cost-effectivenessof available technologies. In Myanmar there are fourrelevant options for reducing GHG emissions in theagriculture sector, namely, (1) mitigation of carbondioxide emissions,(2) mitigation of methaneemissions,(3) mitigation of N2O emission fromagriculturalsoilsand(4)mitigationofGHGsfrom fieldburningofagricultural residues.

Mitigation options of Carbon dioxide Emissions(a) Conservation tillage on crop landsOptions for increasing the role of agricultural land asa sink for CO2 include carbon storage in managedsoils and carbon sequestration after reversion ofsurplus farm lands to natural ecosystems. Currently,only half of the conversion of tropical forests toagriculture contributes to an increase in productivecropland. The only way to break out of this cycle isthrough more sustainableuse, improved productivityof existing farmland and better protection of nativeecosystems. These practices could help reduceagricultural expansionandhencedeforestation.Thereare different kinds of conservation tillage systems,includingnotill,ridgetill,minimumtillandmulchtill.Itincreases carbon storage through enhanced soilsequestration. Management practices to increase soilcarbon stocks include reduced tillage, crop residuereturn, perennial crops (including agro forestry), andreduced bare fallow frequency. However, there areeconomic, educational andsociological constraints toimprove soil management in much of the tropics.Many tropical farmers cannot afford or have limitedaccess to purchase inputs such as fertilizer andherbicides. Crop residues are often needed for


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Table 5.1:GHGmitigation potential and costs of some options in energy sector

(b) Use of biofuelEnergyutilization inMyanmar traditionallydependsuponenergysources such as fuelwood, charcoal andbiomass.Because of the fuelwood scarcity, farmersuse crop residues as fuel instead of placing them totheir fields.Agricultural by-products such as pigeonpea stocks, cotton stems, paddy straws, rice husks,peanut husks, sesame stalks and palm leaves offer assources of energy.As a consequence, the fields getinadequate amount of organicmatter replenishment.Moreover, biomass in the formofwoodandcharcoalused as fuel contributes to deforestation, andconsequentlythreatens theenvironment.

In order to boost the crop production, utilization offarmmachineries is increasing in rural areas for field

operations such as land preparation, threshing andharvesting anddemand for fuel is rising. Physic nuts(Jatropha curcus) are a potential non-edible crop toproducebio-diesels inMyanmar. Jatrophaplantationshave been targeted to reach 3.44 million hectareswithin three years, starting from 2006-2007. Thepromotion of Jatropha cultivation for bio-dieselproduction is intended to allow rural households toreduce their dependencyon diesel fuel for cookingandlighting.

(c) Rice husk and saw dust gasifier forelectrification

Anotheralternativeis tousegasifier, inwhichbiomassis onlypartiallycombusted, to generateproducer gas.Producer gas is composed of hydrogen, carbonmonoxide and carbon dioxide. It is another lowheating-value gaseous fuel that can be used for hightemperatureheatingapplications.All typesofbiomass,

GHGmitigation

Presenttotal Incremental Abatement

potential costs costs cost

(Ton CO2) (US$, mil.) (US$, mil.) (US$/t CO2)

1 Hydro power project (E1) 1,123,020 178,974 -521,131 -0.012 Small hydro power project(E2) 116,695 80.1 -276.36 -67.663 Solar panel (E3) 5,732*106 14,269,187 -4,283,266 -37.374 LED Street Lighting (E4) 349*10

6328,128 -44,894 -6.43

5 Modal shift from road to rail(freight)(E5) 1789 8.73 -2.6 -72.626 Modal shift from road to rail(passenger) (E6) 5,768 23.07 -5.19 -44.977 Road improvement(rail)(E7) 20,677 53.68 -5.47 -26.478 Efficient air conditioner(E8) 19,619 289.7 -7.76 -3.149 Efficient motor with variable speed drive(E9) 1,486 1.28 -0.07 -3.1610 Electronic ballast(E10) 24,235 3.6 -3.14 -129.711 Energy management (E11) 146,458 185.7 -11.37 -7.7612 Building design(E12) 30,294 107.97 -2.33 -2.213 Electric vehicle(E13) 63,063 1214 -187.29 -148.514 Electric fork lift(E14) 172,822 332.95 -78.22 -22.6315 Rice husk gasifier(E15) 129,982 229.77 -261.18 -200.9316 Biogas cookstove(E16) 130*106 165,051 -24794 -37.9817 CNGvehicle(E17) 1,559,250 33,327 -10049 -32218 Production process change(E18) 278,871 88.53 -0.17 -0.0319 Waste engine oil recycling(E19) 48,405 0.61 -2.05 -2.1220 HFC recycling(E20) 10,746,123 0.23 -3.76 -0.02

Sr. No Option

GHGmitigation

Presenttotal Incremental Abatement

potential costs costs cost

(Ton CO2) (US$, mil.) (US$, mil.) (US$/t CO2)

1 Hydro power project (E1) 1,123,020 178,974 -521,131 -0.012 Small hydro power project(E2) 116,695 80.1 -276.36 -67.663 Solar panel (E3) 5,732*106 14,269,187 -4,283,266 -37.374 LED Street Lighting (E4) 349*10

6328,128 -44,894 -6.43

5 Modal shift from road to rail(freight)(E5) 1789 8.73 -2.6 -72.626 Modal shift from road to rail(passenger) (E6) 5,768 23.07 -5.19 -44.977 Road improvement(rail)(E7) 20,677 53.68 -5.47 -26.478 Efficient air conditioner(E8) 19,619 289.7 -7.76 -3.149 Efficient motor with variable speed drive(E9) 1,486 1.28 -0.07 -3.1610 Electronic ballast(E10) 24,235 3.6 -3.14 -129.711 Energy management (E11) 146,458 185.7 -11.37 -7.7612 Building design(E12) 30,294 107.97 -2.33 -2.213 Electric vehicle(E13) 63,063 1214 -187.29 -148.514 Electric fork lift(E14) 172,822 332.95 -78.22 -22.6315 Rice husk gasifier(E15) 129,982 229.77 -261.18 -200.9316 Biogas cookstove(E16) 130*106 165,051 -24794 -37.9817 CNGvehicle(E17) 1,559,250 33,327 -10049 -32218

19

20

Sr. No Option

278,871 88.53 -0.17 -0.03278,871 88.53 -0.17 -0.03278,871 88.53 -0.17 -0.03278,871 88.53 -0.17 -0.03Production process change(E18)

48,405 0.61 -2.05 -2.1248,405 0.61 -2.05 -2.1248,405 0.61 -2.05 -2.1248,405 0.61 -2.05 -2.12Waste engine oil recycling(E19)

10,746,123 0.23 -3.76 -0.0210,746,123 0.23 -3.76 -0.0210,746,123 0.23 -3.76 -0.0210,746,123 0.23 -3.76 -0.02HFC recycling(E20)


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livestock feed, fuel or other household uses, whichreduce carbon inputs to soil.

2012Chapter 5 Mitigation Options Assessment and Strategies

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Mitigation of CH4 emissions from ricecultivationIn Myanmar, rice is the staple food and its economymainly depends on rice production for domesticconsumption and export. Rice grows well in almostall regions of the countryand about 30% is irrigatedand the rest are under rain-fed condition.Accordingto its cropping patterns and agro-ecological regions,rice varieties used and the agronomic managementpractices, such as water and nutrient managementconsiderably vary among the different regions ofMyanmar.Riceismostlygrowninfloodedfieldsunderanaerobic conditions and it has been recognized thatsignificant amounts of CH4 are released to theatmosphere, consequently contributing to globalwarming more than any other crops. Based on thescientific research findings, several cultivationpractices have shown promise for reducing methaneemission from rice. The following are the options ofreducingmethaneemissions from rice cultivation:

(i) Fertilizer management practicesThe higher CH4 emission arises from fertilizerapplication.Useofsulphate-containingfertilizersandslowreleasenitrogenfertilizerssuchasmudball,prilledurea, urea super granules, ammonium thiosulphate,could be used instead of urea to mitigate CH4emission. Moreover, the use of the nitrificationinhibitors such as Nimin or placement of urea supergranules in flooded rice fields can be considered assuitable options for mitigatingCH4 emission withoutaffecting grain yields.Application of gypsum to ricefields and multiple fertilizer application can limit theCH4 production.Application of organic sources isknown to enhance CH4 emission from flooded ricefields.

(ii) Water management practicesProper water management is considered a goodstrategytomitigateCH4 emission.Intermittedirrigationis recommended for mitigation instead of continuousflooding. Interval time between irrigation should belengthened up to 2- 3 weeks and water level andamount ofwater can be controlledwithout sacrificingyields.

(iii) Selection of high yielding rice cultivarswith low CH4 emission potential

Rice plants playan important role in the flux of CH4from rice fields to the atmosphere and significantdifferences exist among rice cultivars. For example,thenumberof tillersperplantwaspositivelycorrelatedwith CH4 emission rate, and there was a significantpositive correlation between above ground biomassandemissionandbetweenrootbiomassandemission.Screening of rice cultivars that have higher harvestindex and more effective tillers may be a promisingstrategytomitigate emission.

Mitigation of N2O emission from agriculturalsoilsChemical fertilizers play a key role in modern crophusbandry and are essential to produce high yields.Overapplicationof fertilizers mayreducefarm profit,create a risk of soil degradation and causeenvironmental pollution. Nitrous oxide emissionsduring both oxidations of NH4 and denitrification areincreased by N fertilizer application to soil.Volatization of ammonia occurs when urea orammonium fertilizers are surface-applied to pasturesor to soils. To meet the food demand of the growingpopulationworldwide,applicationofsyntheticfertilizerfor the increased crop production has risen up rapidly.

Organic agriculture not only enables ecosystems tobetter adjust to the effect of climate change but alsooffers a major potential to reduce the emission ofagricultural GHG. In addition, the influences of theincorporation of crop residues, compost and animalmanures on N2O emission were well documented. Itisnoted that thequality(C/Nratio)oforganicmaterialsis an important factor affecting N2O production. N2Oproduction was increased by organic matter withdecreased C/N ratio such as vetch, soybean, corn,wheat crop residues, groundnut, maize, chickenmanure.

including rice husk and saw dust, can be used togenerate producer gas. Although cost of gridelectricity run by government is the cheapest, theelectricity produced by gasifier is still cheaper thanthat produced by diesel generator. Small scaleindustries are using gasifiers instead of dieselgenerators. Rice-husk gasifier consumes 9 basket ofrice husk inan hour which in turngenerates 100 KVAelectricity. There are many projects in Myanmartotaling more than 600 units.

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Possible options to minimize potential harmful N2Oemission in different agro-ecosystem are as follows:

Use of slow release fertilizer Adjusting the timingof fertilizer and manure

application so that the crop makesmaximum useof N

Incorporation of crop residues with high C/N ratio

Surface application of liquid manures Development of organic agriculture

Mitigation of GHGs from field burning ofagricultural residuesThe emissions of CH4, CO, N2O and NOx from theopen burning of crop residues and weeds are wellrecognized. However, use of crop residues for animalfeed, fuel wood and household use are verycommonfor thesmallholder farmersacrossMyanmar.Farmersusuallyburn onlyafewamountofresiduesofpreviouscrops and weeds in their fields at the land clearingtime. The crop residues of paddy, wheat, corn andsugarcane are traditionally burnt to prepare land fornext crops. However, the practice of burning and theamount of burning materials vary from region toregion, and even from plot to plot. In the dryzone ofcentral Myanmar, where the animal feed and fuel arebecoming scarce, crop residues of paddy, pulses,peanut and corn are used for cattle feedingand stems/stalks sesame, pigeon pea, and cotton are used forhousehold fuel andjaggeryindustry.Compostmakingof crop residues should be encouraged through theuse of effective microorganisms.Awareness raisingprograms should be carried out to reduce the fieldburning.

LivestockThe present national herd of 13.74 million heads ofcattleandbuffaloesaregrazedmainlyonnaturalgrassduring the monsoon season, and are fed on paddystraw during the dryseason. Cattle and buffaloes arethe most important sources of methane from entericfermentation because of their numbers, large bodysize,andruminantdigestivesystem.Methaneemissionsfrommanuremanagementareusuallysmaller thanthatfrom enteric fermentation.

There are many strategies options that could beconsideredforreducingmethaneemissionsfromcattle.

There are three principal ways to mitigate methaneemissions from livestock. First, decreasing thenumbers of ruminant animals can reduce emissions.Second, improving manure handling can reducemethane emissions.Athird wayto decrease methaneemissions from livestock is to improve the entericfermentation process in ruminant animals

Mitigation options for CH4 emission fromenteric fermentationThe concept of methane emission reduction fromlivestock sector is prioritized via mechanical andchemical feed processing, feed supplementation,genetic improvement,andreproductive improvement.

The following are the most appropriate mitigationoptions for CH4 emission from enteric fermentationin the livestock sector in Myanmar.

(i) Supplemented feeding system with ureamolasses block

The useof Urea MolassesBlockreduces the methaneemissions from enteric fermentation by up to 25percent and also raises milk productivitybyas muchas 20 percent. Feeding trials have indicated theacceptability of feeding with urea molasses mineralblock. It is more favorable than feeding with ureatreated straw. Urea Molasses Blocks are very usefuland handyways to supplement the deficient nutrientslike fermentablenitrogen and all themacro and microessentialminerals.

(ii) Treatment of straw with ureaThe treatmentof straw with urea reduces the methaneemissions from enteric fermentation by up to 10percent and also increases the milk productivity byup to 20 percent. Paddy straw is a very importantresource in Myanmar. If the paddy straw harvestedfrom half of the present rice paddies were treatedwith urea, there wouldbe enoughroughage feedstuffsfor thewhole country.This treatedpaddystraw wouldhave a 70 percent digestibility instead of 60 percent;the nitrogen content would increase from 0.5 percentto 1-1.2 percent and the voluntary intake byanimalswould increase by about 20-30 percent.

Use of urea-treated straw results in an increase indigestibility of straw dry matter/ organic matter andimproves voluntary consumption. However, the


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The investment costs per animal for the options ofimproving feed by using urea molasses blocks ortreatment of straw with urea are $43.8 and $20.8,respectively,andtheincrementalyieldfortheseoptionsare 330 kg/head/yr and 247.5 kg/head/yr,respectively.Fromtheinvestmentcostandincrementalyield analysis, the ureamolasses block option is thebetter option for treatment of strawwith urea.

Mitigation options for CH4 emission frommanure managementInMyanmar,amongthepastoralistcommunities,mostanimalmanure is left uncollected.On theother hand,farmerswhopracticemixedagricultureanimalwastesarecollectedandcompostedand laterapplieddirectlyas crop fertilizer.

Methaneemissions fromthemanurecanbemanagedbyusingvarious technologies tohelp reducemethaneemissionduringstorage.

Biogas production by recovering the methaneemission from anaerobic fermentation is nowconsidered as a potential mitigation option inMyanmar. The recoveredmethane gas can be useddirectlyon thefarmtosupplyvariousenergyenduses,or can be collected and sold, or used to fuel boilersthat provide the energy to generate electricity. Theremaining by-product of anaerobic decomposition,contained in the slurryor liquid effluent, can beusedas cropfertilizer, animal feed, andas supplements foraquaculture.


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acceptance by farmers in Myanmar has been stilllimited due to economic and sociological reasons.

Biogas produced fromanimalmanure couldbe usedfor household cooking and lighting purposes. Theslurry/liquid effluent is used as farm fertilizer. It istherefore needed to make the technology moreaffordable to rural households in order for them tobenefit fromitsuse.Theuseofbiogasasanalternativeenergysource, especiallyin thehighpotential areas isoneway to alleviate fuel-wood shortage, minimizedestruction of forests andwoodlands, and increasecarbon sequestration while abating increases ofmethaneemissionbytransformingintocarbondioxideand thus reducing themethane warming potential.Mitigationoptions,mitigationpotential and costs forthe livestock sector are shown in (Table 5.2).

Land Use Change and Forestry SectorIn the forestrysector, severalmitigationoptions canbe considered, including the conservation of forests,enhancement of the forest area, and fuelwoodconservation. To enhance the forest areas,consideration weregiven toparticipatorycommunityand fuelwood plantation projects and naturalregeneration and protection projects.Areduction inforest products consumption were achieved byreplacing traditional fuel wood stoves with moreefficient cookstovesand /orbyusing biogassystemsatvillage level.

If mitigation in forestry becomes an importantcomponent of overall climate change policy, futureland useswill change substantially.Within the rangeof carbon prices of $60 tomore than $200/t C,

Table 5.2:Mitigation options, mitigation potential and costs for the livestock sector

Country Mitigation OptionsMitigationPotential(kg/head/yr)

Mitigation Cost($/kg CH4)

InvestmentCost($/head/yr)

NPV ofBenefits($/kg CH4)

Impact onMilk Yield(%)

Urea-molassesblock

14 3.13 43.8 1.75 20

Urea treatment ofstraw

6 3.47 20.8 3.06 -10

Myanmar

Country Mitigation OptionsCountry Mitigation OptionsMitigationPotential(kg/head/yr)

Mitigation Cost($/kg CH4($/kg CH4($/kg CH )

InvestmentCost($/head/yr)

NPV ofBenefits($/kg CH4)

Impact onMilk Yield(%)

Urea-molassesblock

14 3.13 43.8 1.75 203.13 43.8 1.75 203.13 43.8 1.75 20

Urea treatment ofstraw

6 3.47 20.8 3.06 -103.47 20.8 3.06 -103.47 20.8 3.06 -10

Myanmar

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there could be as many as 1 billion more hectares ofland in forests by2100. These carbon prices are wellwithin the range of current estimates of the costs ofstabilizing future climate, suggestingthat if forestryisultimately included as a creditable opportunity, thenlargelandusechangescould takeplace.Themitigationefforts largelyimplyreductions in deforestation, thuspreservationofexistingforest areas in tropical regions.Somemitigationmeasures inforestrysectorareshownin (Table 5.3).

Afforestation/reforestation activities in deforestedareas, rehabilitation of degraded forest areas,enhancement of natural regeneration are the potentialmitigation options in forestry sector of Myanmar.Mitigationpracticescanalsobe linkedto internationalcooperation activities for additional financial andtechnical support. Kyoto Mechanisms adopted in1997, allows the developing countries to host CleanDevelopment Mechanism (CDM) projects to enterglobal carbon market. Afforestation /reforestationprojects can be linked to AR CDM projects.Moreover, conservation of natural forests andsustainable forest management practices are in linewith Reducing Emission from Deforestation andForest Degradation (REDD) mechanism.

Mitigation options assessment by ALGASproject

In Myanmar, an assessment of the mitigation optionswas carried out byAsia Lowcost Greenhouse GasAbatement strategies (ALGAS) project in 1997. Thefollowing 5 options in forestrysector were examinedfor various parameters:

(i) Reforestation with short rotation species (tenyears) for community plantation and fuelwood plantation (SR),

(ii) Reforestation with long rotation species (40years) for commercial plantation andwatershed management plantation (LR),

(iii) Natural Regeneration (NR),(iv) Reforestation for bio-electricitygeneration

(RB), and(v) Forest Protection (FP).

The examined parameters and the results of theanalysis were shown in Table 5.4. It was also foundthat the mitigation potential of options ranged from

33 tC/ha for natural regeneration to 155 t/ha forreforestation with longrotation. The investment costfor forestrymitigationoptions is low,beingin therangeof $0.1 per tC abated for the natural regenerationoption to $21.4 per tC abated for the option ofreforestation forbioelectricityproduction. Investmentcost is high only for the bioelectricity option at$21/tC abated, as it includes the cost of plantationforestry and the cost of establishing a powergeneration system.

The mitigation scenarios considered inALGASproject were the programmatic scenarios, thebiomass demand based scenario, and the technicalpotential scenario.Theaggregatemitigationpotentialsare 30 mtC, 126 mtC, and 583 mtC for theprogrammatic, biomass demand based and technicalpotential scenarios, respectively.

Current assessment of mitigation options(i) Afforestation / ReforestationPlantation forestryhas longbeen practiced in forestrysector of Myanmar but with limited planted area.Starting from 1990s, annual forest plantation areaincreased and amounted to morethan 30 000 ha peryear. Up to the year 2000, all the plantation activitiesare implemented by the Ministry of Forestry. Theamount of carbon sequestered by the forestplantations vary from 4.5 -10.1 tC/ha/yr. Privatesector involvement in the establishment of forestplantation can enhance the growth and economicreturn of the plantations. In the Dry Zone of CentralMyanmar, forestplantationsarebeingestablishedwiththe objectivesofgreeningtheenvironment, supplyinglocal people with small timbers and fuelwood andrestoring the degraded forests. Because of the harshenvironment with low rainfall, the plantations in dryzone area are paid special attention to grow well. Thegrowth rate is also slow. However, in terms of ARCDM projects, dry zone is eligible to host an ARCDMprojectandcangetbenefit fromthatmechanismif properlymanaged.

(ii) Community forestryCommunity forestry refers to tree planting activitiesundertaken by community on communal lands, orthe so-called common lands; it is based on the localpeople’s direct participation in the process, either by


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Table 5.3.Examples ofmitigation technologies, policies andmeasures, constraints and opportunitiesin forestry sector

Key mitigation technologies Policies, measures Key constraints

and practices and instruments or opportunities

- Afforestation, reforestation - Financial incentives (national andinternational) to increase forest area,to reduce deforestation and to

-Constraints include lack ofinvestment capital and landtenure issues.

- Forest management maintain and manage forests;

- Reduceddeforestation -Can help poverty alleviation.

- Harvestedwoodproductmanagement - Land-use regulation and- Use of forestry products forbioenergy to replace fossil fueluse

enforcement

- Tree species improvement toincrease biomass productivityandcarbon sequestration- Improved remote sensingtechnologies for analysis ofvegetation/soil carbonsequestration potential andmapping land-use change

Key mitigation technologies Policies, measures Key constraints

and practices and instruments or opportunities

- Afforestation, reforestation - Financial incentives (national andinternational) to increase forest area,to reduce deforestation and to

-Constraints include lack ofinvestment capital and landtenure issues.

- Forest management maintain and manage forests;

- Reduceddeforestation -Can help poverty alleviation.

- Harvestedwoodproductmanagement - Land-use regulation and- Use of forestry products forbioenergy to replace fossil fueluse

enforcement

- Tree species improvement toincrease biomass productivityandcarbon sequestration- Improved remote sensingtechnologies for analysis ofvegetation/soil carbonsequestration potential andmapping land-use change


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growing trees by themselves, or by processing thetreeproducts locally.ForestDepartment ofMyanmarissued Community Forestry Instructions (CFI) in1995with the objectives of attaining environmentalstability and meeting the basic needs of ruralcommunities.According to theCFIs, local people’sactive participation is intended to play a key role inthe afforestation and rehabilitation of denuded anddegraded areas.

(iii) Natural regenerationTo accelerate the natural restoration process, thedegraded stands can be assisted by two basic typesof silvicultural treatments, viz., improvement andenrichment.Choiceofsuitablesilviculturalinterventiondependsprimarilyonthe structural characteristics andregeneration potential of the degraded stand. If thenumber of economicallyvaluable trees in the initialstand is not sufficient, or there is a complete lack ofsuch trees, then enrichment maybe a better optionthan improvement.

Forest Department ofMyanmar has been practicingnatural regeneration activities in the routine forestoperations. However, limited funding and labourintensive works are the main barriers in naturalregenerationoperations.There isalso littleknowledge

on carbon sequestration potential by naturalregenerationoperations innatural forestsofMyanmar.

(iv) AgroforestryAgro-forestry practices have long been consideredas ecologically sound farming practices and offerpotential forregainingsomeofthelostcarbonsthroughchanges in land uses patterns asmuch as 176 tC/haafter a period of 10 years (estimated for tropicalregions). Improvement in landmanagementpracticessuchasprotectionof treeson thefarm,contour fellingandmound-basedsoil fertilitymanagement,etc.couldhelp to regain about 44 tC/ha to 46 t C/ha.

Studies performed in developed countries indicatethat the cost per ton of carbon sequestration couldbe in the range of US$10-26; in the context ofMyanmar, the cost could be much lower as thesepractices aremore labour intensive. However, thecurrent institutionalmechanismlackscapacitytocopewithclimatechangerelatedforestrysectoradaptation,andmitigationpolicyadministration lacks thecapacityfor accounting framework to measure changes inbiomass stocks and to promote sustainable forestmanagement with concrete economic andenvironmentalgoals.

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Table 5.4:Analysis of the identified forestrymitigation options byALGAS project

(vi) Dissemination of fuel wood improvedstoves

Replacing traditional fuelwood stoves with moreefficientcookstovescaneffectivelymitigate theGHGemission in forestry sector by reducing burning ofbiomass. TheGHGmitigation potential of 100, 000efficient cookstoves (A-1) canbe120,736tCO2yr

-1.The investmentcost per tonofcarbondioxideabatedfor fuelwoood is about 0.55USD.

Waste sector

Waste management is the collection, transport,processing,recyclingordisposalandmonitoringofwastematerials.Thetermusuallyrelatestomaterialsproducedbyhumanactivityandisgenerallyundertakentoreducetheir effect on health, the environment or aesthetics.Wastemanagementcaninvolvesolid,liquid,gaseousorradioactivesubstanceswithdifferentmethodsandfieldsof expertise for each.Management for residential andinstitutionalwaste inmetropolitanareas isusuallytheresponsibility of local government authorities whilemanagement for commercial and industrial waste isusuallytheresponsibilityofthegenerator.

Options for waste handling systems forreducing waste materialsSome areas especially those in less developedcountries do not have a formal waste-collectionsystem.Examplesofwastehandling systems include(a) disposalmethods,(b) recyclingmethods and (c)avoidance and reductionmethods.InMyanmar urban centre curbside collection is themost commonmethod of disposal whereby the citycollects waste and recyclables and organics on ascheduled basis. People often disposeof theirwastebyhauling it to a transfer station.Waste collected isthen transported toa regional landfill.

(a) Disposal methods

(i) LandfillDisposingofwaste in a landfill involvesburying thewaste and this remains a common practice inMyanmar. Landfills are often established inabandoned or unused quarries, mining voids orborrowpits.Aproperly-designedandwell-managedlandfill canbe ahygienic and relatively inexpensivemethod of disposing of waste materials. Older,poorly-designed or poorly-managed landfills cancreate a number of adverse environmental impactssuch aswind-blown litter, attraction of vermin andgenerationof liquid leach, etc..Another commonbyproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed ofmethane and carbon dioxide)which is produced asorganic waste down an aerobically. This gas cancreate odor problems and kill surface vegetation.

Parameter SR LR NR RB FBMitigation potential, t of Cabated/ ha 55 155 33 78 47Present value life cycle(endowment) costs, $/ha 496 290 28 - 0

Financial benefits, NPV, $/ha 1,060 346 4 67 67

Investment costs/ha, $/ha 211 122 10 - 77

Cost-effectiveness

Life cycle, $/tC abated 9.01 1.87 0.86 1.3 0

Investment cost, $/tC abated 3.83 0.79 0.1 21.4 1.64

Cost-benefit analysis, NPV/tC 19.28 2.22 0.13 0.86 2.87

Parameter SR LR NR RB FBSR LR NR RB FBSR LR NR RB FBSR LR NR RB FBMitigation potential, t of Cabated/ ha 55 155 33 78 47Present value life cycle(endowment) costs, $/ha 496 290 28 - 0496 290 28 - 0496 290 28 - 0496 290 28 - 0

Financial benefits, NPV, $/ha 1,060 346 4 67 67

Investment costs/ha, $/ha 211 122 10 - 77211 122 10 - 77211 122 10 - 77211 122 10 - 77

Cost-effectiveness

Life cycle, $/tC abated 9.01 1.87 0.86 1.3 09.01 1.87 0.86 1.3 09.01 1.87 0.86 1.3 09.01 1.87 0.86 1.3 0

Investment cost, $/tC abated

Cost-benefit analysis, NPV/tC

3.83 0.79 0.1 21.4 1.643.83 0.79 0.1 21.4 1.643.83 0.79 0.1 21.4 1.643.83 0.79 0.1 21.4 1.643.83 0.79 0.1 21.4 1.64

19.28 2.22 0.13 0.86 2.8719.28 2.22 0.13 0.86 2.8719.28 2.22 0.13 0.86 2.8719.28 2.22 0.13 0.86 2.8719.28 2.22 0.13 0.86 2.87


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(v) Conservation of natural forestsConservation of natural forests, which leads to haltdeforestation canbecopedwith REDDmechanism.Myanmar forestrysector aims to conserveup to30%of natural forests as reserved forests and another 5%as protected area systems. This option can becombinedwithREDDmechanisms.


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(ii) IncinerationIncineration is a disposal method that involvescombustion of waste material. Incineration and otherhigh temperature waste treatment systems aresometimes described as “thermal treatment”.Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas,steam and ash. Incineration is carried out both on asmall scale by individuals and on a large scale byindustry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid andgaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical methodof disposing of certain hazardous waste materials(such as biological medical waste). Incineration is acontroversial method of waste disposal, due to issuessuch as emission of gaseous pollutants.

(b) Recycling methods(i) Biological reprocessingWaste materials that are organic in nature such asplant material, food scraps and paper products canberecycledusingbiological compostinganddigestionprocesses to decompose the organic matter. Theresultingorganicmaterial is then recycledasmulchorcompost for agricultural or landscaping purpose. Inaddition, wastegas fromtheprocess, such asmethanecan be captured and used for generating electricity.

There are large varieties of compostingand digestionmethodsand technologiesvaryingincomplexityfromsimple home compost heaps, to industrial-scaleenclosed-vessel digestion of mixed domestic waste.

(ii) EnergyRecoveryThe energy content of waste products can beharnessed directly by using them as a directcombustion fuel,or indirectlybyprocessingthemintoanother type of fuel. Recycling through thermaltreatment ranges from using waste as a fuel sourcefor cooking or heating to fuel for boilers to generatesteam and electricity.

(c) Avoidance and reduction methodsAn important method of waste management is thepreventionofwastematerialbeingcreatedalsoknownas waste reduction. Methods of avoidance includereuse of second-hand products, repairing brokenitems instead of buying new, designing products tobe refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead ofplastic shopping bags), encouraging consumers to

avoid using disposable products (such as disposablecutlery) removinganyfood/liquid remains fromcans,packaging and designing products that use lessmaterial to achieve the same purpose, e.g. lightweightingof beveragecans. Mitigation measures andbiological reprocessing, energy recovering andavoidance and reduction methods should bepromoted in order to reduce GHG emission from thewaste sector.

5.3. National Strategies on GHGEmission Reduction

In the face of climate change, an urgent need arisesto set up the national strategies for GHG emissionreduction and for the reduction of climate changeimpact. Such measures should be emphasized notonlyon sustainable production in line with the GHGreduction goals, but also on endangered species andcommunities, certain ecosystems (eg. wet lands) andhabitats. So far some strategies which are directlyand indirectly related to these issues have been setup in Myanmar.

Energy sector

The abatement strategy in the sector was considereda timeframewithin 2000 to2030.The most importantactions to mitigate GHG emissions during the period2000-2030 are economic and effective use of energyand use of renewable energy.

Energy development has always been an importantpart of Myanmar’s national economy and socialdevelopment plan. In accordance with the guidanceof the Government, Ministryof Energyhas also laiddown Energy Policy and Strategy. The mainobjectivesof the Policyare toutilizeoptimumamountof energy efficiently, to save non renewable energyresources of the country and to increase theproduction level of existingenergysources and at thesame time to update the energy demand.

Energyutilization inMyanmar mainlydepends upontraditional energy such as fuel wood, charcoal andbiomass. During 1999-2000, 35 percent of the totalenergy consumption is contributed by commercialenergysuch as oil, natural gas, coal and hydropower.

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of commercial energyhas been prioritized in order toreplace traditional energy types and at the same timeto meet the requirement of industrial developmentprogram. Myanmar has abundant renewable energysources such ashydropower, wind, solar, geothermal,biomass andother types of renewableenergysources.Renewable energy, i.e., hydroelectricityand biomasscontributed 67 percent of total energyconsumption.Biomass intheformoffuelwood,charcoal,agriculturewaste and animal dung is predominantlyused.

Emissions from the energysector are not significantat present. However, due to the rapid expansion, thissector’s contribution to GHG emissions will be moresignificant in the future. The growing trend ofgreenhouse gas emissions will continue if the currentshift of Myanmar’s industrial structure continues andconsiderable efforts to reduce emissions are notimplemented.

To implement appropriate and effective responses toclimate change, the following are priorities forMyanmar.

Promotion of the use and development ofrenewable energy

The use of clean and efficient energy forindustry, transportation, commercial andresidential sectors

Use of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) asfuel forcommercialvehiclesas fuel switchingin transportation sector

Use of energy saving Light Emitting Diode(LED)lightingtoreplacemercuryandsodiumvapour lamps

Use of Solar Electric Panel to discourage useof fossil fuels for rural electrification

Replacing some biomass or HSD cookstoves with biogas stoves

Use of new technologies such as efficientlightingandair-conditioningandrefrigerationsystems with higheroverall energyefficiencyto replace the existing less efficient systems

Promoting renewableenergytechnologies inplace of fossil fuel generators wherever theyare technologicallyandeconomicallyfeasible

Encouraging energy conservation throughpromoting good house-keeping practices inindustrial, commercial and domestic sectors

GHG projections for energy sectorCarbon dioxide emissions depend on the type andamountofenergyconsumed,andenergyconsumptionis closely linked to the socio-economic developmentofacountry.Hence,projectionofCO2emissions fromthe energy sector is based mainly on projections ofthepopulationandeconomicgrowthofacountryovera specific period in the future.

Of the total energy demand in the country, theresidential sector consumes and is expected toconsume the largest portion, estimated to be about78 percent followed by the industrial, transport andcommercial sectors. Agriculture remains as thesmallest user of total energy. If biomass energyuse isnot counted or excluded, energy industry is seen toconsume the largest amount of energyat 30 percentfollowed closely bytransport and industrial sectors.

Energy use in this country is increasing faster in thetransportation sector than in any other sectors.Increase in transportation energy use is a clearindication of a large amount of carbon emissionsbecausevirtuallyall energyrequirementsof this sectorare in the form of petroleum products. Mitigationoptions to reduce GHG emission in transportation isone of the focal areas in the study. It is an emergingchallenge for countries like Myanmar to devisestrategies that can take care of the increased mobilityof the people and the goods required for meeting thedevelopmental aspirationsyetwithout environmentalimplications.

Agriculture sectorAgricultureBeing an agricultural country, rice cultivation inMyanmar will continue to increase at its current rateto meet the home consumption and export market.Flooded rice fieldsproduceCH4emissions,whichcanbe reduced by improved management measures.


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The balancedutilization of different energytypes hasall along been emphasized and increased production


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Successful implementation of available mitigationstrategies will depend on the facts that:

(i) grain yield will not decrease ormayincrease;(ii) therewillbesavings in labour,waterandother

production costs; and(iii) rice cultivars that produce lower CH4

emissions are acceptable to local consumers.

Since nitrogen is the major component of mineralfertilizers commonly used in the country, there is arising concern over the extent to which high-inputagriculture loads nitrogen compounds into theenvironment. Nitrogen budgeting, or an input/outputbalance approach, provides a basis for policies toimprove nitrogen management in farming and formitigating its environmental impact. Managementsystems can decrease the amount of nitrogen lost tothe environment through gaseous losses of ammoniaor N2O, or through leachingof nitrate into the subsoil.

The primary sources of N2O from agriculture aremineral fertilizers, legumecropping,andanimalwaste.Some N2O also is emitted from biomassburning. Theunderlyingconcept in reducing N2O emissions is thatiffertilizernitrogen(includingmanurenitrogen)isbetterused by the crop, less N2O will be produced andless nitrogen will leak from the system. By bettermatching nitrogen supply to crop demand andintegratinganimalwasteandcropresiduemanagementare the possible strategies for reducing emissions.

The following strategies are being carried out formitigationofGHGemissionsandpotential reductionsof annual emissions of carbon dioxide, methane andnitrous oxide.

(1) ReducingCO2emissions:–Reduction infossil energyuse byagriculture, expandeduse ofminimum and no tillage, and irrigationscheduling

(2) Reducing methane emissions: - Improvedrice production practices, irrigationmanagement, nutrient management, newcultivars and other practices

(3) Reducing nitrous oxide emissions:IncreaseN fertilizer use efficiency, reduce use ofnitrogen fertilizers, applyimprovedtechnologyfor nitrogen application, match

N supply with crop demand, integrateproduction systems to maximize manurereuse in plant production, conserve plantresidue N on the production site, andirrigation and drainage.

TheMinistryofAgricultureandIrrigationhasalreadyestablished the priority framework for thedevelopmentofagriculturesector.Amongothers, thefollowing are the strategies related to the mitigationof the impact of climate change.

Diversifyingcropproductionandproductivity Sustainable water sector development for

promoting access to irrigation water Promoting ruraldevelopment through

sustainable developmentofagriculturesector

Strengthening research and extension Technologygeneration for good agricultural

practices and dissemination for integrationinto current food production chain

Rural infrastructures development(Development of farm and rural roadnetworks;Establishment of farmers’markets, warehouses and cold storage;exploring possibilityof private sectorinvestment)

LivestockLivestock farming in Myanmar relies heavilyon theagriculture, agro-industrial by-products and naturalgrass land. Due to the high prices of agro-industrialby-products, most of the livestock farmers cannotafford to provide balanced and well managed rationto their livestock for maximum production. Dairyfarming isan additional income toperi-urban farmersand due to seasonal variation and price fluctuation ofagriculture by-products, most livestock farmers focusmainly on low profile feeding strategies. Thereforelivestock especiallydairycattle are usuallygiven onlysub-maintenance ration during dryperiod.

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Therefore, most of the methane is generated whenmanure is deeply heaped up in wet conditions.

In heaping make sure that the heaps are wellaerated.

Store manure in dryconditionsPrevent accumulation of manure in largequantities and dispose (recycle) asearly as possible.

If possible recycle for bio energyproduction (make sure the digestersare fullyair sealed).

Convert manure into aerated compost.

Currently available mitigation strategies at farmlevel in Myanmar

Methane is produced by the fermentation of feedwithin thedigestive system. Generally, thegreater thefeed intake, the higher the methane emissions are.Feed intake is related to animal size, growth rate andproduction. The followingare the currentlyavailablemitigation options to reduce methane emissions:

(i) Reducing livestock numbers(ii) Improvinganimalproductivity(iii) Improved forage quality(iv) Manipulatingnutrientcomposition

To overcome the problems in feed formulation andfeeding ruminants, the project has alreadyprovidedbasic feeding strategies to both government staffand farmers. Followings are the already developedfeedingstrategies for dairyfarming:

Formulation of different types ofUMMB co-operated with herbalmedicines to control internal parasites ofruminant livestock

Development of feedingstrategies byusingnitrogen rich leguminous tree forage

Establishment of feedingstrategies on non-conventional feed resources

The following are examples of five nutritionalinterventions thatwill improveproductivityandreducemethane emissionsper unit of animalproduction (i.e.meat, milk or fibre):


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Strategies for reduction of CH4emissionAmongdomesticated livestock, ruminantanimalsarethe majoremitters of methane becauseof theiruniquedigestive system. The amount of methane producedandexcreteddependsprimarilyupontheanimal’s typeof digestive system and the amount and type of feedthe animal consumes.

Strategies need to be developed to reduce methaneemission from both enteric fermentation and manuremanagement systems, of which the latter is morepossible at the farmer level in Myanmar.

Enteric fermentationWhen low quality high roughage diets are fed toruminants the methane production by entericfermentation is high. Therefore, the first and theforemost step is to improve the diet byimproving thenutritivevalueanddigestibility.Todothis thefollowingcould be suggested; Encourage replacing low quality natural

grasseswithfeedingof improvedhighqualityforage.

Manipulate the rumen conditions throughappropriate strategies (supplementation) thatfacilitatebetterrumenenvironment toimproveefficientmicrobial activity.

Adjust correct energy to protein ratio in thediet, especially in concentrate feeds.

Manure management systemsIn order to achieve the proper manure managementit isnecessary to implement the following strategies:

Avoid adding straw to the manure becausestraw acts as a food source for anaerobicbacteria, resultinginhighermethaneemissions

Apply manure to soil as soon as possiblebecause manure for long period canencourage anaerobic decomposition andresult in increased methane emissions

Avoid manure application when the soil isextremely wet, as this leads to anaerobicconditions and increased methane emissions

If manure is handled and managed properly, the CH4emissions can be easilycontrolled. In addition this isthe most easily controlled measure at the field level.

The level of moisture, pH, temperature, aeration andother suitable conditions for the anaerobic bacteriafavors the methanogenesis.

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NationalEnvironmentalConservationStrategy

(iii) ConsistencywithNationallyDefinedSustainable Development and/or NationalDevelopment Goals and Objectives

(iv) Consistencywith InternationallyRecog-nized Criteria and Indicators for Sustain-able Forest Management

(v) Consistencywith International and NationalEnvironmental Impacts Standards andGuidelines

Mitigation strategies in forestry sector ofMyanmarTo implement appropriate and effective responses toclimatechange,thefollowingaretheprioritymitigationoptions for forestrysector of Myanmar.

(a) Mainstreamingclimatechange into forestpolicyand legislation

(b) Promoting sustainable forest managementto control deforestation and forestdegradation

(c) Conserving the existingnatural forest in itsmaximum carbon storage capacity

(d) Strengthening the institutional capacitytohandle mitigation and adaptation measuresin combatingclimatechange

(e) Rehabilitating the degraded lands throughafforestation and reforestation;

(f) Improving technologyto reduce fuel woodconsumption;

(g) Increasing CO2 uptake from theatmosphere byconverting low productiveland into grassland and range lands(especially in central dry-zone)

(h) Promotingprivatesector involvement inforest industryin particular with climatechange concerns

(i) Promoting habitat management for theprotected wild animals and plants withparticular focus on buffer zonesdevelopment and management

(j) Developing the accounting framework formeasuringpotential changes in forestbiomass stocks


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Increased feed intake through the use ofbetter qualityfeedwith higher digestibilityand lower fibre content

Increased feed intake through the use ofimproved livestock genetics and breeding

Improved feed conversion efficiencythrough themechanical (chopping, grinding,milling,pelleting)orchemical (ammonia,urea formaldehyde, sodium hydroxide)treatment to improve feed digestibility

Improved feed conversion efficiencythrough the replacement of forage withconcentrates, inclusion of more non-structural carbohydrate in the diet andincreased fat content of the diet

Provision of diets which provide anappropriate balance of energy, protein andother essential nutrients in order to achieveefficient digestionand livestock productivity

Land use change and forestry sector

Climate change could have large effects on foreststhrough thepolicies that stimulate mitigation, such asafforestation, reduced deforestation, and forestmanagement. There has been considerable researchon the potential for mitigation to help reduce the costsof climate impacts. Metz et al. (2001) suggests that60-87 billion tons of carbon could be sequestered inforests over the coming century, and Sohngen andMendelsohn (2003) suggest that this amount ofcarbon could cost up to $187/t C. Such large levelsof sequestration would have large effectson land use,potentially increasing the area of forests at the end ofthe centuryby1 billion hectares.Large-scale changesin forest management are also possible.

Factors taken into account in determining themitigation strategiesThe following factors are taken into account indetermining the mitigation strategyin forestrysector:

(i)Compatibilitywith InternationallyRecognized Principles of SustainableDevelopment

(ii) Consistencywith Goals and Objectives of

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(k) Promoting people’s participation in forestmitigationpractices throughcommunityforestry, community-based forestmanagement, etc.

(l) Exploring opportunities for carbon tradingboth at domestic and international levelsand

(m) Research and development in forestry-related climate change studies.

Forest mitigation practices that can restrain the rateof increase in atmospheric CO2 can be grouped intothree categories:

(i) management for carbon conservation(ii) management for carbon sequestration and

storage and(iii) management for carbon substitution.

Conservation practices include options suchascontrolling deforestation, protecting forests inreserves,changingharvestingregimes,andcontrollingother anthropogenic disturbances, such as fire andpest outbreaks. Sequestration and storagepracticesincludeexpandingforestecosystemsbyincreasingthearea and/orbiomass and soil carbondensityof naturaland plantation forests, and increasing storage indurable wood products. Substitution practices aimat increasing the transfer of forest biomass carbonintoproducts rather thanusingfossil fuel-basedenergyand products, cement-based products and other non-wood buildingmaterials.

Implementation strategies for forestmitigation practicesMyanmar national forest policy is a fundamentalguideline for systematicdevelopment of forest sector.Moreover, the policy is the basis for laws and rulesof forest exploitation and preservation, and fordevelopment and capacity building of supportinginstitutions. Myanmar forest law and rule are set asthe tools to implement national forest policy.

Goals and action plans of forest policy clearlystatedabout land use, prevention and administering, forestregeneration and plantation, wood-based industry,marketing and trading, research, planning,coordination, budget and finance, people’scooperation, and people’s awareness, etc. Forestpolicy targeted to manage 30 percent of total landarea under Permanent Forest Estate (PFE)

comprising reserved forests and protected publicforests.

National Forest MasterPlan (NFMP) was developedin 2001 to achieve sustainable forest development. Itforesees 30 years from 2001/02 to 2030/31 andoutlineswiderangeofforestactivitiesincludingwildlifeand nature conservation in order to realize objectivesnamely sustainable harvesting of valuable teak,protection of forests against degradation,environmental conservation, and enhancing foreignexchange earnings by exporting more value-addedproducts.

NFMP coversextensive forest activities which intendto protect reserved forests and protected publicforests and to extend them for sustenance; to pursuesound programs of forest development throughregenerationand rehabilitation; toeffectivelymanagewatershedfor longevityofdamsandwater reservoirs;to optimize extraction of teak and hardwood withinthe available means; to extend forestry research; toenforceeffectivelawagainst illegalextractionofforestproducts; to encourage increasing use of fuel-woodsubstitutes; to promote export of timber and value-added forest products and seek ways and means toexport other non-timber forest products; and topromote ecotourism to earn more foreign exchange.

Waste sectorDevelopment of industries in MyanmarMyanmar’s industrial structure and consumptionpattern together with economic growth generate aconsiderable amount of waste. The amount of wastegenerated in cities of Myanmar has been graduallyincreasing, including the municipal industrial waste.(general waste and hazardous waste)

Industrial development has been an important eco-nomic policyanddevelopment strategyof Myanmar.The government introduced the market-oriented eco-nomic system in 1989 and since then it has encour-aged private sector particip ation and foreign invest-ment in the economic activities. In order to promotesmall-scale industries utilizinglocalnatural resourcesas main raw materials, the Cottage Industries Law,enacted in October 1991, enabled the establishmentof small, medium and large-scale enterprises.


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Table 5.5. Selected examples of measures to mitigate GHGemissions through slowingdeforestation and assisting regeneration

Technical Options Measures Benefits /Effects

Fores t Practices /Goals – Jo in tly implement pro jects with b ilateral and multilateralfunding (also applies to fores tation and subs titu tionmanagement pro jects )

– Main tain C dens ity , up to300 t C/ha

– Reduce s lash and burnagriculture / ranching – Promote sus tainab le fores t management

– Main tain b iodivers ity , so ilcons ervation and

– Increase field and satellitemonitoring waters hed benefits

– Reduce fores t fires – Enact fores t cons ervation leg is lation (includ ing banson logging)

– Improve logging techniques – Eliminate s ubs idies for activities that encouragedefores tation (cattle ranch ing, min ing, agricultu re, etc.)

Fuel W ood Conservation – Inves tment incen tives – Main tain C dens ity , upand Subs titu tion – Licens ing /regu lation of s tandards to 300 t C/ha– Improved s toves – Government research , development, demons tration and

dis s emination– Poten tial to reduceunsus tainably extracted

– Charcoal k ilns fuel woodUse of Recycled and More – Tax incen tives to indus try – Main tain C dens ity , up

Efficient W ood Products – Labelling of products to 300 t C/ha

– Consumer awarenes s – Main tain b iodivers ity ,

Campaigns so il cons ervation and

waters hed benefits

– Recycling may require

disposal of con taminan ts

from treated wood

products

Technical Options Measures Benefits /Effects

Fores t Practices /Goals – Jo in tly implement pro jects with b ilateral and multilateralfunding (also applies to fores tation and subs titu tionmanagement pro jects )

– Main tain C dens ity , up to300 t C/ha

– Reduce s lash and burnagriculture / ranching – Promote sus tainab le fores t management

– Main tain b iodivers ity , so ilcons ervation and

– Increase field and satellitemonitoring waters hed benefits

– Reduce fores t fires – Enact fores t cons ervation leg is lation (includ ing banson logging)

– Improve logging techniques – Eliminate s ubs idies for activities that encouragedefores tation (cattle ranch ing, min ing, agricultu re, etc.)

Fuel W ood Conservation – Inves tment incen tives – Main tain C dens ity , upand Subs titu tion – Licens ing /regu lation of s tandards to 300 t C/ha– Improved s toves – Government research , development, demons tration and

dis s emination– Poten tial to reduceunsus tainably extracted

– Charcoal k ilns fuel woodUse of Recycled and More – Tax incen tives to indus try – Main tain C dens ity , up

Efficient W ood Products – Labelling of products to 300 t C/ha

– Consumer awarenes s – Main tain b iodivers ity ,

Campaigns so il cons ervation and

waters hed benefits

– Recycling may require

disposal of con taminan ts

from treated wood

products


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There are many state-owned factories under theMinistry of Industry No.1 producing a variety ofconsumer goods such as textiles and garments,foodstuffs and beverages, pharmaceuticals, and etc.There are also several industries under theMinistryof IndustryNo.2.

Therenovationandexpansionof factoriesundertakenbytheMyanmar Industriesof theMinistryof IndustryNo.1 are: fiveMyanma Foodstuff Industries, fourMyanma Pharmaceutical Industries, and twoMyanmarCeramic Industries.CurrentlyMinistryofIndustryNo.1 andNo.2 are combine toMinistry ofIndustry.

The government has established 27 industrial zonessince 1989,most ofwhich are located in large citiessuch asYangon andMandalay. The total number ofestablished factories increased from27,513 in 1988to 60,513 by the end of September 2006. The

factories could not give any information onwastesandwaste disposal includingwastewater althoughmost of these factories especially the breweriesgenerate a lot ofwastewater. From the survey taken,it is observed that a large segment of the industrialcommunity in Myanmar is not fully aware of theindustry-related environmental problems. Pollutionproblems resulting fromgaseouswastes,wastewaterand solid wastes are not regarded as significant bymost industriesas informationabout thesemattersarenot available due to the lack ofmonitoring facilitiesfor assessingwater and land pollution regularly andcomprehensively.

GHG emission reduction

Policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in thewaste sectormaybedifferentiated into twostrategies.Oneis theminimizationofwasteandmaximizationofrecycling programs to proactively prevent the

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greenhouse gas emitted from the generation anddecomposition of waste. The other is the expansionof environmental facilities for treatment to reducegreenhouse gas emissions from the unavoidablygenerated waste.

To mitigate the primarygeneration of waste, a majorsource of methane emission, policies to minimizewaste are being implemented. To minimize waste atits generation stage, Guidelines forWaste Reductionat Works, indicating the responsibilities of the wasteproducers, are needed. At the distribution stage,policies to improve the packing materials are beingimplemented so that theycould berecycled or reusedespecially in MandalayandYangon. Furthermore, atthe final consumption stage, allocation of wastetreatment expenses to the waste producers (volume-basedwastefeesystem),efficientmanagementoffoodwaste and food waste policies for minimizing wasteare needed.

Recycling of plastic wastes, reuse and recycling ofwood and agricultural residues are also beingpromoted in recent years. Recycling of waste papers,rubber goods, broken glass wares, steel and variousmetals, broken plastic and steel pipes, etc are beingdone in Myanmar long before 3Rs concept has beenintroduced global wide.

Appropriate mitigation strategies for municipalsolid waste(i) Producer responsibility systemThe Extended Producer Responsibility System topromote the reuse and recycling of waste at themanufacturing stage should be implemented. Itrequires the manufacturers to be responsible for thewaste generated during the production process.Furthermore, for manufactures of resource wastesuch as paper, glass containers, plastic, iron & steel,businesses with a certain production scale and higherand designated businesses devoted to resourcerecycling, acertainquota for the useof waste resourceas material must be met. In addition, the governmentneeds to supportdomestic recycling industry, provideloan support for the installation of recycling facilitiesand development technology.Furthermore, to expandthe consumption of recycled products, publicinstitutions must be the first to purchase productsmanufactured from recycled material.

Waste minimization and recycling policy has to beimplemented. A certain amount of waste isunavoidablygenerated.Asameasure,Myanmar needto expand the installation of Basic EnvironmentFacilities to minimize greenhouse gas emissionsthrough sound and adequate waste treatment ofwastes that have been unavoidablygenerated.

Reduction on greenhouse gas emissions can beachieved through systematic treatment of sewagecollected fromhouseholdsandfactories.Furthermore,to treat the high density industrial wastewatergenerated from factory concentrated areas such asindustrial complexes, waste water treatment facilitysites are necessary.

Greenhouse gas emissions from waste are expectedto increase annually between 2000 and 2020. Thewaste management policy instituted by Myanmargovernment, which proposes more landfills andincineration, is expected to increase emissionsof CO2and N2O from waste incineration and landfills.

However, the growth rate by gas is expected to varydepending on the changes in waste components.Therefore, the proportion of greenhouse gasesemissions fromincinerationisprojected tocontinuallyincrease, while the proportion of emissions fromlandfills is estimated to decrease.

(ii) Payment system for wasteGreenhousegasemissionsfromindustrialwastewater,which is influenced bythe amountof industrial waterconverted into waste water, are also estimated toshow a slow growth rate. Therefore, the proportionof greenhouse gas emissions from domestic sewageand industrial waste water in the waste are projectedto slowlydecline.

To provide guarantee to effective waste treatment,Myanmar needs to set up a payment system for wastedischarge run byCityDevelopment Committee. Thenotice requiresall fees leviedshouldbeusedforwastecollection, transport and treatment, and as asupplement to the investment and operation expanseof waste treatment facilities. The reform of wastemanagementsystemandcompetitionmechanismneedto be introduced and a bidding process to be used


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for theselection of qualified enterprises running civilwaste treatment.

(iii) Pricing system and managementmechanism

Theproposal forindustrializingmunicipal sewageandwaste treatment requires reform of thepricingsystemand management mechanism of sewage and garbagetreatment, encouragesvarious entities to invest in andrun waste treatment, and gradually build up aninvestment, financing and operation managementsystem in consistent with market mechanism.Proposals are also needed to encourage wasterecovery facilities to be built as well as a costcompensation and incentive pricing system.

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Chapter 6Development and Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technologies

Environmentally Sound Technologies(ESTs) aretechnologies that” protect the environment, are lesspolluting, use all resources in a more sustainablemanner, recycle more of their wastes and products,and handle residual wastes in a more acceptablemanner than the technologies for which they aresubstitutes”. EnvironmentallySound Technologiestherefore,havethepotential forsignificantlyimprovedenvironmental performance relative to othertechnologies.

Article 4.1 (c) of the UNFCCC stated that all partiesshall promote and co-operate in the development,application and diffusion, including transfer oftechnologies, practices and processes that control,reduce or prevent anthropogenic emissions ofgreenhouse gases not controlled by the MontrealProtocol in all relevant sectors, including the energy,the transport, the industry, the agriculture, the forestryand the waste management sectors. It was also statedinArticle 4.5 that the developed country Parties andother developed Parties included inAnnex II shalltake all practicable steps to promote, facilitate andfinance, as appropriate, the transfer of, or access to,ESTs and know-how to other Parties, particularlydevelopingcountry.

Being a developing countrydepending mainlyon theprimary sector such as agriculture, livestock andfisheries, and forestry, Myanmar is vulnerable toclimate change.At the same time, as the industrialsector hasbeen expandingsince the last two decades,Myanmar also has the potential for GHG emissions.Therefore, the transfer and development of ESTs areimportant for adaptation as well as for mitigation andprevention purposes.

6.1. Technology Needs Assessment

In order to identify EST need for mitigation of, andadaptation to climate change, Technology NeedsAssessment (TNA) was carried out by the NationalCommission for EnvironmentalAffairs (MOECAF)under the INC project.

According to the TNA, a large segment of theindustrial community in Myanmar is not fullyawareof the industry-related environmental problems. Dueto the fact that air, water and land pollutions havenever been regularlyor comprehensivelymonitoredso far, information and data on pollution problemsarising from gaseous wastes, waste water and solidwastes are not available to the industrial sector nor tothe public. Thus, these problems are merelyregardedas insignificant by most people concerned. Manyindustries surveyedare also not familiarwith the termESTs and do not know the advantages or benefitsthat can be gained from using ESTs.

It was also found that except for new plants andfactories set up in recent years, many factories arestill using old machines and obsolete technologies.Their boilers, ventilation system, factory layout andwaste disposable systems are in need of upgrading.

Most industrial zones lack basic infrastructure andmodern facilities.Amajor problem of the industriesin the industrial zones is the lack of constant powersupply. Frequent power failure has made manyfactories to keep and use power generators that usediesel or gasoline. These generators cause noisepollution, emit hazardous gases and increase the costof production. Individual or central waste watertreatment system and proper waste water disposalfacilities are also lacking in most industrial zones.Alarge number of vehicles including trucks and lorriesused for the delivery of raw materials andmanufactured goods are old emitting a lot of smokeand exhaust gases.

Research and development on ESTs includingendogenous technologies are carried out only on asmall scale. Since recent years, alternativeenergyIfossil fuel-savingtechnologieshavebeenbeingresearched and developed. These include researchand development (R & D) on bio-diesel,

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bio-ethanol, bio-gas, bio-briquettes, CNG vehicles,solar stoves and fuel efficient stoves.

Recycling of plastic wastes, re-use and recycling ofwood and agricultural residues are also beingpromoted. Waste papers, rubber goods, broken glasswares, broken plastic and steel pipes, waste metals,rusted steel and iron, etc, have being recycled inMyanmar long before reduce, reuse and recycle(3Rs) concept was introduced worldwide. When anold building is dismantled, all the good buildingmaterials are resold and reused. Old cars arereconditioned and reused. Virtually, almost all therecyclable wastes in the countryare recycled as muchas possible, however, there is a need for moreadvanced recycling technology.

As theenvironmental awareness is risinggraduallyinthe country in recent years, some private and publicorganizations have been conducting research anddevelopment on eco-housing and eco-transportationto save energy and raw materials. Research anddevelopment relatingtoV&Ahavealsobeen initiatedin theagriculture, livestock, fisheriesandhealthsectorsbut, R&D needs to be promoted in all the sectors.

Most of the entrepreneurs considered that theenvironmental protection measures including theadoption of ESTs incurred additional costs and extrainvestment. From the TNAsurvey, it was found thatthere are also many industries which have greatinterest in securing ESTs. But, for most industries,especiallythe small and medium enterprises (SMEs),there are financial and technical barriers to adopt oradapt thecleanerproductiontechnologiesor theESTs.Therefore, financial and technical support, as well aseconomic and financial incentives will be needed forthe application of the ESTs to those industries. Someindustries surveyed also indicated that there was aneedfordevelopinganenvironmentpolicythatwouldpromote transfer and application of the ESTs. It isfound that in most private and government ownedindustries there are no separate or special funds forenvironment programs.

When the TNA questionnaires were distributed tovarious typesof industries includingthoserelatedwithV&A, it was not possible to include in thesequestionnaires a list of ESTs in order to ensure the

selection of the most preferred technologies.Therefore, the industrieswithnoknowledgeoraccessto EST information were not able to identifyspecifically their preferred technologies. Onlya fewindustries stated their needs for a certain type oftechnologies, machineries and equipments.Nevertheless,althoughtheycouldnot identifyspecificESTs, mostof them mentioned that theyrequired 3Rstechnologies as well as final disposal technologiesincludingincineration technologies.

From the present TNA and the pilot TNA carriedout incooperationwith theNewEnergyandIndustrialTechnologyDevelopment Organization (NEDO) ofJapan, it was found that most ministries and theindustries preferred technologies shown inTable 6.1.

With regard to the ESTneeds forV&A, the responsereceived from the ministries and industries were notso specificalthough most of themstated their concernabout theimpendingimpactsofclimatechange.Basedon their concern, the following EST needs could beidentified.

1. Highefficiencyfloodcontrolling technology2. Water and soil preservation technology3. Technology for observation and pre-

warning against floods and droughts4. Technology for observation and pre-

warningagainst agriculturecalamity5. Agriculturebiotechnology6. Agricultureseedlingtechnology7. Technologyfor observation, pre-warning

and forecast of sea level rise, coastal andmarineenvironment

8. High standard dyke and embankmentconstruction technology

9. Technologies for prevention and treatmentof desertification, recoveryof soildeterioration.

10. Other relevant technologies for protectionof biodiversityvulnerable to climatechange.

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Table 6.1: Preferred technologies of ministries and industries

1.Solar powergeneration

1.Rehabilitation ofrefineries

1.Making boiler plantsmore efficient

1.Spread of low pollutionvehicles , clean energyautomobiles

2.Wind powergeneration

2.Rehabilitation ofpetrochemical plants

2.Introduction of highefficiency lighting

2.Promoting increased useof eco-cement and readymade cement

3.Waste powergeneration

3.Rehabilitation of dye-works

3.Making electrichousehold equipmentsmore efficient

3.Fuel conversion of powerplant, switching crude oilor coal to natural gas

4.Utilization ofenergy frommethanefermentation

4. Rehabilitation of foodfactories

4.Making buildingsmore energy efficient

4.Promoting increased useof biodegradable plastics .

5.Utilization of bio-mass energy suchas from wood chaff

5.Rehabilitation of steelmills

5.Making water andsewage treatmentplants more energyefficient

6.Medium and smallscale Hydraulicpower generation

6.Rehabilitation of cementmills

7.Rehabilitation of pulpand paper mills

8.Introduction of energysaving equipments in allthe above-mentionedindustries

9.Repair and optimizationof gas pipelines

10.Methane gas recoveryfrom coal mines

11.Associated gasrecovery from oil fields

12.Reduction oftransmiss ion &distribution and losses ofelectric power

Renewable energytechnologies

Energy saving technologiesEnergy efficienttechnologies

Cleaner technologies

1.Spread of low pollutionvehicles , clean energyautomobiles

2.Promoting increased useof eco-cement and readymade cement

3.Fuel conversion of powerplant, switching crude oilor coal to natural gas

4.Promoting increased useof biodegradable plastics .

1.Making boiler plantsmore efficient

2.Introduction of highefficiency lighting

3.Making electrichousehold equipmentsmore efficient

4.Making buildingsmore energy efficient

5.Making water andsewage treatmentplants more energyefficient

1.Rehabilitation ofrefineries

2.Rehabilitation ofpetrochemical plants

3.Rehabilitation of dye-works

4. Rehabilitation of foodfactories

5.Rehabilitation of steelmills

6.Rehabilitation of cementmills

7.Rehabilitation of pulpand paper mills

8.Introduction of energysaving equipments in allthe above-mentionedindustries

1.Solar powergeneration

2.Wind powergeneration

3.Waste powergeneration

4.Utilization ofenergy frommethanefermentationfermentationf

5.Utilization of bio-mass energy suchas from wood chaff

6.Medium and smallscale Hydraulicpower generation

9.Repair and optimizationof gas pipelines

10.Methane gas recoveryfrom coal mines

11.Associated gasrecovery from oil fields

12.Reduction oftransmiss ion &distribution and losses ofelectric power

Renewable energytechnologies

Energy saving technologiesEnergy efficienttechnologies

Cleaner technologies


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It should be mentioned here that if further TNA couldbe made, the most appropriate and suitable ESTscould be identified. This could facilitate the transferand development of ESTs. There has been no priorTNA project in Myanmar supported by GEF. Thepresent TNA was undertaken by the MOECAF andthe TNA surveyquestionnaires were prepared bytheMOECAF’sowninitiatives.TheTNAwasconductedwith limited financial and technical capacities. It istherefore recommended that the GEF supports anadditional TNA project to enhance and update thepresent TNAefforts of the MOECAF.

It is obvious from the TNAsurveythat there isa greatneed for environmentally sound technologies inMyanmar for both mitigation and adaptationpurposes.At present the applicationand developmentof EST is not so easy as there are various financial,technical, institutional and infrastructural constraints.Therefore, necessarysupports from the governmentas well as from the multilateral and bilateral sourcesare muchneededfor the transferofESTs toMyanmar.

The following are the most needed EST projects tobe undertaken under the CDM; bilateral; andmultilateral funding.

1. Wind power generation project2. Waste power generation project3. Utilization of energyfrom

methanefermentation4. Rehabilitation of dye-works, introduction of

energysavingequipments5. Makingboiler plants more efficient6. Spread of low-pollution vehicles, clean

energyautomobiles7. Transport modal shift8. Solar power generation9. Rehabilitation of petrochemical plants, use

of energysaving equipments10. Fuel conversion and fuel switching.11. Promoting increased use of biodegradable

plastics12. Rehabilitation of refineries, introduction of

energysavingequipments13. Introduction of new transportation systems

(dual mode bus system, etc)

With respect to V&Athe following projects can beconsidered for bilateral; and multilateral funding.

1. Highefficiencyfloodcontrolling technologyproject

2. Water and soil preservation technologyproject

3. High standard dyke and embankmentconstruction technologyproject

4. Technology for observation and pre-warning against floods and droughts

5. Protection of biodiversityvulnerable toclimate change project

6.2. A Database for ESTs

The establishmentofauser friendlydatabase for ESTis essential for the development and transfer of ESTsto Myanmar. The EST Information System (ESTIS)that has been developed by UNEP’s InternationalEnvironmental Technology Center (IETC) can beadopted. But, first and foremost, there is a need tolearn the use of this system.Appropriate staff fromthe MOECAF can be trained at the IETC. Theyshould also participate in relevant sub-regional,regional and internationalworkshopsandconferencesto share experience with other countries.

So far, capacity building for the MOECAF staff forthe establishment of EST data -base has not yet beencarried out, as the center is not yet ready to providethe required ESTIS training. At present, EST database is being developed at the MOECAF using theinformation and data obtained through TNA. Thedifficulties encounteredat present with regard to ESTinclude the lack of training on ESTIS, the lack ofinformation on ESTs and the lack of experience onESTIS.


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6.3. Establishment of TechnologyInformat ion Network andInformation Clearing House

A technology information network and informationclearing house on EST are being initiated by theMOECAF.Networkmembersfromtheministriesandthe departments concerned as well as from all relatedorganizations have been identified. They have alsobeen requested to provide relevant information onclimate change mitigation and adaptation measuresto share with the network members. All usefulinformation on ESTs will also be relayed to themthrough the clearing house based at MOECAF.

At present, there is limited internet facility fornetworking within the country or with the outsideworld. Networkingwithin the countrycan be carriedout through other means such as dissemination andsharing of information bypost or office dispatch andthrough convening of regular network meetings toexchange information, views and ideas. Networkingwith regional and international organizations wouldbe somewhat difficult.

There are several difficulties with respect to asuccessful implementation of the technologyinformation network and information clearinghouse.These include among others: inadequate internetfacility, limited climate change related information attheMOECAFtoproperlyfunctionasaclearinghouseand limited practice of sharing information amongdepartmental personnel.


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Chapter 7Research and Systematic Observation

7.1. Introduction

The Government of Myanmar, acknowledg-ing the importance of meteorological, clima-tological and hydrological information upon thesocioeconomic development activities ofthe country, created Department of Meteoro-logyand Hydrology (DMH) in 1965 byrenaming the preceding Burma MeteorologicalDepartment (BMD) which was established on the1 April, 1937.

DMH, under the Ministry of Transport, is entrustedwith the work of meteorological, hydrological andseismological relatedmeasurements,dataarchiveandissue of bulletins, warnings and public education.DMH upholds six objectives:

To exchange information with other centerson weather, water and earthquakes,

Tosafeguardthepeople fromlosingtheir livesand property by issuing the early warningsand bulletins for all natural hazards relatedto weather, water,flood and earthquake,

To expand public awareness and educationprogramsonnaturaldisasters,naturalhazardsand environmental issues,

To monitor on climate change, waterresources, air and water qualityof Myanmar,

Toassistall governmentorganizations,NGOsand stakeholders providing weather,hydrological and seismological information,and

To assist all national projects effectively bycapacity building through WMO,International/Regional/Bilateralcooperation.

There are six technical divisions in theD e pa r t me n t su c h a s ;M e t eo r o l o g i ca l dAeronautical Meteorological Division SeismologicalDivision and Instruments and CommunicationDivision .DMHissuccessfullyoperatingits functionsand responsibilitiesunder the close supervisionof theDirector General.

Literature reviewMyanmar climate dataare analyzedfrom timeto timeby various experts. In 1985, “Agricultural Atlasfor Burma” (Myanmar) were published underWMO/UNDP Project BUR/80/016. Most of thematerials used in the atlas was based on 20 yearaveragesexcept somestations likeSittway,Mandalay,Yangon and Myeik (Mergui) where the rainfallobservation started about the end of the 19th century.These stations somehow represent the western,central, deltaic and southern parts of Myanmarrespectively.

In year 1997, HtayAung analyzed the climatic data,i.e. rainfall, temperature and storms, and summarizedthe major findings in “Climate change in the Unionof Myanmar”.He highlighted that the averagerainfalldepth over Myanmar is generallynegative since theyear 1979. The exceptional years were 1985 and1996.Assessmentof themonsoonrainfalloftheUnionof Myanmar revealed that the rainfall anomaly from1951–1980 average was almost negative since theyear 1979. The annual number of drought departurefrom the 1951-1980 average showed a positiveanomaly since the year 1980 except for the years1985, 1990 and 1995. Moreover there is a generalwarming trend of mean annual temperatures in thewhole country since the year 1979. The averageincreases for the periods of 1979- 1994 and 1951-1980 were 0.2 °C. The total number of storms anddepressions that formedannuallyin theBayofBengaland Andaman Sea during 1984 and 2000 hadreducedsignificantly.

In year 2002, Tun Lwin made excellent climatereview paper “The Climate Changes overMyanmar during the Last Five Decades”. In thepaper, he emphasized on changes of SouthwestMonsoon characters and activities over Myanmar.The monsoon onsets were late starting from 1977 inheat indices. There existed two distinct phases – oneprior to and the other after 1977. The period before1977 was somewhat a wet phase and the period after

Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation

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2012

1977was a dryphase. During the period from1877to 2000, there were a total of seven years duringwhich the storm frequencies were the lowestnumbering 4 per year. Out of total seven years, sixwere observed in the 1990s.

The fact that most of the El Nino episodes, whichoccurred more frequently in 1980s and 1990s,probably accounted for the phase change in 1977,anditwasobservedinannual temperatureandrainfall.ThestudyonclimatechangeoverMyanmar (LwinT.,2002) clearly reveals that there has been sharp rise intemperaturesandsignificant falls inrainfallduringandaroundmajorepisodesofElNino.Highermaximumtemperatures, later onset, earlierwithdrawal, shorterdurationofmonsoonseasonanddeficitmonsoon rainhad been observed in most of the El Nino years.Ahigherpotential fordrought andasubstantialdecreasein the number of annual storm frequency were alsoobserved in El Nino years.

During theprevious40 years, all ElNino–SouthernOscillation (ENSO) years resulted in large deficientrainfall in Myanmar. In the 1997-98 ENSO year,excessive 24 hour rainfalls, record-breaking24hourmaximumtemperatures, largedeficientannual rainfalland unprecedented floods occurred in parts of thecountry, particularly in thedeltaic andsouthernparts.( Thaw S. H. and Pike, 1998). All ENSO yearscoincided with these long dry spells but otherwere

due to thebreakor failureofmonsoon.Theyear1998was found tohave the longest dryspell ever recordedin the countryand the floods inmajor rivers set newhighest water level records and longest duration ofstay above danger levels. In 1999, a study on ElNino and its impact on the climateofMyanmarwascarriedoutby TunLwin.Hehighlightedthat theannualstorm frequency in the precedingyears of peak ofElNino events were below normal. However, duringthe followingyearsof thepeakofElNino events, theannual storm frequencies were found to be belownormal tonormal.

7.2. Observing Stations

Myanmar has 161 observing stations related toweather and climate information as shown in (Table7.1)The stations are not evenlydistributed.Most ofhestationswere setup,based upon the favorablelogistic conditions, rather than technicals equirements.Therefore the stations are denser in accessible plainareas than mountainous remote areas. In theWorldWeatherWatch (WWW)program,27meteorologicalstations areparticipating.Themeteorological stationsatYangon,MandalayandSittwayare included in theGlobal Surface Network (GSN) stations. The sealevel stations atMawlamyine and Sittwayare listedin theGlobalObservingSeaStations (GLOSS).Thespatialdistributions

Sr. No. Type of stations Quantity Remarks

1 Meteorological stations 63 Including 27WWW stations and 3 GSN stations

2 Meteorological andHydrological stations

39

3 Hydrological stations 30

4 Agrometeorological stations 18

5 Cyclone detection radarstation

1

6 GLOSS stations 2

7 Solar Radiation stations 5 Joint project with ThaiMeteorologicalDepartment

8 Automatic RaingaugeNetwork

3 Gwa, Thayawady and Shwegyin along the 18o Nin the GEWEXAsian Monsoon Experiment withTokyo Metropolitan University, Japan.

Sr. No. Type of stations QuantitySr. No. Type of stations Quantity Remarks

1 Meteorological stations 63 Including 27WWW stations and 3 GSN stations

2 Meteorological andHydrological stations

39

3 Hydrological stations 30

4 Agrometeorological stations 18Agrometeorological stations 18

5 Cyclone detection radarstation

1

6 GLOSS stations 2

7

8 Automatic Raingauge

Solar Radiation stations 5 Joint project with ThaiMeteorologicalDepartment

Solar Radiation stations 5 Joint project with ThaiMeteorologicalSolar Radiation stations 5 Joint project with ThaiMeteorological

Gwa, Thayawady and Shwegyin along the 18o Nin the GEWEXAsian Monsoon Experiment withTokyo Metropolitan University, Japan.

38 Automatic RaingaugeNetwork


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Table 7.1: Observing stations

2012

of selected meteorological and hydrological stationsare shown in (Figure 7.1 ) and (Figure 7.2 ) Solarradiation is being monitored at Kaba-Aye, Pyay,Meiktila, Mandalayand Shwebo under the projectjointly undertaken by Thailand and Myanmar onrenewable energy and energy conservation sinceAugust 2008.

Acid rain analysis is being carried out at the DMHOffice, Mandalay for Upper Myanmar stations andatHydrologicalDivision ofDMHOffice,YangonforLower Myanmar stations. River flow and sedimentdischarge are monitored as control checking toreadjust the flow-discharge curve of the rivers.Waterquality monitoring is also carried out at the selectedriver sites as programmed.

INDIA

CHINA

LAOS

TH AILAND

BAY OF

BENGAL Y ANGON

BANGLADESH

N

Hkamti

Homalin

KathaB hamo

Kalewa

Mo nywaM andalay

P yin man a

Bago

Putao

Myitky ina

Lashio

Taun ggyiKengtu ng

Sitt way

Kyau kp hyu Lo ikaw

Min galad onHp a-an

Mawlamyine

Yay

D aweiCoco Islan d

M yeik

Kawth ong

Path ein

Taungoo

Hakha

M eikt ilaM inbu

Thand wePyay

Figure 7.1: Meteorological stations


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Figure 7.2: Locations of hydrological stations and river forecasting stations in Myanmar

7.3. Data Publications

Data collection and archiveFor real time meteorological/ hydrological datacollection from out-stations, telephones and SingleSide Band(SSB) transceiversare used. Confirmationof the data is made when the register books areobtained through public mail service.

Then qualitycontrolof the data isprocessed manuallyby experienced observers. Data archive is carriedout manuallyusingCLImat COMputing (CLICOM)format for meteorological data and GO6 format forhydrological data, which are the standard formats ofWMO.

Climate/Hydrological data publicationsDepartment of Meteorology and Hydrology hasbeen publishing Climatological data regularly. The1950-60 climate record of three climate elements for(26) stations was published in 1962; the 1961- 1970record for (48) stations in 1982; the 1971- 1980record for 57 stations in 1984; the 1981- 1990 recordfor 60 stations in 1992; and; the 1991- 2000 recordfor 60 stations in 2005. Mean monthly rainfalls forthe period 1947-1972 including 58 stations wereprepared in 1972. Five days, ten days and monthly

mean accumulated rainfall (inches) from June toOctober of 58 stations were published in 1973.

The climate data from 60 stations for the decade1981-1990 was published in 1992. It containedmeteorological elements suchas pressure, maximumand minimum temperature, wet bulb temperature,relativehumidity,andmonthlyrainydaysand24hoursmaximum rainfall. In 2005, the 1991-2000climatological data from 60 stations was published.It contained the maximum wind of the month inaddition to the elements published for the decade,1981-1990.

Normal values of meteorological data for pressure,temperature, relative humidity and rainfall of 36stations for the period 1961-1990 were published in1996. Moreover extreme values of 24- hourtemperature and rainfall are updated as required asshown in (Table 7.2).


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Aspecial study on floods, associatedmeteorological phenomena and the costs of theflood-induced damage, provided by the Relief andResettlementDepartment, are included in the yearlypublishedVolume II as a separate section.

Climate/Hydrological reviewsInSittway, the long-termaverageannual rainfallwas5011 mm. For the period 1861-1901, the rainfallwas below the average, for 1902-1925 above theaverage, and for 1926-1983 also below the average.In Mandalay, generally, 1892-1947 was a wetepoch, 1948-1967was a dry epoch. But, the 1949-1954wasexceptionallydrywithabout25%belowtheaverage annual rainfall. The 1968-1978 was a wetperiodwhile1979-1983 showeda trendof dryperioddue to theverydryyearsof1979and1983. The long-termaverageof theMandalaystationwas912mm.InYangon, the long-termannualrainfall recordfor1870-1922generallyindicatedadryepoch, followedbywetspell for sixty-two years until 1983. The long termaverage normal rainfall was 2629mmduring 1870-1983. In Myeik, there were three short term dry

epochs. They were observed in 1872-1880, 1913-1922and1951-1959.The remainingperiodshad theannual average rainfallshoveringabout the long termaverageof4137mm(“AgriculturalAtlas forBurma”,DMH, 1985).

Climate analysis for the period 1961 to 1990Climate ofMyanmar for each of fourteenStates andRegionsbasedon thefeaturesdepictedfor1961-1990are briefly mentioned below following the WMOdefinitionofnormal.

- InKachin State, the rainfall departures in1983-1998 were 2% above the previousaverage value during 1950-1997 atMyitkyina. The temperatures were about0.5°Cwarmerduring1991-1997.The regionis the upper catchments of theAyeyarwadyRiver. There were 7 floods in 41 years atMtitkyina.

- InChinState, theaverageannual rainfall inthe period 1981-1996 was -15% to 25%below the previous average. The

Table 7.2: List of climate data publications

No. PeriodNo. ofStations

Climate Data Elements* IssuedYear

1 1950-1960 26 Monthly climatic data T, RF, RH 1962

2 1961-1970 48 Do T, RF,RH,P 1982

3 1971-1980 57 Do T, RF,RH,P 1984

4 1981-1990 60 Do T, RF,RH,P 1992

5 1991-2000 60 Do T, RF RH,P,W 2005

6 1961-1990 36 Normal climatic data T, RF,RH,P 1996

7 1961-1990 44Normal rainfall for statesand divisions ofMyanmar

RF 1999

8Fromopeningdate to 1990

27Pentad mean, maximumand minimum temperature

T 2001

9 1947-1972 58Annual and monthlyrainfall of Myanmar

RF 1972

10 1951-1970 58

Five days, Ten days andmonthly meanaccumulated rainfall fromJune to October

RF 1973

No. PeriodNo. ofStations

Climate Data Elements* IssuedYear

1 1950-1960 26 Monthly climatic data T, RF, RH 1962

2 1961-1970 481961-1970 48 Do T, RF,RH,P 1982

3 1971-1980 57 Do T, RF,RH,P 1984

4 1981-1990 601981-1990 60 Do T, RF,RH,P 1992

5 1991-2000 60 Do T, RF RH,P,W 2005

6

7

8

9

10

1961-1990 36 Normal climatic data T, RF,RH,P 19961961-1990 36 Normal climatic data T, RF,RH,P 19961961-1990 36 Normal climatic data T, RF,RH,P 19961961-1990 36 Normal climatic data T, RF,RH,P 19961961-1990 36 Normal climatic data T, RF,RH,P 19961961-1990 36 Normal climatic data T, RF,RH,P 1996

RF 1999RF 1999Normal rainfall for statesand divisions ofMyanmar

1961-1990 441961-1990 44

2001TPentad mean, maximumand minimum temperature

27Fromopeningdate to 1990

RF 1972RF 1972Annual and monthlyrainfall of Myanmar

1947-1972 581947-1972 58

RF 1973RF 1973

Five days, Ten days andmonthly meanaccumulated rainfall fromaccumulated rainfall fromJune to OctoberJune to October

1951-1970 581951-1970 581951-1970 58


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2012 Chapter 7 Research and Systematic Observation

temperatures in the 1981-1990 were 0.2°Cto -2.2 °C cooler in all seasons compared toprevious average (Aung H., 1997).

- In Shan State, the rainfall in the 1961-1990period was 3%-5% less than the previousnormalvalues.Themeantemperaturehasbeenabove the 1961-1990 average particularlyall the years after 1990. But, the meantemperatureatTaunggyi wasbelowthepreviousnormalvalues in1993 and 1994.

- InRakhine State, theannual rainfalls during1981-1995 showed a decrease of 19%below the previous normal. At Sittway,temperature anomaliesduring1947-1995arepositive, particularlyafter 1975. This regionis often hit by cyclones from the Bay ofBengal. Eight severe cyclones have crossedthe area within 26 year since 1967.

- In Kayah State, the average rainfalls atLoikaw station during 1961-1990 wereabout 10% less than the previous normal .The annual mean temperature departureswere generally positive during 1986-1998.This area is less prone to natural disasters.

- In Bago Region, the 1961-1990 averageannual rainfall was changed by+1% to -9%compared to previous average. The highestmaximum temperaturewas recorded in 1905was 108°F (42.2oC) at Taungoo and itremained so until 1997 But, new record of109.2°F (42.9°C) in 1998 was observed dueto theimpactofElNinophenomenum.(AungH., 1999)

- In Mon State, the average annual rainfall forthe period 1981-1994 was 3-6% below theprevious normal. The mean temperature in1991-1995 was 0.5°C higher than the 1961-1990 temperature.

- In Kayin State, the average annual rainfallduring 1981-1997 was 8-14% below theprevious normal. Temperature was up to1.0°C warmer than the 1965-80 average at

Pa-an station. Thanlwin river flood reachedthe highest level of 922cm inAugust 1991.

- In Sagaing Region, the average annualrainfall during1961-1990 wasslightlybelowthe previous normal.The departure of annualmean temperature during 1991-1998 wasgenerally positive compared to the 1955-1990 mean value. It was 1.5°C above themean value in 1998 at Katha station. TheRegionexperiencedextensivefloodsfromtheChindwinRiverandAyeyarwadyRiver,aboutonce to twice per year. The floods in theregion were attributed to successive floodsin the lower reaches of the rivers, down toAyeyarwady Delta. The heavy rains due toremnants of severe cyclones that crossedRakhine coast induced flash floods in theSagaing Region .

- In Mandalay Region, the average annualrainfall during (1981-1995) was 7-20%lower than the previous period. Annualtemperature anomalies from 1983-1995were all positive. It reached 1.5°C above theaverage in 1994, at Mandalay. The region isprone to flood caused by the AyeyarwadyRiver. Flood frequencyhas been indicating adeclining trend at Nyaung U station and theRegion was worst affected by the 1997-98El-Nino. In 1998, the Region received everrecorded least rainfall. Thehighestmaximumtemperatures ever recorded were alsoobserved at some places in the Region .

- In Magway Region , the average annualrainfall during 1981-1995 was below theprevious normal by 1% to 17%. Annualtemperature difference between 1961-1990period and previous period was only+0.1°C.The Region experiencedAyeyarwadyRiverfloods 24 times in 32 years with the highestflood record in 1974. The Region was alsoaffected by remnants of typhoon from theSouth ChinaSea and those fromthe cyclonesin the Bayof Bengal.

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2012

- InAyeyarwady Region , the average annualrainfall in 1981-1998 showed small positivedeparture from the previous values.As formeanannual temperature, itwascontinuouslyabove the 1950-1980 average until 1998.

- InYangon Region , the rainfall during1981-1995 has increased by about 4% above thepreviousnormal.The temperaturedepartureswere positive from the 1950-1980 meanvalues, particularlybetween 1977 and 1994;at times departure was up to 0.6°C.As theRegion has some coastal areas, it isvulnerable to the effects of severe cyclones.Damage due to the floods was minimal.

- In Tanintharyi Region , the 1981-95annual average rainfall was 3-7% below thepreviousvalues.Themean temperatureswere-0.1°C to +0.5°Cabove the previous normal.This region is often affected by the typhoonremnants from the South China Sea.But lossand damage were minimal compared toRakhine State.

Recent observed climate change in 1991-2000In Kachin State, Chin State and Mandalay Region ,annual mean temperatures had increased by 0.4°C,0.1°C and 0.2°C, and annual average rainfalls hadalso increased by 4 mm, 160 mm and 78 mmrespectively. But in Sagaing and Bago Regions,temperatures were decreased by 0.2C° and 0.5°C,and annual average rainfalls had decreased by6 mmand 65 mm respectively.

In Magway Region , temperature had decreased by0.8°C, a large value which needs further verificationand the average annual rainfall had decreased by 28mm.

In Rakhine State, while temperature remainedpracticallyunchanged, rainfall had increased by339mm.

In Shan State, temperature had decreased in easternpart by 0.5°C and increased by 0.1°C and 0.6°C inthe northern and southern parts respectively. Therainfalls haddecreasedby9 mm, 46 mmand118mmintheeastern,northernandsouthernpartsoftheregion.

InAyeyarwady Region , the trends were increasingin temperature by 0.1°C and rainfall by 54 mm.InYangon Region , while temperature had decreasedby0.2°C, rainfall had increased by72 mm. In KayahState both temperature and rainfall had increased by0.5°C and 2 mm.

In Kayin State, Mon State and Tanintharyi Region,temperatures had increased by 0.3°C, 0.1°C and0.2°C, with increases in average annual rainfalls by303 mm, 135 mm and 204 mm respectively.

During the period 1965-2000, heat indices showedthreetypesofphase,namely: (i) achangefromcoolingto warming, (ii) a change from warming to cooling,and(iii)achangefromlesswarmingtomorewarming.The areas in the northern and central parts located inthehigher latitudeshavea trendchangefromwarmingto coolingstarting from 1977. In the remainingareas,there had been a trend change from cooling towarming though some isolated spots had a trendchangefromlesswarmingtomorewarming.Adistinctrise of area averaged heat indices was noted in 1977and onwards in Myanmar. Annual rainfalls hadincreased generally in the whole countrywithin the10% ofthe normal, except for SagaingRegion , BagoRegion and Shan State.

In general the average annual mean temperatures forthe several selected weather stations revealed anincrease in the 1990s. In 1997, the average annualmean temperature of 17 stations was 0.27°C higherthan the 1951-80average. In 1998, itwas even higher.The averageminimum temperature for the months ofJanuary was 0.45°C higher than that of the Januarymonths of the 1951-1980. In the hottest months, themaximum temperatures were 1.02°C and 1.60°Chigher than those of the 1951-80 inApril and Mayrespectively. A continuous negative anomaly inmonsoon rainfalls were observed during the entireperiod from 1989 to 1998 with an exception of asingle year 1990 which had a weak positive anomaly.Theyear 1998was the worstwith thenegativehighestanomalyduringthelast42years.ThestudyondroughtanomalyinMyanmar showed that droughtyears withmoderate intensitywere more frequent in the 1980sand 1990s. There were 13 positive drought anomalyyears out of 18 years.

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2012

Public informationPublic informationon theextremeevents is preparedand issued as the situation calls for.The climatedataare distributed to various government agencies andprivate users on request.Monthlyweather summaryand annual weather summary are also informed tothe public throughmass media at the end of everymonth and year.

Climate/ Hydrological data distribution andexchangeThe meteorological and hydrological data weredistributed to government agencies and UN localagenciesonrequest.Thedataarealsomadeavailableto private enterprises. Any other agencies andinstituteswhichare interested in theclimatestudycanreceive the data on request. The data are also sent totheASEAN Sub-Committee onMeteorology andGeophysics Data Center,Malaysia on request andCLIMAT data are sent to the World Data Centre,USA.

7.4. Research on Climate Change

Region-wise annual mean temperatureTheannualmean temperatureofMyanmar is lowestwith 15.8oC in the Chin State, the northwestmountainous region followedby19.1oC in theeasternShan State, and it increases to 27.4oC in YangonRegion. It is the highest with 27.5oC in MagwayRegion in the central dryzone of the country for theWMO normal period of 1961-1990. If the longerterm 1951-2007 is considered, the annual meantemperatures generally increase in nine out of 17Sub States and Region s. The rate of warming perdecade is the highest with 0.32oC atHpa-an, KayinState in the southeastern part followed by0.30oC atMonywa, LowerSagaingRegion of the central dryzone. Cooling trends of -0.23oC and -0.16oC perdecade were observed at Magway of MagwayRegion and Bago of Bago Region in the lowerMyanmar region respectively.The trend is shown in(Table 7.3) and (Figures 7.3 and 7.4). There is noappreciable change in six States andRegions,mostlylocated in the southern part of the country.

Table 7.3: Temperature trend till 2007 of Sub-States/Regions ofMyanmar

Since Mean Temp(°C)

Kachin State Myitkyina 24 1951 24.1 0.2

Upper Sagaing Region Hkamti 24 1961 24.1 0.04*

Lower SagaingRegion

Monywa 27.1 1961 27.3 0.3

Mandalay Region Mandalay 27.3 1951 27.5 0.2

Magway Region Magway 27.5 1971 27.2 -0.23 CoolChin State Hakha 15.8 1981 16 0.13

Rakhine State Sittway 25.8 1951 27 0.13

Northern Shan State Lashio 21.8 1951 21.9 0.14

Southern Shan State Taunggyi 19.1 1951 19.4 0.16

Eastern Shan State Kengtung 23.2 1951 23 0.01*

Bago Region Bago 26.9 1951 26.9 -0.16 CoolAyeyarwady Region Pathein 27 1951 27.2 0.08

*

Yangon Region Kaba Aye 27.4 1951 27.4 -0.04*

Kayah State Loikaw 22.3 1951 27.4 -0.04*

Kayin State Hpa-an 27 1961 27.2 0.32

Mon State Mawlamyine 27 1951 27.1 0.14

Tanintharyi Region Dawei 26.6 1951 26.6 -0.01*

Sub-State/ Region StationWMOMeanAnnual Temp( °C)for 1961-1990

Period till 2007Warming (°C)per decade

Since Mean Temp(°C)

Kachin State Myitkyina 24 1951 24.11951 24.1 0.2

Upper Sagaing Region Hkamti 24 1961 24.1 0.04*

Lower Sagaing Monywa 27.1 1961 27.327.1 1961 27.3 0.3

Mandalay Region Mandalay 27.3 1951 27.5 0.2

Magway Region Magway 27.5 1971 27.2 -0.23 Cool27.5 1971 27.2 -0.23 CoolChin State Hakha 15.8 1981 16 0.13

Rakhine State Sittway 25.8 1951 2725.8 1951 27 0.13

Northern Shan State Lashio 21.8 1951 21.9 0.14

Southern Shan State Taunggyi 19.1 1951 19.4 0.1619.1 1951 19.4 0.16

Eastern Shan State Kengtung 23.2 1951 23 0.01*

Bago Region Bago 26.9 1951 26.9 -0.16 Cool26.9 1951 26.9 -0.16 CoolAyeyarwady Region Pathein 27 1951 27.2 0.08

*

Yangon Region Kaba Aye 27.4 1951 27.427.4 1951 27.4 -0.04*

Kayah State Loikaw 22.3 1951 27.4 -0.04*

Kayin State Hpa-an 27 1961 27.2 0.321961 27.2 0.32

Mon State Mawlamyine 27 1951 27.1 0.14

Tanintharyi Region Dawei 26.6 1951 26.626.6 1951 26.6 -0.01*

Sub-State/ Region StationSub-State/ Region StationWMOMeanAnnual Temp( °C)for 1961-1990

Period till 2007Warming (°C)per decade


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2012

Figure 7.3:Annual mean temperature trend (graph) in various Sub-States/RegionsRegion-wise extreme mean temperaturegeat wavesWhenthemaximumtemperaturesexceed9°F(~5ºC)thanthenormalatagivenlocation,DMHdefines themasheatwaves,and theymayextendto theneighboringareas. If the occurrence of the heat wave prolongs,the foremost impact is the scarcityof water. The longduration of the water scarcity causes drought which

further leads to health problems and even the loss oflivesof the livingbeings includinghuman. Infantsandthe aged are particularly affected. Normal socio–economic activities are disrupted in manycases.

During1951-2000, annual meanfrequencies of heatwave occurrence were five in Kachin State, twoeach in northern Shan State, and Magway Region ,

DecadeMeanTemperature of Myitkyina

22.823.023.223.423.623.824.024.224.424.624.8

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decade Year

Mea

nT

empe

ratu

re(°C

)

De cade Mean Temperature of Lashio

21.021.2

21.4

21.621.8

22.022.2

22.422.6

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007DecadeYear

Mea

nTe

mpe

ratu

re(°

C)

Decade Me anTe mpe rature of Mandalay

26.0

26.5

27.0

27.5

28.0

28.5

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decade Year

Mea

nTe

mp

eratu

re(°

C)

Decade MeanTemperature of Mawlamyine

26.4

26.6

26.8

27.0

27.2

27.4

27.6

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decade Year

Mean

Tem

pera

ture

(°C)

DecadeMeanTemperatureofHkamti

23.723.823.924.024.124.224.324.4

1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decade Year

Mean

Tem

per

atu

re(°

C)

Decade Mean TemperatureofMonywa

26.026.5

27.027.5

28.0

28.5

1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007Decade Year

Mea

nTe

mpe

ratu

re(°C

)

DecadeMeanTemperature ofHakha

15.6

15.7

15.8

15.9

16.0

16.1

16.2

1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decade Year

Mean

Tem

pera

ture

(°C)

Decade MeanTemperature ofSittwe

25.025.2

25.425.6

25.826.0

26.2

26.426.6

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decade Year

Mea

nTe

mpe

ratu

re(°C

)

DecadeMean Temperature ofMagway

26.026.226.426.6

26.827.027.227.427.627.8

1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

DecadeYear

Mea

nTe

mpe

ratu

re(°C

)

Decade MeanTemperature ofBago

25.8

26.0

26.2

26.426.6

26.827.0

27.2

27.4

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decade Year

Mea

nTe

mpe

ratu

re(°C

)

Decade MeanTemperature of Pathein

26.2

26.4

26.6

26.8

27.027.2

27.4

27.6

27.8

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

DecadeYear

Mea

nTem

pera

ture

(°C)

Decade MeanTemperature of KabaAye

26.826.927.027.127.227.3

27.427.527.627.7

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decade Year

Mea

nTe

mpe

ratu

re(°C

)

Decade MeanTemperature ofDawei

26.2

26.3

26.4

26.5

26.6

26.7

26.8

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decade Year

Mean

Tem

pera

ture

(°C)

Decade MeanTemperature of Kyaingtong

21.822.022.222.422.622.823.023.223.423.623.8

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

DecadeYear

Mea

nTe

mpe

ratu

re(°

C)Decade MeanTemperature of Taunggyi

18.0

18.5

19.0

19.5

20.0

20.5

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decade Year

Mea

nTe

mpe

ratu

re(°C

)

Decade Mean Temperature of Loikaw

21.0

21.5

22.0

22.5

23.0

23.5

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decade Year

Mea

nTe

mpe

ratu

re(°C

)

DecadeMeanTemperatureofHpa-an

25.5

26.0

26.5

27.0

27.5

28.0

28.5

1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

DecadeYear

Mean

Temp

eratu

re(°C

)


Page 130


Mandalay Region and Lower Sagaing Region , andone each in BagoRegion and Mon State. However,there is no particularplace in States orRegionswhichsuffered heat wave everyyear on regular basis. Heatwave ispracticallyseldomin theremainingStatesandRegions.

Heat waves used to occur during the months fromMarch to June. Seven percent of the annual heatwaves occurred in March in Kachin , Rakhine andnorthern Shan States. For the Dry Zone of CentralMyanmar, heat waves were never experienced inMarch. The heat wave frequency inApril was 23 %of the annual total, and it occurred mostly in KachinState. Thewavesalso occurred innorthernShan State

and the DryZone. The heat wave frequency was thehighest with 50% of the annual total in Maywith themost frequent occurrence in Kachin State andMagway Region . The heat waves were foundspreading from north to south till 15°N parallel. Theareas in lowerMyanmar suffer heat wavesonlyin themonth of May. The annual heat wave frequencywas20% in June. It was found in Kachin, and northernShan States, Dry Zone, and Bago, Ayeyarwady,Yangon and Tanintharyi Regions. Most of the heatwaves are in the range of 9°F -11°F above meanmaximum.

Heat waves with 12°F-15°F higher than the meanmaximumwerefound inKachinState,NorthernShan

Temp trend(°C/decade)

E

N

Figure 7.4:Annual mean temperature trend (contour) in various Sub-States/Regions

Page 131

2012

Page 132


State andDryZone during themonth ofMay. Heatwaves inMay and June usually last for 5 to 6 days.The longestheatwavedurationwas found inYangonfor 12 days fromMay 16 to 27, 1957. Heat waveslasting June 1 - 8 in 1958 were the second longestduration in the country, and theyoccurred inKachinState. Both years were the strongEl Nino years.

The heat waves rarely formed simultaneouslyin twodifferent States/ Regions. Heat waves sometimesspread to the surrounding regions and often cover25%of the country. Heat waves inMay, 1967werefound to be extensivelywidespread covering 48%or (125,000 sq miles) 323,750 km2 of the country.In 1998, themost extensive heat wavewas found tocover 156,250 sqmiles 404,688 km2or 60% of thecountry. Itmaybenoted that the 1998was anENSOyear where both El Nino and Southern Oscillationwere active. The occurrence of heat wave (highestmaximum temperature)was found to coincidewiththe El Nino year as shown in (Table 7.4).

As far asMyanmar is concerned, the origins of heatwaves were not found outside the country. Heatwaves commonlyoriginated fromKachin , northernShan and Rakhine States, Dry Zone, andAyeyarwady,BagoandTanintharyiRegions. Inmostoccasions, heat wave is dissipatedwhenmaximumtemperature is lowered and the coverage areabecomesdiminishedwhenthecloudyweatherprevailswith orwithout precipitation.

Region-wise annual mean rainfallsThe lowestmean annual rainfall of 768mm is foundin theLowerSagaingRegion in thecentralDryZone.It increases eastward to about 1500mm over ShanState, northward to about 2000 mm over KachinState,westward to4700mmoverRakhineState andsouthward to 5400 mm over Tanintharyi Region .Increasingrainfall trendsareobservedattenSub-States/Regions with highest rate of 215 mm per decade atHkamtiofUpperSagaingRegion.Decreasingrainfalltrends are observed at four Sub-States/Regionswith

Table 7.4: Highest maximum temperature records at the capitals of States andRegions

State/

Region Date

Kachin Myitkyina 41.5 31-5-79 El Nino year

Chin Hakha 30.1 8-4-88 El Nino year

Upper Sagaing Homalin 43.8 5-6-86 El Nino year

Lower Sagaing Monywa 45 17-5-69

Mandalay Mandalay 44.2 1-5-95

Northern Shan Lashio 38.6 22-4-89

Eastern Shan Kengtung 40 18-4-83 El Nino year

Southern Shan Taunggyi 33.5 23-4-95

Magway Magway 46 13-4-80

Rakhine Sittway 40 1-4-80

Kayah Loikaw 38 14-4-98 El Nino year

Northwest Bago Pyay 44 24-4-73

Northeast Bago Taungoo 42.9 8-5-98 El Nino year

South Bago Bago 41.7 25-4-58 El Nino year

North Ayeyarwady Hinthada 43.6 9-5-98 El Nino year

South Ayeyarwady Pathein 41 27-4-83 El Nino year

Yangon Yangon (Kaba-Aye) 42 9-5-98 El Nino year

Kayin Hpa-an 41 25-4-88 El Nino year

Mon Mawlamyine 40.2 8-5-98 El Nino year

Tanintharyi Dawei 38.9 6-5-98 El Nino year

StationHighest MaxTem(°C )

Remark

State/

DateRegion

Kachin

Chin

Upper Sagaing

Lower Sagaing

Mandalay

Northern Shan

Eastern Shan

Southern Shan

Magway

Rakhine

Kayah

Northwest Bago

Northeast Bago

South Bago

North Ayeyarwady

South Ayeyarwady

Yangon

El Nino year41.5 31-5-7941.5 31-5-79Myitkyina

El Nino year30.1 8-4-8830.1 8-4-88Hakha

El Nino year43.8 5-6-8643.8 5-6-86Homalin

45 17-5-6945 17-5-69Monywa

44.2 1-5-9544.2 1-5-95Mandalay

38.6 22-4-8938.6 22-4-89Lashio

El Nino year40 18-4-8340 18-4-83Kengtung

33.5 23-4-9533.5 23-4-95Taunggyi

46 13-4-8046 13-4-80Magway

40 1-4-8040 1-4-80Sittway

El Nino year38 14-4-9838 14-4-98Loikaw

44 24-4-7344 24-4-73Pyay

El Nino year42.9 8-5-9842.9 8-5-98Taungoo

El Nino year41.7 25-4-5841.7 25-4-58Bago

El Nino year43.6 9-5-9843.6 9-5-98Hinthada

El Nino year41 27-4-8341 27-4-83Pathein

El Nino year42 9-5-9842 9-5-98Yangon (Kaba-Aye)

Kayin Hpa-an 41 25-4-8841 25-4-88 El Nino year

Mon Mawlamyine 40.2 8-5-98 El Nino year

Tanintharyi Dawei 38.9 6-5-9838.9 6-5-98 El Nino year

StationHighest MaxTem(°C )

Remark


Page 133

highest rate of about -80mmper decade at Bago ofBagoRegion in the lower part of the country.Thereare no appreciable changes, (i.e. less than 10 mmper decade) in the three Sub-States/Regions in theeastern and southern parts of the country as shownin (Table 7.5)and (Figures 7.5 and 7.6).

Table 7.5:Annual rainfall trend (mm/decade) of Sub-States/Regions ofMyanmar till 2007

* No appreciable change (< 10mm /decade)

SubState/ Regionsince Annual rainfall

(mm)Kachin State Myitkyina 2193 1951 2,195 64.71Upper Sagaing Region Hkamti 3701 1961 3,570 215.2Lower Sagaing Region Monywa 768 1961 785 -17.4 decreaseMandalay Region Mandalay 860 1951 864 13.14Magway Region Magway 852 1971 800 57.1Chin State Hakha 1,829 1981 1,742 50.5Rakhine State Sittway 4,723 1951 4,555 52.06Northern Shan State Lashio 1,341 1951 1,381 33.62Southern Shan State Taunggyi 1,508 1951 1,555 -5.48 *Eastern Shan State Kengtung 1,256 1951 1,297 -2.51 *Bago Region Bago 3,522 1951 3,798 -81.08 decreaseAyeyarwady Region Pathein 2,913 1951 2,904 36.4Yangon Region Kaba- Aye 2,713 1951 2,684 41.74Kayah State Loikaw 1,090 1951 1,089 -11.17 decreaseKayin State Pa-an 4,377 1961 4,346 -23.6 decreaseMon State Mawlamyine 4,856 1951 4,816 71.57Tanintharyi Region Dawei 5,419 1951 5,499 7.8 *

StationWMO annualrainfall (mm)for 1961-1990

Period till 2007Increasing perdecade (mm)

SubState/ Regionsince Annual rainfall

(mm)Kachin State Myitkyina 2193 1951 2,195Myitkyina 2193 1951 2,195Myitkyina 2193 1951 2,195 64.71Upper Sagaing Region Hkamti 3701 1961 3,570 215.2Lower Sagaing Region Monywa 768 1961768 1961 785 -17.4 decreaseMandalay Region Mandalay 860 1951 864 13.14Magway Region Magway 852 1971852 1971 800 57.1Chin State Hakha 1,829 1981 1,742 50.5Rakhine State Sittway 4,723 1951 4,5554,723 1951 4,555 52.06Northern Shan State Lashio 1,341 1951 1,381 33.62Southern Shan State Taunggyi 1,508 1951 1,5551,508 1951 1,555 -5.48 *Eastern Shan State Kengtung 1,256 1951 1,297 -2.51 *Bago Region Bago 3,522 1951 3,798 -81.08 decrease3,522 1951 3,798 -81.08 decreaseAyeyarwady Region Pathein 2,913 1951 2,904 36.4Yangon Region Kaba- Aye 2,713 1951 2,684Kaba- Aye 2,713 1951 2,684Kaba- Aye 2,713 1951 2,684 41.74Kayah State Loikaw 1,090 1951 1,089 -11.17 decreaseKayin State Pa-an 4,377 1961 4,3464,377 1961 4,346 -23.6 decreaseMon State Mawlamyine 4,856 1951 4,816 71.57Tanintharyi Region Dawei 5,419 1951 5,4995,419 1951 5,499 7.8 *

StationWMO annualrainfall (mm)for 1961-1990

Period till 2007Increasing perdecade (mm)

2012

De c ad Annual R ai nfa ll of M ony wa

0

10 0

20 0

30 0

40 0

50 0

60 0

70 0

80 0

90 0

100 0

196 1-1 970 197 1-1 980 198 1-199 0 199 1- 200 0 200 1-200 7

Dec ad Y ear

An

nu

alR

ain

fa

ll(m

m)

D ec ad A nn ual Ra inf al l(mm) Lin ea r (D ec a d Annual Ra infa ll(mm) )DecadAnnualRainfall of Hakha

1650

1700

1750

1800

1850

1900

1950

1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007DecadYear

Ann

ualR

ainfal

l(mm

)

Decad Annual Rainfall(mm) Linear (Decad Annual Rainfal l(mm))De ca d Annual R ai nfa ll of Sit twe

0

10 00

20 00

30 00

40 00

50 00

60 00

195 1- 1960 19 61-197 0 1 971-19 80 1 98 1-19 90 19 91 -2000 20 01 -200 7

De ca d Year

Ann

ua

lRa

infa

ll(m

m)

Decad Annual Ra inf all(mm) Lin ear (De ca d Annua l R ainf all( mm))

D ecadA nnua l Ra inf all of Da wei

4900

5000

5100

5200

5300

5400

5500

5600

5700

1951-19 60 1 961 -1 970 197 1-1 980 198 1-1990 19 91 -2000 20 01-2007

Dec ad Yea r

Ann

ualR

ain

fall

(mm

)

Dec ad An nua l Rainfall ( mm) Line ar ( Dec ad An nua l Rainfall ( mm))

D ec ad A nnual R ai nfal l of Hk amti

0

50 0

100 0

150 0

200 0

250 0

300 0

350 0

400 0

450 0

1 961- 197 0 19 71-19 80 19 81 -19 90 1 99 1- 2 00 0 200 1-200 7

D e ca d Y ear

An

nu

alR

ain

fal

l(m

m)

D ec ad A nn u al R ai nf al l(mm) Line ar (D ec a d An nual Rain fa ll(mm) )

Decad Annual Rainfall of Myitkyina

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decad Year

Ann

ualR

ainf

all(m

m)

Decad AnnualRainfall (mm) Linear (Decad Annual Rainfall (mm))

Dec ad Annual Rainfall of Magway

0

200

400

600

800

1 000

1 200

197 1- 1 98 0 1 9 81 -19 90 1991-2 000 2001-200 7

Deca d Year

An

nua

lRa

infa

ll(m

m)

Dec ad Annu al Ra inf al l(mm) L in ear ( D eca d An nu al Rainf all( mm))DecadAnnualRainfall of Bago

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007DecadYear

Annu

alRa

infa

ll(mm

)

Decad Annual Rainfall (mm) Linear (Decad AnnualRainfall (mm))DecadAnnual Rainfall of Pathein

2500

26002700

2800

2900

3000

3100

3200

3300

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

DecadYear

Ann

ualR

ainfa

ll(m

m)

Decad Annual Rainfall (mm) Linear (Decad Annual Rainfall (mm))

DecadAnnualRainfall of Mawlamyine

4000

4200

4400

4600

4800

5000

5200

5400

5600

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

DecadYear

Annu

alRa

infal

l(m

m)

Decad Annual Rainfall (mm) Linear (Decad AnnualRainfall (mm))

Decad Annual Rainfall ofLashio

1100

1150

1200

1250

1300

1350

1400

1450

1951-1960 1961 -1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decad Year

Annu

alRa

infal

l(mm

)

Decad AnnualRainfall(mm) Linear (Decad Annual Rainfall(mm))D ecad Annual Ra inf a ll of Mandal ay

0

200

400

600

800

1 000

1 200

1 951 -19 60 1 96 1-1 970 19 7 1-198 0 1 981-1990 199 1-20 00 20 01 -2007

D ec ad Y ear

An

nua

lR

ain

fall(

mm

)

D ecad An nu a l R ain fa ll(mm) L inear (D ec ad An nua l R ainf all( mm))DecadAnnual Rainfallof Kengtong

1050

1100

1150

1200

1250

1300

1350

1400

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decad Year

Annu

alRa

infal

l(mm

)

Decad Annual Rainfall(mm) Linear(Decad Annual Rainfal l(mm))DecadAnnualRainfall of Taunggyi

1300

1350

1400

1450

1500

1550

1600

1650

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decad Year

Ann

ualR

ainfal

l(mm)

Decad AnnualRainfall (mm) Linear (Decad Annual Rainfall (mm))DecadAnnualRainfall of Loikaw

850

900

950

1000

1050

1100

1150

1200

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

Decad Year

Annu

alRa

infal

l(m

m)

Decad AnnualRainfall (mm) Linear (Decad Annual Rainfall (mm))

360037003800390040004100420043004400450046004700

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

AnnualRainfall(mm)

Decad Year

Decad Annual Rainfall of Hpa-an

Dec ad Ann ual Ra infa ll(mm) Linear (Deca d An nu al Rainfall (mm))

DecadAnnualRainfall ofKaba-aye

2450250025502600

265027002750280028502900

1951-1960 1961-1970 1971-1980 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001-2007

DecadYear

Ann

ualR

ainfa

ll(m

m)

Decad Annual Rainfall (mm) Linear (Decad Annual Rainfall (mm))

Figure 7.5:Annual precipitation trend (graph) in various Sub-States/Regions.

Extreme rainfallExtreme rainfall is one of themeteorological hazardsto the various communities and activities. It has twoends, one is “High Extreme” and the other is “LowExtreme”.Amarked decrease or increase of rainfallis critical to the key socio-economic sectors as theydepend more or less on rain that determines waterreplenishment and other water related activities.

Extreme rainfall events in Myanmar during 1991to 2004

(1) MethodologyDMH generally defines extreme rainfall whenDeparture From Normal (DFN) is more or lessoutside the range of ±20% duringa particular period,i.e. monthly, seasonal, or annual, etc. DFN iscalculated byusingthe following equation.

Page 134



rr

Rainfall trend(mm/decade)

N

E

Figure 7.6:Annual precipitation trend (contour) in various Sub-States/Regions.

Where: R = Rainfall, N = Normalrainfall.

Extreme rainfall has two ends, “High Extreme” and“Low Extreme”, where each of them has anotherone category of “Higher Extreme” and “LowerExtreme” respectively. They are specified by theDFN values as followings: -

Higher Extreme > + 50%+ 20% < High Extreme < + 50%– 20% > Low Extreme > – 50%Lower Extreme < – 50%Note: [ – 20% < Normal < + 20% ]

(2) ResultsExtreme rainfall events in Myanmar during 1991 to2004 were studied using annual rainfalls of the 16selected stations from the 14 Statesand Regions. Thefrequenciesof“High”and“Low”extremesareshownin (Table7.6).Themaximum andminimumextremesfor those 16 stations during the 14-year period are

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2012

alsoincludedin thetable.Thefollowingsalientfeaturescan be seen clearly.(a) High extreme:- Maximum frequencieswere5 yearsat Nyaung Oo, and 4 years at eachof the four stations of Myitkyina,Magway, MawlamyineandHpa-an.

- Not experienced at 3-station ofLashio,MonywaandSittway.

(b) Low extreme:

- Maximum frequencieswere5 yearsatMonywaand4 years atMandalay.

- Not experienced at threestations of Myitkyina, SittwayandYangon.

(c) Higher extreme:- Only one station, Mawlamyine(+51.2% above normal in1994).

- Two stations were close to thiscategory. ( N y a u n g - U+49.6% and Magway +47.5%above normal in 1999 and 1995respectively)

(d) Lower extreme:- Not experienced.- Only two stationswere close to thiscategory. (Magway -48.7%,Mandalay -44.0% below normalin 1998 and 1995 respectively)

(e) Impactof the1998strongElNinoyear:- 11 out of 16 stations, 69%experiencedLowExtreme.

- 10 stations, except 1-station of these11-stations, 91%were recordedMinimumLowExtremes.

Table 7.6: Frequencies of extreme rainfall during the period 1991-2004

Sr

No

DFN (%) DFN (%)

1 Myitkyina 28 2001 4 91,98,01,04 - - - -

2 Falam 28.7 1991 1 91 -25.3 1992 3 92,98,01

3 Taungyi 21.4 2001 1 1 -35.3 1998 2 97, 98

4 Lashio - - - - -26.9 2003 2 02,03

5 Monywa - - - - -37.6 1998 5 91,93,97,98,016 Mandalay 23.4 1992 1 92 -44 1995 4 93,95,00,04

7 Nyaung U 49.6 1999 5 96,99,02,03,04

-37.8 1998 2 97, 98

8 Magway 47.5 1995 4 95,96,99,02 -48.7 1998 3 91,94, 98

9 Sittway - - - - - - - -

10 Loikaw 24.4 2004 1 4 -28.9 1998 2 93, 98

11 Bago 21.1 1997 1 97 -28 1998 1 98

12 Pathein 26.6 2002 1 2 -35.4 1998 2 93, 98

13 Kaba-Aye 39.1 1999 2 99,02 - - - -

14 Pa-an 29.4 1994 4 94,97,99,04 -37 1998 1 98

15 Mawlamyine

51.2 1994 4 94,99,02,04 -26.9 1998 1 98

16 Dawei 34.7 1999 2 97,99 -24.9 1998 1 98

31 29

Year(s) Year No. Year(s)

T o t a l T o t a l

Me a n 1.9 ( 14% ) Me a n 1.8 ( 13% )

Stations

High Extreme LowExtreme

Maximum Frequency Minimum Frequency

Year No.

Sr

No

DFN (%) DFN (%)

1 Myitkyina 28 2001 4 91,98,01,04 - - - -

2 Falam 28.7 1991 1 91 -25.3 1992 3 92,98,01

3 Taungyi 21.4 2001 1 1 -35.3 1998 2 97, 98

4 Lashio - - - - -26.9 2003 2 02,03

5 Monywa - - - - -37.6 1998 5 91,93,97,98

6 Mandalay 23.4 1992 1 92 -44 1995 4 93,95,00,04

7 Nyaung U 49.6 1999 5 96,99,02,03 -37.8 1998 2 97, 98

8 Magway 47.5 1995 4 95,96,99,02 -48.7 1998 3 91,94, 98

9 Sittway - - - - - - - -

10 Loikaw 24.4 2004 1 4 -28.9 1998 2 93, 98

11 Bago 21.1 1997 1 97 -28 1998 1 98

12 Pathein 26.6 2002 1 2 -35.4 1998 2 93, 98

13 Kaba-Aye 39.1 1999 2 99,02 - - - -

14 Pa-an 29.4 1994 4 94,97,99,04 -37 1998 1 98

15 Mawlamyi 51.2 1994 4 94,99,02,04 -26.9 1998 1 98

16 Dawei 34.7 1999 2 97,99 -24.9 1998 1 98

31 29

Year(s) Year No. Year(s)

T o t a l T o t a l

Me a n 1.9 ( 14% ) Me a n 1.8 ( 13% )

Stations

High Extreme LowExtreme

Maximum Frequency Minimum Frequency

Year No.

Page 136



Region-wise extreme daily rainfall(1961-1990)The heaviest rainfalls in 24 hours were usuallyexperienced during themonsoon rain period frommid-May to mid-October. They occurred41%during the “earlymonsoon period” ofmid-May toend of June, 12% inMayand 29% in June . Duringthe “mid-monsoon” 18%of heaviest rainfalls in 24hoursoccurred inJulyand35%inAugust. In the“latemonsoon” of September to mid-October, 6%

occurred in October while did not experience anyheaviest rainfalls September.

Extremedailyrainfalls during the period 1961-1990are shown in (Table 7.7 )below. The highest of 527mmoccurred atHkamti, Upper SagaingRegion on6 June 1989.The second highest of 422 mmoccurred at Sittway, Rakhine State on 5 June 1979.The third, fourth and fifth highest were 367mmon2ndAugust 1979, 343mmon 1st June 1988 and 340mm on 2nd August 1962 which happened atMawlamyine of Mon State, Dawei of TanintharyiRegion andHpa-an ofKayinState respectively.

Table 7.7: Extreme rainfalls (mm) in 24-hourduring the period 1961-1990

Cyclone

Cyclone landfall frequenciesCyclone in the Bay of Bengal is one of the climaticparameters forMyanmar and the countries aroundtheBayof Bengal. Increased numbers of cyclonesformed in thebaywill influencemuchon the rainfalland themonsoon of the country.At times it bringsabout disastrous events into the country.

During 1887-2005, there were 1248 tropicaldisturbances in the Bay of Bengal. Out of 1248cyclones, 9% to 17% were formed in each monthfrom June to November; and 3% to 7%, most ofwhich were tropical storms, were formed in eachmonth ofApril,MayandDecember.Therewere lessthan3%during the remainingmonths. Altogether 80or 6.6%of all cyclonic disturbances in theBayhave

Highest in 24hrs

( mm)

1 Kachin State Myitkyina 182 [ 23-6-87 ]

2 Upper Sagaing Region. Hkamti 527 [ 29-6-89 ]

3 Lower Sagaing Region. Monywa 135 [ 3-6-84 ]

4 Mandalay Region. Mandalay 175 [ 24-8-87 ]

5 Magway Region. Magway 183 [ 12-8-74 ]

6 Chin State Hakha 167 [ 25-5-85 ]

7 Rakhine State Sittway 422 [ 5-6-80 ]

8 Northern Shan State Lashio 168 [ 11-10-86 ]

9 Southern Shan State Taunggyi 113 [ 14-8-90 ]

10 Eastern Shan State Kengtung 134 [ 10-7-73 ]

11 Bago Region. Bago 201 [ 19-7-62 ]

12 Ayeyarwady Region. Pathein 240 [ 8-5-75 ]

13 Yangon Region. Kaba-Aye 171 [ 11-7-88 ]

14 Kayah State Loikaw 112 [ 24-8-73 ]

15 Kayin State Hpa-an 340 [ 2-8-62 ]

16 Mon State Mawlamyine 367 [ 27-8-79 ]

17 Tanintharyi Region. Dawei 343 [ 1-6-88 ]

Sr. No Sub State/ Region StationsHighest in 24hrs

( mm)

1 Kachin State Myitkyina 182 [ 23-6-87 ]

2 Upper Sagaing Region. HkamtiUpper Sagaing Region. Hkamti 527 [ 29-6-89 ]

3 Lower Sagaing Region. Monywa 135 [ 3-6-84 ]

4 Mandalay Region. MandalayMandalay Region. Mandalay 175 [ 24-8-87 ]

5 Magway Region. Magway 183 [ 12-8-74 ]

6 Chin State Hakha 167 [ 25-5-85 ]

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

Sr. No Sub State/ Region StationsSr. No Sub State/ Region Stations

422 [ 5-6-80 ]Rakhine State SittwayRakhine State Sittway

168 [ 11-10-86 ]Northern Shan State LashioNorthern Shan State Lashio

113 [ 14-8-90 ]Southern Shan State TaunggyiSouthern Shan State Taunggyi

134 [ 10-7-73 ]Eastern Shan State KengtungEastern Shan State Kengtung

201 [ 19-7-62 ]Bago Region. BagoBago Region. Bago

240 [ 8-5-75 ]Ayeyarwady Region. PatheinAyeyarwady Region. Pathein

171 [ 11-7-88 ]Yangon Region. Kaba-AyeYangon Region. Kaba-Aye

112 [ 24-8-73 ]LoikawKayah State

340 [ 2-8-62 ]Hpa-anKayin State

367 [ 27-8-79 ]MawlamyineMon State

343 [ 1-6-88 ]Tanintharyi Region. DaweiTanintharyi Region. Dawei

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2012

crossed the Myanmar coast. In other words,Myanmar has a potential threat of 0.66 cyclones per

Table7.8: Frequency of occurrence of stormsin the Bay of Bengal during 1887-2005

The frequencyof cyclones in the Bayof Bengal hasbeen decreasing annually. There were six cyclonesduring the period 1979-2005. There had been 11cyclones from 1950 to 1978 as shown in the(Figure7.7).

During 1947 to 2008, Myanmar was hit by 35cyclonic storms where accompanying strongwinds,heavy rains, floods and storm surges destroyedhouses, infrastructure, human lives, livestock,agricultural land and forests. Ninety percent of thestorms crossedRakhine coast and the remaining tenpercent crossed Ayeyarwady deltaic coast. Thesouthern coasts which are in Mon State andTanintharyiRegion were never visitedby the stormsoriginated intheBayofBengalduringthestudyperiod.After 2002, Myanmar coast has been crossed bycyclones everyyearexcept in2005. In2006,Cyclone“Mala” crossed south Rakhine coast near Gwa; in2007,Cyclone“Akash”crossedNorthRakhinecoastbetween Cox’s Bazar andMaungtaw; and recentlyin 2008, Cyclone “Nargis” has crossed the delta ofAyeyarwady and Yangon Regions. The cyclone“Nargis” destroyed 138,373 lives in addition to

Figure 7.7:Annual storm frequency in the Bay of Bengal for the period 1950 to 2005

year or about one cyclone every other year duringthe data period of 1887-2005. No cyclones fromthe Bay of Bengal had crossed Myanmar coast inMarch, July, August and September as shown in(Table 7.8).

MonthStorms formed inthe Bay ofBengal

Storms whichcrossedMyanmarcoast

JAN 16 ( 1% ) 2 ( 2% )

FEB 3 ( 0% ) 1 ( 1% )

MAR 8 ( 1% ) ---

APR 32 ( 3% ) 15 ( 19% )

MAY 89 ( 7% ) 24 ( 30% )

JUN 111 ( 9% ) 1 ( 1% )

JUL 180 ( 15% ) ---

AUG 192 ( 15% ) --

SEP 209 ( 17% ) ---

OCT 190 ( 15% ) 14 ( 18% )

NOV 141 ( 11% ) 14 ( 18% )

DEC 77 ( 6% ) 9 ( 11% )

Total 1248 ( 100% ) 80 ( 100% )

Mean 10.49 0.66

MonthStorms formed inthe Bay ofBengal

Storms whichcrossedMyanmarcoast

JAN 16 ( 1% ) 2 ( 2% )

FEB 3 ( 0% ) 1 ( 1% )

MAR 8 ( 1% ) ---

APR 32 ( 3% ) 15 ( 19% )

MAY 89 ( 7% ) 24 ( 30% )

JUN 111 ( 9% ) 1 ( 1% )

JUL 180 ( 15% ) ---

AUG 192 ( 15% ) --

SEP 209 ( 17% ) ---

OCT 190 ( 15% ) 14 ( 18% )

NOV 141 ( 11% ) 14 ( 18% )

DEC 77 ( 6% ) 9 ( 11% )

Total 1248 ( 100% ) 80 ( 100% )

Mean 10.49 0.66

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livestockandmaterialdamage,costingsome13trillionKyats. The abnormal track of the severe “Nargis”may be comparatively observed with other cyclonetracks that crossed the Myanmar coasts during theperiod 1967-2000. The cyclone tracks of Nargis andother cyclones are shown in (Figures 7.8 and 7.9)respectively.

Figure 7.8: Abnormal storm track of Cyclone “Nargis”

Figure 7.9: - Tropical revolving storms that crossed Myanmar coast from 1967 to 2000

Storm surgeStorm surges are the usual phenomena thataccompanywith the tropical storms. During 1947 to2008, the probability of landfall was high in thenorthern Rakhine coastwith 21 %and getting lowerto the south to 3% in theAyeyarwady deltaic coast

00 /2 7 (TD )

0 3 /2 8( TS)

0 9/28 (CS)

00 /2 9 (SCS)

00 /30 (SCS)

1 2 /3 0(SCS)

00 /1(SCS)

0 6 /1 (SCS) 0 9/1 (SCS)

1 53 0/1 (SC S)

0 0/2 (SCS)

0 3/2( SCS) 0 6/2 (SC S)

0 7/2 (SC S)

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as shown in (Figure 7.10). The maximum surgeheights experiencedat the place of landfall are shownin (Figure 7.11). The storm surge of 7.00 m causedbytheCyclone“Nargis”wasunusuallyhigh.Detailed

Place Probability %Maungtaw 9.6

Sittway 20.8Kyaukpyu 11.2Thandwe 8.7

Gwa 8.7

Haigyi 3.2

Yangon 3.2

Place Surge (m)

Maungtaw 4.25

Sittway 4.25Kyaukpyu 4.25Thandwe 4.25

Gwa 4.70

Pyinsalu 7.00

Kyonkadun 6.70

Figure 7.11: Maximum storm surge heights (m) along Myanmar coast

storm surge risk map for Ayeyarwady Delta due toCyclone Nargis is shown in (Figure 7.12). Loss oflives and damage to properties due to Cyclone inMyanmar is shown in (Table 7.9).

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Figure 7.10: Cyclone landfall probability along Myanmar coast


Figure 7.12: Storm surge risk (ft) map due to Cyclone “Nargis” inMay 2008.(AfterADPC et. al, 2009)

Table 7.9: Loss of lives and damage to properties due to cyclones in Myanmar

Cyclone rainfall and flood

(1) Cyclone rainfallWhen there is a cyclonic disturbance in the Bay ofBengal, Myanmar experiences rain of differentamounts depending on the prevailingwind and thelocality within the distance of 1000 km from theTropical Revolving Storm (TRS) centre.Superpositionwith other types of disturbance in thetropospherewill furthermodify the rainfall intensity.

On 19 May 2004, a severe cyclonic storm hadcrossed theMyanmar coast nearSittway.Thehighestrainfall received at Sittwaywas 76mmon the sameday, but the 24 hours new record rainfall of 178mmwas set atMyitkyina on the same day, the 19thMay.Myitkyina is about 750 km to the northeast of thelandfall point. Mindat and Thandwe received 140mm and 137mm respectively on the next day. Theeffect of Baycyclone continued for one to two days,

Landfall Death Damagepoint and loss (Kyats)

Sittway 800Cyclone Millions

776Millions38Millions

Maungtaw 78Cyclone MillionsCycloneMalaCyclone Along the 13Nargis Ayeyarwady Trillions

Notavailable

6 2-3.5.2008 7 138373

4 2.5.1994NearMaungtaw

3.66 10

5 29.4.2006 Near Gwa 4.57 1

3 Gwa Cyclone 4.5.1982 Near Gwa 3.7 31

1037

2 Pathein Cyclone 7.5.1975 Near Pathein 3 304

NoCyclone

Date oflandfall

Peak surge(m)

1 7.5.1968 Near Sittway 4.25

Landfall Death DamageDeath Damagepoint and loss (Kyats)and loss (Kyats)

Sittway 800Cyclone Millions

776Millions38Millions

Maungtaw 78Cyclone Millions4 2.5.1994

NearMaungtaw

3.66 1010

3 Gwa Cyclone 4.5.1982 Near Gwa 3.7 31

1037

2 Pathein Cyclone 7.5.1975 Near Pathein 3Pathein Cyclone 7.5.1975 Near Pathein 3Pathein Cyclone 7.5.1975 Near Pathein 3Pathein Cyclone 7.5.1975 Near Pathein 3Pathein Cyclone 7.5.1975 Near Pathein 3 304304

NoCyclone

Date oflandfall

Peak surge(m)

1 7.5.1968 Near Sittway 4.25

Notavailable

129.4.2006 Near Gwa 4.5729.4.2006 Near Gwa 4.5729.4.2006 Near Gwa 4.57CycloneMala5

131383731383737

Along theAyeyarwady

2-3.5.2008CycloneNargis6

Trillions

(Source:DMH, 2008)

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particularly along the passage after the landfall.Rainfalls after twodaysof the landfallarenot justifiedto be claimed as the effect of the landfall TRS. Thepre-monsoon and post-monsoon five-day rainfalldistributionsonMyanmarcoastnear thelandfallpointofTRS are shown in (Table 7.10).

Table 7.10: Some rainfall (mm) distribution dueto SittwayCyclone landfall on 19May 2004

There is a complex interaction between the TRSforcing, local geographical condition, tropospheredisturbances and convective activity to producerainfall in thegiven time period. Itmaybe generallynoted that rainfall tends to bemaximumon thedayof

TRS passage and getting less as it is far away fromthe passage in time and space.

In (Figures 7.13 and 7.14), the five-dayaccumulatedrainfall distributionduetocyclones inMay2006,May2008, November 1988 and November 1992 areshown. Five dayaccumulated rainfall pattern variesaccording to the region and the season of landfall.When cyclone landfall is in the less mountainousportionof the southRakhine coast or in the low lyingdeltaic plain ofAyeyarwadyRegionwheremoistureisabundantduringthecycloneperiod, thesesituationswill be another factor that support the rainfallmaximum. In the case of post monsoon cyclone inNovember1992, single rainfallmaximumcell couldbenoted for the cyclonewhich landed in the southofRakhinecoast.The rainfall amountandareacoverageare significantly greater in the pre-monsoon periodthan those in thepostmonsoonperiod. Whencyclonelandfall was in the northern Rakhine coast, rainfallmaximumcells occurred separately, not necessarilynear the landfall point.

Figure7.13: Five-day accumulated rainfall distribution (mm)due to cyclones in premonsoon periods2006 and 2008. Cyclone track near landfall is shown by arrow.

Station 17-May 18-May 19May(landfall)20-May 21-May Total

(mm)Myitkyina 6 35 178 5 2 226

Mindat 34 11 26 140 0 211

Maungtaw 2 4 50 77 0 133

Sittway* 11 23 76 29 0 139

Kyaukpyu 5 39 0 0 0 44

Thandwe 4 56 74 137 5 276

Gwa 20 39 82 0 8 149

Station 17-May 18-May 19MayStation 17-May 18-May 19MayStation 17-May 18-May 19May(landfall)20-May 21-May Total20-May 21-May Total

(mm)Myitkyina 6 35 178 5 2 226

Mindat 34 11 26 140 0 21134 11 26 140 0 21134 11 26 140 0 21134 11 26 140 0 211

Maungtaw 2 4 50 77 0 133

Sittway* 11 23 76 29 0 13911 23 76 29 0 13911 23 76 29 0 13911 23 76 29 0 139

Kyaukpyu 5 39 0 0 0 44

Thandwe 4 56 74 137 5 2764 56 74 137 5 2764 56 74 137 5 2764 56 74 137 5 276

Gwa 20 39 82 0 8 14920 39 82 0 8 14920 39 82 0 8 14920 39 82 0 8 149


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Figure7.14: Five-day accumulated rainfall distribution (mm) due to cyclones in post-monsoon periodsof November 1988 and November 1992. Cyclone track near landfall is shown by arrow.

Heavy rains occurred mostly in the proximity of thelandfall points of cyclones. With Cyclone “Nargis”,Kaba-Aye which was the point of landfall receivedtheheaviest rainfall on the dayof landfall. Some otherstations which received maximum rainfalls werehundreds of kilometers awayfrom the landfall point.For instance, during the 1988 November cyclone,whose landfall point was near Kyaukpyu, the stationcollected only70 mm of rain. The24 hour maximumrain was 188 mm at Hmawbi, some 250 km to thesoutheast of the landfall point. In May2004, acyclonecrossed Sittway which received 76 mm of rainfall.The maximum rainfall collected on the daywas 178mm at Myitkyina, about 650 km to the northeast ofthe landfall point and flood was initiated. Moreover,for one cyclone in November 1992, the cyclonelandfall point, Maungtaw received only33 mm; andfor Cyclone “Mala” inApril 2006, its landfall point,Gwa receivedonly52- millimeter rainfallwhich is aninsignificant amount for the locality. The occurrenceof maximum rainfalls depends on the prevailingconvergence ofwind flow and favorable condition ofvertical moisture transport of the locality. The five-day accumulated largest rainfall by the Cyclone“Nargis” was 653 mm at Mawlamyine in the MonState,100kmto thesoutheastofYangon.Thisamountis about 20 % of the annual rainfall of Mawlamyine.

In the case of Cyclone “Mala”, the 24 hour heaviestrainfall was 235 mm at Pyay, some 100 km to thenortheast of the landfall point. That amount iscomparable to the monthlymonsoon rainfall of Pyay.The samelocation received the highest rainfall of 329mm accumulated in five days due to the cyclone.

The rainfall at the landfall point on the landfall day,themaximumrainfallsonthe landfalldayand thefive-dayaccumulated rains due to landfall cyclones from1973 to 2008 are shown in (Table 7.11) Floodsusually took place after each heavyrain spell.

(2) FloodIn Myanmar, low lying areas along rivers are subjectto inundation foracoupleofdaysduetonormal floodsduringmonsoon and it naturallyenriches the soil. Butwhenmonsoonintensifiedandwidespreadheavyrainslast long for a few days, then multiple floods occuralong the rivers posing danger to the lower reachesparticularly theAyeyarwadydelta. Sediment broughtabout by the Ayeyarwady river before entering theAndaman sea has significantly contributed to theformation of the Ayeyarwady delta. The peakmonsoon season is especially vulnerable to flooddisaster due to river bank erosion and embankment


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Table 7.11:Maximumrainfall (mm) on the cyclone landfall day and the highest fivedays accumulated rainfall (mm).

failure in the deltaic area which is the rice bowl ofthecountry and thickly populated. PercentageoccurrenceoffloodsalongMyanmarRivers is shownin (Table 7.12). In theAyeyarwadyRiver, 50 % oflocations alongtheriverbankexperiencefloodsevery

other year, along theChindwinRiver, 80%of placesexperience flood everyyear.Near the rivermouth ofThanlwin flood occurs everyyearwhich sometimeslasts for fewweeks. Smaller rivers also have floodseveryyear.

Table 7.12: Percentage of occurrence of flood alongmajor rivers inMyanmar

At landfallstation Max. rainfall/ station

18-Nov-73 Sittway 65 69/ Maungtaw 150/ Maungtaw

19-Nov-88 Kyaukpyu 70 188/ Hmawbi 295/ Kaba-Aye

21-Nov-92 Maungtaw 33 64/ Sittway 116/ Sittway

19-May-04 Sittway 76 178/ Myitkyina 376/ Ann29-Apr-06 Gwa (Mala) 52 235/ Pyay 329/ Pyay

Date of landfallDate

Landfall station(Cyclone)

Rainfall on the landfall day (mm) Max. five dayaccumulatedrainfall(mm)/ station

19-May-92 Thandwe 62 122/ Kyaukpyu 245/ Kyaukpyu

5-May-07 Pathein/ Yangon 344 344/ Kaba-Aye 437/ Hpa-an

2-May-94 Maungtaw 104 113/ Mindat 264/ Maungtaw

3-May-08 Haigyi/Yangon (Nargis) 220 245/ Mingaladon 653\ Mawlamyine

15-May-07Maungtaw (Akash)

61205/ Kyaukpyu 399/ Kalewa

At landfallstation Max. rainfall/ station

18-Nov-73 Sittway 65 69/ Maungtaw 150/ Maungtaw

19-Nov-88 Kyaukpyu 70 188/ Hmawbi 295/ Kaba-Aye

21-Nov-92 Maungtaw 33 64/ Sittway 116/ Sittway

19-May-04 Sittway 76 178/ Myitkyina 376/ Ann29-Apr-06 Gwa (Mala) 52 235/ Pyay 329/ Pyay

Date of landfallDate of landfallDate

Landfall stationLandfall station(Cyclone)

Rainfall on the landfall day (mm) Max. five dayaccumulatedrainfall(mm)/ station

19-May-92 Thandwe 62 122/ Kyaukpyu 245/ Kyaukpyu

5-May-07 Pathein/ Yangon 344 344/ Kaba-Aye 437/ Hpa-an

2-May-94 Maungtaw 104 113/ Mindat 264/ Maungtaw

3-May-08 Haigyi/Yangon (Nargis) 220 245/ Mingaladon 653\ Mawlamyine

15-May-07Maungtaw (Akash)

61205/ Kyaukpyu 399/ Kalewa


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Someof the floods ofmajor rivers in peakmonsoonof 2004 attained the highest record for the period ofthe last fewdecades. Peakwater levels due to floodsinmajor rivers ofMyanmar up to 2004 are shown in(Table 7.13). The heavy rainfalls in the northern

Myanmar such as 8.20 inches in Sumprabumon 18July 2004 was found to reinforce the high water oftheAyeyarwadyRiver, resulting in extensive recordsofmaximum floods along the downstream stretchesof the river.

Table 7.13: Peak water levels due to floods inMyanmarmajor rivers till 2004

During the dry season, rivers are recharged by thegroundwater from forestedwatersheds andmeltingsnow from highmountains in the north. Snow andglaciers in the north which is connected with theHimalayanmountaincomplex is somehowimportantformaintaining the flowofAyeyarwdayRiver duringthe dry season. Moreover, due to the climatevariability, DryZone sometimes experiencedwide-spread heavyrains for some continuous dayswhichled to catastrophic flash floods in the area.The floodis so unexpected and the peak time is so quick thatthere is no time to respond. Due to the heavywidespread rain in the area during 27May - 2 June2001, there occurred a flash flood inWundwin ofDryZone.The total rainfall collectedwas8.36 incheswhere the highest rainfall for themonth ofMaywas9.97 inches in 1991 in 30-year record (DMH, 2008).At that time,DMHhadno informationandcapacitiesto issuewarning.

Southwest monsoonOnset and withdrawalIn theUnion ofMyanmar theobservations indicatedthat the climate change is taking place inrespect of temperature, precipitation,extremeclimate

and severity of disasters and also in the southwestmonsoonfeatures.Thesouthwestmonsoononset intothe country is becoming late and itswithdrawal fromthe country is advancing earlier. The southwestmonsoon duration during1988-2000was shortenedby three weeks in the northern Myanmar and oneweek in other regions compared to 1951-2000average. During 1988-2000, themonsoon becameless active (decreasingstrongmonsoondays) thoughthe monsoon breaks which used to take place forabout oneweekduringnormal peakmonsoonperiodof JulyandAugust, were less pronounced except in1998. There was a prolongedmonsoon break dueto ElNino episode.

Monsoon rain and flood

Thegeographical settingofMyanmar,with thenorth-southrunningmountainrangeswithin thecountry, andthe lowlyingplains in thecentral regionand theShanplateau in the east, is the unique feature determiningthe country’s annual rainfall distribution.Myanmarenjoys the southwest monsoon season. The annualrainfall is leastinthe centralpartofthecountry(less than1000mm) and it is increasing tomore than2000mmtowards the east, 2000mm towards the north, 5000mm towards the south and west. Major portion ofthe annual rainfall is due to the southwestmonsoon

Date

(d-m-y)

Chauk Ayeyarwady 1532 15- 8-74 1040 1973 492 1Hkamti Chindwin 1771 13- 7-91 1360 1972 411 2Mawleik Chindwin 1608 20- 7-76 1230 1972 378 3Kalewa Chindwin 1920 17- 8-02 1550 1972 370 4Minbu Ayeyarwady 1982 15- 8-74 1700 1967 282 5Sagaing Ayeyarwady 927 3- 8-97 700 1965 227 6Myitkyina Ayeyarwady 1410 8-10-79 1200 1967 210 7Homalin Chindwin 3107 12/7/1968 2900 1968 207 8Magwe Ayeyarwady 1894 31-7-04 1700 1975 194 9Bamaw Ayeyarwady 1337 22-7-04 1150 1969 182 9Aunglan Ayeyarwady 2737 15-8-74 2550 1973 187 10Paan Thanlwin 936 18-8-02 750 1966 186 11Myitnge Dokhtawady 1048 14-10-86 870 1972 178 12Madauk Sittaung 1244 2-8-92 1070 1967 174 13

RankCity RiverPeakwater level(cm)

Dangerlevel(DL)(cm)

Datas ince

Floodabove DL(cm)

Date

(d-m-y)

ChaukHkamtiMawleikKalewaMinbuSagaingMyitkyinaHomalinMagweBamawAunglanPaanMyitngeMadauk

RankCity RiverPeakwater level(cm)

Dangerlevel(DL)(cm)

Datas ince

Floodabove DL(cm)

Ayeyarwady 1532 15- 8-74 1040 1973 492 1Ayeyarwady 1532 15- 8-74 1040 1973 492 1Ayeyarwady 1532 15- 8-74 1040 1973 492 1Ayeyarwady 1532 15- 8-74 1040 1973 492 1Ayeyarwady 1532 15- 8-74 1040 1973 492 1Ayeyarwady 1532 15- 8-74 1040 1973 492 1Ayeyarwady 1532 15- 8-74 1040 1973 492 11771 13- 7-91 1360 1972 411 21771 13- 7-91 1360 1972 411 21771 13- 7-91 1360 1972 411 21771 13- 7-91 1360 1972 411 21771 13- 7-91 1360 1972 411 21771 13- 7-91 1360 1972 411 21771 13- 7-91 1360 1972 411 2Chindwin1608 20- 7-76 1230 1972 378 31608 20- 7-76 1230 1972 378 31608 20- 7-76 1230 1972 378 31608 20- 7-76 1230 1972 378 31608 20- 7-76 1230 1972 378 31608 20- 7-76 1230 1972 378 3Chindwin1920 17- 8-02 1550 1972 370 41920 17- 8-02 1550 1972 370 41920 17- 8-02 1550 1972 370 41920 17- 8-02 1550 1972 370 41920 17- 8-02 1550 1972 370 41920 17- 8-02 1550 1972 370 41920 17- 8-02 1550 1972 370 4Chindwin

Ayeyarwady 1982 15- 8-74 1700 1967 282 5Ayeyarwady 1982 15- 8-74 1700 1967 282 5Ayeyarwady 1982 15- 8-74 1700 1967 282 5Ayeyarwady 1982 15- 8-74 1700 1967 282 5Ayeyarwady 1982 15- 8-74 1700 1967 282 5Ayeyarwady 1982 15- 8-74 1700 1967 282 5Ayeyarwady 1982 15- 8-74 1700 1967 282 51965 227 61965 227 61965 227 6Ayeyarwady 927 3- 8-97 700Ayeyarwady 927 3- 8-97 700Ayeyarwady 927 3- 8-97 700Ayeyarwady 927 3- 8-97 700Ayeyarwady 927 3- 8-97 700

Ayeyarwady 1410 8-10-79 1200 1967 210 7Ayeyarwady 1410 8-10-79 1200 1967 210 7Ayeyarwady 1410 8-10-79 1200 1967 210 7Ayeyarwady 1410 8-10-79 1200 1967 210 7Ayeyarwady 1410 8-10-79 1200 1967 210 7Ayeyarwady 1410 8-10-79 1200 1967 210 7Ayeyarwady 1410 8-10-79 1200 1967 210 73107 12/7/1968 2900 1968 207 83107 12/7/1968 2900 1968 207 83107 12/7/1968 2900 1968 207 83107 12/7/1968 2900 1968 207 83107 12/7/1968 2900 1968 207 83107 12/7/1968 2900 1968 207 83107 12/7/1968 2900 1968 207 8Chindwin

Ayeyarwady 1894 31-7-04 1700 1975 194 9Ayeyarwady 1894 31-7-04 1700 1975 194 9Ayeyarwady 1894 31-7-04 1700 1975 194 9Ayeyarwady 1894 31-7-04 1700 1975 194 9Ayeyarwady 1894 31-7-04 1700 1975 194 9Ayeyarwady 1894 31-7-04 1700 1975 194 9Ayeyarwady 1894 31-7-04 1700 1975 194 9Ayeyarwady 1337 22-7-04 1150 1969 182 9Ayeyarwady 1337 22-7-04 1150 1969 182 9Ayeyarwady 1337 22-7-04 1150 1969 182 9Ayeyarwady 1337 22-7-04 1150 1969 182 9Ayeyarwady 1337 22-7-04 1150 1969 182 9Ayeyarwady 1337 22-7-04 1150 1969 182 9Ayeyarwady 1337 22-7-04 1150 1969 182 9Ayeyarwady 1337 22-7-04 1150 1969 182 9Ayeyarwady 2737 15-8-74 2550 1973 187 10Ayeyarwady 2737 15-8-74 2550 1973 187 10Ayeyarwady 2737 15-8-74 2550 1973 187 10Ayeyarwady 2737 15-8-74 2550 1973 187 10Ayeyarwady 2737 15-8-74 2550 1973 187 10Ayeyarwady 2737 15-8-74 2550 1973 187 10Ayeyarwady 2737 15-8-74 2550 1973 187 10

1966 186 111966 186 111966 186 11936 18-8-02 750936 18-8-02 750936 18-8-02 750936 18-8-02 750Thanlwin1972 178 121972 178 121972 178 12Dokhtawady 1048 14-10-86 870Dokhtawady 1048 14-10-86 870Dokhtawady 1048 14-10-86 870Dokhtawady 1048 14-10-86 870

1244 2-8-92 1070 1967 174 131244 2-8-92 1070 1967 174 131244 2-8-92 1070 1967 174 131244 2-8-92 1070 1967 174 131244 2-8-92 1070 1967 174 131244 2-8-92 1070 1967 174 131244 2-8-92 1070 1967 174 13Sittaung

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Figure 7.15: Mean monthly temperature (oC) and rainfall (mm) distribution of seven selectedstations from 1961 to 1990.

which begins in May and ends in September.However rains may continue till November due tothe influence of cyclonic disturbances especially thetropical storms from the South China Sea. Mean

monthlytemperatureandrainfalldistributionsofsevenselected stations in the country from 1961 to 1990are shown in (Figure 7.15).

Significant features are that most part of the countryhave the maximum rainfall during the mid monsoonperiod of JulyandAugust. The central Myanmar hasa unique feature of double maxima, one in the earlymonsoon and the other in the late monsoon. Apartfrom the effect of annual rainfall which is less than1000 mm, the double maxima rainfall also influencesthe characteristics of the Dry Zone.

Monsoon droughtThe rainfall pattern during the southwest monsoonvaries from time to time generally following themonsoon intensity in the Bay of Bengal. There are

prolonged periods of days without rainfall, so calleddrought in some areas of the country. Drought is acriticallyimportantsituationformanyoftheagriculturalpractices, particularlyfor agriculture in the DryZonewhere the normal annual rainfall is scanty.

The countrywhich has fourteen States andRegionsis also arbitrarilydivided into 20Sub-States and Sub-Regions dependingupon thedifferential climatic

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conditions. For Shan State, there are three Sub-States, Region amelyNorthern Shan State, SouthernShan State and Eastern Shan State.Rakhine Statehas two Sub-States and they are the NorthernRakhine State and the Southern Rakhine State. TheSagaing Region has two Sub-Regions, namely theUpper Sagaing Sub-Region and the Lower SagaingSub-Region . The Bago Region has the NorthwestBago Sub-Region , the Northeast Bago Sub-Regionand South Bago Sub-Region . The AyeyarwadyRegion has the NorthAyeyarwadySub-Region andthe SouthAyeyarwady Sub-Region .

Dekad rainfall data of 58 selected stations for themonths of May to October over the period 1950-1992revealed thedrought climatologyof the20 Sub-States and Sub-Regions (HtayAung 1993). Droughtis defined as the dekad (10 days) with below normalrainfall preceded by at least two dekads with belownormal rainfall at a particular station of interest.Monsoon period in Myanmar is arbitrarily dividedinto three periods such as pre-monsoon period fromMay to June, peak monsoon period from July toAugust and late monsoon period from September toOctober.The rainfall is considered simplyas normal,above normal and below normal if percentagedeparture is within the 20%, more than 20% and lessthan 20% respectively

.In Myanmar the third dekad of May and the thirddekad of October are most likely to have of drought.The drought is most unlikely in the second dekad ofSeptember followed by the first and second dekadsofAugust, the third dekad of June and the third dekadof July. The most likely areas to have drought areChin, Northern Shan, South Rakhine and KayahStates, and Lower Sagaing and Magway Regions.The most unlikelyareas for drought are the SouthernShan, Kachin and Mon States, Tanintharyi,Yangonand SouthAyeyarwadyRegions.

The years with minimum number of drought (wetyears) have been 1959, 1960, 1968, 1973, 1975and 1980. The years with maximum number ofdrought (dry years) have been 1954, 1955, 1957,1972, 1979 and 1986. Salient feature of drought arethat theagriculturalproducedroppedin the fiscalyears1957-58, 1965-66, 1966-67, 1972-73, 1983-84,1988-89 and 1991-92. With the exception of 1988-

89, all the years were strong or moderate El Ninoyears. Thesewerealso theyearsofmaximumdroughtwith the exception of 1965-66 and 1966-67. Thefactors that influence the strength of relationshipbetween the decrease of rainfall and the drop of cropyield depend upon the proportion of crop productionunder irrigation, themoistureretentioncapacityofsoil,the timeliness of rain and the adaptive behavior offarmers.

It has longbeenregarded that theDryZonepotentiallyhas the greatest chance to experience drought, and itwill place significant impact on the overall economy.For central Myanmar, the years 1953, 1956, 1965,1971, 1973, 1975 and 1985 were the drought-freeyears and the years 1954, 1957, 1961, 1972, 1979and 1991 were the years, most affected by droughtalthough time of occurrence was changing. Forinstance, drought occurred in peak monsoon in 1954,but it occurred in late monsoon in 1972 and 1979,and in earlymonsoon in 1992.

It suggests that while the climate of the world ischanging due to increase in greenhouse gases, it iswise to keep an eye on the changing rainfall patternover the whole country and monitor any trace ofsevere drought so as to enable to take precautionaryand adaptive measures in a timelymanner.

Water resourcesWater resources potential(surface and ground)

The South East Asia (SEA) has 15% of the totalvolume ofworld’swater resources. Demandon waterresources has been increasing due to rapidurbanizationand industrializationof the region. Therehavebeenindicationsofdeterioration inwaterquantityandquality, lowreliabilityofsupply,highcostofwater,and so on. Although SEA is the richest in waterresources in the world, those resources and theirpotentials arebeingreduced at analarmingrate (ThanZaw, 2009). Among countries with rich waterresources Myanmar could be classified as a countryof low water stress. There are four major riversystems, namely, theAyeyarwady, the Thanlwin, theChindwin and the Sittaung. Moreover thereare someriversystemsinRakhineStateandTanintharyiRegion.These river systems contribute to the surface water


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resourcesof thecountry.Under the favorableclimaticcondition and physiographic features, there are eightriver basins, covering about 90% of the country’sterritory. The amount of surface water and

groundwater inMyanmar are estimated at about 828km3 and 495km3 per year respectively. Details arementioned in (Table 7.14). The drainage basinmapofMyanmar is shown in (Figure 7.16).

Table7.14: Myanmar’s annual average water resources potential by river basin,

Region / River basinSurface water(mcm /Yr)

Groundwater (mcm /Yr)

Region 1. Chindwin 104,720 57,578

Region 2. Upper Ayeyarwady 171,969 92,599

Region 3. Lower Ayeyarwady 229,873 153,249

Region 4. Sittaung 52,746 28,402

Region 5. Rakhine 83,547 41,774

Region 6. Tanintharyi 78,556 39,278

Region 7. Thanlwin 95,955 74,779

Region 8. Mekong 10,580 7,054

Total 827,946 494,713

Region / River basinSurface water(mcm /Yr)

Groundwater (mcm /Yr)

Region 1. Chindwin 104,720 57,578

Region 2. Upper Ayeyarwady 171,969 92,599

Region 3. Lower Ayeyarwady

Region 4. Sittaung

Region 5. Rakhine

Region 6. Tanintharyi

Region 7. Thanlwin

Region 8. Mekong

Total

153,249229,873

28,40252,746

41,77483,547

39,27878,556

74,77995,955

7,05410,580

494,713827,946


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Figure 7.16:Drainage basinmap ofMyanmar


The assessment of water resources potentials bothfor surfacewater and groundwater is carried out onthe basis of river basins. In termsofwater resources,Myanmar occupies the 14th position at global leveland 5th position inAsia region.

ENSO, El Nino and La NinaThewestward spreadofwarmseacurrent fromsoutheast Pacific, the off coast of Peru has some impacton global weather and climate. Myanmar is noexception. During the period 1900 to 2008, strongEl Nino had occurred in 1901-02, 1913-15, 1918-20, 1972-73, 1986-88, 1991-92 and very strong ElNino in 1940-41, 1957-58, 1982-83, and 1997-98. The El Nino in 1997-98 is known to be thestrongest followed by that of 1982-83.

When theElNino is takingplace simultaneouslywiththe Southern Oscillation of the near global scale

atmospheric circulation in the south Pacific and theIndian Oceans, the climate ofMyanmar wasmorerampant and adverse extremeweather prevailed inthe country. For instance, such years thatMyanmarhad experienced were 1982-1983 and 1997-1998.

Themaximum temperature recordswere set in the1998 ENSO year in Rakhine, Shan, Kayah, KayinandMonStates, also inMandalay,Magway, Bago,Yangon,AyeyarwadyandTanintharyiRegions. Infact,themaximum records were observed in almost thewhole countryexcept SagaingRegion , andKachinandChin States.

Themaximum temperature records in the 1997- 98ENSOinMyanmarare shown in(Table7.15).Elevenout of fourteen States andRegions experienced theever recorded heat. In 1998, maximum recordtemperature ofHpa-anwas 43.6°Cwhichwas2.6°Chigher than the lastmaximum in1988.

Table 7.15: The highestmaximum temperature records in 1998 inMyanmar

In1998,ENSOsetnewlowest annual rainfall recordsin Shan, Kayah, Kayin and Mon States, Bago,Ayeyarwady and Tanintharyi Regions. The leastannual rainfalls were also recorded in 1991ElNinoyear in Shan andKayah States,Sagaing,Mandalayand Bago Regions. The least annual rainfalls everrecorded in 1998 are shown in (Table 7.16). Themost significantly lower annual rainfall of 1366mm

occurred inTaungooofBagoRegion in1998, and itwas 19% less than the former 1989 record of 1682mm.

Thedatawascollected from1902 to2003with someyearsmissing particularly aroundWorldWars I andII.

S tate /R e g io n Statio n(°C ) (d-m -y) (°C ) (d-m )

M e iktila 42.4 - -5-66 43 5-O c tP yinm a na 42 1-5-80 43.5 9-5

Shan L a shio 40 26-4-97 40 4-5R ak h ine Tha ndw e 39 12-5-80 40.4 4-5M agway M inbu 45.2 17-4-73 45.8 9-5

T a ungoo 42.2 10-5- 59 42.9 8-5T ha yaw ady 42 14-3-63 43.6 9-5M inga la don 41.7 25-4-58 42 8-5K a ba -A ye 41.3 27-4-83 42 8-5P a the in 41 27-4-83 41 8-5H intha da 42.9 30-4-95 43.6 9-5M aw lamyine 40 21-4-95 40.2 8-5T ha ton 40 16-4-75 41 8-5

K ayah Loikaw 37 17-4-83 38 14-4K ayin H pa -a n 41 25-5-88 43.6 6-5

D aw e i 38.5 11-4-98 38.9 6-5M ye ik 38 4-5-83 38 6-5K aw thoung 38 3-4-98 38.5 6-5

M on

T anintharyi

L as t R e c o rd 1 9 9 8 R e c o rd

M andalay

B ag o

Yang o n

A ye yarwady

S tate /R e g io n Statio nS tate /R e g io n Statio n(°C ) (d-m -y) (°C ) (d-m )

M e iktila 42.4 - -5-66 43 5-O c tP yinm a na 42 1-5-80 43.5 9-5

Shan L a shio 40 26-4-97 40 4-5R ak h ine Tha ndw e 39 12-5-80 40.4 4-5M agway M inbu 45.2 17-4-73 45.8 9-5

T a ungoo 42.2 10-5- 59 42.9 8-5T ha yaw ady 42 14-3-63 43.6 9-5M inga la don 41.7 25-4-58 42 8-5K a ba -A ye 41.3 27-4-83 42 8-5P a the in 41 27-4-83 41 8-5H intha da 42.9 30-4-95 43.6 9-5M aw lamyine 40 21-4-95 40.2 8-5T ha ton 40 16-4-75 41 8-5

K ayah Loikaw 37 17-4-83 38 14-4K ayin H pa -a n 41 25-5-88 43.6 6-5

D aw e i 38.5 11-4-98 38.9 6-5M ye ik 38 4-5-83 38 6-5K aw thoung 38 3-4-98 38.5 6-5

M on

T anintharyi

L as t R e c o rd 1 9 9 8 R e c o rd

M andalay

B ag o

Yang o n

A ye yarwady

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Table 7.16: Least annual rainfalls (mm) recorded in 1998 ENSO year

El Nino

During the El Nino years, the southwest monsoonwas negativelyaffectedon several features.

(1) Monsoon onset and withdrawalIn general, themonsoon onset dates are late and thewithdrawals earlier inElNino years compared to thenormal and this pattern is particularly true for theprecedingyearsof theepisode. Thus, the rainyseasonhave shorterdurations in theElNinoyears.Recently,ElNinowas strong in 1991-92 andmuch stronger in1997-98. Themonsoon onset in the countrywas lateby 12 days in 1991 and 16 days in 1998. Monsoonwithdrawalwas earlyby16days and21days in 1991and1998respectively.Thelengthofmonsoondurationhad reduced by 24 days in 1991 and by 36 days in1998. Strongmonsoon days had decreased in 1991and 1998 by 17 days and 28 days respectively.

(2) Monsoon intensityThere is weak relationship between late monsoonintensity and the El Nino event, though there islikelihood of rather weak monsoon intensityparticularly in theprecedingyear of thepeakElNinoevent. Thus themonsoon intensityas awhole ismorelikely to be normal during themajor El Nino years,and it has the possibilityof 80%based on the last sixevents during the period 1951 to 1998.

Though the relationshipbetween the earlymonsoonintensityand theElNinoevent doesnot performwell,belownormal tonormalmonsoon intensitiesaremore

likely during the earlymonsoon periods of both theprecedingand thefollowingyearsof thepeakElNinoevents. More than 50% of the intensity of peakmonsoon during El Nino events could experiencefailureorweakeningofmonsooncompared tonormalcondition. This is particularly true for the precedingyear of the episode.

During the southwest monsoon peak season, therewasanormal occurrenceof inactivemonsoonperiodcommonly known as “Monsoon Break”. It wasalmost totallyabsent inmostof theyears through1989to 1997. Thiswas particularly true in 1993 to 1996.However averyprolongedmonsoonbreakconditionreturned in 1998. The 1990s marked the warmestdecade ofMyanmar in the 20th century.

(3) Frequency of stormsThe relationshipbetween theElNino events and thefrequency of storms in the Bay of Bengal has beencontroversial for long time. However the stormfrequencyis belownormal in theprecedingyear andit is belownormal to normal in the followingyear ofthe peak of El Nino events.

(4) Temperature and rainfallThe impactsof theElNinowerealsoobserved (Lwin,T.1999)upon thegeneral climateofMyanmarduringtheprecedingyearaswell asduringthe followingyearof the El Nino. 70% (Preceding Year) to 85 %(FollowingYear) of theElNino events revealed thatthemaximumtemperaturesinmostpartsofthecountrywerehigher thannormalduringthedrymonthsofAprilandMay. Moreover, 70% (PrecedingYear) to 85

S tate/Reg ion S tation DataPeriod

Old record(Year)

1998Record

1903-1941

1950-2003

Magway Magway 1971-2003 445 (1972) 4421903-1930

1946-2003

1903-19371951-2003

1902-1937

1961-2003

1907-19371952-2003

1366

Bago 2,596(1987)

2373

Kayah Loikaw 770 (1993) 751

Shan Taunggy i 1,208(1976)

992

Bago

Pyay 816 (1972) 798

Taunggoo 1,682(1989)

S tate/Reg ion S tation DataPeriod

Old record(Year)

1998Record

1903-1941

1950-2003

Magway Magway 1971-2003 445 (1972) 4421903-1930

1946-2003

1903-19371951-2003

1902-1937

1961-2003

1366

Bago 2,596(1987)

2373

Kayah

Shan Taunggy i 1,208(1976)

992

Bago

Pyay 816 (1972) 798

Taunggoo 1,682(1989)

770 (1993) 751770 (1993) 7511907-1937

Loikaw1952-2003

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% (FollowingYear) of the El Nino events showedthatboth theannual rainfall andmonsoonrainfallwerebelownormal in the country.

La NinaDuring the last two decades, temperatures had beenrisingbydayandbynight inmost parts of thecountry.

However, record lowminimum temperatures wereobserved atmanystations in thecool seasonof 1999-2000, which was the La Nina year.The lowestminimumtemperaturesofsomeselected stations indifferent States/Region ,observedareshownin (Table7.17).

Table7.17: Lowestminimum temperatures recorded at the Capitals of States andRegions

Some of the La Nina events which occurred in theprecedingyear or in the followingyear of theElNinoepisode are shown in (Table 7.18).

AsMyanmarbelongstothenon-AnnexIParties, it is inafinanciallyandtechnicallydifficultsituationtocarryoutvarious researches/studies related toclimatechange inMyanmar in order to understand different aspects,scopes, dimensions andextent onwarming/ cooling.Similarly, country-specific informationwith regards toprecipitation, extremeweather events, probabilityofcyclonelandfalloncoastalareas,stormsurgeandstormrain, southwestmonsooncharacters includingdroughtand floods, and water resources potential will bedisclosedthroughresearchactivities.TheimpactsofElNino /LaNinaphenomenaalsoneedin-depthstudies.

In thiscontext,Myanmaris invitingexpertise, supportsandcoordinationfrominternational/regionalorganizationand institutions to acquire high quality informationregardingclimateandclimatechangeaspects.

Table 7.18: La Nina years preceded orfollowed by ElNino years during 1950-1989

La Nina El Nino El Nino La Nina

1950 1951 1953 19541955-56 1957-58 1963 1964

1964 1965 1969 1970

1967-68 1969 1972 1973

1970-71 1972 1982-83 1984-85

1975 1976 1987-88 1988-89

La Nina followed byEl Nino

La Nina precededby ElNino


1950 1951 1953 19541951 1953 19541955-56 1957-58 1963 1964

1964 1965 1969 19701965 1969 1970

1967-68 1969 1972 1973

1970-71 1972 1982-83 1984-851972 1982-83 1984-85

1975 1976 1987-88 1988-891976 1987-88 1988-89

La Nina followed byEl Nino

La Nina precededby ElNino

State/Division Date

Kachin Myitkyina 5 2/1/1963 La NinaChin Haka -6 30-12-91Upper Sagaing Homalin 3 8/2/1980 NoneLower Sagaing Monywa 6.7 31-1-64 La NinaMandalay Mandalay 7.2 31-1-64 La NinaNorthern Shan Lashio -2.2 16-1-89 La NinaEastern Shan Kengtung 1.7 27-1-53 El NinoSouthern Shan Taunggyi 0.3 20-1-74 NoneMagway Magway 5 26-1-93Rakhine Sittway 8.9 21-1-70 La NinaKayah Loikaw 0 27-1-53 El NinoNorthwest Bago Pyay 7.2 17-1-54Northeast Bago Taungoo 8 30-12-75South Bago Bago 7 11/2/1997 El NinoNorth Ayeyarwady Hinthada 7 29-12-97 El NinoSouth Ayeyarwady Pathein 10 30-12-75 La NinaYangon Yangon (Kaba-Aye) 9.1 9/2/1997 El NinoKayin Hpa-an 9.4 1/1/1974 NoneMon Mawlamyine 10.8 2/1/1976 El NinoTanintharyi Dawei 5.5 26-12-99 La Nina

StationLowestMinTem(°C )

RemarkDate

State/Division

La Nina5 2/1/19635 2/1/1963MyitkyinaKachin-6 30-12-91-6 30-12-91HakaChin

None3 8/2/19803 8/2/1980HomalinUpper SagaingLa Nina6.7 31-1-646.7 31-1-64MonywaLower SagaingLa Nina7.2 31-1-647.2 31-1-64MandalayMandalayLa Nina-2.2 16-1-89-2.2 16-1-89LashioNorthern ShanEl Nino1.7 27-1-531.7 27-1-53KengtungEastern ShanNone0.3 20-1-740.3 20-1-74TaunggyiSouthern Shan

5 26-1-935 26-1-93MagwayMagwayLa Nina8.9 21-1-708.9 21-1-70SittwayRakhineEl Nino0 27-1-530 27-1-53LoikawKayah

7.2 17-1-547.2 17-1-54PyayNorthwest Bago8 30-12-758 30-12-75TaungooNortheast Bago

El Nino7 11/2/19977 11/2/1997BagoSouth BagoNorth Ayeyarwady Hinthada 7 29-12-97 El NinoSouth Ayeyarwady Pathein 10 30-12-7510 30-12-75 La Nina

StationLowestMinTem(°C )

Remark

El NinoYangon (Kaba-Aye) 9.1 9/2/1997Yangon (Kaba-Aye) 9.1 9/2/1997Yangon (Kaba-Aye) 9.1 9/2/1997YangonNone9.4 1/1/19749.4 1/1/1974Hpa-anKayinEl Nino10.8 2/1/197610.8 2/1/1976MawlamyineMonLa Nina5.5 26-12-995.5 26-12-99DaweiTanintharyi


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7.5. Warning Systems on NaturalDisasters

CycloneCyclones in the Bayof Bengal are one of the climaticparameters forMyanmarand the countriesaround theBayofBengal. Formationofmorecyclonesin theBayinfluencesmuchoftherainfallandthemonsoononsetofthe countryandbringsaboutdisastrousevents into theareaoflandfall.Thecyclones,usuallyaccompaniedbyspellsofstrongwinds,heavyrainfall, floodsandstormsurges,cancauseextensivelossoflivesanddamagestoinfrastructureand properties.

FloodThere are spells of widespread heavyrains at variousplaces in the monsoon season and local floods arethe common annual phenomena in the country. Attimes, floodsbecomesevereas theirdimension growsin time and space, affecting the normal activities.During the dry season, rivers are fed with thegroundwater from forested watersheds and meltingsnow from high mountains in the north, which formpart of the Himalayan mountain complex. Snow andglaciersare somehowimportant for maintaining riverflows duringdryseason in Myanmar. Moreover, dueto the influence of climate change, dry zoneoccasionallyexperienced widespread heavyrains forsome continuousdays, which led tocatastrophic flashfloods in theareawherewatersupplyisusuallyscarce.

WarningsDMHissueshazardwarningsandbulletinsasrequired.The frequencyof warning depends upon the nature,severityandimminentdangerof thedisaster.Warningsare disseminated to the targeted area by all meansavailable at the DMH following the guidance of theMinistryofTransport.Relevant stations are instructedto take special observations round the clock. DMHhas establishedfive centers to watchnatural disasters,particularly the tropical storms and associatedweather phenomena, floods and tsunami. Thesecenters are:

1. National Meteorological Centre(Nay Pyi Taw)

2. National Meteorological Centre (Yangon)3. Aviation Meteorological Office

(Mingaladon)4. Multi-hazard EarlyWarning Centre (Nay

Pyi Taw)5. Coastal Stations

Different typesofwarningsandbulletins,suchasfloodwarning, tsunami warning, earthquake warning, etc.issued by DMH are shown in (Figure 7.17). Thewarningsareissuedwithcolorcodeswhereapplicableparticularlyfor thedisastrous natural hazard, cyclone.The “Yellow” color code means there is a cyclonicdisturbance in the Bay of Bengal, which is not yetthreatening Myanmar coast. The “Orange” code

Figure 7.17: Different types of warnings and bulletins issued by DMH


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means the disturbance maymove towards Myanmarcoast. The “Red” code means the cyclone maycrossMyanmar coast within next 12 hours. The “Brown”code means the cyclone is crossing Myanmar coast.The “Green” color code means the cyclone hascrossed Myanmar coast and weakened. For timelyandefficient informationexchange,provincial stationsare equipped with telephones, Radiophones, SingleSide Band (SSB) for direct communication. In caseof communication disruption, the station may getassistance from the local general administration

offices for indirect contact with the head office(National Meteorological Center) to deliver specialobservations and reports, and to receive /disseminate latest warning and bulletin relatedto tropical storm, flood, earthquake and tsunami.Myanmar is able to provide storm warning 2-3 daysin advance, river floods warnings 5-7days in advanceand tsunami warning a few hours ahead with theavailable facilities in hand. The schematicview of thewarning dissemination arrangement to the target areais shown in (Figure 7.18). In addition, monsoon

Figure 7.18: Schematic view of the warning dissemination to reach the target area.

forums are being held before and after the southwestmonsoon season. It started in 2007 as a responsiveinitiative to deal with the climate change.

7.6. Networking

Regional/ InternationalIn International Corporation, the Director-General ofDMH is the Permanent Representative of Myanmarfor WMO and he is the focal point to the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), tothe United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCCC), to theAcid Depositionand Oxidant Research Center (ADORC) and toAcidDeposition Monitoring Network in East Asia(EANET). Myanmar is the member country to the

WMO/UNESCAPPanel onTropical Cyclones. TheDirector General is also working withAsian DisasterPreparedness Center (ADPC) and the Committeeon Regional Integrated Multi-hazard EarlyWarningSystem (RIMES). DMH is the member to theASEAN Subcommittee on Meteorology andGeophysics (ASCMG), and the Bay of BengalInitiatives forMulti-SectoralTechnical andEconomicCooperation (BIMSTEC). DMH is also closelyworking with China MeteorologicalAdministration (CMA),Japan MeteorologicalAgency(JMA), Korea International CooperationAgency(KOICA),Thailand International DevelopmentCooperation Agency(TICA), Japan International

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Cooperation Agency (JICA), Japan AerospaceExploration Agency (JAXA), United Nati-onsEnvironment Programme (UNEP), United StatesAgencyfor InternationalDevelopment (USAID) andIndian Institute of Technology (IIT), etc., amongothers.

(1) WMO and DMHThe World Meteorological Organization (WMO) isa specialized agency of the United Nations. WMOhas amembershipof189MemberStatesandTerritoriesas of 4 December 2009. It was originated fromthe International Meteorological Organizat-ion(IMO),which was founded in 1873. Myanmar wasone of thesignatory countries of IMO in 1949 for establishingWMO. Established in 1950, WMO became aspecializedagencyoftheUnitedNations in1951in thefieldsofmeteorology(weatherandclimate),operationalhydrologyandrelatedgeophysical sciences.Myanmarhad ratified the Convention in 1947 and became amember of WMO on March 23, 1951.

The DMH contributes substantially to the protectionof lives and properties against natural disasters andto safeguarding the environment. Moreover, NMHScontributes either directlyor indirectly to enhancingthe economic and social well-being of the entiresociety inareas such as food security, water resourcesand transport.

Moreover, WMO has initiated an integrated effortbysetting up or strengthening existing collaborationmechanismsamongtheregionalbodiesunderTropicalCyclone Programme (TCP), the RegionalAssociations and the Technical Commissionsconcerned. Myanmar, being a member of TCP, hasbeen receiving WMO assistance for education andtrainingactivitiesthroughfellowshipprograms,relevanttraining courses, workshops, seminars, and thepreparation of training publications. While WMOprovides relevant technical advices, NMHS ofMyanmar has been taking part in WMO’s activitiessuch as World Weather Watch (WWW), TCP, andWorld Climate Programme (WCP).

(2) UNFCCC and DMHMyanmar ratified the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).

(3) JICA and DMHMyanmar and Japan will be cooperating for theestablishment of anearlyearthquake warningsysteminMyanmarbysettingupseismographicnetwork andrecord center. JICA’s recent cooperation with DMHincluded “experts dispatch program” on earthquake,equipment provision program and training program.Moreover, JICAhas tocooperate withDMH in futurein theshort-term expert dispatch programonTropicalStorm Forecasting and Warning, and Regional-focused Training Course in Acid DepositionMonitoring Network in EastAsia. JICAhas alreadyprovided two instruments of Ion Chromatographysystem and Ultra pure water production system.

(4) UNESCO/IOC and DMHMechanisms such as the Tsunami WarningSystem set up by the IntergovernmentalOceanographicCommission (IOC) of the UnitedNations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization (UNESCO) could be useful inpreventing and mitigating the impact of suchphenomena.Myanmar isparticipating in theTsunamiWarning System. Of course, the two phenomena arequitedistinct: tsunamisaremainlycausedbysubmarineearthquakes; and storm surges by weatherphenomena.But theyhaveaspects incommon.GlobalSea Level Observing System program (GLOSS)which is an arm of the IOC has traditionallyemphasized on strong training, education and mutualassistance components. Its program includes theestablishment of 6 near real-time sea level stationnetwork with financial support from the UNTsunami Regional Trust Fund.UNESCAP, incollaborationwith theUniversityofHawaiiSea LevelCenter, has been administering the trust fund. It hasestablishedonestation in the Philippines, two stationsin Thailand, two stations in Vietnam, and soon toestablish one station in Myanmar.

IOC Sub-Commission for the Western Pacific(WESTPAC) developed, within its framework ofSouth East Asia-Global Ocean Observing System(SEAGOOS), one pilot project entitled “MonsoonOnset Monitoring and Its Social & EcosystemImpacts” (MOMSEI). This pilot project aims toimprove the understanding and forecasting ofAsiamonsoon and its multi-scale variability. The projectwillenhancethecapabilityformonitoringthemonsoon

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onset in theAndaman Sea. It is also in synergy withthe on-going efforts of Indian Ocean ObservingSystem(IndOOS). There are six member states ofIOC /WESTPAC suffering fromAsian monsoons,including China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar,PhilippineandThailand.DMHofMyanmarisactivelycooperating with other member countries bysharingMyanmar Monsoon Climatologyand its changes.

India and Myanmar have jointly undertaken theexpedition in the Andaman Sea. UNESCO/IOC/ADPC prepared to install new advanced tide-gaugesin Myanmar coast. The National Institute of OceanTechnology (NIOT) of India, DMH and MyanmarPortAuthority (MPA) had already implemented twoacoustic tide gauges inYangon and Pathein.Anothertwo advanced tide gauges are to be installed in thenear future by the GLOSS-UNESCO/IOC/ADPCprogram. The advanced tide gauges, currentlyunderpreparation, will have real-time data transmissionfacility.

The operations for storm-surge prediction andwarnings are being coordinated through the JointWMO/IOC Technical Commission forOceanographyand Marine Meteorology(JCOMM).It is an example of the long standing cooperationamong WMO and IOC. The JCOMM guide for‘storm-surge forecasting’ is being finalized by theCommission and will contribute to the enhancementof storm-surge forecasting capability at the regionaland national level.

(5) RIMES (ADPC) and DMHThe Regional IntegratedMulti-hazard EarlyWarningSystem (RIMES) is a regional cooperation amongBangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Comoros,India, Lao PDR, Maldives, Mauritius, Mongolia,Myanmar,Nepal, thePhilippines,SriLanka,Thailand,Vietnam andYemen. RIMES will focus on the earlywarningof tsunamiandhydro-meteorologicalhazardswithin the framework of UNESCO/IOC and WMO.RIMES is now in force and is looking forward toworkingin theareaofcapacitybuildingfortheregionalcountries which are in need of assistance on weatherand climate forecasting, storm and storm surgeforecasting, and issuance of tsunami warnings.

Under the arrangement ofADPC, DMH supportedto hold a national forum for early warning inApril2007. It was intended to hold national forums in pre-monsoon and post-monsoon months on a regularbasis. The forum was named “Monsoon Forum”. Itconstitutes a platform for open dialogue and inter-agency coordination as the representatives fromforecast providers, user agencies, non-governmentorganizations and selected communities would beamong the forum participants. Since 2007, theMonsoon Forum has been organized twice a year inpre-monsoon and post-monsoon months. It is nownationally and regionally recognized as the keyplatform for understanding of risks from currentvariability, extremes, and long-term climate change.Forums have beenable to identifytheneeds andgaps,and helped find ways and means to narrow the gapswith the technical guidance and support ofADPC,and also by the cooperative efforts of stakeholdersfrom various sector.

National Consultation Workshops on CoastalCommunityResilience(CCR)andIncidentCommandSystem (ICS) were held separately in Nay Pyi Taw,Myanmar. DMH brought together representativesfrom various government and non-governmentorganizations concerned with coastal resourcemanagement. The workshops were organized toupdate on the current status of disaster risk reductionin coastal areasand to explore howtheCCR initiativecan assist in building institutional capacities. Theparticipating agencies were aware of the importanceof ICS, which brought together personnel, policies,procedures, facilities and equipment in an integratedstructure designed to improve emergency responseoperations of all types. .

Workshop on Tsunami Alert Rapid NotificationSystem (TARNS) and Concept of Operations(CONOPS) was held in Myanmar on 21-22November2007,with the participation ofrepresentati-ves from government organizations.Generation and dissemination of tsunami warni-ngbased on the CONOPS and TARNS initiatives hadbeen the workshop output. It was briefed by theparticipants at the workshop and an implementationplan was prepared. National Tsunami WarningCenters (NTWCs) were assisted by CONOPS for

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mapping the operational flow of hazard and non-hazardinformationbetweenorganizations,fordefiningthe intra-department reportingrelationshipswithin theNTWCs, and for developing a robust decision-makingprocessforthegenerationoftsunamiwarnings.TARNS is aset of protocols andprocedures for quickandaccuratedisseminationof tsunami-relatedadvicesor warnings from the NTWCs to all relevant nationaland local officials and the public.

(6) WMO/ESCAP PANEL ON TROPICALCYCLONES

WMO has initiated an integrated effort bysetting uporstrengtheningtheexistingcollaborationmechanismsamong the TCP regional bodies, the RegionalAssociations and the Technical Commissionsconcerned. There are eight Members in the Panel onTropicalCyclones (PTC),namely, Bangladesh, India,Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Sri Lanka andThailand. The TCP is designed to assist the countriesin areas vulnerable to tropical cyclones with theprimaryobjective of minimizing the destruction andloss of life through improved forecasting warningsystems and disaster preparedness measures. ThePanel noted that training events and workshops areto be organized for the benefit of DMH of Myanmar.The Panel had benefited fromWMO’s education andtrainingactivities throughtheprovisionoffellowships,relevant training courses, workshops, seminars andthe preparation assistance to prepare trainingpublications.WMO also provided technical advicesto the Panel. Assistance to Myanmar includes“Attachment of Storm Surge Experts from Myanmarand Sri Lanka to the Indian Institute of Technology”.The Panelalsonoted thatWMOfellowships for long-term andshort-term trainings will continue to grant tothe Member countries of the Panel under the variousWMO programs.

(7) UNESCAP and DMHUNESCAP will also help Myanmar developan earlywarningsystemfor tsunamiandothernaturaldisasters.The UNESCAP’s decision to fund Myanmar forsetting up the warning facilities is based on the factthat the region around Bangladesh and westernMyanmar’s Rakhine coastal area is susceptible tostorm, earthquake and tsunami.Anetwork of 4 real-time broadband seismicstations was established with

financial support fromtheUNTsunamiRegionalTrustFund beingadministered byUNESCAP. One stationwas established in Myanmar, one in the Philippinesand two in Vietnam.

(8) EANET and DMHAcid Deposition Monitoring Network in EastAsia(EANET) has been established as an importantinitiativeforregionalcooperationamongtheEastAsiancountries since 1998 in order to create commonunderstandingonthestateofaciddepositionproblemsand for providing useful inputs to policy makers atvarious levels. Myanmar has attended EANETmeetings as an observer since 1999. By theencouragement of officials from Secretariat andNetwork Center-ADORC of EANET, Myanmarbecame a member countryof EANETin 2005.Afterbecoming a member, DMH was designated as theNational Center of EANET. DMH then carried outwet deposition monitoring. ADORC had alreadyprovided two sets of HORIBA pH meter and wetsampler. JICA provided two instruments for ionchromatography system and ultra pure waterproduction system. With the support of JapanGovernment through JICA, the Myanmar NationalCenter for EANET has been able to fulfill therequirement of EANET wet deposition monitoring.Myanmar could have provided reliable data of ioncontent.

NationalEstablishment of research network for theassessment of the impact of climate change inMyanmarIn the higher education sub-sector of Myanmar, thereare many universities, degree colleges, colleges andvocational institutions. These are not onlyunder theministry of education but also under the variousministries. The research network concerning withclimate change should be established among theseinstitutions. The main objectives of the networkingactivitiesare:

To provide the technical guidance in theconduct of research,

To use the research outcomes in thepreparation of the draft development plans.

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To promote the public awareness onclimate change and its impacts on socialand economic sectors of the country.

To understand the potential impacts ofclimate change on different sectors of theeconomy, their vulnerabilities and thepossible adaptation options to reduce suchimpacts.

To encourage climate-related researchworks, in the Higher Education sub-sectorand to include climate change and ti

To share knowledge and experience amongthe institutions.

Fields of research and implementation activityIn the Higher Education sub-sector, universitiesperform various research activities. The researchactivities in agriculture, forestry, urban, coastal andmarine, tourism,water and soil resources etc., shouldcover research on climate, particularly to climatechange impact to the respective sectors, in additionto conventional researchworks. See (Table 7.19)

Table7.19: Some tasks to be undertaken for promoting climate-related research projects

Myanmar Higher Education Institutions will alsocollaborate with the International EducationalInstitutions in the research network. Theseinternational institutions may participate in theMyanmarUniversityResearchNetwork on climatechange. Successful research activities need variousrelevant supports.

7.7. Needs and Recommendation

The meteorological/hydrological observa-ntories are usually equipped with conven-tionalinstruments, and data handling and assessments arecarried outmanually. The observed data are sent tothe National Data Collection Centre at Kaba-Ayebyvoicemessage using telephones, single side bandtransceivers and telegrams, which need furtherconfirmationbymonthlyregisters sent bymail. Dataare archived in paper copieswhich decayeasilydueto the tropicalmoist climate. Staff are busywith themanual operation and handling of data, analysis andissuance ofwarnings and bulletins. Progress in the

field of climate change related assessments isinsufficient and slow toobtain up-to-date situation inmany aspects. There is an inadequate analysis ofexisting data by local expertise, such as climatevariation due to ENSO.Capacity building ofDMHstaff, university students and personnel from relatedinstitutions is alsoanother area of gap in the country.Myanmar is truly interested in sharing climaticinformation torelevantagenciesandwillingto involvein global efforts to dealwith the climate change.

Myanmar needs to replace the existing conventionalinstrumentswith automatic/ digital oneswhichwillsignificantly reducemanual operations. The use ofcontrol buttons is to be promoted to improve dataassessment for efficient transmission to target points.Human capacity development needs to besimultaneously enhanced so that dissemination ofWMO/ IPCC standard information may becomemuchmore facilitated.Climate change informationnetworkshouldbestrengthenednationally, regionallyand internationally.Thismaybe achievedphase by

No. Description of tasks

1 Study on syllabus of the universities related to the environment and climatechange2 Database construction of research activities for universities and relateddepartments3 Inviting the research proposal for the assessment of climate change impactson the various fields of study.4 Performing workshops andseminars on climate change impacts

5 Establishing WebSite for research networks

6 Publication of research papers

No. Description of tasks

1 Study on syllabus of the universities related to the environment and climatechange2 Database construction of research activities for universities and relateddepartments3 Inviting the research proposal for the assessment of climate change impactson the various fields of study.4 Performing workshops andseminars on climate change impacts



4 Performing workshops andseminars on climate change impacts



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phase. National strategic plans on Research andSystematic Observation withspecial focus on climatechange, tropical storm and drought are shown asfollows.

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National strategy- The area of research relevant to climatechange must be promoted strategicallywith

specific directions and goals.- The research programs should also aim tomaintain and develop international links thatensure collaboration in research activitiesand transfer and dissemination of advancedenvironmentally sound technologies.- The observational instruments must bereplaced with automatic or computerizedfacilities to control the data quality and toprovide quality information to regional andglobal climatic centres.- The technology enhancement must bepromoted through the use of numericalmodels.- Workshop/Forum must be organizedfrequently to raise awareness on climatechange, to develop response strategies, andto open up opportunities to researchers.


2012

No Topics1 Early signs of late monsoon onset over Myanmar.2 Precursory signs of early monsoonwithdrawal fromMyanmar.3 Variability of annual rain in Dry Zone ofMyanmar.4 Tropospheric patterns associated with deficit monsoonmonthly rainfalls inDry Zone ofMyanmar.5 Tropospheric patterns associated with deficit monsoonmonthly rainfalls inLower Myanmar.6 Tropospheric patterns associated with deficit monsoonmonthly rainfalls inUpper Myanmar.7 Tropospheric patterns associated with excessive monsoonmonthly rainfalls inLower Myanmar.8 Extreme rainfalls in centralMyanmar.

No Topics1 Early signs of late monsoon onset over Myanmar.2 Precursory signs of early monsoonwithdrawal fromMyanmar.3 Variability of annual rain in Dry Zone ofMyanmar.4 Tropospheric patterns associated with deficit monsoonmonthly rainfalls inDry Zone ofMyanmar.5 Tropospheric patterns associated with deficit monsoonmonthly rainfalls inLower Myanmar.6 Tropospheric patterns associated with deficit monsoonmonthly rainfalls inUpper Myanmar.7 Tropospheric patterns associated with excessive monsoonmonthly rainfalls inLower Myanmar.8 Extreme rainfalls in centralMyanmar.

Table7.21: The strategic research topics on climate changeNo Topics

1 Climate change aspects of SW monsoon onset/withdrawal over Myanmar.

2 Monthly rainfall trends of states and divisions in Myanmar.

3 Significant excessive monthly rainfalls in Dry Zone of Myanmar.

4 Significant dry spells in Dry Zone of Myanmar.

5 Trend of post-monsoon rains in Myanmar.

6 Trend of pre-monsoon rain in Myanmar.

7 Monthly rainfall assessment of Myanmar. .

8 Extreme day temperature patterns in Myanmar.

9 Extreme night temperature patterns in Myanmar.

No Topics

1 Climate change aspects of SW monsoon onset/withdrawal over Myanmar.

2 Monthly rainfall trends of states and divisions in Myanmar.

3 Significant excessive monthly rainfalls in Dry Zone of Myanmar.

4 Significant dry spells in Dry Zone of Myanmar.

5 Trend of post-monsoon rains in Myanmar.

6 Trend of pre-monsoon rain in Myanmar.

7 Monthly rainfall assessment of Myanmar. .

8 Extreme day temperature patterns in Myanmar.

9 Extreme night temperature patterns in Myanmar.

Table 7.20 : The strategic research topics on climate variability


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Table 7.24: The strategic research topics on extreme climates in relation toElNino

No Topics

1 Early signs of climate impact due to El Nino.

3 Impact of El Nino upon the extremely warmspell duration of different States andDivisions in Myanmar.4 Warming pattern in Myanmar in the early stage of El Nino.

5 Rainfall pattern in Myanmar in the early stage of El Nino.

6 Drought characteristics during the period of El Nino.

7 Significant climate pattern in Myanmar in the wake of El Nino.

8 Significant intensity/track of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal during El Nino.

9 Flood frequency and duration along the Ayeyawady River systemdue to impact of ElNino.10 Abnormally low water level in rivers during dry season due to impact of El Nino.

2 Impact of El Nino upon the extreme heavy rainfalls of different States and Divisions inMyanmar.

No Topics

1 Early signs of climate impact due to El Nino.

3 Impact of El Nino upon the extremely warmspell duration of different States andDivisions in Myanmar.4 Warming pattern in Myanmar in the early stage of El Nino.

5 Rainfall pattern in Myanmar in the early stage of El Nino.

6 Drought characteristics during the period of El Nino.

7 Significant climate pattern in Myanmar in the wake of El Nino.

8

9

10

2 Impact of El Nino upon the extreme heavy rainfalls of different States and Divisions inMyanmar.

Significant intensity/track of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal during El Nino.

Flood frequency and duration along the Ayeyawady River systemdue to impact of ElNino.Abnormally low water level in rivers during dry season due to impact of El Nino.

Table 7.23:The strategic research topics on drought and precipitation

No Topics

1 Frequency distribution of drought in Myanmar.

2 Severe droughts and monsoon situation in Myanmar.

3 Tropospheric circulations that influenced the severe droughts in Myanmar.

4 Precursory regional situations responsible for the severe drought of Myanmar.

5 Synoptic situations responsible for the widespread drought in Myanmar.

6 Synoptic situations responsible for the prolong droughts duration in Dry Zone ofMyanmar.7 Hydrological features during droughts in central Myanmar.

8 Vulnerability to impact of severe drought in centralMyanmar.

9 Potential impact of severe drought in Dry Zone upon the domestic water supply.

10 Dry season drought potentials in Myanmar.

TopicsNo

Frequency distribution of drought in Myanmar.1

Severe droughts and monsoon situation in Myanmar.2

Tropospheric circulations that influenced the severe droughts in Myanmar.3

Precursory regional situations responsible for the severe drought of Myanmar.4

Synoptic situations responsible for the widespread drought in Myanmar.5

Synoptic situations responsible for the prolong droughts duration in Dry Zone ofMyanmar.6

Hydrological features during droughts in central Myanmar.7Vulnerability to impact of severe drought in centralMyanmar.8Potential impact of severe drought in Dry Zone upon the domestic water supply.9Dry season drought potentials in Myanmar.10

No Topics1 Landfall frequency distribution of tropical storms and depressions alongMyanmar coast.

2 Vulnerability of tropical storms along Myanmar coast.3 Excessive rainfalls in Myanmar associated with cyclonic storms.4 Attempt to quantitative forecasting of storm surge in Myanmar.5 Forecasting of cyclonic storm rain.

6 Study on the influence of the sea surface temperature pattern upon thecyclogenesis in the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman sea.

7 Tropospheric circulations responsible for the abnormal movements ofcyclones in the Bay of Bengal.

8 Regeneration of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal due to typhoon remnantsof the South China Sea.

9 Storm surge prediction along an estuary.10 Scenarios of different abnormal cyclone tracks and their potentialstorm surges.

No Topics1 Landfall frequency distribution of tropical storms and depressions alongMyanmar coast.

2 Vulnerability of tropical storms along Myanmar coast.3 Excessive rainfalls in Myanmar associated with cyclonic storms.4 Attempt to quantitative forecasting of storm surge in Myanmar.5 Forecasting of cyclonic storm rain.

6 Study on the influence of the sea surface temperature pattern upon thecyclogenesis in the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman sea.

7 Tropospheric circulations responsible for the abnormal movements ofcyclones in the Bay of Bengal.

8 Regeneration of cyclones in the Bay of Bengal due to typhoon remnantsof the South China Sea.Storm surge prediction along an estuary.9Scenarios of different abnormal cyclone tracks and their potentialstorm surges.

10

Table7.22: The strategic research topics on tropical storms

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Research workswill have to focuson ENSO, tropicalstorms and their associated hazards and droughts,etc. in Myanmar. To enhance the systematicobservationandresearchactivities, technical, financialand technological supports are to be sought for fromvarious organizations both international and regional.Inorder toenable toconduct research on cross-cuttingclimate change issues among key socio-economicsectors,humanresourcedevelopment shouldbegivenpriority.

7.8. Conclusion

In theUnion of Myanmar, observations indicated thatclimate change is taking place in the fields oftemperature, precipitation and extreme climate.Occurrence of disasters is getting more frequent andsevere, and the southwest monsoon features are alsochanging. The southwest monsoon onset dates intothe country were becoming late and its withdrawaldates fromthecountrywereadvancingearlier. During1988-2000, the southwest monsoon duration wasshortened by three weeks in northern Myanmar andone week in other parts compared to 1951-2000average. The monsoon became less active(decreasing strong monsoon days). Monsoon breakwhich used to take place for about one week duringnormal peak monsoon period of July and Augustbecamelesspronouncedexcept in 1998duringwhichthere was a prolonged break monsoon due to El Ninoevent.

Climate change imprints are found in themeteorological elements such as temperature(generallyrisingtrend),rainfall (generallyfallingtrend)and cyclone frequencyof landfall on Myanmar coast(rising trend). Myanmar is highly vulnerable todisasters due to extreme climate impacts induced byglobal warming. Research and systematicobservations are the paramount important basicmeasures that Myanmar has to undertake. Toeffectively support the Global Climate ObservationSystem, Myanmar urgently needs to update theexisting conventional measuring instruments, toprovide data, information and reports following theWMO standard. Data collection should be upgradedand replaced bystand-alone communication devices.Observation stations are to be equipped with desk

top/ lap top computers to ensure data quality andimprove archivingoperation.Myanmar has a dozen of stations with more than acentury-longrainfalldata, a fewdozenofstationswithmore than five decades of meteorologicalobservations and about 100 stations, takingmeteorological and hydrological observations up toabout five decades.Much of the data are in the pocketregisters and forms. DMH has to upgrade a dataarchive system so as not to lose the valuable data.DMH needs not only data archive centre but alsocapacitybuilding, the facilityupgradingand expertiseto run the centre.

Data are needed to be analyzed in the formatsrecommended by WMO, UNFCCC, UNEP, IPCCetc. with the help of relevant software. Where ready-made software is not available, staff has to developownsoftware to analyze the data. Capacities buildingof trainers should be strengthened through relevanttrainings from time to time. Ways and means shouldbesoughtfor to trainnewgenerationsofclimatologistsandmeteorologists, agrometeorologists, hydrologists,environment-alists, biologists etc., to monitor theclimate change and its potential impacts. Newelements and process of changes in nature mayneedto be observed systematically and it is essential toopen up a new domain of research on climate changeimpacts on human, animals, foods and plants.

Past climatesandcurrent climatesofMyanmarshouldbe analyzed and the results should be informed to theauthorities and relevant agencies for necessarymeasures and preparedness.Development of climatescenarios in the immediate future is another areachallengingMyanmar.

The observation stations are not evenlydistributed inthe countryand theyare scarce in remote areas wheremore observations are needed for early warningsystems and for activities related to agriculture,forestry, fishery, livestock andwater resourcesaswell.Fairlyuniformdistributionofstationsshouldbegivenpriority.


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Various country-specific climate change informationand the climate-related publications issued byUNFCCC, WMO, IPCC, UNEP and otherinstitutions should be made available to allenvironment-related agencies of the country.Myanmarparticipationintheregionalandinternationaltraining workshops, seminars, forums, meetings,conferences and cooperative endeavors should befurther encouraged so as to enhance the nationalcapacity for undertaking effective research andsystematicobservations.Capacitybuildingof thestaffassigned at the stations is another important matter tohelp develop effectivesystematic observation systemwithin the region. At the sametime public awarenesscampaigns on climate change and adaptationstrategies should be launched from time to time. Tothis end, adequate funds should be made available toresponsible departments and agencies of thegovernment and non-governmental organizations aswell.

Myanmar needs increased technical, financial andlogical support from UNFCCC, UNEP, IPCC andother related institutions. Those supports will enableMyanmar significantlycontribute to theglobal effortsof adaptation to climate change.

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Chapter 8

Education, Training and Public Awareness on Climate Change

8.1. Introduction

In compliance with the Article 6 of UNFCCC,Myanmar has paid special attention to enhanceeducation and awareness of the public on climatechange through trainings and various means. SinceNational Commission for Environmental Affairs(NCEA) was formed in 1990, attempthas been madeto promote the education and public awareness onenvironmental conservation.

In Myanmar Agenda 21, there are 6 integratedprograms formulated by government agencies andapproved byCabinet for the pursuitof environmentaleducation and public awareness activities. These arenamely (1) formation of national advisory andcoordination body for environmental education andtraining, (2) improvementofenvironmental educationinschool, (3)improvementofenvironmentaleducationand research at the tertiary and professional level,(4) building the capacities of business, industry,academic and private sectors for proper code ofconduct in environmentalconservation, (5) launchingpublic education and awareness campaign, and (6)developing partnership with other national andinternational stakeholders. In this context, WorldEnvironment Day and nation-wide Tree PlantingCampaigns are annuallyimplemented byconcernedgovernmentagencies.Massmedia, radio andnationaltelevision programs also widely cover the issues ofenvironmental public health, soil and waterconservation, energysavingand forest conservation.In line with these existing programs, education,training and public awareness on climate change(ETPA) are intensified for its effectiveness onmaximumcoverageofclimatechangecommunicationnation-wide. This section of the report highlightsprogress made so far in implementation of ETPAactivities onclimate change duringtheperiod of2008to 2010.

8.2. Education and Training Activity

Underthisactivity, threesubactivitiesareimplementedto increase the local capacityfor addressing the issueof climate change in Myanmar. These includes –

1. Development of Information, Educationand Communication Materials

2. Trainingofgovernmentofficials3. Trainingonenvironmental journalismand

climatechangecommunication

Development of Information, education andcommunication materials (IEC)Apparently, information, education andcommunication materials (IEC) are important foreffective communication in order to enhance publicawareness on climate change related issues. Theproject fornationalcommunicationonclimatechangeunder United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCCC) has developed thefollowing IEC materials that are useful for ETPAactivities.

1. A reference book for student and families:Introduction of Climate Change:Amanualof World Health Organization on climatechangeforstudentandfamilieswas translatedinto Myanmar language with additionalinformation about climate change inMyanmar. It is to introducetheclimatechangesubject to the public in simple expression.

2. A toolkit of climate changecommunication for field extension agent:For field extension workers, illustration onmitigation and adaptation of climate changeis essential to be used in their field leveleducation programs and public awarenessraising activities. Containing the facts aboutcause and effect of climate change inMyanmar, a communication toolkit wasdevelopedandpre-testedforeffectiveclimatechangecommunication.

3. Development of climate change video(Myanmar Version of “ An InconvenientTruth”)– For training purpose, documentary

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Chapter 8 Education, Training and Public Awareness onClimate Change

2012Chapter 8 Education, Training and Public Awareness on

Climate Change

video iscrucial to visualize thecontent of climatechange subject. For this purpose, aninternationally well-known climate changedocumentaryvideo; namely“An InconvenientTruth” was translated intoMyanmar version.

4. Information sheet for calculatingecological footprint: Volunteerparticipationbyallcitizensinenvironmentalconservationisanimportantfirststepforbuildingcapacityonmitigation andadaptation toClimateChange.Tonurturetheprocessofenvironmentalethicalconsideration and action by conscientiousindividuals,theconceptofecological footprintis introduced and the procedure for selfassessment of one’s own knowledge aboutthe foot print is developed.

Training of government officials on climatechangeThe training was conducted for twentynine officialsofvariousgovernmentdepartmentsandorganizationsfrom nine States and Regions to enhance theirunderstanding on climate change and related issues.Thetrainingwasfocusedonstrengtheningthecapacityof the trainees to enable them to communicate wellwith the public on climate change and requiredmitigation and adaptation measures. Participatorytrainingmethod wasemployed in delivering training.As part of the training, the trainees prepared post-trainingprogramstoraisepublicawarenessonclimatechange issues in the areas where theywere working.Primarily, most of the trainees developed programswhich included awareness survey, seminar fordepartmentalheadsandlocal authorities,andtrainingsfor trainers. Smallgrants were given to the trainees toimplement their programs.

Figure 8.1: % of Trainees responding to satisfaction on training

Le vel of Satisfaction on daily program

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

2.11.09 3.11.09 4.1.09 5.11.09 6.11.09 7.11.09

Satisf ied

NormalUns atis fied

An important outcome of the training has been thedissemination of the information on climate changeacross the countrythrough government officials whohadattendedthetrainingresultinginincreasedinterestsof local authorities and local communities in climatechange issues.

Training on environmental journalism andclimate change communicationTraining on environmental journalism and climatechange communication was conducted during the

monthofNovember,2009.Thepurposeof thetrainingwas to increase thecapacities of journalists from localmedia for effective communication in the matters ofclimate change and environmental conservation.Training is not only focused on subject matter ofclimate change but also covered the aspect offundamental in investigated journalism. Atotal of12 participants from 11 local media groups attendedthe trainingand trainingassessment showed that theirlevel of understanding on climate change issues hadconsiderablyincreased.After the training,ETPAteam

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Table 8.1: Participating organizations in the training on climate change

metwith the journalists and shared informationaboutthe climate change and environmental conservationinMyanmar.All of these trained journalists wrotearticles about environmental situation inMyanmarbased on the information provided byETPAteamandClimate Information Center. These articles wereregularly appeared in local weekly journalspromoting public awareness on climate change.

Figure 8.2:Government official training onclimate change

8.3. Public Awareness Activity

Asmentioned above, capacitybuildingprogram forthegovernmentofficialsandenvironmental journalistswas alsodesigned to assist public awareness raisingactivitynation-wide.Inaddition, acoupleofprogramswere designed and launched to reinforce the actionstoraisepublicawarenessonclimatechangeeffectively.

M ale Fe male To tal

1Na tiona l Commiss ion for Environmenta lA ffa irs -

2 2 N ay Pyi Taw

2 Depa rtment of P lanning & Sta tistic s 1 1 2 N ay Pyi Taw

3 Fore s t D epa rtment3 1 4 N ay Pyi Taw,

M andalay,R ak hine

4 D ry Zone Greening D epa rtment 1 1 2M agway,M andalay

5 Educa tion D epa rtment1 2 3 M agway, B ago ,

A ye yarwady

7 Gene ra l A dminis tra tion D epa rtment2 2 4 M agway, B ago ,

K achin, C hin

8Depa rtment of W a te r R esource s & R ive rsD eve lopment

1 1 2 Sagaing

9 Minis try of Ele c tric P ow er N o. (I) - 1 1 M andalay

1 0Red C ross A ssoc ia tion, M yitkyinaU nive rs ity

- 1 1 K achin

1 1 Depa rtment of M e teorology and H ydrology 1 1 2 K achin

1 2 V illage P eace and D eve lopment Counc il 1 - 1 Shan

13 Depa rtment of D eve lopment A ffa irs 1 1 2 R ak hine

To tal 1 5 1 4 29

15 Irriga tion D epa rtment 1 - 1 A ye yarwady

14 Soc ia l W e lfa re D epa rtment 1 - 1 Chin

N o . D e partme ntPartic ipant

A re a/Lo catio n

6 Myanmar Fishe ry D epa rtment 1 - 1 A ye yarwady

M ale Fe male To tal

1Na tiona l Commiss ion for Environmenta lA ffa irs -

2 2 N ay Pyi Taw

2 Depa rtment of P lanning & Sta tistic s 1 1 2 N ay Pyi Taw

3 Fore s t D epa rtment3 13 1 4 N ay Pyi Taw,

M andalay,R ak hine

4 D ry Zone Greening D epa rtment 1 1 2M agway,M andalay

5 Educa tion D epa rtment1 21 2 3 M agway, B ago ,

A ye yarwady

7 Gene ra l A dminis tra tion D epa rtment2 22 2 4 M agway, B ago ,

K achin, C hin

8Depa rtment of W a te r R esource s & R ive rsD eve lopment

1 1 2 Sagaing

9 Minis try of Ele c tric P ow er N o. (I) - 1- 1 1 M andalay

1 0Red C ross A ssoc ia tion, M yitkyinaU nive rs ity

- 1 1 K achin

1 1 Depa rtment of M e teorology and H ydrology 1 11 1 2 K achin

1 2 V illage P eace and D eve lopment Counc il 1 - 1 Shan

13 Depa rtment of D eve lopment A ffa irs 1 11 1 2 R ak hine

To tal 1 5 1 4 2915 1 4 2915 1 4 29

15 Irriga tion D epa rtment 1 -1 - 1 A ye yarwady

14 Soc ia l W e lfa re D epa rtment 1 - 1 Chin

N o . D e partme ntD e partme ntPartic ipant

A re a/Lo catio n

6 Myanmar Fishe ry D epa rtment 1 - 1 A ye yarwady


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2012 Chapter 8 Education, Training and Public Awareness onClimate Change

Box 1: Highlights of public awareness survey

ARE PEOPLE AWARE OF GLOBAL WARMING?Public awareness survey enquires about people’s awareness on global warming in general. Data show that 85%

of respondent were aware of the global warming. So it is to say, almost all respondents heard about it. ButCasual laborers, dependents and farmers were less aware of the climate change concerns. W hen further detailwas asked about the cause of global warming, the chosen correct answers were varied and only above 80% of

respondents correctly answered that deforestation was one of the reasons for global warming. To some extent, itwas also found that people were aware of the causal linkage of industrialization, increased use of energy and

vehicles. It was also notable that people were mostly able to differentiate the fact that global warming was due tohuman factor, not by natural phenomenon. Confusion was found among the respondents when it was examined

about the relationship between green house gases and global warming.IS EXTREME WEATHER SERIOUS?

Global warming and extreme weather were intertwined and awareness and experiences of the respondents onextreme weather were examined during the public awareness survey. The result showed that the most

experienced extreme weathers were extreme heat, strong wind and storm. Respondents from Yangon, otherurban areas and rural areas shared the same view on it, though the percent of respondent expressing their

experiences of these extreme weathers were varied. Obviously, the devastating effects of the cyclone Nargis in2008 reflected their experiences and suffering of extreme weather. From their expression, what is notable is the

impact from these extreme weathers. Reportedly, loss o f households and family members under thesecircumstances accounted for 10% in Yangon, 16% in other urban area and 23% in rural area. The effect of

extreme weather on household economy was 42%, 48% and 60% in Yangon, other urban and rural arearespectively. More than one half of the respondents from rural area, 44% in other urban area and 24% in the

vicinity of Yangon complained about their health problem after extreme weather. Therefore, it is evident that theextreme weather is already adversely impacting on the lives and the economies of the people.

DO PEOPLE THINK THE CLIMATE HAS CHANGED IN MYANMAR?Then, the people were asked whether they thought that the climate in Myanmar has already changed or not.

Above 80% of the respondents from all over the country believed that climate change has been happening inMyanmar. It is significant that the percentage o f the respondents who felt the impacts of climate change washighest among those respondents who were less aware of global warming (dependents, casual laborers and

farmers). W ith regard to mitigating climate change, two thirds of the respondents thought that efforts could bemade to improve the climatic conditions. Especially, the respondents working in NGOs, international

organizations, government services and military were more optimistic in this respect. The respondents were alsoasked to express their perceptions on the potential impacts of climate change on their livelihoods. Those living in

Yangon were concerned more about the negative impacts of climate change on environmental stability andpublic health. Other urban and rural people were equally concerned with the negative impacts on food

production, public health and environmental stability. Concerns over water supply, income generation and lossof property were less apparent in all areas.

ARE PEOPLE AWARE OF CLIMATE INITIATIVES IN MYANMAR?Regarding climate initiatives in Myanmar, a simple question was asked in the questionnaire if the respondent

was aware of either the National Commission for Environmental Affairs (NCEA) or the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The responses showed that 23% of the respondents

were aware of NCEA and 40% UNFCCC. Retired government servants, military personnel, current governmentand media staff know about the two organizations relatively better. Interestingly, the respondents working inNGOs and international organizations were less aware of them than those working in the business companies.

Public awareness surveyPublic awareness surveywas conducted during theperiod from June to October, 2009 in order toexamine the level of citizens’ awareness on climatechange issues. One page self-administeredquestionnaire was developed and circulated to thepublic through local media and non-governmentalorganizations throughout thecountry. People livinginYangon city, Central Dry Zone,Ayeyarwaddy delta,Mon and Kachin State actively participated inanswering the questions of the survey and returnedtheir answers back to ETPAteam. A total of 3,328respondents included1,834males and 1,494 females.

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In terms of age classes, 32 percent of the respondentsbelonged to age class 25 to 39, 27 percent to ageclass 18 to 24, 24 percent to age class 40 to 60 years.More than half of them were university graduates.High school and middle school graduates constituted17% and 11% respectively.

Majority of the respondents were students andfarmers accounting for 18% and 15% of the totalrespectively.

Occupations also varied. Companyemployees made9%, employees at NGOs and international agencies11% and government employees 6% of allrespondents.All of these accounts sum up that themajority of respondents are matureand fairly educated with quite diverse employmentbackgrounds.

The major findings were highlighted inBox 1 andthe salient points of the findings are-

a) People were aware of the global warming ingeneral to some extent; however, the causesof global warming except for deforestationwere less well known;

b) Higher temperatures, stronger winds andstorms were reportedlythe extreme weatherspeople had felt.Reflecting the experiences ofCyclone Nargis that hit lower part ofMyanmar in 2008, higher casualties and lossof lives thanofficiallyrecorded were reportedby the respondents, casualties ranging from10 to 23% of the total. Extreme weather alsoseverely impacted on household economiccondition and health of household members.

c) On the average, 80% of the respondentsperceived that Climate Change has alreadyoccurred in Myanmar. With regard to thesectors vulnerable to climate change,perception was varied depending on thebackground of the respondent. Respondentsfrom Yangon City were concerned aboutenvironmental sustainabilityandpublichealth,while respondents from other urban and ruralareas felt that food security was the most

concerned followed by public health andenvironmentalsustainability.

d) MOECAF is a national focal point ofUNFCCC and the most responsibleinstitution in Myanmar so far as inter-agencycooperation and coordination forenvironmental conservation and climatechange initiative are concerned. However,people’s awareness on MOECAF andUNFCCC was not so high that it needs tobe improved forenhancing theirparticipationin MOECAF’s initiatives.

e) As part of the public survey, the effectivemedia channel for conveying message towider audience of the public was assessed.ByTV, the maximum coverage was less than40% of total respondents whereas it was25% for the radio program. For printedmedia, 7 day- weekly journal and thegovernment newspapers were the most readby respondents. However, the readershipintensityinwhichtheminimumandmaximumvalues ranged from 0 to 1 was even less than0.5 for those media the most people read. Itmeans that the effectiveness of the printedmedia was modest in passing the messageacross the country. Therefore, it is to take anote that the maximum number ofpublic thatcan be reached by TV, radio and printedmedia for disseminating the information andmessage is around 30 to 40% of totalpopulation meaning that 60 to 70 % stillremain to be reached by the media. Foreffective climate change informationcommunication, it isthusimportanttoestablishsocial networks with an emphasis on theenhancement of public awareness andeducation.

f) As far as public awareness is concerned, itwas found that the level of awareness waslowest among thefarmers, wage laborers andthe dependents. Therefore, special attentionneeds to be paid to these social groups andappropriatecommunicationchannelshouldbeselected for sending message to them.


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Climate Change

Figure 8.5: Effectiveness of TV program reachingto public

Stakeholder awareness raising workshopEnhancing the level of stakeholder’s awareness onclimate change is important to facilitate the processof publicawareness and education onclimate changematter. For this reason, attempt was made to raisethe awareness of private business sector and civilsociety. In collaboration with Myanmar FisheryFederation, a technical seminar workshop and expertpanel discussion were organized for businessmen,manufacturers and investors of Myanmar Chamberof Commerce and IndustryAssociation in order toraise their awareness on climate change in Myanmarand measures that need to be taken. Similarly,collaboration was madewith Food SecurityWorkingGroup which was a larger network of non-governmental organizations in Myanmar in order tohold a consultative workshop on climate changematter. Atotal of 41 local and international NGOsparticipated in the workshop and explored thepossibility of inter-agency collaboration andcooperation for building the community adaptivecapacity to climate change.As these organizationsare operating varieties of community developmentactivities nationwide such as water supply andsanitation, primary health care, community basednatural resource management and sustainableagriculture, the stakeholder workshop opened up thescope and space for mainstreaming climate changeadaptation into existing development programs runbycivil societies.Consultativedialoguehascontinuedbilaterallyamongthe civil societies forcooperation in

climate change adaptation. International donoragencies such as United Nations DevelopmentProgram (UNDP) and Department For InternationalDevelopmentof theUnitedKingdom(DFID)steppedupinorganizingfurtherevents tocontinueconsultativeprocess in exploring the possibility of action towardclimate change adaptation. These consultativestakeholder workshops contributed to the processof forminga tri-partite steering committee byUNDPfor setting up a small grant scheme for NGO andCommunity Based Organization (CBO) in order tocarryout communitybased climate change adaptiveprogram at grassroots level.

Nation-wide public awareness raising campaignIn thecourse of implementing theproject for nationalcommunication on climate change under UNFCCC,public awareness raising campaigns were organizednationwide, particularly in the critical areas whichwere feasible.Theaudiencesof thesecampaignswerekey stakeholders within the area such as localauthorities,governmentofficials,non-stateactors andcommunity leaders. The messages given in thesecampaignswerecausesandeffectsofglobalwarming,the climate scenarios in Myanmar and their potentialimpacts,andthepotentialmeasures formitigation andadaptation to climate change. To date, the followingregional levelpublicawarenessraisingcampaignshavebeen conducted.

Awareness raising campaigns completedto date

1. District level awareness campaign, MoeNyin District, Kachin State

2. Moe Kaung township level awarenesscampaign, Kachin State

3. Pharkant township level awarenesscampaign, Kachin State

4. Putao township level awareness campaign,Kachin State

5. Wai Maw township level awarenesscampaign, Kachin State

6. Inter-departmental awareness campaign inMonywarTownship, Sagaing Region

7. Inter-departmental awareness campaign inMindut Township, Chin State

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8. District level departmental awarenessraising campaign in KyaukphyuTownship,Rakhine State

9. Regional level awareness raising trainingand township level inter-departmentalawareness raisingcampaign, Bago Region

In addition, there are also a few on-going awarenesscampaigns as stated below -

1. Stakeholder awareness campaign,Southern Shan State

2. District level and township level awarenesscampaigns, Pyar Pon District,AyeyarwadyDelta

3. State level awareness raising campaign,Myitkyina, Kachin State

4. Awareness raisingcampaign for communitybased organizations in Magwe, Minbu,Pwint Phyu and Pakkoku Townships ofDry zone, Magway Region

During each awareness campaign, one session wasincluded for participatory group discussion andparticipatorytoolwas introduced to analyze thestatusof emitting greenhouse gases and the incidence ofextreme weather in given administrative areas. Thismobilized the participants to deeply think of andundertake necessarymeasures that could reduce thevulnerabilitydue to climate change. Such an activitylikecommunityforestryorintroducingenergyefficientcooking stove appeared to be the immediate actionfor addressingthe climate change issue in the localityas a follow-up to the awareness campaign.

Climate information centerFor the preparation of the Initial NationalCommunication Report on climate change underUNFCCC, documents related to climatechangewerewidely collected. Nearly500 information materialshave been collected covering technical, educational,legal, financial and institutional aspects inenvironmentalconservationandclimatechange.Thus,theClimate InformationCenter (CIC)wasestablishedat the office of theAcademy of Forestry Science inYangon in order to make accessible the collectedinformation to the public, especially to thosestakeholders such as post-graduate researchers,

government officials, journalists, and businessentrepreneurs and development practitioners. Atpresent, the journalists trained byETPAare the majorusers of CIC and monthly forums are organized toupdate them and ensure dissemination of up-to-dateinformation on climate change to the public throughtheir articles published in the local media. Aninformation assistant has been attached to the centerby ETPAteam to take care of the visitors on mattersconcerningclimate change.

8.4. Way Forward

The project for Initial National Communication onclimate change under UNFCCC has opened upopportunities for civil societies to improve education,trainingandpublicawarenessonclimatechangeissuesin the context of Myanmar. It enlarges the scope ofimproving the citizens’ access to climate changeinformation in order to enhance their participation inmitigation and adaptation measures against climatechange. Theactivitiesdescribed in thissection shouldbe continued in the future to upkeep the momentumcreated bythis initiative. To maximize the benefits tothe entire nation, it will require institutionalizing theprocess of uplifting education, training and publicawarenessbyforminginter-agencycoordinationbodyto enable the development of national level ETPAscheme and its implementation nationwide withincreased inputs of human and financial resources.

In this respect, international cooperation isalsocriticalto enhance information sharing and learningmechanism so that informed, healthier and betterdecisions couldbe made through ETPAprocess.Thisactionwilleffectivelybridgenational level interventionwith local initiative in building communityadaptivecapacity to face climate change reality in Myanmar.

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Chapter 9

Integration of Climate Change Concerns into Development Plans and Programs

9.1. Introduction

IntegrationofClimateChangeConcerns (CCCs) intodevelopment plans and programs is of vitalimportance toMyanmar inviewoffurtherenhancingits low-carboneconomyandreducingitsvulnerabilityto climate change challenge. Both GHG emissionmitigation and adaptation to climate change areindispensable and complementary.

Reductions inGHG emissions will delayand reducedamages caused byclimate change, and thus reducethe investment that will be needed for adaptation.However, it is worth noting that while mitigation ofclimate change is crucial to limit long-term impacts,climate change is already happening, and is boundtocontinuesimplybecauseof theatmosphericGHGsthat have alreadyaccumulated.

According to the GHG inventoryundertaken for thepreparationof InitialNationalCommunication(INC)for the year 2000, Myanmar has proved more thanbeing a net carbon sink nation, with a CO2 netremoval of (-) 67,863 Gg CO2e (or) 67.8 milliontons of CO2. Land use change and forestry is theonly sector in the country to absorb CO2 with anamount of 142, 221 Gg. Myanmar had emitted atotal of 74, 358 Gg CO2e emissions in year 2000.It thus demonstrates that Myanmar has beenimplementing low carbon economy, significantlycontributing to the global efforts of stabilizingatmospheric CO2 concentration below dangerouslevels.

Myanmar has been experiencing considerableincrease in per capita incomes. The per capitaincomes in 1990 of 1,232 Kyats increased to 2,000Kyats in year 2000 at 1985/86 constant producers’prices (CSO 2004, CSO 2006, and Ministry ofInformation 2009). In line with the growing GDP,GHGemissionsfromEnergyandIndustrialProcessessectors had increased from 6 086 Gg CO2e and 180

Gg CO2e in 1990 to 7 863 Gg CO2e and 463 GgCO2e respectively in year 2000.Along this trend, itis sensible that the total GHG emissions couldincrease with the increased consumption of energyto sustain the growing national economy in thedecades to come.

Especially since late 1970s Myanmar has beenexperiencing negative impacts of climate-relatednatural disasters to which its geographical setting isattributable. Myanmar, being located on the easterncoastline of Bayof Bengal andAndaman Sea, has acoastline of some 2,832 km while climate isinfluenced by southwest monsoon. The country isfeatured with three parallel chains of forest-cladmountain ranges and north-south running long riversystems in-between. In addition, there exists rain-shadowed dryzone in its central part influenced byorographic effect of western mountain range. Suchageographical settingexposesMyanmar toanumberof climate-related natural disasters. The tropicaldepressions due to low atmospheric sea-levelpressure formed in the Bayof Bengalcould hit Deltaregionandothercoastal areas. Myanmarwashardesthit by the Cyclone Nargis in May 2008.

Integration of CCCs into development plans andprograms and implementation of the recommendedactions are therefore considered vital to sustainMyanmar’seconomicdevelopment in harmonywithsocial andenvironmental integrity.

9.2. Climate Change in Myanmar

During the period from 1961 to 1990 the lowestmean annual temperature of Myanmar was 15.8°Cin theChinStateof thenorthwestmountainousregionwhile the highest temperature was above 40oC inMagway Region. Mean annual rainfall was lowestabout 500 mm in the Lower Sagaing Region andhighest with 5,000 mm in theTanintharyi Region ofsouthern strip of Myanmar (DMH, 2009).

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Observed changes

TemperatureOver the period from 1951 to 2007, annual meantemperatures generally increased in Chin, Kachin,Kayin, Mon, Rakhine, and northern and southernparts of Shan State, and in lower Sagaing andMandalay Regions. The temperature increase perdecade was highest with0.32°C in Hpa-an of KayinState and Monywa of Sagaing Region. The coolingtrend with -0.23°C and -0.16°C per decade wasobserved in Magwe and Bago respectively. During1951 to 2000, annual mean frequencies of heat waveoccurrence numbered five in Kachin State, two eachin Northern Shan State, Magwe, Mandalay andLowerSagaingRegions,andoneeachinBagoRegionand Mon State. The longest heat wave duration of12 days was recorded in Yangon. The El Ninoepisodes have occurred in Myanmar in the years1957, 1958, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1998 and 2009.

Precipitation

During 1991 and 2004, high extreme rainfall eventsoccurred five times at Nyaung-U and four times atMyitkyina, Magway, Mawlamyine and Hpa-an. Ofthe 4 high extreme events at Mawlamyine, one wasfound to be of higher extreme with 51.2% departurefrom normal (DFN) that happened in 1994. LowextremerainfalleventsoccurredfivetimesinMonywa,four times in Mandalayand three times in Falam andMagway, and two times each in Taungyi, Lashio,Nyaung-U, Loikaw and Pathein. The year, 1998 wasa strong El Nino year that delivered low extremes tomuch of Myanmar except Rakhine, Kachin andNorthern Shan State and Upper Sagaing Region.

Cyclones

During the period 1887 to 2005, out of 1,248 tropicalcyclones which originated in the Bay of Bengal, 80cyclonic disturbances had crossed Myanmar coast.It means Myanmar did not receive cyclones everyyear. During 1947 and 2008, both inclusive,Myanmar was hit by35 cyclonic storms, which wereusuallyaccompanied bystrong winds, storm surges,heavyrains and floods.

Imprints of climate change in MyanmarImpacts of climate change have been recorded since1978 according to the observations of Departmentof Meteorology and Hydrology (DMH). Myanmarhas been experiencing a general warming trend,especially since 1979 (Htay Aung, 1998). Theaverage temperature has increased by 0.7°C overthe last two decades, and the rise is in line with boththeglobalandSoutheastAsia trends(TunLwin2002).In general, there have been late onsets and earlywithdrawals of monsoon since 1978; duration of themonsoon is becoming shorter than normal. Prior to1977, the average number of rainy days per annumused to be around 144, but it reduced to 103 in 1997.In the period from 1988 to 2000, the monsoonduration was shortened by about three weeks in thenorthern part and by one week in other parts ofMyanmar compared to the 1951 - 2000 average.

While the years 1979 and 1980 were characterizedby prolonged warm and dry periods, the years 1983,1986, 1988, 1989, 1995, 1998, 2000, 2005, 2007and 2009 had temperatures higher than normal.

The year 2009 was an El Nino year with decreasedannual rainfall, with heavy rains in some areas andwith droughts in others. Some off-season rainsoccurred in coastal areas ofAyeyarwady Region inthe last week of March 2009, causing widespreaddamage to salt industries.The year 2010 started withwidespread cold waves crossing over parts of thecountry including Mandalay, Magway and YangonRegions. Moreover, there were also unusual rains atNay Pyi Taw Pyinmana, Western Bago Region,Southern Shan State and Ayeyarwady Region onJanuary26,2010 due to tropicaldepressions in SouthChina Sea. There were also high temperatureextremes during summer months (March throughMay), leading to the occurrence of severe heat andwater stresses virtuallyall over the country.


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9.3. Integration of CCCs intoDevelopment Plans andPrograms

Sustainable Development has been defined by theWorld Commission on Environment andDevelopment (1987) as the development thatmeets the needs of the present withoutcompromising the ability of the futuregenerations to meet their own needs. It is thepursuit of economic development in parallel withenvironmental protection (Myanmar Agenda 21).The Sustainable Development needs a harmoniousintegration of economic, social and environmentaldimensions.

InMyanmardifferentministriesandorganizationsusedto undertake development measures within theirmandates to achieve their set targets very often inisolation. The coordinated efforts between theministries havebeen insufficient to put the country inthe right track towards sustainable development.

As the National Environmental Policystipulates, thedevelopment activitiesmust integrate environmentalconsiderations in order to achieve harmony andbalance between national wealth, national culturalheritage and natural resources. In this context, lineministries and all other related organizations mustcooperate with one another and work hand in handclosely so that national economic targets are met inharmony with environment, culture and naturalresource development. This calls for a strongmechanism that could create and ensure inter-ministerial cooperation and coordination.

Regardingenvironment, theNationalCommission forEnvironmentalAffairs (NCEA) was established in1990 to act as a central body to coordinate andcooperate environmental affairs. It was set up at theMinistry of ForeignAffairs, chaired by minister forForeignAffairs. NCEAoperates directly under theguidance of the Cabinet and comprises a chairman, asecretary, and a joint-secretary. It has the followingfourcommittees:

1. Committee on Pollution Control,2. Committee on Natural Resources

Conservation,

3. Committee onTraining, Research &Education, and

4. Committee onInternational Relations.

NCEAhaddevelopedNationalEnvironmentalPolicywhich was adopted in December 1994, formulatedMyanmar Agenda 21 (MA21) in 1997 and draftedthe National Environmental Protection Law (NEPL)in2000. TheEnvironmentalConservationCommittee(ECC) was formed in 2004 to effectively andsystematicallycarryout environmental conservationactivitieswithin the country.

In 2005, NCEA was transferred to the Ministry ofForestrytobe chaired bytheminister for Forestry.Thechairman of the NCEA also chairs ECC. In addition,theNationalEnvironmentalConservationCommittee(NECC) has been reformed in 2011 as a full flashfocal organization for the environment sectorthroughout thecountryand the NCEAwas abolished.Moreover, to speed up its environmental protectionmeasures the Ministry of Forestry was renamed toMinistryofEnvironmentalConservationandForestry(MOECAF) in 2012.

The National Environment Policy underlines theGovernment’scommitment toestablishsoundpoliciesintheutilizationofwater, land,forests,minerals,marineand other natural resources in order to conserve theenvironment and prevent its degradation (MA21).

A specific aim of MA21 is to facilitate the incorporation of environmental and sustainabledevelopment policy considerations into the decision-making and policy formulation processes of thegovernment in the economic and social sectors (MA21).

The current process of national development andplanning in Myanmar does not provide a systematicmeansfor theintegrationofenvironmentaldimensions(MA 21).Climate change is one of the hottestenvironmental issues today and MOECAF wasestablished to undertake the task of coordinating lineministries and ensuring the integration of climatechange concerns into the national and sectoraldevelopment plans and programs.


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In thisconnection,Environmental ImpactAssessment(EIA) is an effective and vital tool for integratingenvironment and development. The environmentalissues identified during EIA process can improveeconomic planning to achieve harmony and balancebetweenenvironmentanddevelopment.EIArulesandregulations should be enacted for every big projectto be implemented onlyafter the analysis of its costsand benefits.

Allof theGovernment’snational economicandsocialdevelopment plans should be reviewed in order tocomprehensively integrate environmental concernswithparticularfocusonclimatechange.NECCshouldbe empowered to ensure the integration and monitorthe implementationat all levels and in all localities.

[MA21 has outlined very comprehensively theprocess of integration of environment anddevelopment in decision-making in Chapter 18.This should be taken as the guideline for“Integrating climate change concerns intosustainable development plans and programs”].

Since the economic, social development andindustrialization processes are rapidly takingmomentum, thepopulation increasingand the naturalresources dwindling, it is critically urgent that theclimate change concerns are integrated into all futurenationalandsectoraldevelopmentplansandprogramsto bring about economic development in socialharmonyandecological integrity.

9.4. Program Sectors

To integrate environment and development, theparticular emphasishas been placedonkeyeconomic

sectors forwhich GHG inventorywasundertaken forthe preparation of Myanmar’s first Initial NationalCommunication. These economic sectors are

1. Energy,2. Industrial processes,3. Agriculture includinglivestock,4. Land use change and forestry, and5. Waste.

Energy sectorEnergy is a major component of economies, both asa sector in itself and as a factor input to all othereconomicactivities. Agenda21identified twoprogramareas concerning energy –

1. Develop a system of comprehensive energyplanning, developmentand management,and

2. Improve energyefficiencyand energyconservation.

In the fourth Short-Term Five-Year Plan (2006/2007to 2010/2011) of the national 30-year developmentplan for the energysector, it has been mentioned thatenvironmental conservation should be paid attentionwhilemakingconcertedefforts toproducemorecrudeoil andnatural gas tomeetdomestic requirements andforexportwhileboostingproductionofminingsector.

Theenergypolicyhasdefinedthefollowingobjectives-

to sustain energy independence, to develop the use of new and renewable

sources of energy, to enhance energy efficiency and

conservation, and to promote alternative fuels for household

use.Myanmar has both non-renewable energies such ascrudeoil,naturalgasandcoal,andrenewableenergiessuchashydro energy,geothermalenergy, solarenergy,wind energyand biomass energy.

The government hasbeen workingwithmultinationalcompanies for exploration and development of gasfields in both on-shore and off-shore areas. Thegovernmenthasalsobeen implementingmedium andlarge scale hydropower projects.

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However, MOECAF does not have the capacity andauthorityfor integratingenvironmentanddevelopmentat all levelsand toensurecoordinationandcooperationamongdifferentministriesandagencies.NCEAshouldbestrengthened to thisend. It shouldhaveanextensivenetwork of administrative branches throughout thecountry to ensure that the integration of environmentand development takes place at the state and regionallevels, and in townships, wards and villages ( MA 21).

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Transportation involves fuel consumption, usuallyassociatedwithCO2emission.All transportmeans –road, rail, water and air are being improved andextendedwith a view to facilitating and promotingefficiency of the flow of goods and services acrossthe country. The government has encouraged andinvolved private companies to undertake theconstructionandmaintenanceof important segmentsofunionhighways.

InMyanmar, road transport ismostlyused althoughwaterwayand railway transport modes are cheaperwith lower rate of fuel consumption.

The followings are some of the important energy-related measures undertaken by the governmentbetween 1989 and 2008 (Ministry of Information,2009).

A total of 4,418 new hydro-power plants(large, medium and small) had beenconstructed to date.

Another 13 hydro-power plants are underconstruction with foreign investments andmore than 21,000 MW will be generatedupon their completion.

Production of natural gas now reached364,578millioncubic feet.

44 CNG filling stations have beenconstructed.

100,428 and 81 power plants using biogas,biomass and solar energy respectivelyhavebeen installed by the private businessenterprises.

About 50million Jatropha (Jetrophacurcas)have been raisedon cultivablewastelands inthe past couple of years and the project willcontinue to produce bio-fuel as much aspossible.

600 CNG buses had been imported forpublic transport so far, andmore than25,000motor vehicles have been changed frompetrol/diesel toCNGup toSeptember, 2009.

Two GHG inventories had been conducted inMyanmar.Thefirst inventorywasbasedon1990andthe second on 2000 data. A comparison of GHGemissions in the energysector in the two inventoriesis presented in (Table 9.1).

Table 9.1: GHGemissions in energysector in years 1990 and 2000, in Gg

TotalGHGemissionsfromtraditionalbiomassburnedfor energy amounting to 28,297.82 Gg CO2equivalents in2000estimated in2000GHGinventorywere not included in both the sectoral and nationaltotals. In 1990 it was only 2,591.71 Gg CO2e andincluded in the totals. It had been an extremely bigincrease inGHGemission from traditional biomassburned during ten years from 1990 to 2000, being25,706.11GgCO2e. Because itmainlyconsisted ofGHG emissions from fuel-wood consumed fordomestic home cooking, wood fuel substitutes areurgentlyneeded toensure the sustainabilityof forestsand carbonsinks. GHGemission fromother sourceshad increased by 4,369 GgCO2e.

In the total GHG emissions of 7,863.47 Gg CO2e,those from fossil fuel conversion alone have beenestimated at 7,755.11 GgCO2e constituting 98.6%of the total.

Use of energy will increase with the growingpopulationandeconomywhichwill be accompaniedby increasingGHGemissions. In order to mitigatethe GHG emissions and adapt to the increasedwarming, the following policymeasures have beenidentified for integration into thenationaland sectoraldevelopment plans andprograms (Table 9.2).

Note: (1) includes 2,591.71 GgCO2equivalent.

(2) excludes 28,297.82 GgCO2equivalent.

Source: (1)Asian Least Cost GHGAbatement Strategy

(ALGAS) Project 1997.

(2) National GHG Inventory for Myanmar

INC 2000.

BaseyearCO2 CH4 N2O NOx CO CO2

equivalent1990 3,311.81 119.79 0.83 71.01 1095.49 6,086.14(1)

2000 7,658.65 5.62 0.28 0 0 7,863.47(2)

BaseyearCO2CO2CO CH4 N2N2NO NOx CO CO2CO2CO

equivalent1990 3,311.81 119.79 0.83 71.01 1095.49 6,086.14(1)

2000 7,658.65 5.62 0.28 0 0 7,863.47(2)

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Table 9.2 : Policy measures to addressing rising GHG emissions in energy sector for integrationinto national and sectoral development plans and programs

Policies, Strategies and Actions:Policies:1.Enhance energy conservation, efficiency and production and ensure energy security.2.Promote efficiency of national transportation system and regulate imports of second-hand motor vehicles.Strategies:1.Perform energy audit.2.Tap all potential power sources including renewable energy for increased power generation and utilization.3.Improve traffic demand management.4.Establish national ambient air quality standards.Actions:Mitigation Measures:1.Set energy efficiency standards and label efficiency grades on products.2.Provide advices, inspection, incentives for energy conservation and efficiency.3.Capture fugitive gaseous emissions;4.Develop voluntary agreements for increased use of energy efficient products.5.Invest more for and promote the use of cleaner and zero-emission energies.6.Construct more hydropower facilities where EIA permits.7.Upgrade existing power-generation and transmission systems.8.Extract coal-bed methane.9.Promote bio-energy production from available sources without compromising food security and viability offorests and soils.10.Further promote and expand CNG-used vehicles, CNG pipelines and stations.11.Improve all transport modes and traffic demand management, including cycling and containerized freighttransport.

12.Install more light-emitting diodes for traffic lighting.Adaptation Measures:1.Adopt environmental standards for energy efficiency.2.Construct buildings with designs to increase cross ventilation, prevent direct sunlight in the afternoon andreduce heat gains with shade covers.3.Increase the use of fuel-efficient motor vehicles.4.Make all public transports more attractive and affordable.5.Raise public awareness on GHG emission reduction and energy conservation.6.Build institutional capacity to monitor ambient air quality.

Industrial SectorRegarding industrial sector, Myanmar Agenda 21identified one program area, entitled “PromoteSustainable Industrial Development and CleanerProduction”.

In the industrial sector, there are two ministries:Ministryof IndustryNo.(1) and Ministryof IndustryNo.(2).

The Ministry of Industry No.(1) covers textileindustries, foodstuff industries, pharmaceuticalindustries,ceramicindustries,generalandmaintenanceindustries and paper and chemical industries.

Under the Ministryof IndustryNo.(2), there are ninemajor factories and four Industrial Training Schools.The factories under the Ministry of Industry No.(2)produce various kinds of tires and tubes, trucks, lightvehicles, bicycles,pumpingmachines, hand-tractors,tractors, threshers, hoes, bulbs, florescent tubes, drycells, transformers, electric metres and householdelectrical equipments. The Ministry has some jointventures with foreign companies to promote foreigninvestment and technologytransfer. Between 1995-96 and 2005-2006, 18 industrial zones have beenestablished in 9 States and Regions. By the end ofSeptember 2006, the number of factories and millsoperating in them totalled 9,849.Although the


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government reduced its direct involvement ineconomicactivitiesbyprivatizingselected industries,the position of state-owned enterprises is still large.But, the share of private mills and factories in theindustrial sector is nowrising.

In parallelwith the initiation of themarket-orientedeconomic system after 1988, new laws such as theForeign Investment Law, the State-OwnedEnterprisesLawand thePrivate IndustrialEnterprisesLawwerepromulgated.Thishas createda significantincrease in industrial investment andproduction.But,thecontributionofMyanmar’s industrial sector to thetotal national GDP had been merely 10 to 15 percent formanyyears, and it is the lowest in the SouthEastAsian region.Thevision ofMyanmar regardingindustrial development is to contribute 25percent tothenationalGDP.

In addition to other laws and regulations forenvironmental cleaning, Chemical SafetyLaw hasbeen drafted recently andwill be promulgated thisyear. It is the government’s drive to force breweryplants to installwastewater treatment facilities so asto avoid soil andwater contamination.

A comparison of GHG emissions from the sectorbetween 1990 and 2000 is provided in table (Table9.3).

Table 9.3: GHGemissions in industrialprocesses sector in 1990 and 2000

In 1990, CO2 emission onlywas estimatedwhichamounted to 180.44 Gg. In 2000, CO2 as well asemissions of other gasses likeNMVOC,ODSandSF6were also estimated. The total amount ofCO2emitted in the latter year was 248.59Gg.

Therefore there had been an increase of 68.15GgCO2during the decade from 1990 to 2000. Sinceindustrialization processes are stepping up, theincrease in theemissionsofGHGsinthesectorcouldvery well follow a steep upward trend unlessmitigationmeasures areundertaken in time.

To thisend, the followingpolicymeasureshavebeenidentified to be incorporated in the national andsectoral developmentplansandprograms(seeTable9.4).

Source: (1)Asian Least Cost GHGAbatementStrategy (ALGAS) Project 1997.(2)NationalGHGInventoryforMyanmar INC2000.

Year CO2 (Gg)

Othergases(NMVOC,ODS & SF6(GgCO2e)

Total GgCO2e

1990 180.44 Not estimated 180.44

2000 248.59 214.7 463.29

Year CO2 (Gg)

Othergases(NMVOC,ODS & SF6(GgCO2e)

Total GgCO2e

1990 180.44 Not estimated 180.44

2000 248.59 214.7 463.29248.59 214.7 463.29248.59 214.7 463.29


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Table 9.4 : Policy measures addressing GHG emissions in the industrial processes sector forintegration into national and sectoral development plans and programs

Policies, Strategies and Actions:Policies:1.Adopt energy efficiency standards and labelling system.2.Prohibit manufacture and import of GHG inefficient products.3.Promote energy efficiency and emission control technologies.Strategies:1.Practice Green Certification System.2.Introduce clean and green technologies.3.Promote cleaner production.Actions:Mitigation Measures:1.Set high energy efficiency and environmental standards.2.Conduct at each industry Efficiency Audit and provide green labels and tax benefits to the industry andproduct that meet the set standards.3.Further promote the use of CNG, LPG and renewable energies by providing incentives.Adaptation Measures:1.Encourage the use of more energy-efficient boilers, motors, furnaces and electrical equipment2.Introduce energy-saving, process-specific technologies.3.Initiate the development of carbon capture and storage for energy-intensive plants.4.Implement energy-saving regulations and improved energy management systems.5.Provide energy efficiency-related information services.6.Conduct advocacy extensively on conservation of energy and utilization of cleaner energy.

Agriculture sector including livestockAgriculture is the mainstayof Myanmar’s economy,currently with a net sown area of over 11 millionhectares under about 60 cultivated crops. Foragricultural sector,MyanmarAgenda21has identifiedtwo program areas, namely,

1. Promote Sustainable Agriculture,Livestock and Fisheries Development;and

2. Enhance Food Security.

In 2006-07 agricultural sector accounted for 37% ofthe country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and13.3%of total export earnings (MyanmarAgricultureinBrief,MinistryofAgriculture andIrrigation,2009).The Government hasbeen continuouslyconstructingdamsandreservoirs throughout thecountrybyutilizinglarge capital investment, machineries and expertise.As a result, irrigation facilities now exist in somelocalized zones throughout the country. Up toSeptember 2006, there are 664 irrigation facilities(MNPED 2006b).

At present, onlyabout 6% of the total water resourcesof about 1,073 km3 are being utilized annually. Since1988 the Government has intensified construction ofdamsandreservoirs throughout thecountrytoprovideirrigation especially to the paddy fields. Thesuccessfullycompleted irrigationprojectsduring1988to 2000 reached a total of 116. Irrigation coveragehad increased from 12.5% in 1987-88 to 18.0% ofthe total sown area in 1998-99. In the year 2000, theirrigated rice fieldscovering6,302,306 ha constituted29.4% of the total rice land in the country. Rice is theprincipal agricultural crop and Myanmar is a rice-surplus country. Efforts are being made to expandrice cultivation and area under rice cultivationincreased from 6.3 million ha in 2000-2001 to 8.09million ha in 2007-2008.Summer rice cultivation,which has been introduced since 1992, shared 1.1million hectares in 2000-2001. Rice productionincreased from 21 million tons in 2000-2001 to over31 million tons in 2007-2008 (Department ofAgricultural Planning, Ministry ofAgriculture andIrrigation, 2009).


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Table 9.5: GHG emissions from agriculture,inclusive of livestock, sector in years 1990 and2000

Source: (1)Asian Least Cost GHGAbatement Strategy(ALGAS) Project 1997.(2)NationalGHGInventoryforMyanmar INC2000.

Livestock are used for many purposes. Myanmarreliesheavilyondraughtcattle topromoteagriculturalexpansion.Almost all the land cultivation is done bydraught cattle and buffaloes. Draught cattle are alsoveryuseful as amean of transport in the rural areas.Dairy cattle are bred to produce dairy products fordomestic consumption, and beef cattle for export.Buffaloes, pigs,ducks, sheepandgoatsarealso raisedfor domestic consumption. Therewere about 10.98millioncattle,2.44millionbuffaloes, 1.8millionsheepandgoats, andabout3.97millionpigs inMyanmar in2001 (Daing, T., 2009). In general, cattle andbuffaloes are part of Myanmar farming system.However, feed resources are scarce and of poorqualityespeciallyduring the dry season, resulting inlowproductivity.

AlthoughMyanmar’sagriculturehasbeendevelopingas planned, it is the sectormost vulnerable to cycloneandstrongwinds, flood andstormsurge, intense rain,extreme temperatures (dayand night), drought, sealevel riseandsaltwater intrusion,whichare identifiedas climate-related natural hazards in Myanmar.Accordingly, the potential threats of climate changeinclude prolonged and more frequent droughts,changes inrainfall distribution,morestormsandotherextreme weather events, rising sea levels and saltintrusion, increasedandchangingpest loads, increasedrisk of heat and water stresses in cropping andlivestockfarming.

A comparison ofGHGemissions from the sector in1990 and 2000 is presented in table (Table 9.5).

The table shows about 45.5% decrease inmethane

production during the observed period from1990 to2000. The totalCO2net emissionshavealsodroppedby about 16,402.46 Gg CO2e (41.8%).

On the other hand, flooded rice fields and ruminantanimalsareamajorsourceofmethane.The increasingextent of rice fields and net sown areas with morefertilizer inputs,andincreasingpopulationoflivestock,are likely to uplift the trend ofmethane and nitrousoxideemissions.

In order tomitigate further emissions ofGHGs andadapt to global warming in the sector, the policymeasures tobeintegrated into thenational andsectoraldevelopmentplansandprogramshavebeen identifiedand presented in the table (Table 9.6).

YearCH4(Gg)N2O(Gg)NOx(Gg)CO(Gg)

CO2equivalenttotalemission(Gg)

CO2 etotal netemission(Gg)

1990 1767.4 6.71 0.45 24.19 39,202.92 39,202.92

2000 963.58 9.01 0.02 0.81 22,800.46 22,800.46

YearCH4CH4CH(Gg)N2O(Gg)NOx(Gg)CO(Gg)

CO2equivalenttotalemission(Gg)

CO2 etotal netemission(Gg)

1990 1767.4 6.71 0.45 24.19 39,202.92 39,202.92

2000 963.58 9.01 0.02 0.81 22,800.46 22,800.46


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Table 9.6: Policy measures to addressing GHG emissions in the agriculture and livestock sectorfor integration into national and sectoral development plans and programs

Policies, Strategies and Actions:Policies:1.Follow CGAP (Code of Good Agricultural Practice) to implement sustainable agriculture.2.Ensure increased food production in the climate friendly and resilient manner.3.Improve livestock and livestock feed.Strategies:1.Improve water management and nutrient management practices for mitigation of CH

4and N

2O emissions)

from rice fields2.Promote organic farming (system).3. Encourage research and development on crop varieties adaptable to climate change. Promote breedingprograms of genetically improved strains of animals and regulate their population. Improve animal feed withquality forage and mineral supplements.

Actions:Mitigation Measures:FOR AGRICULTURE1.Reduce tillage and practice intermittent irrigation technique, proper selection of rice varieties and croprotation in rice fields.2.Promote “Conservation Agriculture”, “SlopingAgricultural Land Technology” and other climate friendlyadvanced technologies.3.Encourage the system of rice intensification (SRI) method with alternative wet and dry condition.4.Improve water, crop and crop residue management.5.Promote Integrated use of organic manure and bio-fertilizers together with synthetic nitrogen fertilizer.6.Apply phosphor-gypsum with urea to reduce CH

4emission.

7.Apply herbicides and slow release fertilizer to reduce N2O emission.

8. Apply integrated pest management (IPM).FOR LIVESTOCK1.Improve and expand pastures, grasslands and forage and its quality.2.Improve the use and management of animal waste to harvest producer gas and to use gasification effluentas bio-fertilizer.3.Supplement poor quality roughage with minerals, urea molasses, legume or other agricultural by-products?to reduce feeding amount.

Adaptation Measures:FOR AGRICULTURE1.Adjust cropping patterns, improve farm management measures including post-harvest treatment,processing and storage improved management practices, including post harvest technology.2.Use high-quality, stress-resistant plant varieties and ensure climate-resilient agriculture.3.Encourage more efficient water use and soil and water conservation.4.Expand water impoundment systems through clusters of smaller dams, ponds, lakes and rain watercollection.5.Promote organic farming and use of bio-fertilizers.6.Popularize dry-land agricultural technologies, preserve soil moisture, foster soil fertility and further increaseriver water pumping and ground water harvesting, particularly for dry zone agriculture.7.Furtherstrengthen weather forecasting and early warning system.8.Make more investment to implement climate risk reduction measures.FOR LIVESTOCK1.Protect grasslands and pasture against fires, over-grazing and soil and water erosion.2.Add fermentation-control medicine, fermentation stabilizers and micro-organism repressors to animal diets.3.Protect livestock against heat stress and strong winds.


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Table 9.7: GHGemissions and removals in the land-use change and forestry sector as estimated bythe two inventories are presented in

Source: (1)Asian Least Cost GHGAbatement Strategy (ALGAS) Project 1997(2) National GHG Inventory for Myanmar INC 2000

Land use change and forestryMyanmarAgenda 21 has identified the followingprogram areas in the forestry sector:

Accelerate sustainabledevelopment offorest resources.

Develop the forestrysector tomeet basicneeds.

Promote efficiencyin the productionofforestrygoods and services.

Strengthen forestrypolicies, legislationandinstitutions.

Enhancepeople’s participation in forestrydevelopment andmanagement.

Myanmar is still rich in forest resourceswith 52.5%of the land area being covered by forests(FAO,2003).The total permanent forest estate (PFE)in 2003 amounted to 22.4% of the country’s totallandareaagainst the30%target set in the1995ForestPolicy. The PFE comprising of Forest Reserve andProtected Public Forest is the areawhere forests areintended to be managed on a permanent andsustainablebasis.

Unfortunately, the previous few decades hadwitnessed forest depletionanddegradation.Themaincauses have been land use change and forestexploitation.Agriculturallandexpansionandfuelwoodcuttings, most probably, have accounted for thebiggest shareof thiscontext.Theperiodic forest-cover

assessmentsmadebytheFDhadrevealed thatnaturalforestswere lost at the rateof approximately107,910ha per annumduring the period from1975 to 1989,and at 466,420 ha annually during the period from1989 to 1998 (Tint, K.,2008)

In order to check and reverse this trend of forestdepletion and degradation, FD has strengthened itsstructural and legal capacities. Forest Law wasupdated in 1992, theNational Forest Policyadoptedin 1995, and the participatory forest managementboosted through promulgation of the 1995CommunityForestry Instructions (MOF,1995). Toensure forest and environmental restoration andpreventdesertification in thecentral dryzone, theDryZone Greening Department was formed in 1997.Afforestation and reforestation have been speededup. Permitting forest lands to the private sector toestablish teak and other forest plantations by theGovernment in 2005 has been abreakthrough in thehistory of forest management inMyanmar. Privatecompanies and individuals have now been veryactivelyundertaking forestryactivities.

From the climate change perspective, it is vital toimprove and sustain forests as they are the sourcesand the sinks of CO2. Both GHG inventoriesconducted in 1990 and 2000 had testified thatMyanmar was a net sequester in terms of CO2emissions.

GHGemissions and removals in the land-use changeand forestrysectorasestimatedbythe two inventoriesare presented in (Table 9.7).

Year

CO2emissions(Gg)

CO2removal(Gg)

Net CO2emission(Gg)

COemission(Gg)

CH4emission(Gg)

N2Oemission(Gg)

NOxemission (Gg)

CO2etotalemission(Gg)

CO2etotal netemission(Gg)

1990

63,586 72,988 -9402 - 118.67 0.82 - 66,332 -6,656

2000

33,656.51 142,221.19 108,564.68 2,215.37 144.85 4.26 34.08 40,404.86 -101,816

Year

CO2emissions(Gg)

CO2removal(Gg)

Net CO2emission(Gg)

COemission(Gg)

CH4CH4CHemission(Gg)

N2Oemission(Gg)

NOxemission (Gg)

CO2etotalemission(Gg)

CO2etotal netemission(Gg)

1990

63,586 72,988 -9402 - 118.67 0.82 - 66,332 -6,656

2000

33,656.51 142,221.19 108,564.68 2,215.37 144.85 4.26 34.08 40,404.86 -101,816


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Table 9.8: Policy measures addressing forestry issues for integration into national and sectoraldevelopment plans and programs

Policies, Strategies and Actions:Policies:1.Promote carbon sequestration through sustainable forest ecosystem development.2.Change of land use to be preceded by EIA in accord with broad National Land Use Plan.Strategies:

1.Introduce private forestry.2.Manage state and non-state forest ecosystems in a sustainable manner.3.Intensify re-afforestation programs.4.Promote community forestry and urban tree planting.5.Encourage manufacture of long lasting value added forest products.6.Develop national land use plan; Let EIA precede any major land use change.Actions:Mitigation Measures:1.Protect existing forests effectively.2.Expand forest extent, increase forest density and growth.3.Maintain structural diversity of forest and species mixture.4.Restore depleted and degraded forests by planting and natural regeneration.5.Conserve biological diversity and productivity with emphasis on genetic diversity.6.Expand Protected Areas System.7.Recover and conserve endangered species, and protect habitat loss and deterioration .8.Avoid clear felling of forest in timber harvest, practice reduced impact logging and restoreharvested areas.9.Increase advocacy and educate public on Community Forestry (CF).10.Apply systems such as agro-forestry or aqua-forestry to establish CFs to ensure early incomesfor the users and thus, attract their participation.11.Continue the annual free distribution of tree seedlings for roadside and urban greening andconsider incentives to ensure the survival of the planted trees.12.Meet forest-related human needs.13.Develop technologies for manufacturing superior quality end-use forest products for extendeduse.14.Encourage the increased use of wood in place of fossil-fuel intensive construction materials.15.Strive for development and implementation of national land use plan to sustain permanent forestestate.16.Conduct EIA and thorough cost-benefit analysis prior to deciding any major land use change.Adaptation Measures:1.Enrich and sustain biodiversity.2.Develop climate-resilient genetic strains.3.Practice multi-culture and structurally complex forest ecosystems management.4.Intensify mangrove re-afforestation in coastal zones.5.Establish an efficient fire fighting mechanism.6.Promote private and community forestry.7.Enhance public awareness and participation in forest protection, conservation and development.8.Educate public on climate change concerns.

In both inventories the forestry sector was found toabsorb CO2, amounting to 72,988 Gg in 1990 and142, 221 Gg in 2000.

If the current annual deforestation rate estimated atabout 400,000 ha cannot be controlled, thesequestration effect detected in the year 2000 willdisappear in the not very distant future.


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Table 9.9: CH4 emissions in the waste sector in years 1990 and 2000

Source: (1)Asian Least Cost GHGAbatement Strategy (ALGAS) Project 1997(2) National GHG Inventory forMyanmar INC 2000

In thiscontext, thepolicymeasurespresented inTable9.8havebeenidentifiedfor integrationinto thenationaland sectoral development plans and programs. Thevision is sustainable forest ecosystemmanagement tobe realized with understanding, cooperation andcoordinationofall relatedministriesandorganizationsand throughpublic participation.

Waste sector

ContextSince the inceptionof themarket-oriented economicsystem in 1988, urbanization has accelerated in bigcities due mainly to enlarging employmentopportunities in the private sector.ThepopulationofYangon City increased from 2.5million in 1983 to4.1 million in 2003-04, and in Mandalay from532,949 in 1993 to 856,264 in 2003. Toaccommodate the increasing urban population andto relocate urban squatters, theGovernment createdmany satellite towns throughout the country. Theincreasingpopulation, improvedeconomyand rapidindustrialization have been causing increasedwastegenerationespeciallyin bigcities.

Awide range of chemicals, metals, fuels and othermaterials used in industrial processes will generatehazardous wastes. If not properly disposed andtreated theywillpolluteenvironment andcausehealthhazards. Serious environmental pollution can occurdue to thedischargeofwasteandeffluent particularlybychemical plants.

Waste collection and disposal are the responsibilityof thelocalmunicipal authorities inMyanmar. “InNayPyi Taw,Yangon andMandalay, autonomous CityDevelopmentCommitteesandtheirPollutionControl

andCleansingDepartments (PCCDs)withanetworkof branches and sub-units are taskedwith solidwastemanagementwithintheirmunicipalareas. Inotherpartsof the countryTownshipDevelopment Committeesunder the Department for Development Affairs(DDA), Ministry of Progress of Border AreaDevelopment andNationalRaces andDevelopmentAffairs(MPBND),managemunicipalwastecollectionand disposal. ThismakesDDA responsible for 323outof325townships inMyanmar”(DraftEPAReport,March 2006).

In spiteof the risingGDPin thecountry, theper capitawaste generation had decreased during the periodfrom 1983 to 2004 probably due to the wastecollection fees charged bywaste volume.Daily percapitasolidwastegeneration inYangonhaddecreasedfrom 0.405 kg in 1983 to 0.287 kg in 2006/2007,while it isconstantat0.53kginMandalay.Thevolumeof waste generated in other cities in the countryremains to be investigated.

Astudyconducted byYCDC in 2003has found thatsolid waste contained 77% food refuse, 7% paperand textile, 13% plastics and 3%other substances.Dailywastegeneration inYangonincreasedthreefoldsfrom564 tons in 1990 to 1,324 tons in 2007.YCDCstillneeds tocontrolandinvestigate theeffectsof liquidwaste disposed from26 chemical factories locatedalongwater courseson thequalityof river andstreamwaters.

Todateallwastes collected bythemunicipalityweredumped at the designated dumping sites.Althoughsolid waste collection and disposal have improvedconsiderablyparticularly inYangon andMandalay,waste treatmentandrecyclinghasbeenverynegligible.

Source 1990 2000

Solidwaste (Gg) 108.92 133.31

Domestic andcommercial waste water (Gg) 0.978 1.198

Sludge (Gg) 0.0482 0.059

Total CH4 emission (Gg) 109.95 134.57

Total CO2e emission (Gg) 2,308.95 2,825.97

Source 1990 2000

Solidwaste (Gg) 108.92 133.31

Domestic andcommercial waste water (Gg) 0.978 1.198

Sludge (Gg) 0.0482 0.059

Total CH4Total CH4Total CH emission (Gg) 109.95 134.57

Total CO2Total CO2Total CO e emission (Gg) 2,308.95 2,825.97


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Although Myanmar does not have a specific policytarget on solid waste management, the country,through its Pollution Control and CleansingDepartment has developed by-laws givingconsiderable focus to waste managementYCDC.

A comparison of GHG emissions in the waste sectoras estimated by the 1990 and 2000 inventories ispresented in (Table 9.9). Both inventories estimatedCH4 emissions only.

As seen in the above table CH4 emission from wastehas increased byabout 140 GgCO2e in the ten yearsfrom 1990 to 2000. The emission will certainly as-sume an upward trend with the improving economycoupledwith increasingindustrialization.

In order toaddress the issue ofpotentiallyrisingGHGemissions in thesector, the policymeasureshavebeenidentified and presented in (Table 9.10).Theyshouldbe integrated into the national and sectoraldevelopment plans and programs.

Policies, Strategies and Actions:Policies:Strengthen “Green and Clean Country” campaign to make the country green and clean reducingGHG emissions and environmental pollution.Strategies:1.Minimize per capita waste generation2.Recycle waste3.Generate heat and electricity from waste4.Advocate self-cleanliness and public hygiene, and5.Enforce “Polluter Pay System”Actions:Mitigation Measures:1.Reduce the volume of waste per capita;2.Categorize waste and dispose it properly at designated landfills;3.Collect fees for waste disposal (polluter pay system);4.Fine heavily those who throw wastes recklessly;5.Eliminate the use of polyethylene bags;6.Expand waste treatment facilities, i.e. for landfill, compost and burning;7.Produce biogas for electricity generation at sewage treatment facilities;8.Encourage waste recycle and waste reuse;9.Promote market opportunities for recycled waste products;10.Enforce regulations and standards for waste management to ensure environment free from pollution

Table 9.10: Policy measures to address rising GHG emissions in the waste sector


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Chapter 10Information and Networking

10.1. Introduction

The availabilityanddissemination of appropriate andup todate information on climatechange are essentialfor promotingpublicawarenesson theclimate changeissues and for taking effective actions to address theproblems. In most of the developingcountries, onlyafew people and organizations have access to climatechange information technologyand communicationfacilities. There is limited capacity to disseminate theinformation that is available. There is also a lack ofcoordination and net working among the variousstakeholders. Coordination and networking amongthe government departments concerned are alsoweak. Climate change problems cannot be tackledby a few stakeholders or by a few governmentdepartments. Climate change mitigation andadaptation measures call for effective cooperation,coordination and networking among all thestakeholders.

10.2. Assessment and Enhancementof Information CommunicationTechnologies

Information communication technologies (ICT), suchas internet, website and email is essential to ensureefficient exchange and sharing of information bothwithin and outside the country. Some of the gaps thatare usually found in this respect include inadequatequantityof computers, difficult access to internet andinadequate information networking.

The ICT assessment survey conducted by the INCproject indicated the following:Although there is a considerable number of desktopcomputers, there are only a few laptops in most ofthe government departments. Some organizationshave onlyone or two laptop computers. With respectto communication facilities, some have internets butnot all the departments have websites. Email is usedto a considerable extent.There are some restrictions in the use of internet andwebsite. The existing ICT facilities are not adequate

and there are onlya few experts in ICT in most of thegovernment departments and organizations. ICTrelated trainings are given locally; but it is necessarytoprovidefurther trainingsonaregularbasis toupdateandupgradethe local ICTexperts.Mostorganizationsneed more computers, laptops, scanners, colorprinters, plotters, climate change related softwareprograms, access to internets, and trainings.

It should be noted that in recent years there is aconsiderableprogress in theuseof ICTinboth privateand the government sectors. Computers, e-mails andinternets are being increasingly used by privatecompanies and organizations as well as by manyindividuals. Schools, colleges, universities are alsopromoting the use of computers. Computers andsoftware companies and ICT related businesses suchas internet café have been graduallyexpanding in thecitiesespeciallyinYangon.PromotionofICThasbeenundertaken jointly by the private computerassociations and the government.

However, therestill remainmanygapsanddrawbacksin the development of ICT. Infrastructures andadministrativecapacitiesalsoneed tobestrengthened.

Thus, there is a great need to address these problemsto enhance ICT in Myanmar. Institutionalstrengthening, includinghumanresourcedevelopmentrelated with ICT is needed in almost all thegovernmentorganizations.

10.3. Establishment of InformationNetworks

Climate change information network is essential as itcould promote theexchangeof important informationon climate change and enhance cooperation andcoordination among the stakeholders in addressingclimate change issues.

In order to promote networking among the INCproject teammembers, the internet facilitieshavebeenprovided to the project teams under the project.

Chapter 10 Information and Networking

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One of the important activities under the INC projectis the establishment of a climate change informationnetwork.Theclimatechangeinformationnetworkhasbeen officially established by the MOECAF withtwentyfive network members including focal pointsnominated byvarious government departments suchasMeteorologyandHydrology, Forestry,Agriculture,Irrigation, Fisheries, Energy, Electrical Power,Industry, Livestock Breeding and Veterinary,Education, Health, etc.

NGOs are also included in thenetwork. The networkmembers relayinformationrelating to climatechangemitigation, adaptation and disaster preparednessprogramsand activitiesundertakenbytheir respectiveorganizations.

The MOECAF has also established a website underthis project. Training relating to the use of websitehad been conducted for the officers and staff of theMOECAF by a local company.

Exchangeandsharingofinformationwithinternational,regionalandsub-regional informationnetworkswouldbe useful for Myanmar in developing appropriatepolicy, plans and programs related with climatechange.

As approved by the government, the present INCreport as well as several other thematic reportsprepared by the project teams under the INC projectwill be uploaded to the project websitewww.myanmar-unfccc-nc.net.

It has been mentioned earlier that there are severaldrawbacks in the use of internets and websites.Restrictions in the use of these facilities, frequentpower failures and difficulties in accessing internetscould hindereffectiveandmeaningful participation inand contribution to sub-regional, regional andinternational climatechange information networks.

Nevertheless, it should be noted that essentialfoundations have been laid under the INC projectwhich would enable Myanmar to enhance climatechangeinformationsharingandnetworkingbothinsideand outside the country.

Chapter 10 Information and Networking

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Chapter 11Capacity Building

Capacity building with respect to climate change isconsidered to be a process seeking to build, develop,strengthen,enhanceandimproveexistingscientificandtechnical skills, capabilitiesandinstitutions toprevent,mitigate and adapt to climate change and its impacts.According to the decision 2/CP. 7, capacitybuildingis a continuous and progressive process, theimplementation of which should be based on thepriorities of the developing countries.

The developing countries are aware of the fact thatall Parties to the UNFCCC have common butdifferentiated responsibilities to address climatechange.But, thedevelopingcountries,particularlytheleast developed countries have limited capacities interms of finance, technology, man-power andinstitutiontoundertaketheenormoustaskofmitigatingclimatechangeand adaptingto its impacts.Moreover,there are numerous capacity gaps, constraints andneeds in meeting their obligations and commitmentsto theUNFCCC including the preparationof nationalcommunications.

Inorder tomeet theircommitments to the Conventionand to address the climate change and its impacts,the developing countries need capacity building forwhich they have to secure cooperation and supportof the international organizations and the developedcountries especially theAnnex II countries stated inthe UNFCCC.

11.1. Capacity Building NeedsAssessment

Being a least developed country, mitigating climatechange and adapting to its impacts are no easy tasksfor Myanmar. Capacitybuilding is greatlyneeded atevery level and in all aspects of addressing climatechange.Humanresourcesandscientific, technical andinstitutional capacities must all be developed andstrengthened.

A capacity building needs assessment survey wascarried out under the present INC project with a viewto identifyingareas that are in criticalneed of capacity

building. The survey could not cover all the areasidentified in the “ Marrakesh Accords” such asinstitutionalcapacity building;capacitybuildingunderthe CDM; development of human resources;technology transfer; national communication;adaptation; public awareness; coordination andcooperation; and decision making improvement.However, the needs assessments coveredhuman resources/manpower development training,technology enhancement training, environmentalprotection training and other trainings addressingclimate change issues.

The assessment survey was made by means of“Capacity buildingneedsassessment”questionnairesdistributed to various government ministries anddepartments, and local NGOs. The informationprovidedbythat surveyhasbeensummarized inTable11.1.

Chapter 11 Capacity Building

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Technology capacitybuildingneeds

Specialized training General training (Needs for technology transfer)

Trainings on : - Trainings on : -

Cleaner productionofcement; Sustainabilityofbamboo for pulp andpapermaking; ReducingGHGemission in textilemanufacturing; Pollutioncontrol in foodprocessing

Industrial safety; Environmentconservation; Climate changeIssues; EST; Carbon trading


NewandRenewable energyand emission control; Energyefficiency; Ozone DepletingSubstance (ODS)management; Industrialwaste water treatment

Environmentalmanagement;Industrial Standards andpollutioncontrol;Environmental ImpactAssessment (EIA) for industry;Carbon trading; Negotiation skills;EST; Disaster management (Localtraining)


Large scale bio energyproduction fromalgae(Algenol); FuelCell; GISandFloodmapping; Selfcleaning concrete

EnvironmentalMonitoringtechniques; EIA

Trainings on : - Trainings on : -Disaster proof designofhydropower projects;Installation andmaintenanceof power plants using coal

GlobalWarming andClimateChange issues

Water, steamandenergy savingtechnologies relatedwith the use ofboilers; Eco cement productiontechnology; Lowenergy cementproduction technology

S.N. Ministries andOrganizations

Man-power trainingneeds (Human resources development)Fellowship&scholarship for long term, short termand informal

training

1 Ministry ofIndustry (1)

2 Ministry ofIndustry (2)

Process control technology/Automation; Ozone DepletingSubstances (ODS) substitutestechnology; Post harvesttechnology; CNGandDual fuelengine technology; PrecisionCleaning

3 Ministry ofScience andTechnology

Algae Taxonomy; FuelCellTechnology; Self cleaning concretetechnology/ Nano technology

4 Ministry ofElectricalPower (1)

Technology for designingenvironmentally friendlyhydropower project/ especiallyflushing facilities, fish andaquaticmigration ladder, energydissipationtechnologies; Technology for

5 Ministry ofElectricalPower (2)

Trainings on : - Combinedcycle power plant;Efficiency in electricity use

- CombinedCycle technology

S.N.

1

2

3

4

5

Technology capacitybuildingneeds

Specialized training

Man-power trainingneeds (Human resources development)Fellowship&scholarship for long term, short termand informal

training

Ministries andOrganizations

General training (Needs for technology transfer)General training (Needs for technology transfer)

Water, steamandenergy savingtechnologies relatedwith the use ofboilers; Eco cement productiontechnology; Lowenergy cementproduction technology

Trainings on : -

Industrial safety; Environmentconservation; Climate changeIssues; EST; Carbon trading

Trainings on : -Ministry ofIndustry (1)

Cleaner productionofcement; Sustainabilityofbamboo for pulp andpapermaking; ReducingGHGemission in textilemanufacturing; Pollutioncontrol in foodprocessing

Process control technology/Automation; Ozone DepletingSubstances (ODS) substitutestechnology; Post harvesttechnology; CNGandDual fuelengine technology; PrecisionCleaning

Trainings on : -

Environmentalmanagement;Industrial Standards andpollutioncontrol;Environmental ImpactAssessment (EIA) for industry;Carbon trading; Negotiation skills;EST; Disaster management (Localtraining)

Trainings on : -

NewandRenewable energyand emission control; Energyefficiency; Ozone DepletingSubstance (ODS)management; Industrialwaste water treatment

Ministry ofIndustry (2)

Algae Taxonomy; FuelCellTechnology; Self cleaning concretetechnology/ Nano technology

Trainings on : -

EnvironmentalMonitoringtechniques; EIA

Trainings on : -Ministry ofScience andScience andTechnology Large scale bio energy

production fromalgae(Algenol); FuelCell; GISandFloodmapping; Selfcleaning concrete

Technology for designingenvironmentally friendlyhydropower project/ especiallyflushing facilities, fish andaquaticmigration ladder, energydissipationtechnologies; Technology for

Trainings on : -GlobalWarming andClimateChange issues

Trainings on : -Disaster proof designofhydropower projects;Installation andmaintenanceof power plants using coal

Ministry ofElectricalPower (1)

Trainings on : - CombinedMinistry ofElectricalPower (2)

cycle power plant;Efficiency in electricity use

- CombinedCycle technology

Table 11.1 : Capacity building needs assessment


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Recycling of minerals andmetals;Treatment of miningwastes; Biomassenergy; post mining and land usemanagement; Reducing harmful gases inthe environment; Extraction of mineralsfromore; Treatment of acid drainagerocks in the mining sector

Environmentalmanagement;Environmentalpollutionmonitoring


Estimation of forest carbon by forestinventory and satellite data

Climate change; EST;carbon trading;Negotiation skills;Environmentallyfriendlymethod ofteak extraction


Preventing desertification in the DryZone (Local training); EuroAsianresearch and training in climate changemanagement (CLIMA);Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) recovery

Climate Changeissues; Negotiationskills; Sustainableagriculture

Trainings on : - Trainings on : -Climate change & its impacts on rurallivelihood; Market-based instruments forenvironmentalmanagement

Climate change issues


Methane gas reduction fromlivestocksector

Environmentalscience; Wastetreatment; CDM;Negotiation skills;EST

Training on : - Technology for air qualitymonitoring;

Environmental health risk assessment;Air qualitymonitoring

Technology for measuringGHGgases

10 Ministry ofLivestock andFisheries

Methane gas reductiontechnology, Solidwaste andwaste water treatmenttechnology

11 Ministry of Health

8 Ministry ofEnergy

GalileoTP for CFC recovery

9 Ministry ofCooperatives

Recycling technology forbiologicalwastes such asplant residues, food scrapsand paper products;

6 Ministry of Mines Technology for analysis oftoxic waste; Technology forextraction of metals frommineralwastes; Technologyfor control blasting andDustcontrol system

7 Ministry ofEnvironmentalConservation andForestry

Remote sensing and imageclassification Equipments forbiomass measuring(inventory) and carbondetection


Recycling of minerals andmetals;Treatment of miningwastes; Biomassenergy; post mining and land usemanagement; Reducing harmful gases inthe environment; Extraction of mineralsfromore; Treatment of acid drainagerocks in the mining sector

Environmentalmanagement;Environmentalpollutionmonitoring


Estimation of forest carbon by forestinventory and satellite data

Climate change; EST;carbon trading;Negotiation skills;Environmentallyfriendlymethod ofteak extraction


Preventing desertification in the DryZone (Local training); EuroAsianresearch and training in climate changemanagement (CLIMA);Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) recovery

Climate Changeissues; Negotiationskills; Sustainableagriculture

Trainings on : - Trainings on : -Climate change & its impacts on rurallivelihood; Market-based instruments forenvironmentalmanagement

Climate change issues


Methane gas reduction fromlivestocksector

Environmentalscience; Wastetreatment; CDM;Negotiation skills;EST

Training on : - Technology for air qualitymonitoring;

Environmental health risk assessment;Air qualitymonitoring

Technology for measuringGHGgases

10 Ministry ofLivestock andLivestock andFisheries

Methane gas reductiontechnology, Solidwaste andwaste water treatmenttechnology

11 Ministry of Health

8 Ministry ofEnergyEnergy

GalileoTP for CFC recovery

9 Ministry ofCooperatives

Recycling technology forbiologicalwastes such asplant residues, food scrapsand paper products;

6 Ministry of Mines Technology for analysis oftoxic waste; Technology forextraction of metals frommineralwastes; Technologyfor control blasting andDustcontrol system

7 Ministry ofEnvironmentalConservation andForestry

Remote sensing and imageclassification Equipments forbiomass measuring(inventory) and carbondetection


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2012

Trainings on:- Trainings on: -

FormulationofNationalLeast CostGHGAbatement Strategy;GHGinventoryandmitigationoptionsanalysis; Development andTransferofEnvironmentallySoundTechnologies (ESTs) inAgriculture;Climate changemitigationthroughsustainable agriculture; Climatechange impacts onagriculture sector

Climate change issues;CDM&carbontrading;ESTtraining

Myanmar engineeringSociety(MES)

Trainingon:- Trainingon:-

Emissionreduction; EIA:EMS;Cleaner production; Wastemanagement;ISO14000series Laboratoryanalysis and

instrumentationTrainingon:- Carbontrading;Uplandfarmingsystem;Drylandfarmingsystem;Assessment ofBiodiversitycropresidue anditseffects onenvironment; Plantingtechniques toadapt toclimatechange

Greenhouse gases ; Cleanenvironment; Projectformulation,implementationonAfforestationandReforestationunderCDM(ARCDM)

BANCA Trainingon:-(BiodiversityandNatureConservationAssociation)

Reductionof EmissiononDeforestationandDegradation(REDD)

16 Forest Resource,EnvironmentDevelopment&ConservationAssociation(FREDA)

All trainings relatedwithclimatechange

15 Negotiationskills Technologies relatedwithREDD

12 YezinAgriculturalUniversity

Technologyformeasuringmethanefluxinfloodedrice fields; Nutrientmanagement technology;TechnologyforminimizingpotentialharmfulN2Oemissionindifferentagro-ecosystems; Technology forproducingBio-energyfrombiomass

13 Technologyforwastewatertreatment

14 MyanmarAcademyofAgricultural,Forestry,Livestock&FisherySciences

TechnologyformonitoringchangesinFauna andFlora due toclimatechange; Selectionof plant speciesthat canadapt toclimate change;TechnologyforUplandfarmingsystem; Technologyfor drylandfarmingsystem;TechnologyforBioenergyproductionandutilization; Technologyfor animal

Trainings on:- Trainings on: -

FormulationofNationalLeast CostGHGAbatement Strategy;GHGinventoryandmitigationoptionsanalysis; Development andTransferofEnvironmentallySoundTechnologies (ESTs) inAgriculture;Climate changemitigationthroughsustainable agriculture; Climatechange impacts onagriculture sector

Climate change issues;CDM&carbontrading;ESTtraining

12 YezinAgriculturalUniversity

Technologyformeasuringmethanefluxinfloodedrice fields; Nutrientmanagement technology;TechnologyforminimizingpotentialharmfulN2harmfulN2harmfulNOemissionindifferent2Oemissionindifferent2

agro-ecosystems; Technology forproducingBio-energyfrombiomass

Technologyforwastewatertreatment

Trainingon:-

EIA:EMS;Wastemanagement;Laboratoryanalysis andinstrumentation

Trainingon:-

Emissionreduction;Cleaner production;ISO14000series

Myanmar engineeringSociety(MES)13

TechnologyformonitoringchangesinFauna andFlora due toclimatechange; Selectionof plant speciesthat canadapt toclimate change;TechnologyforUplandfarmingsystem; Technologyfor drylandfarmingsystem;TechnologyforBioenergyproductionandutilization; Technologyfor animal

Carbontrading;Carbontrading;Greenhouse gases ; Cleanenvironment; Projectformulation,implementationonAfforestationandReforestationunderCDM(ARCDM)(ARCDM)

Trainingon:-MyanmarAcademyMyanmarAcademyofAgricultural,Forestry,Livestock&FisherySciences

14Uplandfarmingsystem;Drylandfarmingsystem;Assessment ofBiodiversitycropresidue anditseffects onenvironment; Plantingtechniques toadapt toclimatechange

Negotiationskills Technologies relatedwithREDDNegotiationskills Technologies relatedwithREDDBANCA Trainingon:-Reductionof EmissiononDeforestationandDegradation(REDD)

BANCA Trainingon:-(BiodiversityandNatureConservationAssociation)

15

All trainings relatedwithclimatechange

Forest Resource,EnvironmentDevelopment&ConservationAssociation(FREDA)

16

Table 11.1 : Capacity building needs assessment


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The capacity building needs assessment high-lightedtheneedsof the institutionsandorganizations in termsof man-power training, technologycapacity building,and institutional capacitybuilding etc.

With regard to the development of human resources,a largenumber of organizations are interested to havegeneral trainings on climate change issues in order topromote awareness on climate change matters andtheir impacts.Suchtrainingswoulddrawgreaterpublicattentiononclimatechangeandcouldorganizepeopleand institutions to take necessarymeasures to preventand mitigate global warming and climate change andadapt to their impacts. The trainings that the majorityof organizations proposed include: global warmingand climate change issues and their impacts;environmental management including wastemanagement; environmentally sound technologies(ESTs); clean development mechanism (CDM) andcarbon trading.

Alargenumberoforganizationsare interested insolarpower technologyand its related trainings.At thesametime, bio-energy and bio-fuel technologies and therelated trainings are also requested.

There is an urgency to introduce cleaner boilertechnology and related trainings. Information andtrainings on environmentallysound technologies arealso essential.

Capacity building in terms of developing ICT andR&Dwouldalsogreatlyfacilitateinaddressingclimatechange. Capacitybuilding and trainings related withGHG inventory, Technology Needs Assessment(TNA) and Vulnerability and Adaptation NeedsAssessment (V&A assessment) have also beenrequested byseveral organizations and institutions.

The capacity building needs assessment has foundthat there are different kinds of specificcapacity building needs from different organizationsand industries. For example, the Ministryof Industry(1)needs technologiesaswell as trainings relatedwithcleaner production of cement; efficient and cleanerboilers; reduction of GHG emission in textilemanufacturing etc. The Ministry of Livestock and

Fisheries statedthat itneeds technologiesand trainingson methane gas reduction from livestock sector. TheMinistryofHealthrequires technologiesand trainingso air qualitymonitoring. The Biodiversityand NatureConservation Association (BANCA) needstechnologies and trainings related with Reduction ofEmissiononDeforestationandDegradation (REDD).

According to thecapacitybuildingneeds assessment,it is found that there is a requirement for most of theministries to improvetheunderstandingandawarenessontheirspecificcapacitybuildingneeds. It is importantthat the capacitybuilding program in Myanmar aptlyaddresses the gaps and needs of the country.Moreover, the capacity building needs assessmentshould be made periodically.

11.2. Capacity Building Strategy

Thefollowingapproachorstrategyhasbeen identifiedfor initiatingcapacity buildingprocess in Myanmar.The strategy involves three steps. These are –

Step1. Capacity building needs assessmentStep2. Identification and formulation of priority

capacity buildingprojectsStep3. Mobilization of fundsandother resources

for implementing the Capacity buildingprojects

The capacity building needs assessment shouldinclude: institutional capacity building; capacitybuilding under the CDM; development of humanresources; technology transfer; nationalcommunication; adaptation; public awareness;coordination and cooperation; and improvement indecision- making.

The capacity building needs assessment wouldindicate various kinds of capacity-building needs. Inprioritizing and identifying the capacity-buildingprojects the following factors maybe considered;


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Needs that are common or similar: Capacitybuildingneedsassessmentwillshowthat theremaybehigh, medium or low demand / needsfor certain kinds of capacitybuilding. It willalso show the kinds of capacitybuildingneeds that the majority of organizationsrequire. It is important to select and address

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Mobilization of resources including funding andtechnical support is an important partof the capacity-building strategy. The Global Environment Facility(GEF) provides financial support through GEFTrustFund and the Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF).The Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF)providesfundingsupport for theurgentandimmediateneeds of the least developed countries. The SCCF,the LDCFand the GEFTrust Fund’s StrategyPriorityfor Adaptation (SPA) provide funding under the“capacitybuilding, coordinationandpolicy”category.

Projects can be proposed through one of the ten GEFagencies. These are the UNDP, the UNEP, the World

11.3. Enhancement of InternationalNegotiation Skills

The developing countries especially the LDCs havelimited skills with respect to international climatechange negotiation. These countries have beenattendingthe internationalclimatechangeconferencessuch as the Conference of the Parties (COP), regionaland sub-regional climate change conferences,seminars, forums and workshops. However, theyhave been unable to contribute much to theinternational climate change negotiations. It could bemainlydue to the lack of experience in negotiations,lackofexpertiseonclimatechange, limitedknowledgeon climate change issues and language barriers. Inorder to be able to actively participate in the climatechange negotiation conferences and to express theirproblems and needs for addressing climate changeand adaptingto the climate change impacts, capacity-buildings in these areasare greatlyneeded.This couldgreatlybenefit the developing countries, particularlythe CLMV countries (Cambodia, Laos PDR,Myanmar,Vietnam) in theASEAN region.

Aseminar on internationalnegotiationskillswasheldin Yangon to enhance negotiation skills of thedepartmental personnel concerned with climate


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thosecapacitybuildingneeds that themajorityof organizations prefer.

Needs that are technically and financiallyfeasible: The capacitybuilding needs that themajority preferred may not always betechnically or financially feasible. Forexample, high-tech solar power or high-techair pollution monitoring stations. In thisrespect, priority should be given to addressthose needs that are appropriate technicallyas well as financially.

Needs that are urgent: Urgency of needs isanother important factor to be considered inprioritizing capacity-building projects. Forexample, there are many industries inMyanmar with old boilers that are not onlypolluting but with very low safetystandardsalso. Therefore, there is an urgency tointroduce cleaner boiler technology andrelated trainings.

Formulation of pilot /demonstrationprojects:Once the most appropriate and feasiblecapacity building projects have beenidentified and selected, formulation of theseprojects can be done. Here, it is importantthat the project proposals clearlydescribe the capacity build-ing needs;technology needs and related trainings;funding needs; expertise; and the expectedtangible results. It is crucial that the capacity-building projects provide an essentialfoundationandsupportuponwhichnecessarymeasures and actions can be developed toaddress climate change.

Bank, the African Development Bank, the AsianDevelopment Bank, the European Bank forReconstructionandDevelopment, the Inter-AmericanDevelopment Bank, the FAO, the IFAD and theUNIDO. The UNEP mainly provides technicalsupport for the projects. Funding can also be soughtunder various Kyoto Protocol mechanisms such asCDM, Joint Implementation (JI) and also throughemissions trading.

Mobilization of technical resources/ support is alsoessential. Consultancy, expert services and trainingsare the main components of the capacity-buildingprojects.

The Capacity building Strategy can be applied on anational scale or on a sector-wise basis.As new andbetter technologies are constantly being developed,climate change related capacity building should becarriedoutonacontinuousbasis inorder toeffectivelyaddress global warming and climate change threats.

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change matters. A retired ambassador from theMinistryofForeignAffairs with wideexperience andknowledgeininternationalnegotiationskillsconductedtheseminar.Suchseminarsandworkshopsstrengthenthe technical capacityof the participants, and as suchtheyshould be convened frequently.

Allpersonnelworkingin thefieldofclimateprotectionand resource conservation are needed to participateactively in theinternationalclimatechangenegotiationconferences.

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Chapter 12

Other information considered relevant to the achievement of the objective of theConvention

12.1. Introduction

Apart from the programs and activities that arerequired by the UNFCCC to be undertaken by aparty to the Convention, there are several otherenvironmental protection and conservation activitiescarried out in Myanmar which could directly orindirectly contribute towards addressing climatechangeandachievingtheobjectiveof theConvention.It may be useful to mention some of the importantactivities being undertaken in Myanmar, especiallythose that are being implemented under some of theUNenvironmental conventions towhich Myanmar isa party.Additionally, there are other programs andactivities that are also relevant to the objective of theUNFCCC. These include organizationalimprovementssuchasemergenceofanenvironmentalcommitteeandlocalnon-governmentalenvironmentalorganizations; internationalenvironmentalcooperationincluding theconduct of air qualitysurveys supportedbyUNEP and participation in manyof the UNFCCCConferencesof theParties (COP); andnaturaldisasterpreparedness programs. These activities are in manyways complementary and supportive to thoseprograms thatareessential forachievingthe objectiveof the Convention.

12.2. Programs and ActivitiesUndertaken under VariousUN environmental conventionsthat are Relevant to theAchievement of the UNFCCC

United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (UNCCD) relatedprograms and activitiesIn Myanmar, land degradation occurs inseveral areasand this is due to various causes. Land degradationin the central Myanmar known as the Dry Zone ismainly caused by low rainfall, water shortage,deforestation, improper method of cultivation andover-grazing among others.

Myanmar acceded to the UNCCD in January 1997.Even before acceding to the UNCCD, Myanmar hasbeen implementing several projects to combatdesertification and drought in the country especiallyin the semi-arid areas of central Myanmar. In 1994,theForestDepartment implementedaspecialgreeningproject for the nine districts whichhave been affectedby drought, water shortages, and land degradation.During the 3-year project period, 7,280 ha of forestplantations were established in the degraded forests,on denuded lands and in the vicinityof the villages tostabilize environment, restore forest cover and meetbasic needsof the local communities.Theproject areawas extended to 13 districts in three Regions, namelyMandalay, Sagaing and Magway, with the formationof a new Dry Zone Greening Department in 1997.

The DryZone Greening Department plays a keyroleincombatingdesertification inCentralMyanmarwithspecial mandates to undertake intensive re-afforestation, to protect, conserve and improve theresidual natural forests, to develop water resources,and to develop and encourage use of wood fuelsubstitutes. Forest plantations have been establishedin the deforested and degraded areas. The total areaplanted during the period 1994-1995 to 2005-2006has reached 117,414 hectares. Currently, there are140damsconstructed in theDryZonewithwatershedareas of 4.5 million hectares.

The ForestDepartmenthas alsobeentakingmeasuresto upgrade the social and economic statusof the localpeople by promoting the practice of communityforestry, agro-forestry, and proper grazing, and byproviding water supply and creating incomegenerationopportunities.Useofwoodfuel substituteshasbeenencouragedthroughdistributionofbriquettesand energyefficient cook stoves.

Rehabilitationandreforestationofmangrovesarealsobeingcarriedout in theAyeyarwadydelta where largeareas of mangrove forests have disappeared due toover-exploitation. These activities have beenintensified in thewake of the CycloneNargis not only

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bythe Forest Department but also bythe local NGOstogether with the cooperation and contributions fromthe international NGOs.

A 30-year comprehensive Master Plan for the periodfrom 2001-2002 to 2030-2031 is beingimplemented.At its end the following tasks will beaccomplished in the DryZone:

Forestplantations forvillagefirewoodsupply,watershed protection, research and otherpurposes will have been established on 0.42million hectares (1.05 million acres);

The remaining degraded forests on 0.73million hectares (1.8million acres) will havebeen rehabilitated and conserved;

1.5 million energyefficient stoves, about 400million briquettes,and210tonsofagriculturalresidues as substitutes for firewood will havebeen distributed; and

6,400 ponds, 150 artisan wells, and 150water pumping stations will have beenconstructed.

Myanmar has also formulated the NationalActionProgram (NAP) to combat desertification. Fiveprojects have been proposed in the NAP to beimplemented to combatdesertification in thecountry,particularly in the Dry Zone. Theyare -

1/ Mitigation of land degradation project,2/ Drought mitigation project,3/ Capacitybuilding project,4/ Rural development project, and5/ Land use planning project.

It is evident that environmental issues and problemsare all related and thus interactive. Deforestation,desertification, localorglobalwarming, localorglobalclimate change are inter-related. Thus, in addressingglobalwarmingandclimate change, coordinationandsynergy of activities of various environmentalconventions are essential. In case of Myanmar, bothdeforestationanddesertificationproblemsarehandledmainlybytheMinistryof Forestry,but to successfullycombat them it needs close cooperation andcoordination of the related line ministries.

The Dry Zone has now started to benefit from thegreeningactivitieswithimprovedvegetation,improvedwater supply, improved soil and better climaticconditions. Thus, the project activities undertaken

under the UNCCD have greatly supported andcomplemented the efforts to achieve the objective ofthe UNFCCC.

Vienna Convention and Montreal protocolrelated programs and activitiesMyanmar acceded to the Vienna Convention for theProtection of the Ozone Layer and the MontrealProtocol in November 1993.

Thepreparationof aCountryProgramwascompletedduring 1998 and 1999. The Country Program wassupported by the UNEP and coordinated by theNationalCommissionfor EnvironmentalAffairs( NCEA ). Now by MOECAF).

The program contains an analysis of the currentsituation with regard to the production andconsumptionof OzoneDepletingSubstances (ODS),together with a strategy and a plan of action to beundertaken by the government. The approval of theCountry Program is a precondition for financialassistance from the Multilateral Fund for investmentprojects and InstitutionalStrengtheningprojects. TheProgram was approved in November 1999 andfunding was made available to Myanmar for theInstitutionalStrengtheningproject.Duetosomedelaysthe project could start only in September 2004. Theproject implementation was due to be completed in2008. However, it was extended to 2010. TheInstitutional StrengtheningprojectPhase 2 will beginin 2010 when its Phase 1 terminates.

Refrigeration Management Plan (RMP) wasformulated in 2002 and approved bythe MultilateralFund in 2005. The RMP is to provide support toMyanmar to phase out ODS in the refrigeration andairconditioningsector.TheRMPiscomposedof threecomponents: (a) Preparation of ozone regulations forcontrol of ODS; (b) Monitoring implementation ofRMP activities; and (c) Establishing conversionpractice of domestic refrigeration.AMemorandumof Understanding (MOU) on the Preparation onozone regulations for the control of ODS, andMonitoring implementation of the RMP was signedin 2008. The MOU on provision of services and datacollection for the formulation of theHydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Phase outManagement Plan (HPMP) has also been signed.

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Today, Myanmar has successfully phased out CFCconsumption in all sectors. Awareness promotionactivities on protection of the ozone layer, trainingprogramsforrefrigerationandairconditioningservicetechnicians, and training programs for enforcementofficers have also been conducted.

Measures takenbyMyanmar to implement theViennaConvention and the Montreal Protocol are importantactivities that will help reduce the emissionsof ODS ,save the ozone layer and at the same time makepositive contribution towards addressing globalwarming andclimate change.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)related programs and activitiesAll over the world, there is an increasing loss ofbiological diversity due to increasing social andeconomic pressures. Today, climate change is alsoposing threats to the biological resources.Conservation of biological diversity has thereforebecome a big challenge for all nations around theglobe. The CBD can play an important role inaddressing the loss of biodiversity.

The efforts to conserve biological diversity havepositive impacts on addressing climate change. Forexample, establishment of protected areas, forestreserves and natural parks to protect wildlife andhabitats help conserve forests which constitute sinksand reservoirs of carbon dioxide.

Myanmar’s efforts for the conservation of biologicaldiversityaresummarized as follows:

The “Protection of Wildlife and Wild plants andConservation of Natural Areas Law” waspromulgated in 1994 in order to protect endangeredspecies of wild flora and fauna and their habitats.

MyanmarForestPolicy(1995)wasformulatedmainlyfor safeguarding soil, water catchments, ecosystems,biodiversity, and plant and animal genetic resources,scenic reserves and natural heritage sites.Myanmar ratified the CBD in November 1994.

Myanmar acceded to the Convention onInternationalTrade in Endangered Species of wild flora and fauna(CITES) in 1997.

Myanmar’s first national report was prepared inaccordance with the CBD guidelines for the thirdnational report and was submitted to the CBDsecretariat in 2005. Its second national report wassubmitted in 2009. It was prepared in line with theCBD guidelines for the fourth national report.

Myanmar ratified the Cartagena Protocol onBiosafety in 2008. National BiosafetyFramework isnow being drafted.Within the Bali Strategic Plan for CapacityBuildingand Technical Support, the NCEAis now initiatingthedevelopmentofNationalBiodiversityStrategyandAction Plan (NBSAP) with technical support fromUNEP Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific(UNEP-ROAP).

Conservation of biodiversity calls for protection ofthe habitats mainly forests, so that by implementingthe CBD, forests are being protected and conserved.

In Myanmar, the protected areas have increasedrapidly since becoming a party to the CBD. By theyear 2009, about 4.35% of the countryarea has beennotified as protected areas against its 2010 target of5% . To date, 34 protected areas, 3 zoologicalgardens, 1botanical gardenand anationalherbalparkhave been established across the country.

Forests playan important role incarbon sequestrationand climate stabilization. Thus, it is clear that theimplementationofCBDissupportive toachievingtheobjective of the UNFCCC.

12.3 Additional InformationConsidered Relevement of theAchievement of the Objectiveof the UNFCCC

Organizational improvementAdditional to NCEA which was formed in 1990 as amain policy body for environmental protection, tocoordinate environmental matters in the country toact as the national focal point for environmentalrelations with other countries and internationalorganizations, the Environmental ConservationCommittee (ECC) was formed in 2004 to effectivelyand systematically carry out environmentalconservation activitieswithin the country.

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The chairman of the NCEA alsochairs ECC. DeputyMinisters from seven related ministries act as thecommittee members and as heads of the sevenworkingcommittees responsible for seven States andseven Regions. These working committees makeassessments of the environmental situations in theirrespective regions and take necessary measures toaddress environmental problems.The NationalEnvironmentalConservationCommittee (NECC)hasbeenreformedin2011asafull flash focalorganizationfor theenvironment sector throughout thecountryandthe NCEAwas abolished. Moreover, to speed up itsenvironmental protection measures the Ministry ofForestrywas renamed to Ministryof EnvironmentalConservation and Forestry (MOECAF) in 2011.

In recent years, there has been a substantialdevelopmentof thenon-governmental environmentalorganizations such as Forest Resources EnvironmentDevelopment and Conservation Association(FREDA), Biodiversity and Nature ConservationAssociation (BANCA),EcosystemConservation andCommunity Development Initiative (ECCDI),Economically Progressive and EcologicalDevelopment (ECODEV) and Renewable EnergyAssociation Myanmar (REAM), WildlifeConservation Society(WCS) (countryprogram) andseveral others. These NGOs have been rehabilitatingforests and conserving the environment and areactivelyinvolved in theclimatechangemitigationandadaptation activities.

FREDAwassetupin1996 with theaimofconservingforest resources, environment and promotingsustainable development in the country. Theseactivities are being promoted through communitydevelopment and participation of the local people.FREDA is now actively promoting mangroverehabilitation in theAyeyarwadydelta area.

BANCA wasfounded in 2004 toconserve the nature,primarilybiological diversitythough actionsbasedonresearch and survey, advocacy, partnership, networkbuilding, education, people’sparticipation and publicawareness.

ECCDI was established in 2006 with the mainobjective forensuringsustained environment throughenrichment of biodiversity by conserving and

improving natural ecosystem.ECCDIis now activelyengaged in environmental restorationand communitydevelopment activities for securing food, water andsanitation as well as village electrification from solarpower and biogas.

ECODEV was set up in 1999 with the objective ofpromoting environmental governance throughimproving community access to environmentalinformationandbuildinglocalcapacityforcommunityforestrymanagement. ECODEVhas also involved inthe implementation of the INC project, particularly inpromoting education, training and public awarenessraisingon climate change.

REAM was founded in 1993. It is actively engagedin promoting alternative energy in several rural areasacross the country.At present, REAM is undertakingaproject for installingsolar pumpingsystemandothercommunitydevelopment activities in delta area.

WCS local program started in 1996. The mainactivities includepromotion of theprotectedareas andconservation of keystone species such as tiger andelephant in Myanmar.

International cooperation for addressing climatechangeAfter signingtheUNFCCCin1992,Myanmar ratifiedthe convention in 1994. Myanmar was one of the 12participating countries in the Asia Least CostGreenhouse Gas Abatement Strategy (ALGAS)project supported by UNDP/GEF and executed bythe ADB from 1995 to 2000. The project made anassessment of GHG sources and sinks in the energy,forestry and land use change, and agriculture sectorssetting 1990 as the base year. Myanmar ratified theKyoto Protocol in 2003.

RegardingCDM projects, there has been cooperationbetween Myanmar and Japan mainly in the form offeasibility studies and demonstration projects to beundertakenunder theCDMprogram. TheDesignatedNational Authority (DNA) of Myanmar wasestablished in 2006 for approving proposed CDMprojects and toprovide information onCDM projects.

With support from UNEP, MOECAF carried out airqualitysurveys inYangon and Mandalayin 2007 and

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its subsidiary bodies. COPs and all climate changerelated meetings had been attended mainly byrepresentatives from MOECAF, Ministryof ForeignAffairs, Department of Meteorologyand Hydrology,and from some other related ministries.

In order to make Myanmar safer and more resilientto natural hazards after the countryhad suffered froma disastrous cyclone Nargis in 2008 which claimedmore than 138,000 lives and affected 2.4 millionpeople, the National Disaster Preparedness CentralCommittee (NDPCC) was formed in the same yearThe Committee is chaired by the Prime Minister andhas 38 members. It is the highest body for disastermanagement in Myanmar.

MyanmarAction Plan on Disaster Risk Reduction(MAPDRR) 2009-2015 has been prepared. It waspreparedbyan inter-ministerial task force comprisingthirteen government ministries, Myanmar Red CrossSociety (MRCS), UNDP, UNOCHA,ASEAN, andAsian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC). ThePlan has identified projects and activities which arenecessary to meet the Hyogo Framework forAction(HFA) and ASEAN Agreement on DisasterManagement and Emergency ResponseCommitments.

As theimpactsofglobalwarmingandclimatechangeare being increasingly felt in the country, and publicawareness on climate change is growing rapidly inrecent years, there is no doubt that there will be moreprograms and activities in Myanmar for addressingclimate change in the years to come.

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2008 respectively. These surveys were carried out incooperation with the Ministry of Health and CityDevelopment Committees ofYangon and Mandalay.

Myanmar participated regularly in the Conferencesof the Parties of the UNFCCC and in the meetings of

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Chapter 13Constraints and Gaps, and Related Financial, Technical and Capacity Needs

13.1. Introduction

Myanmar has several variant climate zones rangingfrom the temperate region of the north to the dryzonein the central part and the monsoonal belts in thenorthwest, west and south.As it is located mainly inthe tropical region, Myanmar has a tropical monsoonclimate with three seasons: the hot, the monsoon orrainy and the cool.

The country’s topographyhas an important effect ontheclimate.Themountains to thenorthandeast shieldMyanmar from the much colder climate that prevailsin Tibet and western China. Elsewhere the Northernand Western Hills cause heavy rainfall along theirwestern slopes. On the eastern slopes, there is farless rainfall.Temperature records from 1901 to 1996indicateageneralwarmingtrend,especiallysince1979and in the coastal areas, though the northeastern partof the countrymayhave a tendencyfor cooling. Theaverage temperature is 0.7 °C higher than the averagerecorded temperature over the last two decades inmost towns and cities of Myanmar.

Myanmar lies in a climate zone, which is frequentlysubjected to cyclones and river flooding. Flooding,sometimes caused by cyclones, but more often byexcessive precipitation in mountainous watersheds,is a regular feature of Myanmar’s extensive riverineplains.Muchof Upper Myanmar liesona tectonicallyactive zone. In most parts of the country, earthquakesare common and occasionallydevastating.

13.2. Development of NationalGHG Inventory

Present efforts in national greenhouse gasesinventoryApart from the preliminarygreenhouse gases (GHG)inventory and mitigation options assessmentundertaken in the ALGAS-study based on somelimited 1990 data, very limited activities on climatechange havebeenundertaken in Myanmar. Myanmarwas one of the 12 participatory countries in the

ALGAS project implemented by UNDP/ GEF andexecuted byADB from 1995 to 2000. The projectaimed at improving the understanding and theestimates of the sources and sinksof GHG emissions,and to better assess the cost-effective mitigationoptions based on common and verifiablemethodologies.

The ALGAS project undertook a national GHG-inventory for carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4)and nitrous oxide (N2O) for the base year 1990 infive source categories, namely:

(1)Energyi.e. fuel combustion, energyindustries; transport: commercial institutiononly (residential was not considered), andothers,

(2) Industrial Processes,

(3) Agriculture (i.e., enteric fermentation fromdomestic livestock); manure managementand rice cultivation (CH4 emission only):agricultural soils (N2O emission only),prescribed burning of savannas and fieldburning of agricultural residues (CH4 andN2O emissions only).

(4) Land use changes and Forestry i.e.,changes in forest and other woody biomassstock; forest and grassland conversion;abandonment of managed lands; and on-site burning of forest (CH4 and N2Oemissions only) and

(5) Waste, CH4 emission only for solid wastedisposal on land; waste water treatment;others, using the IPCC- methodologies(both ReferenceApproach and Detailed orBottom-UpApproach).

Based on this inventory,projectionsofnationalGHG-emissions to 2020 had been made, and the optionsfor mitigation of GHG-emissions identified for theenergy, land use change and forestry, and agriculturesectors.

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Myanmar is preparing to receive some proposedprojects for the financial assistance and technicalsupport from the developed world as well as fromthe United Nations and international donor agencies.

Under the INC project, national GHG Inventory fordirect greenhouse gases namely carbon dioxide(CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) andfor indirect greenhouse gases namely carbonmonoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), aswell as sulphur dioxide (SO2), was undertaken forthe year 2000. While the database for CO2, CH4and N2O of theALGAS project was updated, a newdatabase for NOx, CO, NMVOC, SO2, HFCs,PFCs, SF6 (where available) was established.

Relevantglobaland/orregionalcirculationmodelsmaybe used to generate climate change scenarios for theregion that includes Myanmar. Detailed climatescenarios for Myanmar up to the year 2100 basedon “downscaling” of the outputs provided by thesemodels will be developed to assess the vulnerabilityof the keysocio-economic sectors to climate change.In collaboration with relevant university researchgroups, it is proposed to undertake the followingresearch activities:

(a) Assessmentoftheeffectsofclimatevariability,aswellas the impactsof increasedprobabilityof extreme weather events (flood, drought,typhoon) associated with climate change onthe keysocio-economic sectors;

(b) Trend analysis on precipitation patterns inMyanmar based on the best available data;

(c) Assessment of existing water resources,including underground water resources, andits implications for socio-economicdevelopment;

(d) The trends of El Nino and its impacts inMyanmar;

(e) There seems to be a decreasing trend of thefrequency of storms and depressions thatformed annually in the Bay of Bengal andAndaman Sea since the late 1960s. Furtheranalysis on this aspect is needed;

(f) Assessment of the impacts of climate changeon oceanographic processes and oceanproductivity;

(g) Assessment of the marine ecosystems; i.e.,the reef systems, for better management ofreef resources which are one of the mainsources of protein (food security);

(h) Developmentandconstructionofvulnerabilitymaps for keysocio-economic sectors and inkey areas which are most vulnerable undervarious climatic scenarios;

(i) Climatechangeand sustainabledevelopmentinMyanmar.

Cooperative efforts of the United Nationsorganizations, such as IPCC, UNEP, INGOs andLNGOs are important to address the climate changeissues and research activities. Public awareness andeducation on climate change issues have to beenhanced from the verybasic levels.

Information and technologyofclimate change relatedissues have to be translated into Myanmar languageand disseminated to schools, universities, publiclibraries and government agencies. Posters, banners,leaflets and other information materials should bedistributed on special occasions or events.Broadcasting of climate change information onMyanma Radio and Television Programs will beeffective for publicawareness.Workshops, seminars,public education and essaycontests, aswell as publicparticipation programs on environment and climatechange issueswill be necessarytodevelop adaptationmeasures.

Climate change could have significant effects onsustainable development. Climate change willadversely affect Myanmar agriculture and fisherysectors, which are vital for food securityand incomegeneration. Public health will also be threatened byclimate change. It is predicted that the incidence ofmalaria, dengue fever and diarrhea will increase.Performance can be assessed against nationalobjectivesand international commitments such as theUnited Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC).

Environmental pollution and environmental hazardsarisefromindustrializationandincreasedurbanization.GHG inventoryand mitigation option analysis team(GHG study team), established under this INCproject in January 2008, has successfullyaccomplished national GHG inventories for the year


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2000 in energy, industrial processesand product use,agriculture, forestry and other land use, and wastesectors. GHG inventory in different sectors would bea particular initiative in the context of improving andupdating the reliable data on GHG emission/absorption in Myanmar.

Data availability constraintsIdentificationandremovalofbarriers totheapplicationof ESTsare still needed.Accessibilityof user-friendlydatabaseonESTs, includingendogenous technologiesis an example of such constraints. Improvement ofclimate data bank should be enhanced. Climatechange related papers are very few. Data and casestudies have some gaps, and data on climatefluctuation and frequencyof extreme anomalies arenot fully available. There are no forecasts of ENSO(El Nino - Southern Oscillation) events in Myanmar.One major barrier for water resource planning is theunavailability of sufficient information and data onwatershed resources. The methods used for thedevelopment of vulnerabilityindices and maps needto be elaborated. Information supports from varioussectors are still required.

Needs for GHG inventory on a continuous basisReport the desired data on a continuous basis.Institutionalnetworkingandcoordinationplayacriticalrole to establish new data frameworks and reportformats in various sectors.

Energy and industrial processes sectors constraintsand needsTheenergysector is usuallythemost important sectorin greenhouse gas emission inventories. In energysector, GHGs are emitted from combustion of fueland fugitive emission from fossil fuel production.During combustion, the carbon and hydrogen of thefossil fuels are converted mainly into carbon dioxide(CO2) and water (H2O), releasingthechemical energyin the fuel as heat. Greenhouse gas inventory forenergy sector includes carbon dioxide and nitrousoxideemissionsfromfossil fuelcombustions,methaneemissions from fugitivecoal miningand post-miningactivities, fugitiveoilandnaturalgassystem,NMVOCfromfuelcombustion.

Since there are insufficient country-specific emissionfactors in Myanmar for emission assessment, defaultvalues suggested byIPCC guidelines are used either

in net calorific value estimation or in CO2 emissionstudiesorinfractionsofcarbonoxidization.Emissionsfromtheuse of fossil fuels from international bunkersare excluded in thecurrentnationalGHGestimations.Therefore,CO2 emissions fromaviationandmaritimefuel burning are not accounted for in the NationalInventory.

A wide variety of industrial activities producesgreenhouse gases. GHG emissions from industrialprocesses are related to chemical and physicaltransformations of materials.During these processes,many different greenhouse gases, including carbondioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O),hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)andsulphurhexafluoride(SF6), can be produced as by-products of manynon-energyrelated activities and use of greenhouse gasesin products.

Keyemission sources of carbon dioxide include theproduction processes of cement, lime, urea, iron andsteel, and calcium carbide used in acetyleneproduction. These are the major sources ofgreenhouse gas emissions from industrial processesin Myanmar. The total CO2 emissions from theindustrial processes in Myanmar were estimated at248.59 Gg in 2000.

Therestof the emissions arosefromglass production,urea production and carbide used for acetyleneproduction. CO2 emissions from cement productionhad a dominant share at 82 percent, the productionof lime, iron&steelandproductionofglassandotherscontributed 12 percent, 2 percent, 1 percent, 3percent, respectively.

Agriculture sector constraints and needsChemical-based,conventionalsystemsofagriculturalproduction have created many sources of pollutionthat cancontribute to degradation of the environmentand destructionof natural resource base.The misusesandexcessiveuseofchemical fertilizersandpesticideshave often adversely affected the environment andcreated many problems associated with (a) foodsecurityandqualityand (b) humanand animal health.Furthermore, the production of methane from paddyfields and ruminant animals and of CO2 from theburningoffossilsfuels, landclearingandorganicmatterdecomposition have been linked to global warmingas ‘GHG’ (e.g., CH4, N2O, and CO2).


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The major challenge is to promote a balanced andefficient use of plant nutrients from both organic andinorganic sources at farm and community levels tointensifyagriculture insustainablemanner.

Livestock sector constraints and needsAmongdomesticated livestock, ruminantanimalsarethe majoremitters of methane becauseof theiruniquedigestive system. Ruminantanimals possess a rumenor large fore-stomach in which bacteria reside andenteric fermentation occurs. As part of thisfermentation, the microbes break down the feed intovolatile fattyacidsandotherproducts that theruminantanimals canabsorband use tomaintain bodyfunctionand grow. This process enables ruminants to digestcoarse plant materials that non-ruminants includinghumans, cannot digest. Because of this rumenfermentation, ruminant animals have the highestmethane emissions amongall animal types.

Based on data availabilityand the importance of theemission sources, methods were determined forcalculatingmethaneandnitrousoxideemissions fromanimal manure management systems. IPCC-tier 1method was adopted for swine, cattle, goat/sheep,and chicken. IPCC-tier 2 method was used for theother emission sources. For the emissions inventoryfrom the livestock sector, the Tier 1 method of 2006IPCC guidelines was used for the calculation ofemissions from cattle, buffalo and swine. Since therewere no emissions factors developed in Myanmar,the default emission factors of the 2006-IPCCguidelines were applied.

Waste sector constraints and needsGHG inventory for the waste sector mainlyincludes methane emissions from Municipal SolidWaste (MSW) and domestic & industrialwastewater. In rural areas and small towns, thereis no systematic collection of waste and it isunexpected (haphazard).As anaerobic conditionsdo not develop, no methane is generated in theseareas. However, in urban towns, solid waste isdisposed by land filling in low-lying areas located

in sub-urban areas. Due to filling of waste overthe years, anaerobic conditions develop and hencethese dumping sites generate large amount ofmethane.


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In most developing countries , industrial waste isincluded in MSW stream, it is difficult to obtaindata of the industrial wastes separately. Only asmall number of countries has comprehensivewaste data covering all waste types and treatmenttechniques .Also very few countries have data onhistorical waste disposal late several decades. InMyanmar , such data cannot be achieved and sodefault data has to be used.

Land use, land use change andforestry sector constraints and needsExtensive environmental damages resulting mainlyfrom both over-logging and land use change havebeen frequentlyobserved in Myanmar, and virtuallyvery few forested hilltops remain in the region.Deforestation on hilltops causes severe soil erosion,which again, makes the siltation and sedimentationhappen in the lowland areas, e.g. in the reservoirs,dams and delta regions, through downstream flow.Improper land uses, such as cultivation on steepslopes, shifting cultivation without proper fallowperiods and overgrazing have led to the degradationof forests. Besides, commercial oil palm and rubberplantationsareoneof themaincausesofdeforestationin some parts of Myanmar.

In situations in which population pressure leads toreduce fallow period cycles, shifting cultivation canbecome a major cause of forest depletion anddegradation threateningthesustainabilityof the forestestate and forest resources. The changes in land usetake place in response to various underlying factors,includingpopulationgrowth,economicdevelopmentand poverty.The deforestation problem arises partlyfrom the expansion of human activities in forestedareas and partly from land use mismanagement.Firewoodcollectioncontributesmuchto thedepletionof treecover, especiallyin localities,whichare lightlywooded. According to FAO/UNEP-estimation(1981), fuel wood, including wood for charcoal,accounts for 88% of the round wood removal intropicalAsia.

2012

Table 13.1: Carbon emissions from forest andgrassland conversion during 1990

Overgrazing is another important factor in thedegradation of forests, mainly of open forests. Theproblem is particularly acute in areas where forestsare often the only places where livestock can findvegetation forgrazing. Inaddition to thedamagedoneto the vegetation cover, trampling by livestockhardens the soils, prevents wood regeneration andpromotes soil erosion.

Shiftingcultivationpractice, inwhichoriginal forestsare cut and burnt, emits carbon into the atmosphere.

MyanmarSelectionSystemoffers a great advantageinreducingcarbonemissionbecauseit limitsminimumgirths for teak and hardwood for harvest preventingsevere destruction and losses of existing primaryforests that serve as natural carbon sink.

Countrywide, annual deforestation has beenestimatedapproximatelyat 0.3%,onlyslightlyabovethe global average. Forest losses are greatest in themangrove forests of theAyeyarwadydelta,where asmuch as 20% of mangrove forests disappeared inonly 10 years.Agricultural expansion is driven byhuman population growth, and its effects on naturalhabitats areexacerbatedbythe lackofcomprehensiveland use policies and planning. Themost importanttypes of changes in land use to record are in thebalance between forest, dry land agriculture, andirrigatedagriculture.Rain-fedagriculture,grazinganddegradedlandsarelikelytohavelargerlevelsofrainfall

runoff thanirrigated land,whichgenerallyhas inward-sloping terraces that accumulate water. Likewise,well-managed forests reducepeak flowsat themicro-and lowermeso-scale.

The expansionofagriculture, forest exploitation andpopulation growth are causingmuch environmentaldegradation.Within uplandwatersheds and below,landslides and floods inflict much loss of life anddamage to property and infrastructure. Damconstructioncan inundateriverinehabitats up-stream,and alter seasonal flow regimes and naturalsedimentation processes downstream.Mining forgold,gemsandotherminerals is anothermajor sourceofpollution inMyanmar.

Very few studies on carbon absorption capacity ofnatural forest havebeen conducted. Species-specificand ecological zone-specific data are still lacking.There are some reliable data of carbon absorptioncapacity of forest plantations in Myanmar. Mostconventional inventory data emphasized on thecommercial volume of the timber species(dbh>20cm). Thus, the drymatter (biomass)-basedinventories forplanted species shouldbe carriedout.

Substantial areaof deforestationwas encountered inMyanmar but the deforested area bydifferent causesand land use change pattern cannot be traced.Inventoryactivitieswith newapproaches to addressthe deforestation, its causes and land use changesshouldbe conducted. Forest fires are common indryseasonofMyanmar.However,most are surface firesand the litter (leaves and small twigs) are consumedduringforest fires.Actualbiomassburningtakesplaceduring land use change (shifting cultivation, landclearing, etc.). Reliable data on types of fire, actualareaburnt annuallyandemissionofgreenhousegasesare still lacking.

Satellite images and related skills are essential forinventories. Different sectors and stakeholders(Forestry,Agriculture,Mining)havebeenconductingmany inventory activities, but information sharingbetween different sectors is crucial to make thenational GHG inventory comprehensive andcoordinated.

Source/Sink ktC

Quantity of biomass burned onsite and off site (Total)

on site 7,916

off site 7,416

Carbon released from decay ofabove ground biomass 1,184

Carbon released from soil 8,240

Total annual carbon releasefrom the forest and

grassland conversion17,340

Source/Sink ktC

Quantity of biomass burned onsite and off site (Total)

on site 7,916

off site 7,416

Carbon released from decay ofabove ground biomass 1,184

Carbon released from soil 8,240

Total annual carbon releasefrom the forest and

grassland conversion17,340


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13.3. Financial Needs

Financial resources for climate change outreachprograms and activities are needed in Myanmar atpresent.As a developing country, Myanmar needsadequateandcontinuousfinancial assistancefromthedeveloped nations for long-term research projectson climate change. Myanmar’s contribution to themitigation ofand adaptation to global climate changecertainly depends to a great extent on transfer oftechnologies and capacity building, as well as onfunding support from international governments,NGOs and donor agencies.

Developing countries require substantial financialassistancefor adaptation, technologycooperation andmitigation. It is crucial to simplify access to thediversity of international funding sources, verticalfunds, and investment opportunities, which pose aheavyburdenondevelopingcountries thatareseekingtoenhancenationaldevelopment throughinternationalfinancing.

Due to financial resources so far, not much has beendone in Myanmar to raise the public awareness onclimate change issues.

Addressing climate change will require significantchanges in the patterns of investment and financialflows. It mayneed to redirect investments and flowsfrom all sources to more sustainable climate-friendlyalternatives suchas scaling-upof internationalprivateand public finance dedicated to investment inmitigationoradaptationactivitiesor technologies, andoptimizing the allocation of the funds available byspreading the risk across privateandpublic investors.The UN system has an important role to play insupporting and enabling developing countries toparticipate in the carbon market and benefit from itsenormous potential as well as prepare for futurefunding opportunities to catalyze climate action.Myanmar should tryto get financial support from theUN to address climate change in a number of criticalareas includingthe following.

Support for access to financing bydeveloping countries

Strengtheningnationalcapacityindevelopingcountries to assess investment and financial

flows to address climate change; creating anonline interface to assist developers ofadaptationprograms in screening, identifyingandaccessingadaptationfunding;casestudiesto help emerging economies assess the costsand benefits of less carbon-intensive options,examine financing sources and mechanismsand identifycandidateprojectsandprograms;case studies to help developing countriesparticularly vulnerable to climate change,assess the risks posed by climate change,design better strategies to adapt andunderstand the cost involved; developmentof technical methodologies/tools and datacollection for specific sectors that facilitatedeveloping countries’ access to financialresources byhelpingthem to meet eligibility/verification criteria of financial mechanisms(e.g. agriculture andforestry, energyoptions);assistance to countries in combining/sequencingGEF resources for policychangeand leveraging new sources of finance.

Support for development and access tocarbon markets

Developing the capacity of low-incomecountries to access the CDM through theNairobi Framework; assisting developingcountries in leveraging carbon finance forclean energy development and sustainableland use practices; exploring a number ofavenues to deepen the reach of carbonfinance tosupport long-term,climate-friendlyinvestments (CarbonPartnershipFacility)andharnessnewcarbonfinancepotentials (ForestCarbon Partnership Facility); linking large-scale ongoing tree planting and afforestationprograms in developing countries to carboncredit schemes.

Support to leverage private sectorinvestment in activities addressingclimate change

Facilitating finance sector engagement inclimate mitigation by building financiercapacity and awareness, lowering the costsand barriers of initial transactions, andsupporting the development of new financialproducts that accelerate adoption of climate


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technologies and markets; equippingfinanciers with the tools, support, and globalnetwork; workingwith municipalities, smalland medium enterprises and other localstakeholders to broaden public- privatepartnerships and engage new actors.

Support to leverage finance for energyefficiency and renewable energy

Mobilizing funds for greater energy accessand security, energy efficiency and cleanenergy development projects in over 100countries; improvingeffectiveness of publicfinancing in catalysing sustainable energysector growth; facilitating regionalcooperation on energyefficiencyfor climatechangemitigation.

Support to pilot innovative sources offinance and market mechanisms

Development of a voluntary globalfinancial mechanism/portfolio approach/forestfinancing framework for all types of foreststo support the implementation of the Non-Legally Binding Instrument onAll Types ofForests and the achievement of the GlobalObjectives on Forests; support of efforts tocustomize new insurance and re-insuranceproducts for catastrophic and climate-relatedrisks and expand their reach; promotion ofPayment for Environmental Services as anincentive forcarbon sequestration/mitigationat thecommunitylevel.

Mobilize new and innovativeconcessional finance

A new Climate Investment Funds (CIF)portfoliowithanexpectedcapitalizationofaboutUS$ 6 billion, to build on progress made bymany of the developing countries, with theobjectives of scaling up investments in low-carbon technologies, and supporting variousprograms to test innovative approaches toclimateaction,includingforadaptation,forestryandrenewableenergy.

Project concept notes on GHG mitigation andadaptation projects for financingMyanmar, as a developing country, is under noobligation to quantified reduction or limitation ofgreenhouse gas emission. However, Myanmar hasmade positive contributions to relieving the increaseof greenhouse gas emission and protecting globalclimatebyadjustingitseconomicstructure, improvingits energy efficiency, developing and usinghydropower and other renewable energy.

Myanmar’s forest sector plays an important role inGHG emission/reduction processes - partlybecausethe forests can be carbon sinks if properlymanaged,and partlybecause the forests can be source of GHGemissionsdue todeforestation.Developedmitigationstrategies aim at reducing carbon emission andincreasingcarbon sequestration in the forestrysectorof Myanmar. Both short-term and long-termconsiderations are taken into account to determinethe effective mitigation strategies to achieve thesustainablecarbonsequestrationandsocio-economicresponses.

Diverting unwanted agricultural residues to becomeenergy resource supplements for use in agriculturalproduction would reduce demand pressures onenergysources available in the country.

Most of the livestock farmers only focus on low-profile feedingstrategies, and the nutritional status oflivestock especiallyfor dairycattle are usuallygivenonly sub-maintenance ration when they are in dryperiod.

Expandingurbanizationand growth in thenumberofprivate vehicles have degraded air quality due tosmokeandgasemissions, includingoxidesofnitrogenand carbon. Knowledge of different options in theenergy balance within the transport sector and theirrelationship to the overall energy balance in thecountrywill assist in the formulation of policies andstrategies for achieving sustainable energydevelopment. The most important actions tomitigateGHG emissions during the period (2000-2030) areeconomic and effective use of energy and use ofrenewable energy.


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In Myanmar,most of the municipal waste was buriedin landfills and some amount of landfills increased tocreate urban land. Allocation of waste treatmentexpenses to the waste producers (volume-basedwastefeesystem),efficientmanagementoffoodwasteand food waste policies for minimizing waste areneeded.

Since the national inventories of GHGs indicate thatthe energy, forestry, land-use and agriculture sectorsdominate the GHG emissions in Myanmar, theidentification and analyses of mitigation options andabatement projects are focused on these sectors.Based on the year 2000 GHG inventory, fifteenabatement project profiles on GHG mitigation andadaptation are identified in Myanmar. (seeAnnex I)

13.4. Technical Needs: Mitigation &Adaptation

Technology needs for mitigation of climatechange

Updated and improved cost-effective mitigationoptions assessment for CO2, N2O, CH4, and newassessment of mitigation options for CO, NOx,NMVC(Non-Methane Volatile Compound), SO2,HFCs, PFCs and SF6 for the year 2000, includingappropriatemitigation technologies,are needed.Lackof legal and economic instruments for mitigationmeasures, lack of a national strategy for GHGmitigation,andlackoftechnicalcapacityinquantitativemitigation options analysis, including application ofrelevant methodologies as well as capacity-buildingare undoubtedly obvious. Technical capacity toeffectivelyintegrate V&A assessment and mitigationoptions analysis into sustainable developmentprograms, and hence to develop national adaptationandmitigationprogramsofactionisstill lacking.UndertheALGAS project, a number of mitigation optionshave been identified for GHG emission reduction inthe followingsectors: energy,agriculture and landuseand forestry,but largelyina rather qualitative manner.

Technology needs for adaptation to climatechangeLack of cost-effective analysis of various adaptationoptions, including adaptation technologies, lack of

national strategy and action plan for adaptation toclimate change and its related disaster prevention,preparedness and management and lack of localexpertise in the field of vulnerabilityand adaptation(V&A) assessment and integrated assessment(including assessment modeling) are the same as inthemitigation.StudiesonthevulnerabilityofMyanmartoclimatechangehadnotbeenundertakenpreviously,and hence adaptation strategy or action plans hadnot been developed.

RecognizingthatlittleworkhasbeendoneinMyanmartoconductvulnerabilityassessment,allselectedpriorityareaswill requireparticipatoryrapidappraisals (PRAs)withtheaimofcollectinginformationonvulnerabilitiesto climatechange, copingmeasures currentlyin placeandpossibleadaptationmeasures.Theobjectiveof thePRA will be to identifyvulnerabilityto the impacts ofclimate change, coping measures and adaptation toclimatechangeandcriteriaforselectingprioritycopingandadaptationactivities, specificallyon thefollowingsectors: water resources, coastal zones, agriculture,forests,biodiversity,energy,transport,industryandpublichealth.

Adaptation measures that can be considered includeinstallationofbetterstoragefacilities,drought resistantcrops, effective pest and disease control programs,and generally improved agronomic practices. Othercoping options that maybe appropriate for Myanmarare: improvedirrigationefficiency;cropdiversification,improvement in agricultural extension services; andresearch and development on new drought-resistantcrops. Cost-effective technological and policyadaptation measures that are appropriate to Myanmarshould be identified. The barriers for the adoptionand implementationof these measures shouldalso behighlighted.

Policies onclimate change adaptation arestill neededto be addressed. Progress in the field of climatechange related assessments is insufficient to obtainup-to-date situation in many aspects. There is aninadequateanalysisof existingdata bylocal expertise,such as climate variation due to ENSO event.


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Inadequate computersandinternet access, inadequateinformationnetworking, limited internet facility(bothwithinandoutsidethecountry), limitedclimatechangerelated information to function as a clearing house,and limited practice of sharing information amongdepartmentalpersonnel aremost commonlyobvious.Insufficient training, informationandlackofexperienceon ESTIS (EnvironmentallySoundTechnologies onInformationSystem)arealsoconstraints inthis regard.

The hydro-meteorological data sets provide a long-term baseline against which the impact of change inland use and land management on water qualityandquantitycanbe measured. This is an important sourceof information for understanding the impact ofprocesses and of changes in these processes. Thisinformation reinforcesmuchof theknowledgealreadyavailable on the intensityand distribution of rainfall.Such information is useful for other researchers, inparticular, for understanding issues related to globalclimate change.

Assessment on the development and transfer ofenvironmentallysound technologies (ESTs) has beeninitiated in Myanmar and the assessment on theResearch and Systematic Observation should bepromoted.

Traditional water management system can no longermeet the requirements of the market economy.Thus,watermanagementsystem,includingtheestablishmentof a high-level national agency for water resourcesmanagement has alreadybeen formed. The availableinformation on adverse effects of climate change inMyanmar could be compiled, synthesized andanalyzed, including trendanalysis in temperature andprecipitation patterns as well as sea-level rise andfrequency of extreme weather events.

Research by the Department of Meteorology andHydrology shows that climate change has affectedthe onset and the duration of monsoon rainfall, andthis wouldhave significant implications for the waterresources of Myanmar. In addition, the melting ofHimalayan glaciers would affect the future watersupply to the rivers: Ayeyarwady, Chindwin andThanlwin. The impacts of climate change on waterresources and its associated impacts should be

assessedinanintegratedmanner.Adaptationmeasuresfor water scarcity and drought include water supplyand demand management, improved watershedmanagement, water conservation and increasedstorage of water. The proposed NAPAwill reviewrecommended adaptation measures and suggestpriorityoptions for near-term implementation.

To enhance the systematic observation and researchactivities, technical/ financial/ expertise support willbe certainly necessary from various international/regionalorganizations.

Myanmar needs to replace the existing conventionalinstrumentswiththeautomatic/digitaloneswhichwillsignificantlyreducemanualoperation, andassessmentof data will be carried out and transmitted to targetedpointsoncontrolbuttons.Humancapacitydevelopmentneeds simultaneous undertaking so that the usualinformationofWMO/IPCCstandardmaybefollowedinnotime.Climatechangeinformationnetworkshouldbestrengthenednationally/regionallyandinternationally.Thismaybeachieved phase byphase.

Researchworksof climatechangewillbe particularlyfocused on El Nino–Southern Oscillation (ENSO),tropical stormsandassociatedhazardsanddroughts inMyanmar. Cross-cutting issues of climate impacts onvarious key national economic sectors, such asagriculture, forest, health, fisheries, energy, transport,universitiesandrelatedagenciesnecessitatestrengtheninghumanresourcesin theseareas.

Myanmarhassignedsome30internationalandregionalenvironmental treaties andconventions, including thefollowing:

(i) Vienna Convention for the Protection of theOzone Layer (1985) (ratified on 24November 1993);

(ii) Montreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete the Ozone Layer (1987) (ratified on24 November 1993) and its LondonAmendment (1990) (ratified on 24November 1993);

(iii) United Nations Framework Convention onClimate Change (UNFCCC) (ratified on 25


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agreements, includingtheUNFCCC,areprominentbarriers.

Human capacity and climate change informationnetwork shouldbe strengthened nationally/regionallyand internationally. Capacity development in theDepartment of Meteorology and Hydrology,universities and related institutions in the context ofclimate change is urgentlyneeded.

Training needs for the development ofgreenhouse gases inventoryCapacitybuilding in IPCC- methodologies for GHG-inventoryis still verymuch needed. It is also urgentlyneeded in V&A assessment, including training onrelevant methodologies. Limited human andinstitutional capacities in assessing, evaluating andverifyingESTs,andinadequatehumanandinstitutionalcapacities inclimatedatamonitoringareevident.Apartfrom some experiences gained from the participationin the ALGAS project on GHG-inventory andmitigationoptionsanalysis,Myanmarhasverylimitedhuman, scientific, technical, technological,organizational, institutional and resource capabilitiesthat the countryrequires to fulfill its commitments tothe Convention.

The following needs for capacitybuildinghave beenidentified during the informal stakeholders’consultationmeeting:

There is a need for a continuing training andcapacitybuilding program that covers allmajor aspects relating to climate change ateducational, scientific, technical,technological (mitigation &adaptation),legal and policylevels, both nationallyandlocally;

Regular participation in regional andinternational forumsto share informationand experiences;

Training inV&Aassessment in thefollowingsectors: coastal zone(includingtidal movement and sea levelmeasurements), marine resources and coralreefs, forestry, agriculture and wastemanagement;

Capacitybuildingin identifying, evaluatingand verifying appropriate andenvironmentallysound technologies;

November 1994) and its Kyoto Protocol(acceded on 13August 2003);

(iv) Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)(ratifiedon25November1994)andBiosafetyProtocol (signed on 11 May2001);

(v) United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification(UNCCD)(ratifiedon2January1997);

(vi) StockholmConventiononPersistentOrganicPollutants (accededon18April2004);

(vii)Convention for International Trade inEndangered Species ofWild Fauna andFlora(acceded on 13 June 1997);

(viii)TheConventionfortheProtectionoftheWorldCulture and Natural Heritage (1972) (ratifiedon 29April 1994);

(ix) UnitedNationsConventionon the Lawof theSea (ratified on 21 May1996);

(x) InternationalTropicalTimberAgreement(ITTA)(ratifiedon31January1996);

(xi) ASEANAgreementonTransboundaryHazePollution (ratified on 13 March 2003) (theAgreemententeredintoforceon25November2003); Myanmar has participated in theNational Performance Assessment andStrategic Environment Framework (SEF II)of Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS)projectincollaborationwithADB,GEF,UNEP,IGESandNIES.TheSEFIIproject, initiatedin2003,aimstopromotesustainabledevelopmentintheGMS through the creation of national andsubregional environmental performanceassessment system,aswell asdevelopmentofnational and subregional capacities forimplementingsuchassessment.

13.5. Needs for Capacity Building

An overview of capacity needsLimitedcapacityatalllevels(human,scientific,technical,technological,organizational, institutionalandresourcecapabilities) relating toclimate change issues, limitedcapacity in climatechangenegotiation,limitedcapacityin preparation of climate change projects for bilateralandmultilateralfunding,limitedcapacityinassessingtheimpacts ofboth technological and policymeasures formitigationandadaptation,andlimitedcapacityineffectiveimplementationofvariousmultilateral environmental


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Capacitybuilding in assessment of theimpacts of both technological and policymeasures for mitigation and adaptation;

Training of legal officers and policymakers; Improvementininternationalnegotiationskills;

Initiating programs of school education andpublic awareness on climate changeThere are a few of outreach materials (especially inMyanmar language) on climate change issues fordifferent target groups (general public, community,especially for children and young people, policy-makers and private sector). The need to introduce orstrengthen climate change science at the primary,secondary and post- secondary levels and throughnon-formalpubliceducation.Inschool leveleducation,it is preferable to integrate environmental issues intoexistingsubjects inthecurricula, ratherthanattemptingto introduce environment as a separate subject.

Diagrams and illustrations should be considerablyimproved, both in qualityand quantity, especially inthe text books prescribed for the primary and lowersecondary levels. Learning materials other than textbooks, such as handbooks, supplementary readers’and audio-visual aids need to be prepared for schoolteaching programs. Findings of climate changeresearchcarriedout inuniversitiesandotherinstitutionsneed to be continuallymade available in appropriateform for use byschoolteachers.

It isdesirable for practical activitiesonclimatechangeand environmental studies to be based as far aspossible on traditional conservation practices, and toinvolve interaction of schoolchildren with localvillagers so that theycan understand the issues.Publiceducation, awareness, and training programs need tobe conducted on a large scale throughout the countrywith particular emphasis on areas of critical concernsuch as pollution, natural resources depletion andglobal climate change.

Formulation of the communication networkamong researchers, institutions and policymakersClimatechangepolicy, strategyand programs,as wellas the integration of this policy and strategy intosustainabledevelopmentareneeded.Althoughthereare

some public awareness activities on climate changeissues,includingclimate-induceddisasterpreparedness,itisaneedtostrengthencommunityeducationonclimatechange anddisasterpreparedness.

Enforcement of policymeasures to integrate climatechange concerns into national long-term socio-economic and environmental planning is imperative.The ex-sectoral policyconflicts often occur becauseof inadequate consultation between responsibleagencies although these policies have significantinterfaces. Adequate consultation between theconcerned sectors for the harmonization of ex-sectoralpolicies iscritical.Admittedly,communicationnetwork among researchers, various institutions andpolicymakers is essential.

There is also a lack of a need-based working systemas a strong and demanding unit which could ensurelinkages between land use capability, land carryingcapacities, resource production, forest industries andmarketing and integration of the forestrysector withallother relatedsectorsof theeconomyso that forestryplanning would contribute effectively to the overallplanning process of the Government. Institutionalweaknessesneedingpriorityattention includestrategicplanning and policyanalysis, resource management,environmental impact assessment, biological andeconomic research, forestry extension andestablishment of inter-sectoral linkages.

Buildingupofacriticalmassofhumanresourceswithrequired skills, therefore, is a basic need for anyprogressintheinstitutionalframework.TheformulatedNationalEnvironmentalPolicyhaselevated theprofileof environmental consideration in the country. ThePolicy calls for harmony and balance betweenenvironmentanddevelopment throughthe integrationof environmental considerations into developmentprocess and it forms the basis for developingenvironmental strategies, programs and plans.Moreover,MyanmarhaspromulgatedEnvironmentalConservation Law in 2012.

Climate change is a sustainable development issuethat links to all socio-economic and environmentalsectors. Myanmar has undertaken a few activitiesrelating to other Multilateral EnvironmentalAgreements (MEAs). Although Myanmar hasprepared its national Agenda 21, the issue on the

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integrationofclimatechangeconcerns intosustainabledevelopment plans and programs still remains to beaddressed effectively. Indeed, the public awarenesson climate change in the country is low at all levels.Access toand the use of information technologysuchasinternetwillbeessential toensureefficientexchangeand sharing of information both within and outsidethe country. Information networking is an importantactivity in anyproject cycle.

13.6. Activities for Overcoming Gaps

Attemptshavebeenmade toestimateGHGemissionsfrom slash and burn, especially in rural areas for theyear 2000. Both the reference and the sectoral(bottom-up) approaches were used to estimate CO2fuel combustion emissions as recommended by theGuidelines.

The activity data of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride(SF6 ), which are controlled by the Kyoto Protocol,have also been collected for the same base yearwhereavailable.An improvedfactorofCO2 emission/sink from/to soils in Land-Use Change and Forestryin the region with similar conditions to Myanmar hasbeen assessed and identified, as well as methaneemission factor from rice fields andagricultural soils,withaviewtoreducingtheuncertaintiesandenhancingthe data quality in these sources and sinks.

As far as capacity-building is concerned, it would beappropriate to maximize the synergies forimplementing the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) andother global environmental agreements, such asConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)andUnitedNations Convention to Combat Desertification(UNCCD). The National Capacity Needs Self-Assessment for Global Environmental management(NCSA) project would provide a good basis for suchsynergies. In addition, a Capacity-Building Strategythathighlights the prioritiesand options, including thedevelopment of South-South capacity buildingprograms,willbedeveloped.

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Chapter 14

Conclusions and Recommendations

Systematic observations of the climatic andhydrological data collected at 162 observatorystations set up across the country by DMH havedisclosedthat theclimatechangehasbecomeapparentin Myanmar since year 1977: the areas with higherlatitudes in northern and central parts of the countryhave experienced a trend of change from warming tocooling starting from 1977; there has been a generalwarming trend of mean annual temperatures in thewhole countrysince 1979; the annual precipitationsin most of the Regions and States have decreasingtrend; coastal areas have been hit bycyclones everyyear since 2002 (except 2005); onset of southwestmonsoon has become late and its withdrawal early.In consequence, the country has been facingincreasingly the adverse impacts of climate changeyear by year.

Myanmar is still rich in natural resources. However,manyhave been depleting, due to exploitation in anunsustainable manner. To make the situation worse,the adverse impacts of the climate change speed upthe resource depletion and disrupt the livelihoods ofthe grassroots poor, farmers in particular, who aredependent on agriculture, fisheries, livestock andforestry all of which are very vulnerable to climateextremes. The Cyclone Nargis in 2008 has verywelldemonstrated how vulnerable the country and thepeople are to the effects of the climate change.

Myanmar has proved more than being a carbon sinknation, with a net removal of 67,863 Gg CO2e in2000, which had been made possible by the vastforest resources. Thus, it is of vital importance thatthe forest resources, the only source of carbon sinkand reservoir, are sustainably managed in order notto reverse the current trend of the carbon flow.

During the recent decades, in the process ofdeveloping national economyfollowing the market-oriented economic system, the Government ofMyanmar has accomplished a sizeable number ofmeasures contributing tomitigationof andadaptationtoclimate change, like promoting re-afforestation andforest conservation programs, encouragingconservation agriculture, improving livestock

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management , fuel switchingfrompetroleumtoCNG,rapidly developing renewable energy sources suchas hydro-, solar- and wind- powers. Still, a lot moreremain to be done in the face of the changing climate.To successfullyaddress this issue thereare limitationstoovercomein termsof finance,facilities, institutions,human capacities, public education and awareness.

To ensure the national socio-economic developmentcontinueundisturbed, the followingrecommendationhave been identified, based on the findings of thethematicgroupsinvolvedin theINCproject, for timelyimplementation inorder toaddress theclimatechangeconcerns that are happening and projected to happenin the Republic of the Union of Myanmar:

Energy and Transport

1. Energy efficiency and conservation, andincreaseduseoflessenergyintensiveproductsshould be promoted.

2. Environmentalstandardsforenergyefficiencyshould be set and efficiency grades labeledon products.

3. Development of renewable energyresourcessuch as hydropower, biomass, and wind andsolar powers should be encouraged.

4. To reduce GHG emission from the transportsector, maintenance of good road networksand fuel switching from petroleum to CNGshould be expedited and CNG pipelines andstations expanded.

5. Gasification from rice husk, saw dust,agricultural residues and wastes should beencouraged.

6. Development of alternative fuels andincreased use of energy efficient cookingstoves are to be highly prioritized to reducethe need for wood-fuel.

Chapter 14 Conclusions and Recommendation

2012 Chapter 14 Conclusions and Recommendation

7. Tap all potential power sources includingrenewable energy for increased powergenerationandutilization.

8. Bio-energy production from all availablesources should be promoted withoutcompromising food securityand viabilityofforests and soils.

9. Upgrade existing power-generation andtransmissionsystems.

10. Improve roads and road networks, trafficdemand management and all transportmodes.

11. Makeallpublic transportsmoreattractiveandaffordable.

12. Light-emitting diodesshould be increasinglyusedfor traffic lighting.

13. Energyaudit should be performed

14. Raise public awareness on GHG emissionreduction and energyconservation.

15. Buildinstitutionalcapacitytomonitorambientair quality.


1. Power supply from the national grid shouldbe continuous and reliable.

2. Industrial zones should introduce GHGemission reduction measures such asinstallationofindividualorcentralwastewatertreatment system, replacement of fossil-fuelengines with low-carbon fuel engines intransportation vehicles.

3. Industries should have improved access toupdated EST information so as to help theindustries identifythetechnologiesmostsuitedto them

4. Theboilers,ventilationsystem, factorylayoutand waste disposablesystem in manyfactoryand plants should be substantiallyupgraded.

5. Renewable energyresources, efficiencyandconservation in energyuse, fuel switching toCNG, cost-effective EST and good house-keeping practices in industries and buildingsare to be improved.

6. Eco-housing and eco-transportation to saveenergy and raw materials initiated by theprivate sector should be encouraged.

7. Sethighenergyefficiencyandenvironmentalstandards. Conduct at each industryEfficiencyAudit andprovidegreen labelsandtax benefitsto the industry and the productthat meet the set standards.

8. Further promote the use of CNG, LPG andrenewable energies byproviding incentives.

9. Introduce energy-saving and process-specific technologies.

10. Initiate the development of carbon captureand storage for energy-intensive plants.

11. Implement energy-saving regulations andimproved energymanagement systems.

12. Construct buildings with designs to increasecross ventilation, prevent direct sunlight inthe afternoon and reduce heat gains withshade covers.

13. Advocateextensivelyconservationof energyand utilizationof cleaner energy.

Agriculture and Livestock

Agriculture

1. In rice cultivation , intermitted irrigation withintervals should be conducted rather thancontinuous flooding.

2. Sulfur-containing fertilizers, slow releasenitrogenfertilizers,nitrification inhibitorsandgypsum should be used instead of urea tomitigate CH4 emission without affectingyields.

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3. The selection of high yielding rice cultivarswith low CH4emission potential could be apromisingstrategyto mitigate CH4 emission.

4. Compost making and organic agricultureshould be encouraged to reduce GHGemissions frombiomassburningin the fields.

5. Tillage should be reduced and crop rotationpracticed in rice fields.

6. “Conservation Agriculture”, “SlopingAgricultural Land Technology” and otherclimatefriendlyadvancedtechnologiesshouldbe promoted.

7. Water, crop and crop residue managementshould be improved.

8. Organic farmingandbio-fertilizer use shouldbe promoted and the use of chemicalfertilizers reduced.

9. Fertilizers and pesticides must be appliedproperly.

10.Farm management including post-harvest,processing and storage needs improvement.

11. High-quality and stress-resistant plantvarieties shouldbeused and climate-resilientagriculture ensured.

12. Water impoundment systems should beexpanded through clusters of smaller dams,ponds, lakes and rain water collections.

13. Dry-land agricultural technologies should bepromoted.

14. More investment is recommended tostrengthen climate risk reduction measures.

Livestock

1. Livestock extension services need to bestrengthened.

2. Supplementary feeding of urea molassesblocks and treatment of straw with urea to

dairy cattle should be promoted to reduceCH4 emissions from enteric fermentation.

3. Access to advanced livestock breedingtechnologies is to be improved.

4. Improved nutritive value and digestibilityofdiet and provision of correct “energy toprotein” ratio in the diet should be ensured inorder to reduce methane emission fromenteric fermentation.

5. Recycling of manure for biogas productionand makingcompost from manure should bepromoted.

6. Improvedgeneticvarietiesandimprovedfeedconversionefficiencyshouldbegiven priorityin livestock farming.

7. Pasture, grassland, and forage and its qualityshould be improved.

8. The use and management of animal waste toharvest producer gas and to use gasification

9. Fermentation-controlmedicine, fermentationstabilizers and micro-organism repressorsshould be added to animal diets.

Land use change and forestry

1. Re-afforestation programs should bestrengthened and the forest ecosystemsmanaged in a sustainable manner.

2. Private sector involvement in establishmentof forest plantation should be encouragedto enhance forest restoration and restoreenvironmentalbalance.

3. Natural forest conservation and managementwith the participation of the private sectorshould be strengthened.

4. Communityforestryshould be widelyadvocated and expanded.


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5. Activities based on CDM, REDD+ projectsand LULUCF projects could be introducedas mitigation measures.

6. EIA and cost-benefit analysis should beconducted prior to anymajor forest land usechanges.

7. Forest fire management should bestrengthened.

8. Environmental awareness on forestconservation and utilization should bepromoted.

9. Integrated land use practice among therelevant sectors should be enhanced.

10. Forest laws and regulations should beenforced more effectively.

Waste

1. Open-dumping sites need to be properlydesigned so that emergence of anaerobiccondition will be checked.

2. Controlled incineration should be encouraged.

3. Toxic and hazardous wastewater fromindustries should be treated properlyto avoidenvironmentalpollution.

4. Waste-to-Energy power plants for wastecombustion in the major cities should beinstalled and operated.

5. Producerresponsibilitysystem,volume-basedwaste fee system or polluter pay systemshould be exercised.

6. Recyclable and reusable materials should beused for packaging.

7. The practice of reducing, recycling andreusing of various items of waste should beencouraged.

8. A database onwaste generation, disposal andtreatment forbothsolidwasteandwastewatershould be created.

9. Biological treatment of organic solid wasteshould be promoted.

10. Waste should be categorized and disposedproperlyat designated landfills.

11. The use of polyethylene plastic bags must bediscouraged.

12. Waste treatment facilities, e.g. landfill,composting and controlled incineratingburning, should be expanded.

13. Market opportunities for recycled wasteproducts should be promoted.

14. Public awareness on proper wastemanagement (generation and disposal)should be raised.

Meteorology and Hydrology

1. The possible extent of water stress and itslikely impact on water availabilityand useshould be studied.

2. The possible impacts of rising temperatureonhumanhealth,agriculture,water resources,etc. should be observed and investigated.

3. Preparation and distribution of user friendlypublic informationon extreme weatherevents should be improved bothqualitativelyandquantitatively.

4. More observing stations should be openedtoensureevendistributionalloverthecountryand to enable to observe climate in remoteand hilly areas. The stations should beequipped with digital sensors andAWOS.

5. Preventive measures against heat stress andwater stress should be undertaken not onlyin El Nino years but also in the preceding andfollowing years of El Nino events.


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6. Multi-hazard Early Warning Center underDMH must be upgraded to ensure the timelyissuance of hazard warnings and bulletins asrequired.

7. Disaster risk reduction should be prioritizedas Myanmar is vulnerable to climate change-related natural disasters.

8. Daily and seasonal weather forecastingshould be strengthened.

Environmentally Sound Technologies

1. Informationonpollutionproblemsarisingfromgaseous wastes, waste water and solidwastes are to be made available throughregularmonitoring.

2. Awareness raisingcampaignsonESTsshouldbe increasingly conducted for industries inboth public and private sectors.

3. Theestablishmentofa user friendlydata basefor EST is essential for the development andtransfer of ESTs to Myanmar public.

4. EST Information System (ESTIS) should beinstalled. Capacity building for ESTIS,particularly on-the-job training must bestrengthended.

Capacity Building

1. Capacities in MOECAF, DMH, universitiesand related institutions concerning climatechange should be enhanced.

2. Human resource development in keyeconomic sectors should be promoted tomanage climate-related cross cutting issuesand their impacts.

3. Training of trainers in the context of climatechange should be carried out from time totime.

4. New generations of climatologists andmeteorologists, agro-meteorologists,

hydrologists, environmentalists, biologists,etc., should be developed.

5. Various environmental organizations shouldbe given opportunities for capacitybuildingto ensure competency to cope with climatechange issues.

6. Public awareness campaigns on climatechange and adaptation strategies should belaunchedfromtimeto time,andNGOsshouldalso be involved in such campaigns.

7. Technical andtechnologicalcapabilities in theuse of ICT should be strengthened in tacklingthe climate change issues, and ICT trainingsshouldbe increasinglyorganized on a regularbasis to update and upgrade the local ICTexperts.

8. Climate-oriented conferences, seminars,workshops and networking as well asnegotiation skills for securing necessaryfinancial and technical support for addressingclimate change issues should be promoted.

9. Technologies and related trainings on globalwarming and climate change issues, such asclean development mechanism (CDM),power generation from renewable energyresources should be identified as the prioritycapacity-building needs.

Institution

1. Basicinfrastructure inindustriesofbothpublicand private should be improved.

2. The existing conventional instruments at theDMH stations must be replaced withautomatic/ digital ones.

3. In order to avoid data loss, it is essential toestablish a centre for data archiving.

4. Data sources on which to base GHGinventoryshouldbestrengthened inorder thatthe GHG estimates are more reliable.


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5. A new ministry should be established tomanage the environmental affairs moreefficientlyandeffectively.

6. A fund raisingmechanism should be createdfor mitigation and adaptation of climatechange issues.

Research and development

1. Demonstration projects and R&D ontechnological innovationshouldbepromoted.

2. Research works on ESTs and alternativefossil fuel -saving technologies should bepromoted with greater investment.

3. Research and development relating tovulnerabilityandadaptation(V&A)toclimatechange has been initiated in the agriculture,livestock, fisheries and health sectors. R&Din these sectors should be promoted.

4. Research activities on climate matters are tobe encouraged and networking should beestablished among higher educationinstitutions.

5. Climate researchshouldparticularlyfocusontheareasofclimatevariability,climatechange,tropical storms,droughtsandEl Nino, ENSOand La Nina in Myanmar.

6. Myanmar should participate in thedevelopment of regional systematicobservation system.

7. Participation of Myanmar researchers andfield staff, including station managers, inregionalandinternational trainingworkshops,seminars, forumsandother relevantmeetingsshould be further promoted.

8. A climate change research centre or aresearch division under a research instituteor attached to a government departmentshould be established to continuouslygenerate competent scientists, conductnational GHG inventories, monitor climate

changeandsuggestmitigationandadaptationmeasures.

Legal framework

1. GHGmitigationstrategiesshouldnothaveanynegative effectson energysecurityandon theadvancement of socio-economicdevelopment of the country.

2. While financial andtechnical support, aswellas incentives will be needed for the widerapplication of the ESTs in the industries, anenvironmental policymayhelp promote thetransfer and application of the ESTs.

3. A National strategic plan of Research andSystematicObservationwithspecial focusonclimate change, tropical storm and droughtshould be developed.

4. Institutional capacity, clear policyguidance,investment strategy and incentive systemshouldbeenhancedtomitigateGHGemissionfrom all sectors.

5. National Land UsePlan should be developedand implemented as a priority.

6. EIA rules and regulations should be enactedas matters of urgency.

Finance

1. Financial support for technologyand humanresource development is in need ofstrengthening.

2. To enhance the systematic observation andresearch activities, technical and financialsupport will be necessary from variousinternational andregional organizations.

3. Financial and technical resources used forpromotingclimatechangeinformationsharingand networking should be considered aspromisinginvestments.

4. Regional and internationalsupports shouldbemobilizedtofinanceclimatechangemitigationand adaptation measures.

2011


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5. Payment for environmental services systemas well as polluter pay system should bedeveloped.

Networking

1. Networking within the country and withrelevant regional and internationalorganizations shouldbe further strengthened.

2. Information exchange among departmentalpersonnel needs to be enhanced.

3. Cooperation with regional, international andUN organizations on climate change mattersshould be promoted.

4. Climate change information networks, beingessential for promoting climate changeinformationexchangeaswellasforenhancingcooperation and coordination among thestakeholders, should be established at alllevels.

MOECAF

1. MOECAF is well placed to undertake thetask of coordinating line ministries andensuring the integration of climate changeconcerns into the national and sectoraldevelopment plans and programs.

2. MOECAF should be strengthened to be abletocoordinateandcooperateamongministriesand agencies for the integration ofenvironment and developmentat all levels.

3. MOECAF should coordinate and managethe EIAprocess in Myanmar. Therefore, itshould be restructured and significantlystrengthened in order to be able to carryout this task.

4. MOECAF should be empowered to ensuretheintegrationandmonitortheimplementationat all levels and in all localities relating toenvironmentalaffairs.

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Abatement Project Profiles on GHG mitigation and adaptation in Myanmar

Project No 1

Project Title: Rural Electrification Through Bio-energy

Project Brief/ Introduction: The proposal is a request for project development support. Funds from thegrant will be used to conduct the necessary pro-investment activities to develop a pilot bioelectricity project.The expected outputs of the project development activities are:(i)an evaluation of resource availability, demand for energy, and manpower availability;(ii)identification of location and size of the pilot project;(iii)assessment of the project GHGs abatement potential;(iv)estimation of both the incremental costs and the total budget for the project;(v)identification of sourcesof baseline funding;(vi)developmentoftheinstitutionalandorganizationalstructuresforplanning,design,implementation,managementand monitoring of the project;(vii)participation of local community, private, and public sector; and(viii)identification of barriers to bio-energyand measures to overcome them.Based on the results of the projectdevelopment activities, a pilot project will be detailed for implementation. It intends to cover five villages in theKachin State ofnorthern Myanmar with a total population of 20,000.The pilot project will contain the followingmajor components:(i)Design and installation of a 1MW bioelectricitysystem.(ii)Formulation of the organizational and institutional arrangements for the operation and management of thesystem.(iii)Monitoringand verificationofGHGs emissions.(iv)Development of the necessary institutional arrangements for the large-scale dissemination of bioelectricitytechnology.(v)Development of sustainable biomass feedstock production.

Project Baseline: The baseline involves the use of diesel oil for power generation and the use of kerosene forresidential lighting.

Project Objectives: The principal goals of the project are to:(i)achieve large scale dissemination of bio-energy technologyfor rural electrification,(ii)reduce GHGs emissions,(iii)install as pilot project a 1 MW bio-energysystem, and(iv)demonstrate the operational and functional viabilityof a bio-energysystem.

Global Environmental Benefits: It is estimated that 1 MWh of bioelectricity substituting for 1 MWh ofelectricitygenerated from a diesel-fired power plant leads to carbon emissions reduction of 0.88-1.3 tonnes ofCO2. Therefore, a 1 MW capacity biomass gasifier system, if operated at 75 percent capacity, can mitigate4,404 – 6,606 tonnes of CO2 annually, and from 132,120 – 198,180 tonnes of CO2 over the expected 30year lifetime of the pilot project. The mitigation potential of bioelectricity as a substitute for kerosene homelighting has not been estimated.

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OtherSocialandEnvironmental Impacts:Additionalenvironmentalbenefitsoftheprojectare the reclamationof degraded land, the protection of valuablewatershed zones, and the conservationof biodiversity. Furthermore,significant employment opportunities will be generated to assist in growingand processing wood, as well as inthe operation and maintenance of the system.

Implementation Plan/ Duration:With project development support, a pilot bioelectricity project will bedesigned for implementation in the Kachin State of Myanmar. With lessons learned from the pilot project andthe establishment of institutional arrangements, a program maybe developed to disseminate the bioelectricitytechnology on a large-scale.

Agency: Ministryof Environmental Conservation and Forestry

Cost: US $ 120,000 for project development support

Source:ALGAS Project Report

Project No 2

Project Title: Dissemination of Biogas Technology for GHGs Emissions Reduction

Project Brief/ Introduction:The full project will promote the use of biogas in rice growing areas of ShanState byinstalling 1,000 biogas plants as a demonstration project in selected villages. The project developmentactivitieswill include:(i)Identification of exact locations for the 1,000 biogas plants that will be constructed.(ii)Preparation ofa technical design packagefor each biogas plant, cookinggas system andelectricitygenerationsystem.(iii)Formulationofaninstitutionalarrangementforproject implementation,operation,managementandmonitoring.(iv)Creation of awareness and training programs for village community members and other potential playerssuch as NGOs and government staff.(v)Preparation of a detailed budget byactivity for the full project and estimation of the incremental costs.(vi)Organization of meetings to bring biogas plant builders and manufacturers together.(vii)Formation of a well defined project proposal for international funding.

Project Baseline:The base line for the biogas project is the continued use of unfermented manure as fertilizerfor rice production, kerosene for lighting, and firewood for cooking.

Project Objectives:The main objectives of the project are to:(i)Demonstrate theadvantageofbiogassludgefertilizerhasoverunfermentedorganicmanurefor riceproductionand methaneemissions reduction.(ii)Substitute fuelwood with biogas as a cooking fuel in order to help reduce deforestation.(iii)Provide decentralized biogas electricity to village communities, substituting for kerosene, thus providing areliable source of electricityand improving the living standards of village people.

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Global environmental benefits: The greenhousegas mitigation potential of biogas sludge fertilizer comparedto unfermented organic fertilizer is 0.072 tonne of methane per ha per year or 1.5 tonnes of CO2 equivalent perha per year.The 1,000 biogas plants will produce biogas sludge fertilizer for 6,000 ha, resulting in 430 tonnesof methane emissions reduction per year or 9,000 tonnes of CO2 equivalent reduction per year. Furthermore,if 70 percent of the biogas generated is used for cooking and 30 percent for lighting, the biogas will replace 22tonnes of fuelwood and 1,500 liters of kerosene per year. This will also lead to carbon emissions reduction byreducing the use of fuelwood and kerosene, as well as conserving forest sinks.

OtherSocialandEnvironmental Impacts: Theuseofbiogaswillbringaboutvarioussocialandenvironmentalbenefits.(i)It will savevaluable foreign exchange for the countryas asubstitute for imported urea fertilizer for agricultureand fossil fuels for cooking and electricity.(ii)It will improve the living standards of rural inhabitants, especiallywomen, due to a shift from fuelwood andkerosene lamps.(iii)Biogas for lightingwill lead tosavings for village communities as it costs less than fossil fuels.(iv)Forests and biodiversity will be conserved due to reduced extraction of fuelwood.(v)Farmers will experience an increase in rice yields and profits.(vi)Local employment will be generated as the biogas industrygrows.

ImplementationPlan/Duration:Adetailedplan includingtheinstitutionalarrangements for theimplementationof 1,000 biogas plants will be developed during the project development phase. With lesson learned from theinitial biogasplants, a full programfor further dissemination ofbiogas plants in Myanmar maybe implemented.6 months for project development activities 3 years for installation of 1,000 biogas plant.

Agencies: Ministryof Environmental Conservation and Forestry& MinistryofAgriculture and Irrigation

Cost: US$ 0.2 million for project development supportUS$ 9.0 million for installation of 1,000 biogas plants

Source: ALGAS Project Report

Project No 3

Project Title: Developing Institutions And Capacity for Inventory of GHGs In Myanmar

ProjectBrief/ Introduction: Theprojectwill form thebasisof anational institutional frameworkforaddressingthe issues of climate change. It will also allow Myanmar to develop the technical and analytical capacity toexplore various least-cost options for reduction of GHGs emissions and to assemble policies aimedat reducingfuture growth in emissions. Most importantly, it will help Myanmar to carry out periodic GHGs emissionsinventories and enable it to report findings to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC). The proposed project includes the following activities:(i)Creation of an institution for monitoringGHGs inventory.

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(ii)Procurement of equipment necessary to carryout monitoring activities.(iii)Trainingof localstaff inmonitoringpractices.(iv)Procurement of external assistance for training purposes.(v)Publishing of inventoryresults on a periodic basis.(vi)Conducting awareness buildingprograms targeting policymakers and the general public.

Project Baseline:The proposed project is a capacitybuilding project, thus establishment of a GHGs emissionsbaseline is not relevant.

Project Objectives: The main goals of the project are to:(i)develop an institution for monitoringand verification of GHGs inventory, and(ii)create the capacity in Myanmar to conduct long-term monitoring and inventoryof GHGs.Further, the specific transport sector goals relating to GHGs inventoryare to:(i)develop the capacity to define and establish motor vehicle emission standards,(ii)improve air qualitystandards in metropolitan cities, and(iii)reduce emissions from vehicles.

Global Environmental Benefits: The CO2 abatement potential of this project is not quantified. Once thenecessary institutions and capacity to measure GHGs are in place, the benefits will be realized in future GHGsmitigationprojects.

Other Social and Environmental Impacts:Successful execution of the project will increase the awarenessof the general public and policymakers about the importance of climate change. The project will also act as ademonstration for other capacitybuilding endeavors in Myanmar.

Implementation Plan/ Duration: The project will establish an international frame work for updating theGHGs inventory.Atraining program will also be conducted to further increase the technical and institutionalcapacity in the country for development of accurate GHGs inventories. Three years for capacity buildingactivities and establishment of institutions to address the issues of climate change.


Cost: US $ 250,000

Source:ALAGAS Project Report

Project No 4

Project Title: Fuel-Efficient Cook stoves And Participatory Forestry for Carbon Emissions ReductionProject Brief/ Introduction: The program consists of three main components:(i)Dissemination of 400,000 improved cookstoves. This component has three parts to its successfulimplementation: (i) a marketing and promotion program; (ii) an information, educational and communication(IEC) program and; (iii) institutional support for government agencies and private sector participants.

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(ii)Reforestation of 20,000ha through communityforestry.Thiscomponent has four parts to its implementation:(i)designofa fuelwoodsupplymasterplan; (ii)preparationofforestmanagementplans invillages; (iii) launchingof the information and education campaign program in villages and; (iv) reforestation of 20,000 ha of land.

(iii)Forest monitoring and assessment of forest vegetation status. This component intends to build the capacityto monitor the status of targeted forests.

Project Baseline: The baseline options for the proposed program components are: (i) the continuedconsumption of 1.4 and 2.5 tonnes of wood a year in inefficient cook stoves in urban and rural households,respectively (Domestic home cooking constitutes approximately 99% of total fuelwood use in the country);and (ii) continued current forestry practices that have led to an average deforestation rate of 220,000 ha perannum (Average deforestation rate in Myanmar from 1975 to 1989).

Project Objectives: The main goal of the program is to achieve forest and forest carbon sink conservationthrough adoption of improved furl-efficient stoves, as well as instituting a more participatory approach to thereforestation of degraded forests than has traditionally been promoted.

Global Environmental Benefits: The estimated abatement potential of the cook stoves component is 1.25million tonnes of carbon in 5 years due to a reduction in the amount of fuelwood needed for the more efficientstoves. The mitigation potential of the forestry component of the program has not yet been estimated.

Other Social and Environmental Impacts: The implementation of program will provide a number of localenvironmental and socioeconomic benefits. The local benefits are:(i)improvement in the qualityof lifeof rural women;(ii)generationofruralemploymentfromreforestationactivities,andthemanufactureanddisseminationofimprovedcooking stoves;(iii)conservation of biodiversity due to reduced pressure on forest;(iv)reclamation degraded land; and(v)strengthening of the capacityof rural communities to better manage natural resources.

Implementation Plan/ Duration: With project development support, the program proposal will be furtherdeveloped. The program mayalso include a pilot project and a monitoring program in the initial stage prior toimplementationof thefullprogram.Fiveyears forcapacitybuildingactivities,disseminationof400,000 improvedcook stoves, and reforestation of 20,000 ha of degraded forest.

Agencies: Ministryof Environmental Conservation and Forestry

Cost:US $ 10 million


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Project No 5

Project Title: Promotion of Liquefied Petroleum Gas Cookers to Replace Electric Cookers

Project Brief/ Introduction: The pilot project is designed to help remove the barriers to LPG cookers inMyanmar through the dissemination of 100,000 LPG cookers. The pilot project will establish a primary LPGstorage station andseveral distribution facilities. The project will also train a corps of personnel in technical andmanagement activities. Further,public awareness and advertisingcampaigns to promote the technologywill beconducted as well.

Project Baseline: The baseline scenario for the project is continued use of electric cookers in the targetedareas.

Project Objectives: The principal goals of the pilot project are to:(i)remove the implementation barriers for the use of LPG as a cooking fuel;(ii)conserve electricityand hence natural gas used in its generation; and(iii)save on resources needed for electricity generation, transmission and distribution facilities and to divertthose resources to other needy sectors of society.

Global Environmental Benefits: It is estimated for every electric cooker replaced by an LPG cooker,approximately 0.24 tonnes of CO2 are abated annually; thus the use 100,000 LPG cookstoves will avoid24,000 tonnes of CO2 emissions per year.

Other Social and Environmental Impacts: Local social and environmental benefits of the use of LPGcookers are; (i)less degradation of the local environment due to reduced requirement for power generation;and(ii)conservation of resources usuallyneeded for electricitygeneration and transmission and distribution.

Implementation Plan/ Duration:Amonitoring and evaluation program will be included in the institutionalarrangement of the pilot project.With lessons learned from the dissemination of initial 100,000 LPG cookers,a full program maybe developed to mainstream LPG cookers in the residential sector. 4 year for disseminationof 100,000 LPG cooker.


Cost: US $ 225,000 for pilot project


Project No 6Project Title: Green House Gas (GHGs) mitigation of bio-energy potential to improve the livelihoodand to attain the energy security of rural communities in Myanmar

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Project Brief/ Introduction:Myanmar, traditionallyagricultural country,basicallyrelied on agricultural sectorhas total land areas of 67.65 million hectares (ha), of which 6 million ha (8.84%) is still available to expand fordifferent crops. Manyfarming systems as crop production produce GHGs mainlyCH4 because of continuousflooding in rice growing, CO2 due to organic matter decomposition and N2O owing to nitrogen fertilizerapplication. The project will consist of:

(i)Evaluate the users’ acceptable bio energyproduction technologies in target areas.(ii)Make awareness of GHGs mitigation measures through participating in bio energy production andutilization along with the effective use of biomass material which is easily available to respective targetregions byorganizingtraining and public demonstration.(iii)Foster national agricultural research and extension system (NARES) and farmers’ perceiving capacityin bio energyproduction and utilization with GHGs mitigation option.

Project Baseline: The baseline involves the use of diesel oil and gasoline for power generation and ruralenergy.

Project Objectives: The overall goal of the project is to improve the livelihood of rural communities througheffective use ofubiquitous biomass materials in accord with bio energyproduction and to attain the rural energysecurityunder adverse environmental scenario due to climate change. The main objectives are:(i)to identify the most feasible bio energy (bio-fuel, bio-gas, bio-mass) production technologies to enhancerural energysecurity.(ii)to foster the capacitybuilding of partners (farmers, researchers, and extension agencies) from institutionallevel, and from private sector involved.

Global Environmental Benefits: One of the function of major global warming potential (GWP) accountedas 25% is brought about by increased facilities of regional mobility.As a consequences, such kinds of GHGscontributors, the climate change impacts could be subjected to impinge on sustainable development of ruralcommunities.

Other Social and Environmental Impacts: Improving public awareness of opportunities associated withbio-energyviaeducationsystem.Allbio-fuelusers, researcherandextensionistwill be trained inGHGsmitigationrelatedbio-fuelproductionandutilization technologies.Reductionincostof firewoodandlightinginfrastructure.Improvingrecyclingofbiomasssoasenhancingpersonalandenvironmentalhygienicandprotectingdeforestation.Reducing GHGs emission and relativelysource rural energysupply.

Implementation Plan/ Duration: 3 years

Agency: Department ofAgriculture Research, MinistryofAgricultural and Irrigation

Cost: US $ 300,000

Source: INC Project GHG Team Report

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Project No 7

Project Title: Bamboo Bio-ethanol production and utilization in rural area

ProjectBrief/ Introduction:Bamboomaterial isorganic matterof high polymer, composed ofcellsof differentshapes and properties. Myanmar has over 100 species, falling under about 17 genera, covering an area ofnearly (7000 sq. miles) 18000 sq. kilometres. Bamboo grows mixed with tree species. Bio ethanol is one kindof the clean energy. Young bamboo (1-3 years) are used as the bio ethanol production raw material. The bioethanol/ clean energy production and utilization technology will be disseminated to the 3 village in Sagaing,Pegu and MandalayDivision which are located near bamboo forest.

Project Baseline:The baseline involves the use of diesel oil and firewood for rural energy.

Project Objectives:To reduce the carbon emission and perform the clean environment through the productionand utilization of bamboo bio ethanol in rural area especially for the area near bamboo forests.

Global Environmental Benefits:Byproduction and utilization of bamboo bio ethanol, it can reduce carbondioxide emission and can perform the clean environment.

Other Social and Environmental Impacts:Bamboo is rich in starch and cellulose content. Bio ethanol canbe produced from the starch and cellulose rich raw materials. Bamboo is one of the most important forestproducts next to timber and has long been utilized bythe human being.

Implementation Plan/ Duration:Duration will be 1 year.

Agency:Forest Research Institute, Ministryof Environmental Conservation and Forestry

Cost: US $ 14,900

Source: INC Project GHG Team ReportProject No 8Project Title: Low Cost Plastic Bio-digester ProposalProject Brief/ Introduction:The project description will consist of:(i)Identificationofvillages;(ii)Awareness raising among the local village community on the advantages of biogas plant in cooking, timesavingforcollectionof fuelwood,usingsludgeas the fertilizerandimprovingthequalityof lifeandenvironment;(iii)ConductingTraining for installation of biogas digesters;(iv)Planning and procumbent of biogas digesters;(v)Installation of biogas digesters;(vi)Operation and maintenance of biogas digesters;(vii)Monitoring and evaluation of the effectiveness of the program.

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Project Baseline:The baseline for the plastic bio-digester project is the continued use of unfermented manureas fertilizer in agriculture sector and fuelwoodfor cooking.

Project Objectives:The biogas digester will be installed in Dryzone and Shan State of Myanmar. Fuel woodfor cooking will be conserved byusing biogas for cooking. Biogas digester producing sludge which can use asfertilizer inAgriculture sector.

Global Environmental Benefits: It will improve air quality, reduce ground water pollution and green housegas emissions and reduce deforestation and resulting soil erosion.

Other Social and Environmental impacts: The use of low cost plastic biogas digester will bring aboutvarious social and environmental benefits. It will improve health and reduce respiratory elements. It will bebetter managementof animal dungandhuman excrement.The slurryprovidesan excellent fertilizerand therebyincreases crop production, or can be sold to generate income.

Implementation Plan/ Duration: The following institutions will be involved in planning, implementation,operation and monitoring.(i)Ministryof Livestock and Fisheries;(ii)Field implementation, Livestock BreedingandVeterinaryDepartment;(iii)Monitoring MyanmarTechnical Expert, Livestock BreedingandVeterinaryDepartment;(iv)Project Coordination and Management, LivestockBreedingandVeterinaryDepartment.Durationfor50,000low cost plastic biogas digester will be installed in 4 years period.

Agency:Livestock Breeding and VeterinaryDepartment, Ministryof Livestock and Fisheries

Cost: US $ 210,000


Project No 9

Project Title: Dissemination of A-1 Fuelwood Improved Cookstoves for GHGs Emission Reduction

Project Brief/ Introduction: The full project will promote the use ofA-1 fuelwood improved cookstoves indry zones and other regions where fuelwood is scare by distributing 100,000 A-1 cookstoves in selectedvillages.The project developmentactivities will include:(i)Identification of exact locations for theA-1 cookstoves manufacturing factories that will be established.(ii)Preparation of a technical design package for each factory.(iii)Creation for awareness for saving of fuelwood and training programs for makingA-1 cook stoves forvillage communitymembers and other potential players such as NGOs and government staff.(iv)Preparation of a detailed budget byactivity for the full project and estimation of the incremental costs.

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(v)Formation of a well-defined project proposal for international funding.Project Baseline:The baseline for the project is the continued use of inefficient wood stoves and the resultinghigh demand for fuelwood from natural forest. Dissemination ofA-1 cookstoves are alreadyaccepted bymostof the fuelwood users.Project Objectives: The main objectives of the project are to:(i)EstablishA-1 cookstoves manufacturing factories at proper places.(ii)DistributeA-1 fuelwood cookstove at free of charge to the villages where fuelwood is scare.(iii)Demonstrate the proper usage and maintenance ofA-1 cookstove in order to extend the service life (life-span) ofA-1 cookstoves.(iv)Give trainings on makingA-1 cookstoves to local potters who are well-versed in pottery.

Global Environmental Benefits: The greenhouse gases (GHGs) mitigation potential of 100,000 A-1cookstoves compared to traditional open-fire stove is 120,736 tonnes CO2 yr-1. Taking the average service-life ofA-1 stove as 3 years, total amount of CO2 which can be reduced by using 100,000A-1 cookstoves willbe about 362,208 tonnes CO2.

Other Social and Environmental Impacts:The saved fuelwood from improved cook stoves will reduceanthropogentic impact on forest resources and the time required by the rural population especiallywomen andgirls in the collection of fuelwood. The local environmental benefits are:(i)improvement in the qualityof lifeof rural women;(ii)generation of rural employment from manufacture and dissemination of improved cookingstoves;(iii) conservation of biodiversitydue to reduced forest degradation of the local environment.

Implementation Plan/ Duration:Duration will be 3 years.

Agency:Forest Research Institute, Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry

Cost: US $ 200,000


Project No 10

Project Title: Agricultural Opportunities for Green House Gas (GHGs) mitigation in Myanmar

Project Brief/ Introduction: Owing to an agricultural country,Myanmar basicallyrelied on agricultural sectorhas total land area of 67.65 million hectares, of which 16% is net sown areas.Among the diverse crops grownas rice, oil seed, pulses, cereals, industrial and culinary crops, rice occupied as largest as 41% while others asupland crops are accounted as 59% of total sown areas. Total population of the country is 58.38 million in2009 with 15%growth rate and projected to be 60 million in2012, Energetic effort to increased crop productionwill have been engagingas ever-lasting activities. Methane, N2O and CO2 are long lived in the atmosphere andare themajorcontributor topositive increase in radiative forces, resultingclimatechange.Noreliable information

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is available regarding quantifying GHG emission and its impact, and planned effective mitigation measures sofar inMyanmar, low land aswell as up land crop production will have been existing for increasingpopulation ashistoric task. The project will consist of:

(i)Identify integrated crop management technologies evaluated and adopted in target region.(ii)About 5000 farmers involved in rice production were made aware of effective mitigation measuresthrough trainingand field days.

(iii)Enhance NARES and farmers perceiving capacityin rice production with mitigation aspect.

Project Baseline:Agricultural activities are significant producers of Green House Gas (GHGs), mainlyconsistof CH4, N2O and CO2.

Project Objectives: The overall goal of the project is to improve the farmers, researchers and extensionagencies to achieve better livelihoods through sustainable crop production bymeans of utilizing mitigation andadaptation measures. The main objectives are:(i)To evaluate the rice production technologies to enhance food security, soils fertilitywith reducingGHG butwithout decliningcrop yields.(ii)To strengthen the capacity building of partners (farmers, researchers and extension agencies) with riceproduction technologies that mitigate the GHG .

Global Environmental Benefits: Increased cropproduction across the country tomeet domestic consumptionand export.At least 10% yield increase in rice productivity for export.

Other Social and Environmental Impacts: Farmers income will increase by20% (through saving fertilizercost, labor cost and yield increase) and the cost of cultivation will reduce 5000 farmers and all researchers andextensionist in target regions will be trained in environment friendlycropmanagement technologies associatedwithclimatechangemitigation.

Implementation Plan/ Duration: 3 years

Agency: Department ofAgriculture Research, MinistryofAgricultural and Irrigation

Cost: US $ 300,000


Project No 11

Project Title: Mitigation of CH4 Emission from Rice fields by Fertilizer Management Practices

Project Brief/ Introduction:Rice grows well in all States and Divisions of Myanmar. Most rice farmers applyorganic fertilizers in the form of residue from the previous rice crop, which is left standing, ploughed, andintegrated into the soils. Being an agricultural country, Myanmar’s economy largely relies on the agriculturalsector.To uplift its economy, agricultural production must have been increasing, includingrice production.Theintensification of rice cultivationbyincreasing irrigationwill cause fields to befloodedmore often andfor longerduration, thus enhancing CH4 emission. The total amount of CH4 released depends primarilyon the amount of

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organicsubstrateavailable.Theapplicationofsyntheticfertilizershasalsobeenfound to influenceCH4 emissions.Theexperimental setupwillbecarriedout forCH4 emissionmeasurementfromthericefieldsatYezinagriculturalUniversityFarm. The experiment sites will be selected as sandy loam soil and rice cultivar is Manawthuka, ahigh yielding varietywith 120-130 days of maturity, representing the most agro-ecosystems of the PyinmanaTownship, over the entire rice cropping seasons. The experiment will be 0.5 ac (0.2 ha) in a split plot designwith 4 replicates.

Project Baseline:The baseline is the continued current practice of traditional rice cultivation which producesa relativelyhigh rate of methane emission.

Project Objectives:To generate an appropriate method (fertilizer management) for reducing CH4 emissionfrom rice fields of different ecosystems of central Myanmar.

Global Environmental Benefits: The knowledge and experience from the research project can improve theassessment of GHG abatement options and formulation of least cost strategies.

Other Social and Environmental Impacts: The experimental results will contribute to accelerate theimprovement of GHG inventory as a key to mitigation actions in a measurable, reportable and verifiablemanner.

Implementation Plan/ Duration:The experiments will be conducted for 2 different agro-ecosystems underirrigated and rain-fed farming system. Duration will be 2 crops in successive seasons.

Agency:YezinAgricultural University, MinistryofAgriculture and Irrigation

Cost: US $ 12,320


Project No 12

Project Title: Mitigation of CH4 Emission from Rice fields by Water Management Practices

Project Brief/ Introduction: Flooded rice fields serve as an important source of CH4 emission. Most of therice in all States and Divisions in Myanmar (more than 90%) are grown in flooded fields as wet-land rice. Thewater management system under which rice is grown is one of the most important factors affecting CH4

emissions. In Myanmar, about 70% of rice is grown under rain fed condition in monsoon season, while about30% is under irrigated in pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons and all are continuously intermitted floodedconditions. The experimental set up will be carried out for CH4 emission measurement from the rice fields atYezinAgricultural UniversityFarm.The experiment siteswill be selected as sandyloam soil andrice cultivar isMnanwthuka, a high yielding varietywith 120-130 days of maturity, representing the most agro-ecosystems ofthe PyinmanaTownship, over the entire rice cropping seasons. The experiment will be 0.5 ac (0.2 ha) with andRandomized Complete Block design and 3 replications.

Project Baseline:The baseline is the continued current practice of traditional rice cultivation which producesa relativelyhigh rate of methane emission.

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Project Objectives: To generate an appropriate method (water management) for reducing CH4 emissionfrom rice fields of different ecosystems of central Myanmar.

Global Environmental Benefits: The knowledge and experience form the research project can improve theassessment of GHG abatement options and formulation of least and strategies.


Implementation Plan/ Duration:The experiments will be carried out for 2 times in pre-monsoon seasons ofsuccessive years.

Agency:YezinAgricultrual University, MinistryofAgriculture and Irrigation

Cost: US $ 11,480


Project No 13

Project Title: Mitigation of N2O Emission from Lowland Paddy field by Organic Manuring andWater Management

ProjectBrief/ Introduction:Rice(OryzasativaL.)paddysoilshave thepotential toemitbothof thegreenhousegases methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), depending on redox potential. Manyresearchers reported thatCH4 emission is mitigated bywater management treatments that decrease the length of flooding time, however,emission occurs most prominentlywhen floodwater disappears. N2O emission is aggravated by inorganic Nfertilizer application. Nitrous oxide emissionhas higher impact (310 times of CO2) to global warmingpotentialcompared to CH4. Paddy production is one of the most important economic sector of Myanmar for wonconsumption as staple food and export earning.Flooded rice cultivation with improper water management andfertilization may cause the higher N2O gas emission as well as CH4.Afield study will be carried out atYezinAgricultural UniversityFarm for N2O emissionmeasurement with inorganic and organic fertilizationand watermanagement. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) varietyManathuka (Myanmar a high yielding varietyalreadywell adaptedin Myanmar) will be used as a test crop. Total experimental site will be 0.5 acre (0.2 ha) and the area had beenunder lowland rice cultivation for manyyears.

Project Baseline:The baseline is the continued current practice of traditional rice cultivation which producesa relativelyhigh rate of nitrous oxide emission.

Project Objective:To establish a suitable management practice for mitigation of N2O emission from paddyfields usingorganicmanuring and water management.

Global Environmental Benefits: The knowledge and experience form the research project can improve theassessment of GHG abatement options and formulation of least cost strategies.

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ImplementationPlan/Duration: Theexperimentwill beconducted for2seasons in irrigatedriceandmonsoonrice (May to September and November to February).


Cost: US $ 17,000


Project No 14

Project Title: Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management and Method of Fertilizer Application onN2O Emission from Commercial Cabbage Production in Myanmar

Project Brief/ Introduction:Cabbages are grown in a commercial scale in Shan States and a few areas incentral Myanmar. N2O emissions duringboth oxidations of NH4 and denitrification are increased byN fertilizerapplications to soils. N2O emissions from agricultural lands are also likely to increase in Myanmar in futurebecause of increase in both the extentof cultivated land and fertilizer input. Consumption of N fertilizer inAsiawill increaseapproximately50% by2030 which will most likelybe accomplished byaproportional increase inN2O emission. Vegetables growers can be recommended for the proper method of application and integratedfertilizermanagement toreduce theN2Oemissionfromsoilwithoutaffectingtheircropyields.Afieldexperimentwill be carried out at two experimental sites (YezinAgricultural UniversityFarm and grower’s field at Nweyitvillage in Tatkone Township) in post-monsoon season 2011.

Project Baseline:The baseline is the continued current practice of other crop cultivation which produces arelativelyhigh rate of nitrous oxide emission.

Project Objectives: The main objectives of the project are:(i)To investigate the effect of integrated nutrient management system using organic manure, with and withoutinorganic N fertilizer on cabbage production and N2O emission from soil;(ii)To study the application methods of chemical fertilizers on N2O emission form soil.

Global Environmental Benefits: The knowledge and experience from the research project can improve theassessment of GHG abatement options and formulation of least cost strategies.

Other Social and Environmental Impacts: The experimental results will contribute to accelerate theimprovement of GHG inventoryas a keyto mitigate actions in a measurable, reportable and verifiable manner.

Implementation Plan/ Duration: The experiment will be conducted for 2 seasons (winter and monsoon).


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Cost: US $ 10,200


Project No 15

Project Title: Small Scale Reforestation Pilot Project in Ayeyarwady Delta, Myanmar

Project Brief/ Introduction: The Ayeyarwady delta is one of the areas where most serious deforestationtook place during this period. The proposed project activities are aimed at demonstrating the applicability ofthe CDM process to rehabilitate mangroves on such degraded croplands and grasslands. The proposed projectarea will be in the southern part ofAyeyarwady Delta. It is proposed to establish the CDMAR plantation onfive strips of lands that have been identified asA, B, C, D and E with the GPS locations. The nature of projectarea is croplands degraded due to repeated incursion of sea water with a smaller extent of similarly degradedgrass lands and an insignificant part of the inter-tidal lands.

Project Baseline: The baseline for the project consists of minimal afforestation efforts with no mechanisms todetermine appropriate tree species or provide other support services. The carbon sequestration potential ofthe baseline iscurrentlyunknown. The lossof mangrove forests resulted from charcoal production, aquaculture,fuelwood extraction under mangroves has decreased to less than 40% of that recorded in the 1920s.

Project Objectives: Demonstration of the possibilities of rehabilitation of Mangroves on theAyeyarwadyDelta Coastline to protect communities from cyclone usingA/R CDM process thereby mitigation climatechange, conservingbiodiversity, and enhancing incomes of local community.

Global Environmental Benefits: The project shall result in netAnthropogenic removal of 8000 tonnes ofCO2 per year.Atotal estimated 185258.664 metric ton of net anthropogenic GHG removals by mangrove treeplantation is envisaged throughout 20 years period.

Social and Environmental Impacts:The project will positivelyimpact to the socioeconomic or livelihood oflocal people by to be achieved CER and spin off benefits from project.

ImplementationPlan/ Duration:Theproject activitieswill be implemented in theAyeyarwadyDelta.Durationwill be 5 years.

Agency:Forest Department, Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry

Cost: US $ 350,000


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PROJECTONINITIALNATIONALCOMMUNICATIONRepot on

Research on ENSO Impact on climate fluctuation and frequency of extreme climate anomalies inthe region and inMyanmarBy

RESEARCHANDSYSTEMATICOBSERVATIONGROUP(DepartmentofMeteorologyandHydrology)January, 2010

ENSO

Thewestward spread ofwarm sea current from south east Pacific, off coast ofPeru has some impact on globalweather and climate.Myanmar is no exception.During the period 1900 to 2008, strongElNino has occurredin 1901-02, 1913-15, 1918-20, 1972-73, 1986-88, 1991-92 and very strong El Nino occurred in 1940-41,1957-58, 1982-83, and 1997-98. The El Nino in 1997-98 is known to the strongest followed by that of1982-83.

When the ElNino year is takingplace simultaneouslywith the SouthernOscillation of the near global scaleatmospheric circulation in the south Pacific and the IndianOceans, the climateofMyanmarwasmore rampantand adverse extremeweather prevailed in the country in such years as 1982/83 and 1997/98.

Maximumhighest temperatures recordswere set in 1998 ENSOyear inMandalayDivision, Rakhine State,Shan state,Magway, Bago,Yangon,Ayeyawady andTaninthayi Divisions, Kayah,Mon andKayin Stateswhich is almost thewhole countryexcept SagaingDivision,Kachin, andChinStates.

Maximum temperature records in 1997-98 ENSOyears inMyanmar are shown inTable (1). Eleven out offourteenStates andDivisions experienced the ever recorded heat. In 1998,MaximumRecordTemperature ofHpaanwas 43.6°Cwhich is 2.6°Chigher than the lastmaximum in 1988.

(°C) (d-m-y) (°C ) (d-m)

Meiktila 42.4 - -5-66 43 5-OctPyinmana 42 1-5-80 43.5 9-5

Shan Lashio 40 26-4-97 40 4-5Rakhine Thandwe 39 12-5-80 40.4 4-5Magwe Minbu 45.2 17-4-73 45.8 9-5

Taungoo 42.2 10-5- 59 42.9 8-5Tharawady 42 14-3-63 43.6 9-5Mingaladon 41.7 25-4-58 42 8-5Kaba-Aye 41.3 27-4-83 42 8-5Pathein 41 27-4-83 41 8-5Hinthada 42.9 30-4-95 43.6 9-5Mawlamyine 40 21-4-95 40.2 8-5Thaton 40 16-4-75 41 8-5

Kayah Loikaw 37 17-4-83 38 14-4Kayin Hpa-an 41 25-5-88 43.6 6-5

Dawei 38.5 11-4-98 38.9 6-5Myeik 38 4-5-83 38 6-5Kawthaung 38 3-4-98 38.5 6-5

Mon

Taninthayi

StationState/Region Last Record 1998 Record

Mandalay

Bago

Yangon

Ayeyawady

(°C) (d-m-y) (°C ) (d-m)

Meiktila 42.4 - -5-66 43 5-OctPyinmana 42 1-5-80 43.5 9-5

Shan Lashio 40 26-4-97 40 4-5Rakhine Thandwe 39 12-5-80 40.4 4-5Magwe Minbu 45.2 17-4-73 45.8 9-5

Taungoo 42.2 10-5- 59 42.9 8-5Tharawady 42 14-3-63 43.6 9-5Mingaladon 41.7 25-4-58 42 8-5Kaba-Aye 41.3 27-4-83 42 8-5Pathein 41 27-4-83 41 8-5Hinthada 42.9 30-4-95 43.6 9-5Mawlamyine 40 21-4-95 40.2 8-5Thaton 40 16-4-75 41 8-5

Kayah Loikaw 37 17-4-83 38 14-4Kayin Hpa-an 41 25-5-88 43.6 6-5

Dawei 38.5 11-4-98 38.9 6-5Myeik 38 4-5-83 38 6-5Kawthaung 38 3-4-98 38.5 6-5

Mon

Taninthayi

StationState/Region Last Record 1998 Record

Mandalay

Bago

Yangon

Ayeyawady

Table (1) -The highestmaximum temperature records in 1998 inMyanmar

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( Tun Lwin, 2007 ; El Nino of 1997-98. Agirl named LaNina and collection of natural disaster relatedarticles,Myanmarheritage,Yangon, p-260.)

In 1998, ENSO set new lowest records in Shan, Kayah, Kayin and Mon States, Bago, Ayeyawady andTaninthayiDivisions.The lowest annual rainfallswere recorded in 1991ElNino year in Shan state Sagaing,Mandalay,Bago andKayah states.The lowest annual rainfalls ever recorded in 1998were shown inTable (2).The data period is from1902 to2003with some yearsmissingparticularlyaround theWorldWars.Themostsignificantly low annual rainfall occurred inTaungoo ofBagoDivision in1998with 1366mmwhich is 19%less than the former record of 1682mm in 1989.

Table (2)- Least annual rainfalls (mm) recorded in 1998 ENSOyear*

*(TunLwin, 2007; El Nino of 1997-98. Agirl named LaNina and collection ofnatural disaster related articles,Myanmar heritage,Yangon, pp-260.)

In 1998, themost extensive heat wave is found to cover 156,250 sqmiles or 60% of the country. It may benoted that the year is theENSOyearwhen ElNino and SouthernOscillationwere both active.

El Nino : During theElNinoyears, the southwestmonsoonwasnegativelyaffectedonseveral features.Monsoononset andwithdrawal:- Themonsoononset dates are late and thewithdrawal earlierinElNoyears in general compared to the normal and this pattern is particularly true for the precedingyears ofthe episode. Thus the rainyseason have shorter duration in theElNinoyears. Recently, ElNinowas strong in1991-92 and very strong in 1997-98. Themonsoon onset in the countrywas late by12 days in 1991 and 16days late in 1998.Monsoonwithdrawalwas earlyby16 days and 21 days in 1991 and in 1998. The length ofmonsoon durationwas reduced by24 days in 1991 and by36 days in 1998. Strongmonsoon days decreasedin 1991 and 1998 by 17 days and 28 days.Monsoon intensity:- There is weak relationship between the latemonsoon intensity andtheElNinoevent though there is likelihoodof rather aweakmonsoon intensityparticularlyin thepreceding thepeak El Nino event. Thus themonsoon intensity as awhole ismore likely to be normal during themajor ElNino years with a possibility of 80%based on the last six events during the last 48 years i.e., 1951 to 1998.Though the relationship between the earlymonsoon intensity and theEl Nino event does not performwell,below normal to normal monsoon intensities aremore likely during the earlymonsoon periods of both thepreceding and the following years of the peakElNino events.More than 50%of the intensity

State/Region Station Data Period Old record (Year) 1998 Record1903-19411950-2003

Magwe Magwe 1971-2003 445 (1972) 4421903-19301946-20031903-19371951-20031902-19371961-20031907-19371952-2003

1366

Bago 2596 (1987) 2373

Kayah Loikaw 770 (1993) 751

Shan Taunggyi 1208 (1976) 992

Bago

Pyay 816 (1972) 798

Taungoo 1682 (1989)

State/Region Station Data Period Old record (Year) 1998 Record1903-19411950-2003

Magwe Magwe 1971-2003 445 (1972) 4421903-19301946-20031903-19371951-20031902-19371961-2003

1366

Bago 2596 (1987) 2373

Shan Taunggyi 1208 (1976) 992

Bago

Pyay 816 (1972) 798

Taungoo 1682 (1989)

751770 (1993)1907-1937

LoikawKayah 1952-2003

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of peakmonsoon during El Nino events could experience failure or weakening of monsoon comparing tonormal condition.This is particularly true for the precedingyear of the episode.

During the southwest monsoon peak season, there was a normal occurrence of inactive monsoon periodcommonlyknown as“MonsoonBreak”. It was almost totally absent inmost of the years through 1989 to1997. This is particularly true in 1993 to 1996.However a veryprolongedmonsoonbreak condition returnedin 1998. The 1990smarked thewarmest decade ofMyanmar in the 20th century.

Frequency of storms:- The relationship between the El Nino events and the frequency ofstorms in the Bay of Bengal has been a controversial for long time. However the storm frequency is belownormal in the preceding year and it is below normal to normal in the following year of the peak of El Ninoevents.

Temperature andRainfall:- The impacts of the El Nino are also observed upon the generalclimate ofMyanmar during thepreceding year aswell as during the following year of theElNino. About70%(precedingyear) to 85%(followingyear) of theElNino events, themaximum temperature inmost partsof the countrywerehigher than normalduring thedrymonthsofApril andMay. In 70%(precedingyear) to 85%(followingyear) of theElNino events, both theannual rainfall andmonsoon rainfall are belownormal in thecountry.

La Nina

During the last twodecades, the temperatures have been risingbydayand bynight inmost part of the country.However record lowminimum temperatures were observed in cool season of 1999-2000 which is the LaNina year, in many parts of the country. The lowest minimum temperatures of some selected stations indifferent states and divisions, observed in 2000LaNina year are shown inTable (3).

Table (3) - Lowestminimum temperatures records of the capitals of states andRegions

State/Region StationLowestMinTem(C )

Date Remark

Kachin Myitkyina 5 2/1/1963 La NinaChin Haka -6 30-12-91Upper Sagaing Homalin 3 8/2/1980 NoneLower Sagaing Monywa 6.7 31-1-64 La NinaMandalay Mandalay 7.2 31-1-64 La NinaNorthern Shan Lashio -2.2 16-1-89 La NinaEastern Shan Kyineton 1.7 27-1-53 El NinoSouthern Shan Taunggyi 0.3 20-1-74 NoneMagwe Magwe 5 26-1-93Rakhine Sittwe 8.9 21-1-70 La NinaKayah Loikaw 0 27-1-53 El NinoNorthwest Bago Pyay 7.2 17-1-54Northeast Bago Taungoo 8 30-12-75South Bago Bago 7 11/2/1997 El NinoNorth Ayeyawady Hinthada 7 29-12-97 El NinoSouth Ayeyawady Pathein 10 30-12-75 La NinaYangon Yangon 9.1 9/2/1997 El NinoKaren Paan 9.4 1/1/1974 NoneMon Mawlamyine 10.8 2/1/1976 El NinoTaninthayi Dawei 5.5 26-12-99 La Nina

State/Region StationLowestMinTem(C )

Date Remark

Kachin Myitkyina 5 2/1/1963 La NinaChin Haka -6 30-12-91Upper Sagaing Homalin 3 8/2/1980 NoneLower Sagaing Monywa 6.7 31-1-64 La NinaMandalay Mandalay 7.2 31-1-64 La NinaNorthern Shan Lashio -2.2 16-1-89 La NinaEastern Shan Kyineton 1.7 27-1-53 El NinoSouthern Shan Taunggyi 0.3 20-1-74 NoneMagwe Magwe 5 26-1-93Rakhine Sittwe 8.9 21-1-70 La NinaKayah Loikaw 0 27-1-53 El NinoNorthwest Bago Pyay 7.2 17-1-54Northeast Bago Taungoo 8 30-12-75South Bago Bago 7 11/2/1997 El NinoNorth Ayeyawady Hinthada 7 29-12-97 El NinoSouth Ayeyawady Pathein 10 30-12-75 La NinaYangon Yangon 9.1 9/2/1997 El NinoKaren Paan 9.4 1/1/1974 NoneMon Mawlamyine 10.8 2/1/1976 El NinoTaninthayi Dawei 5.5 26-12-99 La Nina

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SomeLaNina either develop just prior to or following theElNino event are shown inTable (4).

Table (4) - LaNina years preceded or followed byEl Nino years during 1950-1989.

Myanmar, belonging to thenon-Annex I, invites supports from international/regional organization/institutes.


1950 1951 1953 1954

1955-56 1957-58 1963 1964

1964 1965 1969 1970

1967-68 1969 1972 1973

1970-71 1972 1982-83 1984-85

1975 1976 1987-88 1988-89

La Nina followed by El Nino La Nina preceded by El Nino


1950 1951 1953 1954

1955-56 1957-58 1963 1964

1964 1965 1969 1970

1967-68 1969 1972 1973

1970-71 1972 1982-83 1984-85

1975 1976 1987-88 1988-89

La Nina followed by El Nino La Nina preceded by El Nino

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Page 236

Estimation of CH4 Emission from Rice Cultivation in MyanmarField Survey Research Paper

1. IntroductionDue to the specific conditions in water availabilityand constraints in cultivation, rice ecosystems in Myanmarare generallycategorized into five categories: Regular / favourable rainfed lowland, Drought-prone rainfedlowland, DeepWater Rice, Submerged and SaltAffected Rice and Upland Rice. Rice grows well in all regionsand 20 - 30% is irrigated and the rest are under rain-fed condition.According to its cropping patterns andagro-ecological regions, ricevarieties used and the agronomic management practices such as water and nutrientmanagement considerablyvaryamong the different regions of Myanmar. Rice is mostlygrown in flooded fieldsunder anaerobic conditions and it has been recognized that significant amounts of CH4 are released to theatmosphere and consequentlycontributing to global warming more than anyother crops.

The level of emissions varies with soil conditions, climate and production practices. Intensification of ricecultivation by increasing irrigation will cause fields to be flooded more often and for longer duration, thusenhancing CH4 emission. Based on the scientific research findings, several cultivation practices such as use ofchemical fertilizer (urea) and organic fertilizer (cow dung) have shown to increase methane emission from ricefields. Crop management practices like water management and weed management also have impacts on CH4emission. Different rice varieties have different durations as well as different morphological and anatomicalcharacteristics. These are also influencing factors on CH4 emission. Rice –based cropping patterns of rotationof upland crops (pulses, oilseed crops) after rice were found to produce less CH4 than rice after rice croppingpattern.All these factors which have significant influences on the rate of CH4 emission from rice fields should betaken into account for the estimation CH4 emission.For the implementationof Initial Communication Inventoryof Myanmar, it is, therefore, necessary to study the conditions of rice cultivation for obtaining the activitydataas precise as possible.

2. MethodologyBeing a developing country, Myanmar is weak in agricultural statistical data, particularly in the availabilityofactivitydata related to the estimation of GHG emission. Moreover, official statistical data do not include suchkind of agronomic practices essential for estimation of CH4 emission.

2.1 Survey Research Period:Alarge number of sample surveys across the country were carried out fromApril 2009 to December

2009.2.2 Survey Sites:ThesurveysiteswereMaubinTownship(AyeyarwaddyDivision,Delta),BogalayTownship(Ayeyarwaddy

Division, Delta), Kalaw andAungban Townships (High land, Southern Shan State), Kyaukme Township (forupland rice and Taung-yar farming), Pyinmana andYamethin Townships (Central Myanmar) and Nyaung-u,Mandalay and Magwe Townships (Central Dry Zone).

2.3 Data Collection:Methods such as sample survey and on-site observation were used to obtain the information necessary

forpreparingtheGHGinventory.Farmers interviewwithquestionnaireandgroupdiscussionwerealsoconducted.The data collected were rice varieties used (duration and plant type), water management practices (rain-fed,intermitted irrigation or single irrigation), and nutrient management practices (type and amount of chemicalfertilizers and organic manure, time and method of application.), etc.

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2012 Annex III

2.4 Survey Research Team:1. Dr. Khin Lay Swe: Team Leader, Pro-rector (AcademicAffairs),YAU2. Dr. Nang Sang Hom: Member,Associate Professor,Agricultural BotanyDepartment,3. Dr. Kyaw Kyaw Win: Member,Associate Professor,Agronomy Department,YAU4. U KyiToe, Member, Lecturer,Agricultural Botany Department,YAU5. Dr. Thanda Min: Member, Lecturer,AgronomyDepartment,YAU

3. Survey Research Finding

In the INC report, Tier 1 method, IPCC 2006, was used for the estimation of CH4 emission from flooded ricefields. Default emission factors and scaling factors together with activitydata for harvested area and cultivationperiod was calculated based on the survey results and secondary data collected from Myanmar agricultureService and Settlement and Land Record Department of respective townships. The following assumptions arethe examples of calculating the CH4 emission.

For determining the value of SFp(default CH4 emission scalingfactors for water regimesbefore the cultivationperiod), water management pre-season and rice cultivation period were noted.

1. Under irrigation: EarlyRice and Late rice of double rice croppingNon-flooded pre-season < 180 days: SFp = 1

2. Regular Rainfed Rice : Single Rice Cropping (May/ June to Oct./Dec.)Non-flooded pre-season > 180 days: SFp = 0.68

3. Drought-prone Rainfed Rice:Non-flooded pre-season > 180 days: SFp = 0.68

4. Deep Water Rice:Non-flooded pre-season < 180 days: SFp = 1

For the assumption for organic amendments and determination of the value of CFOA (default conversionfactor for different types of organic amendment), the survey findings were taken into account.

Straw are incorporated shortly (<30 days) before cultivation CFOAi = 1Farm yard manure CFOAi = 0.14Annually, amount of straw (Rice stubbles) incorporated into the field = 1 ton / ha (Straw production = 4 -5 ton/ ha of rice field, ¼ left in the field)Amount of cow dung (Farmyard manure) added to the field = 1.5 ton/ ha(Average application is 3 bullock-carts / acre = approx. 0.6 ton/acre)For the assumption of cultivation period of rice (tijk) for different rice ecosystems, the most common ricevarieties used in various regions were recorded.

1. Irrigated rice: Early duration varieties = 110 days (110-120)2. Regular Refined Rice: Medium duration varieties = 140 days (135-145)3. Drought-prone Refined Rice: Medium duration varieties = 130 days (125-135)

4. Deep water Rice: Traditional varieties = 170 days (160-180)

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4. Survey Research Budget

5. Survey Research OutcomeFor the INC report and thenationalGHG inventory, the agriculture sector includes the following categories.1. CH4 emission from flooded rice fields,2.N2Oemission fromagricultural soils and3.GHGemissions from field burningof agricultural residues

In the survey trips the data concerningwith all these categorieswere recorded.As an example, for theN2Oemission fromagricultural soils, the inputs of chemical fertilizer (Urea) andorganicmanure (cowdung) to theupland agriculture forcereals (rice,wheat,maize), oilseed crops (sesame, groundnut, sunflower), pulses, fruits,vegetables, andkitchencropswere taken intoaccount.Therefore, theamountsofureaandcowdungapplicationto the cropswere recorded from different regions.Moreover, the use of previous crop residues for the nextcropwas also an influencing factor to this category. In the regionswhere thecattle feeds andhousehold fuel arescarce, especially in dry zone areas ofMyanmar, the residues of pulses, rice and corn are used for cattle andstem residues of sesame, pigeon pea, and cotton are used for fuel. Therefore, no significant amounts of cropresidues are applied to the field.

The farmers’practicesof fieldburningofagricultural residues differ fromregions to regions aswell as fromplottoplot. It varies according to their croppingsystems,economy,available labour, topographyandetc.Concerningwith rice stem residues, field burning canbe seen in some fields of the double rice cropping system (summerrice—monsoon rice). It is because the harvest time of summer rice coincides

No. Particulars Amount (FEC)March 2009: Field surveys to Ayeyarwady, Bago andYangon Divisions - 3 persons x10 daysTraveling costs, meals and accommodations

April 2009: Field surveys to Mandalay and MagweDivisions - 3 persons x5 daysTraveling costs, meals and accommodations

Sept. 2009: Field surveys to Kalaw and AungbanTownships, Southern Shan State - 5 persons x5 daysTraveling costs, meals and accommodations

Oct. 2009: Field surveys s to Kyaukme and LashioTownship (Northern Shan State) - 3 persons x7 daysTraveling costs, meals and accommodations

Daily Subsistence Allowance / Honorarium

150 FEC x6 persons

6 Laboratory soil analysis for five different rice growingregions

200

7 Cost of materials (questionnaires survey forms,photographs, labour charges, etc.)

100

8 Data analysis and paper writing 200

Total 2,500

4 300

5 900

1 300

2 200

3 300

No. Particulars Amount (FEC)March 2009: Field surveys to Ayeyarwady, Bago andYangon Divisions - 3 persons x10 daysTraveling costs, meals and accommodations

April 2009: Field surveys to Mandalay and MagweDivisions - 3 persons x5 daysTraveling costs, meals and accommodations

Sept. 2009: Field surveys to Kalaw and AungbanTownships, Southern Shan State - 5 persons x5 daysTraveling costs, meals and accommodations

Oct. 2009: Field surveys s to Kyaukme and LashioTownship (Northern Shan State) - 3 persons x7 daysTraveling costs, meals and accommodations

Daily Subsistence Allowance / Honorarium

150 FEC x6 persons

6 Laboratory soil analysis for five different rice growingregions

200

7 Cost of materials (questionnaires survey forms,photographs, labour charges, etc.)

100

8 Data analysis and paper writing 200

Total 2,500

4 300

5 900

1 300

2 200

3 300

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with the monsoon rains, the wetted rice straws are not suitable for cattle feed and they were burnt down forclearing. Theresidues left in the field, such as sugarcane, wheat, corn and riceare burnt with the purpose mainlyfor landclearingofnext crop. Questionnaire for farmer’spracticeofresidueburningwerealsoused in interviewswith local farmers.

The surveyresults will provide more accuratedata for the assumption of activitydata and scalingfactors for thenational GHG inventory.The surveyresults will contribute to accelerate the improvement of GHG inventoryasin a measurable, reportable and verifiable (MRV) manner. The knowledge and experience from the researchproject can also be used as a base line data for the assessment of GHG abatement options and formulation of

mitigationstrategies,andconsequentlyithelps inthefulfillmentofMyanmar’scommitmentsunder theUNFCCC.

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Draft National Climate Change Policy, Strategies and Actions

1. IntroductionThedraftnationalclimatechangepolicyaddressesclimate-relatedissuesresultingfromGHGemissionsoriginatingin the energy, industrial processes, agriculture and livestock, land use change and forestry, and waste sectors.

In developed countries the energy and the industry sectors used to be the largest GHG sources, while in thedevelopingcountries,whichare less industrialized, agriculture, landusechangeandforestry,andwasteproductioncontribute most to global warming.

In this perspective, the 1997 GHG inventory conducted for the first time in Myanmar, under the ALGASproject attempted to describe the state of GHGs emitted in 1990 from the above-mentionedsectors of economy.The GHG inventoryhad indicated that Myanmar was a net sequester of CO2 with 5,910 Gg in 1990. But, withemissions of CH4, N2O, NOx and CO the countryemitted a total of 41,500 Gg of CO2 e which included 6,086Gg of CO2e (14.67%) from Energy, 180.44 Gg of CO2e (0.43%) from Industrial Processes, 39,203 Gg ofCO2e (94.47%) from Agriculture & Livestock, -6,656 Gg of CO2e (-16.04%) from Land use change andForestry, and 2,686 Gg of CO2e (6.47%) from Waste sectors. It is evident therefore that agriculture had beenthe biggest contributor of GHGs in 1990 followed sequentially by energy, waste and industrial processes.Land use change and forestryremoved GHGs more than it emitted bya verybig margin which made Myanmara net sequester in 1990 in terms of CO2 emissions.

In the agriculture & livestock sector, net CO2 e emissions dropped to 25,342 Gg in 2000 from 39,203 Gg in1990 contributing approximately 57.41% to the total net CO2e emissions in Myanmar. Notwithstanding thevast amount of methane emissions, rice cultivation has to be and been being increased yearly by expandingcropping area and enhancing per unit area production. Furthermore, the increased populations of the cattle andbuffalos, compounded the problem, but for Myanmar, theyare the inevitable in agricultural development.

Energyhas two-wayeffectson social,educational andeconomicdevelopment ina country.For thedevelopment,energy is a driving force. Myanmar has been promoting resource-based industries, and as a result net CO2eemissions in both energyand industrial processes sectors had increased enormously. The net CO2e emissionsof 6,086 Gg in 1990 had increased to 45,140 Gg in 2000 in the all energysector, while that of 180 Gg in 1990had increased to 3,014 Gg in 2000 in the industrial processes. The continuing economic development willcertainly lead to increased GHG emissions beyond limits if not properlyplanned and effectivelycontrolled.

Thanks to the land use change and forestry, Myanmar again became a net sequester of CO2 gases in 2000.However, with the estimated annual deforestation rate of about 400,000 hectares, the currently estimatedsequestration effect may have disappeared by the turn of the new millennium as commented in the EPA(Environmental PerformanceAssessment) report, March 2006.

Adverse impacts of climate change will lead to forest depletion, degradation and complete destruction overtime if no appropriate responsive measures are undertaken in time. It is extremely necessary to enlarge andconserve forests to reduce global warming.Additionally, people need forests to survive and prosper in a livableenvironment. In view of this, sustainable forest ecosystem management, together with private forestry andcommunityforestryis to be highlyprioritized for climate change mitigation and adaptation.

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In the waste sector, the net CO2 e emissions had increased by 140 Gg only - from a net total of 2,686 Gg CO2equivalents in 1990 to 2,826 Gg CO2 equivalents in 2000. In this case, reduction of per capita waste generation,waste treatment and recycling are the main strategies.

This draft national climate change policy is not fullycomprehensive in terms of scope since it covers only fivepriorityeconomic sectors.On the other hand, it is considered agood and inevitable initiativefor futureexpansionand improvement to base upon.

2. Goal and Objectives of the PolicyGoal:To progressivelydevelop national economyin a stable and environmentallysound climate

Objectives:To stabilize greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere below dangerous levels withoutcompromising national economic growth; To mitigate climate change and its adverse impacts by limiting orreducing anthropogenic GHG emissions in various economic sectors and sources.

1. To preserve and enhance GHG reservoirs and sinks.2. To enable adaptationmeasures to immediatelycope with the impacts of changingclimate and minimize

the damages.3. To ensure that food production is not disrupted enabling national socio-economic development to

proceed in a sustainable manner.

3. Priority Sectors identified for Climate Change ConcernsFiveeconomicsectorsnamelyEnergy, Industrial Processes,Agriculture and Livestock, Land Use Change andForestry, and Waste sectors havebeen identifiedaspriorityareas in thecontextofclimate change in Myanmar-

4. Climate Change ConcernsBoth causes and effects or impacts of climate change are climate change concerns.Although not exhaustive,they are identified sector-wise and presented in the following table.

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Causes Effects

Fossil fuel combustion emitt ing CO2 Reduced hydroelectric power supply due to inadequate water resourcesresult ing from shortened monsoon period and intense drought

Fugitive emission from oil and natural gassystems and coal mining, contributing CH4

Increased consumption of electricity due to rising ambient airtemperature

Transport (mobile combustion of all

kinds of fuel) emitt ing CO2, CH4, N 2O, CO,

NMVOC. SO2, PM, NOx

Increased expenditures to replace energy inefficient equipment, vehiclesand machineries with more efficient ones

Fugitive emission from fuel inefficientold vehicles, poor roads, road network,traffic jams producing various GHGs

Increased investments to improve roads, road networks, andtransportation facilit ies

Loss of old, outdated and energy inefficient vehicles and machineries

Industrial Production of construction materials suchas cement, glass, iron and steel etc. and offoods and drinks producing CO2, CH4,

NMVOC.

Increased investment for development and use of energy efficient andenvironment friendly technologies

Processes Product use such as refrigerators, airconditioners, electrical appliances emitt ing

CO2, CFC, HFC, PFC, SF6

Increased investment to develop and deploy new energy technologiesincluding GHG capture, storage and utilization for power generation inindustrial processes

The technical and regulatory need involving probably heavy financialinvestment to implement environmental standards for energy efficient use andfor constructing GHG-efficient infrastructures.

Agriculture Rice cultivation emitt ing CH4 Change in growth rates of crops

and Land clearing emitt ing CO2, CH4, N20 Water stress in some regions due to frequent and intense droughts

Livestock Application of chemical fert ilizers andpesticides producing N2O, NOx, etc.

Water excess and flooding in some regions due to fluctuations in rainfall

Managed soils contribut ing CO2,N2O Changes in crop productivity (increased or decreased yields of somemajor crops due to increased warming)

Enteric fermentation of ruminantlivestock and manure management, leading

to CH4 emission

Decline in food quality due to increased CO2 concentration in the

atmosphere

Farming of swine and its manure

management, leading to CH4 emission Increase of agricultural pests and diseases due to rise in temperature

Animals directly emitt ing N2O Increased vulnerability of some crop strains to climate extremes

Animal waste management producingCH4, and N2O

Loss of arable lands due to drought, floods, salt water intrusion and sealevel rise

Heat stress on livestock including aquaculture

Increased incidence of animal pest and diseases due to fluctuations inrainfall

Land Use Deforestation contribut ing CO2, CO,

CH4, N2O, NOx

Shifts in the ranges of trees and animals

Change and Forest degradation contributing CO2 Change of species composition

Forestry Forest fires contributing CO2, CO, CH4,

N2O, NOx

Effect of sea level rise on the distribution and abundance of mangroves.

Burning after forest clearing contributing

CO2. CO, CH4, N2O, NOx

Forests becoming drier

Soil disturbance emitt ing CO2, NOx Risk of extinction of rare or geographically restricted species

Increases in the frequency & severity of forest fires, and the lengtheningof fire season

Increase in pests and diseases.

Change in growth rates and yields

Solid waste emitt ing CH4, N20 and other

GHGs Environmental pollution

Domestic and industrial waste wateremitt ing CH4

Loss of aesthetic values

Spread of various diseases

Sector

Energy

Waste

Causes Effects

Fossil fuel combustion emitt ing CO2 Reduced hydroelectric power supply due to inadequate water resourcesresult ing from shortened monsoon period and intense drought

Fugitive emission from oil and natural gassystems and coal mining, contributing CH4

Increased consumption of electricity due to rising ambient airtemperature

Transport (mobile combustion of all

kinds of fuel) emitt ing CO2, CH4, N 2O, CO,2O, CO,2

NMVOC. SO2, PM, NOx

Increased expenditures to replace energy inefficient equipment, vehiclesand machineries with more efficient ones

Fugitive emission from fuel inefficientold vehicles, poor roads, road network,traffic jams producing various GHGs

Increased investments to improve roads, road networks, andtransportation facilit ies

Loss of old, outdated and energy inefficient vehicles and machineries

Industrial Production of construction materials suchas cement, glass, iron and steel etc. and offoods and drinks producing CO2, CH4,

NMVOC.

Increased investment for development and use of energy efficient andenvironment friendly technologies

Processes Product use such as refrigerators, airconditioners, electrical appliances emitt ing

CO2, CFC, HFC, PFC, SF6

Increased investment to develop and deploy new energy technologiesincluding GHG capture, storage and utilization for power generation inindustrial processes

The technical and regulatory need involving probably heavy financialinvestment to implement environmental standards for energy efficient use andfor constructing GHG-efficient infrastructures.

Agriculture Rice cultivation emitt ing CH4 Change in growth rates of crops

and Land clearing emitt ing CO2, CH4, N20 Water stress in some regions due to frequent and intense droughts

Livestock Application of chemical fert ilizers andpesticides producing N2O, NOx, etc.

Water excess and flooding in some regions due to fluctuations in rainfall

Managed soils contribut ing CO2,N2O Changes in crop productivity (increased or decreased yields of somemajor crops due to increased warming)

Enteric fermentation of ruminantlivestock and manure management, leading

to CH4 emission

Decline in food quality due to increased CO2 concentration in the

atmosphere

Farming of swine and its manure

management, leading to CH4 emission Increase of agricultural pests and diseases due to rise in temperature

Animals directly emitt ing N2O Increased vulnerability of some crop strains to climate extremes

Animal waste management producingCH4, and N2O

Loss of arable lands due to drought, floods, salt water intrusion and sealevel rise

Heat stress on livestock including aquaculture

Increased incidence of animal pest and diseases due to fluctuations inrainfall

Land Use Deforestation contribut ing CO2, CO,

CH4, N2O, NOx

Shifts in the ranges of trees and animals

Change and Forest degradation contributing CO2 Change of species composition

Forestry Forest fires contributing CO2, CO, CH4,

N2O, NOx

Effect of sea level rise on the distribution and abundance of mangroves.

Burning after forest clearing contributing

CO2. CO, CH4, N2O, NOx

Forests becoming drier

Soil disturbance emitt ing CO2, NOx Risk of extinction of rare or geographically restricted species

Increases in the frequency & severity of forest fires, and the lengtheningof fire season

Increase in pests and diseases.

Change in growth rates and yields

Sector

Energy

Waste Environmental pollution

Solid waste emitt ing CH4, N20 and other

GHGs

Domestic and industrial waste wateremitt ing CH4

Loss of aesthetic values

Spread of various diseases

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5. Basic Principles

The national climate change policy will be founded on the following basic principles: The Climate Change Policy (CCP) shall enable key economic sectors climate-adaptive and resilient

while securingcontinued progress of national economic growth.

CCP shall be committed to promoting low-carbon economy

CCP shall be country-specific, scientific-based, technologydriven and cost effective in implementingclimate change mitigation and adaptation measures.

CCP shall contribute to global efforts of stabilizing atmospheric CO2e concentrations under dangerouslevel through enhanced carbon sequestration, reduced GHG emissions and efficient energysupplyanddemand

CCPrecognizesthatdisasterriskreductionisstronglylinkedwithclimatechangemitigationandadaptationefforts.

CCP recognizes that innovation, transfer, deployment and dissemination of ecologically soundtechnologies, and research and development (R & D) are the keys to address the challenges of climatechange, particularly in the long run.

CCP recognizing the climate change as a global issue shall encourage cooperation and collaborationwith all state and non-state actors globally.

6. Objectives, Policies, Strategies and Actions

6.1 Energy Sector6.1.1 ObjectiveToreduceGHGemissionsfromalltypesofproduction,distributionandutilizationofenergy,andfromtransportation6.1.2 PoliciesTo improve energyconservation and efficiency, to enhance energy production and ensure energy security, topromote efficiency in transportation, and to regulate imports of second-hand vehicles

6.1.3 StrategiesTo perform energy audit, to tap all possible potential power sources to accelerate energy production, toencourage generation and utilization of renewable energy, to improve traffic control and public conveyancesystem, andto establish national ambient air quality standards

6.1.4ActionsMitigation measures - Demand Side:

1. Set energyefficiencystandards and label efficiencygrades on the products2. Providefinancialsupportandtaxbenefitsforenergy-efficientproducts3. Provide energy advices and inspection, and encourage the use of energy-efficient appliances and

equipment, and energy-saving compact fluorescent lamps4. Capture fugitive gaseous emissions at fuel service stations.5. Eliminate the behavior of usingstand-bysettings inall energy-consuming appliances6. Develop voluntary agreements with incentive measures for increased use of highly energy-efficient

electrical equipment and appliances

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Mitigation measures - SupplySide:1. Invest more in the exploration and utilization of natural gas2. Construct hydro-electric facilities further where EIA permits3. Promote the production of cleaner fuels and wind and solar power4. Implementnuclearpowergenerationproject tomeet increasingdemandforelectricity5. Remove or upgrade existing inefficient power generation systems6. Upgrade coal-burning industrial boilers through the use of qualitycoal7. Extract coal-bed methane to reduce methane emission from coal mining8. Improve power transmission and distribution system to reduce power loss9. Promote combined heat and power generation at commercial buildings10. Promoteproductionofbio-energyfromagriculturalresiduesand,humanandanimalwasteswithoutadversely

affectingfoodsecurity, soil statusandforest resources

Mitigation measures -Transport:1. Accelerate converting gasoline or diesel vehicles to CNG.2. ConstructCNGpipelines and CNG stationsacross the country3. Improve energyefficiencythrough retrofittingandmanaging vehicle usage4. Implement stringent standards for reducing CO2 emissions from vehicles5. Improve railwayand waterway systems for increased containerized freight transport6. Improve roads and road networks, and construct road detours7. Increase the installation of light-emittingdiodes in traffic lighting8. Undertake land use, urban and transport planning to improve traffic management, transport systems,

includingnon-motorized transport (cycling, walking)

Adaptation measures1. Construct buildings with designs to improve cross ventilation, prevent direct sunlight in the afternoon,

and reduce heat gains with shading covers2. Developandimplementenvironmentalstandardsforefficientuseofenergy

3. Discouragetheimportandtheuseofoutdatedandfuel- inefficientmotorvehicles4. Impose heavy taxes on the imported luxury cars and encourage car pools5. Make public road, rail and water transports more comfortable and affordable6. Buildinstitutionalcapacitytomonitorambientairqualityandairpollutionregularly7. Raise theawarenessof thepubliconthevaluesofenergyconservationandreduced GHG emissions, and

their uncontrolled impacts

6.2 Industrial Processes Sector6.2.1 ObjectiveTo realize energysaving, conservation and efficiencythrough improved management systems, increased use ofcleaner energy, energy-efficient technologies and equipment, and adoption of environmental regulations andstandards.

6.2.2 PoliciesToadoptenergyefficiencystandards and labelingsystem, toprohibitmanufacture and importofGHGinefficientproducts, and to promote energyefficiencyand emission control technologies

6.2.3 StrategiesTo practice Green Certification Program, to promote clean technologies and cleaner production

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6.2.4ActionsMitigationmeasures

1. Sethighenergyefficiencyandenvironmentalstandardsforefficientuseofenergy2. Conduct at each industryEfficiencyAudit and label the industryand the product, if theysatisfy the set

standards, forexample,GreenIndustry, andHighEfficiencyProductrespectively.3. Support such industries byproviding tax benefits.4. Encourage use of renewable energies such as solar and wind by providing incentives.5. FurtherpromoteuseofCNGandLPGinindustrialprocessingthroughsubsidies.

Adaptation measures

1. Encourage the use of more energy efficient boilers, motors, and furnaces2. Introduce energy-saving, process-specific technologies3. Initiate the development of carbon capture and storage for energy-intensive plants4. Implement measures to capture nitrous oxide from industrial processes.5. Implement energy-savingregulations, standards and improved management systems6. Provide energyefficiency-related information services such as handbooks and educational talks, and

conduct advocacy extensively for energy conservation and use of clean energy through all availablemedia

6.3 Agriculture and Livestock Sector6.3.1 Objectives

1. To reduce GHG emissions from the agricultural sector while increasing food production that securesself sufficiencyand surplus for export.

2. To keep CH4 emission under control in enhancing paddyproduction3. To limit the emission of CH4 and N2O from livestock through improved management.

6.3.2. PoliciesFollow “Code of GoodAgricultural Practice” strictly, ensure increased food production in a climate friendlymanner, and improve livestock management so as to mitigate GHG emissions.

6.3.3. StrategiesImprove rice cultivation method and water management, promote organic farming,research and develop onclimate-resilient crop varieties, breed genetically improved strainsof animals and regulate their population, andimprove animal feed with qualityforageand mineral supplements.


1. Reduce tillage in rice fields, and improve water and crop management, select rice varieties properly,practice crop rotation, and promote climatefriendlytechnologies such asConservationAgriculture andSlopingAgriculturalLandTechnology(SALT).

2. Applyherbicides to inhibit nitrification and de-nitrification to reduce N2O emission.3. Practice intermittent irrigation technique in rice fields to reduce CH4 emission.4. Reduceuseofmineralfertilizers,usephosphor-gypsumincombinationwithureatoreduceCH4 emission,

and apply slow release fertilizers to reduce N2O emission.5. Promoteorganic farmingwith increaseduseofbio-fertilizersandvia improvedcropresiduemanagement

and manage properly the application of fertilizers and pesticides.6. Introduce straw mulching with zero tillage in deep-water rice fields7. Produce high qualityforage, avoid over-grazing, and improve pastoral management.

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8. Improve manure management, and Store manure in lagoons to use as bio-fertilizer9. Use mineral supplements to reduce feeding amount, and supplement poor qualityroughage with urea

molasses, legume and/or low-cost agricultural by-products.10. Store manure in anaerobic lagoons to use as bio-fertilizer bydeep application

11. Collect CH4 emitted from manure and use as fuel for heating and lighting

Adaptation measures1. Adjust agricultural cropping systems such ascrop diversification, and multiple, mixed, inter-cropping,

and improve management measures, such as water saving, optimized fertilization, soil and waterconservation, and increased use of bio-fertilizers.

2. Promote stress-resistant genetic strains of crops, encourage the increased use of high-quality stress-resistant plant varieties, bio-fertilizers and eco-friendlypesticides.

3. Developincentive/disincentivemeasuresandpracticecrop-mixandorganicfarmingtoensureagriculturalecosystem to adjust better and resilient to climate change effects.

4. Increase and expand water impoundment systems throughponds, dams, lakes andrain water collectionfacilities, and improve water use conservation and efficiency

5. Upgrade and enhance dissemination of weather-related earlywarning system6. Improve post-harvest treatment and use better storage facilities

7. Identify and integrate climate risk reduction measures into agriculture, and ensure human resources,budget and advanced technologyfor implementing these measures.

8. Promote dry-land agriculture, and preserve soil moisture and fertility in the DryZone9. Protect pastures against wild fires, man-made burning, over-grazing, and soil erosion.10.Supplement ruminant fermentation-controlmedicine in livestock diets.11. Add fermentation stabilizers and micro-organism repressors to animal diets12.Breed high-qualityvarieties to increase productivityand total production with optimized number of

animals, and protect livestock against heat stress13.Establishlivestockfarmingzonestofacilitatethelivestockmanagementwithjointundertakings, including

installation of common manure disposal, among others.

6.4. Land Use Change and Forestry6.4.1 Objectives

1. Preserve and enhance forest carbon reservoir and sink to help combat climate change2. To minimizeGHG emissions from landuse change

6.4.2 PoliciesPromote carbon sequestration through sustainable forest ecosystem development, and cause change of landuse to be preceded by EIA in accord with broad National Land Use Plan

6.4.3 StrategiesIntroduce private forestry, manage state (or public) and non-state forests in a sustainable manner, intensify re-afforestation programmes, promote community forestry and urban tree plantings, encourage manufacture oflong lasting value added forest products, develop national land use plan, and let EIA precede anymajor landuse change


1. Protect existing forests, expand forest extent, and increase forest densityand growth

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2. Expand ProtectedAreas System, conserve biological diversityand productivity, recover endangeredspecies, and maintain structural diversityof forest and species mixture

3. Avoid clear felling of forest in timber harvest, practice“reduced impact loggingsystem”, andrestore orreplant harvested areas, depleted areas and degraded forests

4. Increase advocacy and educate public about community forestry (CF)5. Applyagro-forestryor aqua-forestrysystems, as appropriate, to establish CFs in order to generate early

financialbenefitsandthusensurecommunityparticipation6. ContinueForestDepartment’sprogramof freedistributionofseedlingsfor roadsideand urban greening,

and consider incentives to ensure the survival of the planted trees7. Develop technologies of manufacturing superior quality forest products to extend the lives of wood

end uses, and meet forest related human needs8. Promote the use of wood products in place of energy-intensive construction materials.9. Developandimplementnational landuseplan tosustainpermanent forest estate10. Conduct EIA and cost-benefit analysis prior to deciding any major land use change.

Adaptation measures1. Enrich and sustain biodiversity, and develop stress-resilient genetic strains2. Practice multi-culture and structurallycomplex forest ecosystems management3. Promote private and community forestry, and intensifymangrove re-afforestation4. Conduct research and encourage planting drought- and fire- resistant tree species5. Establishanefficient forest fire fightingmechanism6. Raise public awareness and participation in forest management and development.

6.5. Waste Sector6.5.1 ObjectivesTo reduce GHG emissions through improved waste management and energy recovery from waste, to makeboth urban and rural areas free from environmental pollution and health hazards, and to enhance aestheticappreciation of cities

6.5.2 PoliciesStrengthen “Greenand Clean Country” campaign tomake the countrygreen and clean reducingGHG emissionsandenvironmentalpollution.

6.5.3 StrategiesMinimizepercapitawastegeneration, recyclewaste,generateheat and electricityfromwaste treatment, advocateself-cleanliness and public hygiene, practice “Polluter PaySystem”


1. Reduce the volume of waste per capita, and educate the public on waste management.

2. Categorize waste and dispose it properly at designated landfills, expand waste storage and treatmentfacilities, and generateelectricityusing landfill gas

3. Encourage waste recycle and promote market opportunities for recycled products4. Eliminate the use of polyethylene plastic bags.5. Enforce regulations, standards, and “polluter paysystem” for waste management

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EST Database on Emission Reduction Projects

1. GHG Emission reduction(EST) projects proposed under theALGAS project in 1998.The proposed projectsbased on GHG emission reduction under theAsia Least-costGreenhouse GasAbatementStrategy-Myanmar(ALGAS-Myanmar) project implemented by National Commission for EnvironmentalAffairs(NCEA) in cooperation with GEF,ADB and UNEPin 1998 are as follows:-

(1) Developing Institutions and Capacity for Inventoryof GHGs in Myanmar.(2) Rural Electrification through Bioenergy.(3) LPG cookers to replace electric cookers.

(4) Dissemination of BiogasTechnologyfor GHGs Emission Reduction in Shan State.

(5) Fuel-Efficient Cookstoves and Participatory Forestry for Carbon Emissions Reduction in Shan Stateof Myanmar.

2. Emission reduction(EST) projects identified for Myanmar in 2005 to be selected as CDMproject.

Taking advantage of the Projects on needs assessment on TechnologyTransfer to Mitigate the effect of GlobalWarming in Myanmar, implemented in 2005 bythe National Commission for EnvironmentalAffairs(NCEA),Myanmar in cooperation with NEDO, KRI., Inc, Japan. The following 33 ESTs were identified for Myanmarto be selected as CDM projects.

The Outlineof 33 EnvironmentallySoundTechnologies identified for Myanmar to be selected asCDM projectsare shown inAppendix (A).

The most preferred technologies of various ministries concerned are as follows-1. Generation of wind power, waste power and solar power2. Utilization ofenergyfrommethane fermentation4. Rehabilitation of dye-works, introduction of energysaving equipments5. Making boiler plants more energyefficient6. Spread of low-pollution vehicles, clean energyautomobiles7. Modal shift8. Rehabilitation ofpetrochemical plants9. Introduction of energy-saving equipment10. Fuel conversion11. Promoting increased use of biodegradable plastics12. Rehabilitation of refineries, introduction of energysavingequipment13. Introduction of new transportation systems (dual-mode bus system, etc)

CDM related projects undertaken in cooperation with NEDO, Japan 1998-2004CDM related projects based on emission reduction under the Kyoto Protocol have been implemented byvarious ministries in Myanmar in cooperation with NEDO, Japan ( 1998 to 2004). The status of theseprojects are shown inAppendix (B).

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1. Proposed emission reduction(EST) projects under UNFCCC-INC in 2010

The proposed projects based on GHG emission reduction under the Preparation of the INC underthe UNFCCC Project implemented by NCEA in cooperation with UNEP in 2008-2010 are asfollows:-1) Green House Gas (GHGs) Mitigation of Bio-energy Potential to Improve the Livelihood and

toAttain the EnergySecurityof Rural Communities in Myanmar.2) Bamboo Bio- ethanol Production and Utilization in RuralArea.3) Low cost plastic Biodigester Proposal.4) Dissemination ofA-1 Fuel-wood Improved Cook-stoves for GHGs Emission

Reduction Project.

5) Agricultural opportunities for Green House Gas (GHGs) mitigation in Myanmar.

6) Mitigation of CH4 Emission from Rice Fields byFertilizer Management Practices

7) Mitigation of CH4 Emission from Rice Fields byWater Management Practices8) Mitigation of N2O Emission from Lowland PaddyField byOrganic Manuring and Water

Management9) Effect of Integrated Nutrient Management and Method of FertilizerApplication on N2O

Emission from Commercial Cabbage Production in Myanmar.10) Project Proposal for Small Scale Reforestation Pilot Project inAyeyarwady Delta.

11) Wind power generation.12) Waste power generation.13) Utilization ofenergyfrom methane fermentation.14) Rehabilitation of dye-works, introduction of energysaving equipments.15) Making boiler plants more energyefficient.16) Spread of low-pollution vehicles, clean energyautomobiles.17) Modal shift.18) Solar power generation.19) Rehabilitation of petrochemicalplants, introduction of energy-saving20) Equipment21) Fuel conversion.22) Promoting increased use of biodegradable plastics.23) Rehabilitation of refineries, introduction of energysaving equipment.24) Introduction of new transportation systems (dual-mode bus system, etc).

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Annex V

Sr.No

-Direct convers ionby solar cell

-Efficiency < 15% -Approx $ 5,000/ 1KW( moduled

panel -Battery, trans , inverter sys tem for hous ing, Japan bas is )-For hous ing,indus tries , publicuse

-Panel s ize: 1.3 X 0.9m

-Depend on sunshine

Output : 190W

-Low emiss ion ofCO2-Energy efficiency< 40%-Electricalgeneration us ing

-Ex) 10-50 kWh. Waterflow

flowing waterpower

0.1-8 m3/s

-Especially us efulin rural or

-Suitable forcombination

non-electrifiedareas

with solar or windpower- Was te 150-1,000tons /day- Efficiency < 20%

-Agricultural was te,wooden was te

-Continuous supply of

-Power generationby direct

biomass material

combus tion of gasformation

-100kWh 60-70kgCO2

-Pelletization foreasy handling

reduction (crude oil,NG

-Carbon neutral(No more CO2

generation)

emis s ion)

-Exis ting fuel(Crudeoil or coal ; muchCO2 , SO2 emiss ion

- Boiler burner sys temchange

- Natural gas ; 10-20% CO2reduction

-Main equipment;burner and

gas supply sys tem

6 Utilization ofenergy frommethane

- CH4 Gasreduction

- Gas engine generation - Nearly M$ 8 / 1,700kW Plant

7 Fuel Convers ionof Power Plant :switching crudeoil or coal tonatural gas

- Approx. M$ 1

4 Was te powergeneration

- Carbon neutral - Nearly M$ 30/1 unit(10,000kW )

5 Utilization ofBiomass energysuch as fromwood/chaff

2 W ind powergeneration

- Various scale 0.4-2,000KW

- Nearly M$ 3 / 1unit (1,000KW

3 Medium and Small-scale hydraulicpower generation

EnvironmentallySoundTechnologies

Outline Specification Cos t

1 Solar powergeneration

Sr.No

-Direct convers ionby solar cell

-Efficiency < 15% -Approx $ 5,000/ 1KW( moduled

panel -Battery, trans , inverter sys tem for hous ing, Japan bas is )-For hous ing,indus tries , publicuse

-Panel s ize: 1.3 X 0.9m

-Depend on sunshine

Output : 190W

-Low emiss ion ofCO2-Energy efficiency< 40%-Electricalgeneration us ing

-Ex) 10-50 kWh. Waterflow

flowing waterpower

0.1-8 m3/s

-Especially us efulin rural or

-Suitable forcombination

non-electrifiedareas

with solar or windpower- Was te 150-1,000tons /day- Efficiency < 20%

6 Utilization of

7 Fuel Convers ion

4 Was te powergeneration

- Carbon neutral - Nearly M$ 30/1 unit(10,000kW )

5 Utilization of

2 W ind powergeneration

- Various scale 0.4-2,000KW

- Nearly M$ 3 / 1unit (1,000KW

3 Medium and Small-scale hydraulicpower generation

EnvironmentallySoundTechnologies

Outline Specification Cos t

1 Solar powergeneration

-Continuous supply of-Agricultural was te,wooden was te

5 Utilization ofBiomass energysuch as fromwood/chaff -Power generation

by directbiomass material

combus tion of gasformation

-100kWh 60-70kgCO2

-Pelletization foreasy handling

reduction (crude oil,NG

-Carbon neutral(No more CO2

generation)

emis s ion)- Gas engine generation - Nearly M$ 8 / 1,700kW Plant- Gas engine generation - Nearly M$ 8 / 1,700kW Plant- CH4 Gas

reduction6 Utilization ofenergy frommethane - Approx. M$ 1- Boiler burner sys tem

change-Exis ting fuel(Crudeoil or coal ; muchCO2 , SO2 emiss ion

7 Fuel Convers ionof Power Plant :switching crudeoil or coal tonatural gas - Natural gas ; 10-

20% CO2reduction

-Main equipment;burner and

gas supply sys tem

AppendixV(A)

2012 Annex V

- Combined power generationsystem by gas and steamedturbines

-650-10,000 kWh

-Suitable for heatconsumption facilities

-Generation efficiency ,45%existing gas turbine; 20-25%(assumed)

- Reduction of transmission - Replace or rehabilitationof

losses of electric power transmission facilities-Reduction of power (transmission loss in

Japan ; 6-9%)transmission system- Rehabilitation of heatsupply

-CO2 reduction ; 10-20%

facilities or boiler house -Improving energyconsumption

-Fuel switching fromheavyoil or

efficiency

coal to natural gas -Main equipment; burnerand gassupply system

-Inspection of gas leakage - Pipe replacement-Maintenance of gas pipe line -Anti-corrosion treatment

-Corrosion-proof, painting

-Methane gas recovery fromcoal

-Generation efficiency; 25-40%

mines -100kWh ---60-70kg-co2reduction (crude oil, NGgeneration)

-Power generation, wasteheatrecovery-Catching head gases fromoil - Ex) LPG; butane 95%,

propane 5%fields as LPG Ex) LPG; butane 95%,

propane 5%-Gas supply to town

12 Methane gasrecovery from coalmines

13 Associated gasrecovery fromoilfields

10 Rehabilitation of heatsupply facilities, fuelconversion, updatingof equipment

11 Repair andOptimization of gaspipelines

8 Introduction ofcombined cycle

-Approx. $ 1,000/ kWh

9 Reduction oftransmission losses

- Combined power generationsystem by gas and steamedturbines

-650-10,000 kWh

-Suitable for heatconsumption facilities

-Generation efficiency ,45%existing gas turbine; 20-25%(assumed)

- Reduction of transmission - Replace or rehabilitationof

losses of electric power transmission facilities-Reduction of power (transmission loss in

Japan ; 6-9%)transmission system

12 Methane gas

13 Associated gas

10

11 Repair and

8 Introduction ofcombined cycle

-Approx. $ 1,000/ kWh

9 Reduction oftransmission losses

-CO2 reduction ; 10-20%- Rehabilitation of heatsupply

Rehabilitation of heatsupply facilities, fuelconversion, updatingof equipment

facilities or boiler house -Improving energyconsumption

facilities or boiler house -Improving energy

efficiency-Fuel switching fromheavyoil orcoal to natural gas -Main equipment; burner

and gascoal to natural gas -Main equipment; burner

supply system

-Inspection of gas leakage - Pipe replacement-Inspection of gas leakage - Pipe replacement11 Repair andOptimization of gaspipelines

-Maintenance of gas pipe line -Anti-corrosion treatment-Maintenance of gas pipe line -Anti-corrosion treatment

-Corrosion-proof, painting

-Generation efficiency; 25-40%

-Methane gas recovery fromcoal

12 Methane gasrecovery from coalmines -100kWh ---60-70kg-co2

reduction (crude oil, NGgeneration)

mines

-Power generation, wasteheatrecovery

- Ex) LPG; butane 95%,propane 5%

-Catching head gases fromoil13 Associated gasrecovery fromoilfields Ex) LPG; butane 95%,

propane 5%fields as LPG

-Gas supply to town

Page 251

2012

Page 252

Annex V

-W as te h eatrecovery from

- Depend on th e res u lts o f

fu rn aces o rexhau s ted gas es o f

d iagno s is

iron work indus try(ex. Coal

-100kW h----60-70kg-co 2 reduction

oven gas )

-High efficiencypower with

inverter d riv e

- Heat recoverys ys tem (e.g .

s team generation )

-High efficiencyequ ipmen ts (e.g .o il h eater)

-Recovery o ff gas ,LPG, hyd rogen-Reduction heatlo s s- Heat recoverys ys tem (e.g .s team generation )


-Reduction heatlo s s-Energy s av ing o fto tal p lan t- Power generationby was te h eat


-Vertical mill, h igh -efficien cy

d iagno s is

equ ipmen ts-High efficiencypower withinverter d riv e

- Rehab ilita tion o fb lack liquo r

- Ex) b lack liquo r bo iler

evapo rato r, d ry erhood and

Black liquo r 2,900ton /d ay , generation85,000kW

pres s mach in e Calo rific v alu e o f b lack liquo r; 12.6M J/ton (d ry )

-In troduction o fp riv ate powergeneration

-Energy s av ing o fwho le facto ries

18 Rehab ilita tiono f pu lp & papermills ,in troduction o fenergy -s av ingequ ipmen t

16 Rehab ilita tiono fp etro chemicalp lan ts ,in troduction o fenergy -s av ingequ ipmen t

- Depend on th e res u lts o f d iagno s is - Depend on s itu ation ;A pp rox. M $ 1-100

17 Rehab ilita tiono f cemen tp lan ts ,in troduction o fenergy -s av ingequ ipmen t

14 Rehab ilita tiono f s teel mills ,in troduction o fenergy -s av ingequ ipmen t

15 Rehab ilita tiono f refin eries ,in troduction o fenergy -s av ingequ ipmen t


-W as te h eatrecovery from


fu rn aces o rexhau s ted gas es o f

d iagno s is

iron work indus try(ex. Coal

-100kW h----60-70kg-co 2 reduction

oven gas )

-High efficiencypower with

inverter d riv e

- Heat recoverys ys tem (e.g .

s team generation )


-Recovery o ff gas ,LPG, hyd rogen-Reduction heatlo s s- Heat recoverys ys tem (e.g .s team generation )


-Reduction heatlo s s-Energy s av ing o fto tal p lan t- Power generationby was te h eat


-Vertical mill, h igh -efficien cy

d iagno s is

equ ipmen ts-High efficiencypower withinverter d riv e

- Rehab ilita tion o fb lack liquo r

- Ex) b lack liquo r bo iler

evapo rato r, d ry erhood and

Black liquo r 2,900ton /d ay , generation85,000kW

pres s mach in e Calo rific v alu e o f b lack liquo r; 12.6M J/ton (d ry )

-In troduction o fp riv ate powergeneration

18 Rehab ilita tiono f pu lp & papermills ,in troduction o fenergy -s av ingequ ipmen t

16 Rehab ilita tiono fp etro chemicalp lan ts ,in troduction o fenergy -s av ingequ ipmen t


17 Rehab ilita tiono f cemen tp lan ts ,in troduction o fenergy -s av ingequ ipmen t

14 Rehab ilita tiono f s teel mills ,in troduction o fenergy -s av ingequ ipmen t

15 Rehab ilita tiono f refin eries ,in troduction o fenergy -s av ingequ ipmen t


-Energy s av ing o fwho le facto ries

2012 Annex V

-Low liquid ratiodyeing machine

-Energy saving 40-60% - Nearly M$ 0.2/ 1 unit

system -Water saving 30-50% (200ton/y)

-Waste heatrecoveryequipment- GHGreductionfromwaste-

- Heat pump

water or wastedisposal

-Coefficient of Performance

-High efficiencyboiler, reduction

(COP): 1-3

heat losss andswitching fuels

- Heat efficiency 90-95% - Nearly M$ 0.02/ 1 unit

-Various scale 100 kg/h – 10ton/h

(1.5ton/h

- Usage of CNG - Remodeling cost $ 8,000/ 1

-CO2 reduction- 30% vehicle

-NOxreduction- 95% -Construction of CNG

station M$ 1

-Reduction of CO2 - Improvement of energy

- to 1/5 by Railwaytransport

consumption efficiency

- to ¼ by Sea transport

-Provide driversroad and trafficinformation

-Support driversto choose the

best route

-Reduction ofenergyconsumption-Emissions ofGHGaccompanied- GHGreductionin Urban Area-Bus runs ineconomicalspeedon theexclusive road-Improvement ofconvenience ofbus

24 Use of ITS

25 Introduction of newtransportationsystems( Dual-mode bus system,etc.)

22 Spread of low-pollution vehicles,clean energyautomobiles

-CNGvehicle

23 Modal shift - Long-distancetransport

19 Rehabilitation ofdye-works,introduction ofenergy-savingequipment

20 Rehabilitation offood factories,introduction ofenergy-savingequipment

21 Making boilerplants more energy-efficient

-Low liquid ratiodyeing machine

-Energy saving 40-60% - Nearly M$ 0.2/ 1 unit

system -Water saving 30-50% (200ton/y)

-Waste heatrecoveryequipment- GHGreductionfromwaste-

- Heat pump

water or wastedisposal

-Coefficient of Performance

-High efficiencyboiler, reduction

(COP): 1-3

heat losss andswitching fuels

- Heat efficiency 90-95% - Nearly M$ 0.02/ 1 unit

-Various scale 100 kg/h – 10ton/h

(1.5ton/h

- Usage of CNG - Remodeling cost $ 8,000/ 1

-CO2 reduction- 30% vehicle

-NOxreduction- 95% -Construction of CNG

station M$ 1

-Reduction of CO2 - Improvement of energy

- to 1/5 by Railwaytransport

consumption efficiency

- to ¼ by Sea transport

-Provide driversroad and trafficinformation

-Support driversto choose the

best route

-Reduction ofenergyconsumption-Emissions ofGHGaccompanied- GHGreductionin Urban Area-Bus runs ineconomicalspeedon theexclusive road-Improvement ofconvenience ofbus

24 Use of ITS

25 Introduction of newtransportationsystems( Dual-mode bus system,etc.)

22 Spread of low-pollution vehicles,clean energyautomobiles

-CNGvehicle

23 Modal shift - Long-distancetransport

19 Rehabilitation ofdye-works,introduction ofenergy-savingequipment

20 Rehabilitation offood factories,introduction ofenergy-savingequipment

21 Making boilerplants more energy-efficient

Page 253

2012

-Utilization energyefficiently-Introducingcogeneration intoprivate facilities

- Hospitals

- Hotels

- Officebuildings- ShoppingCenters etc.- Lower standbyelectricity of

- Standby electricity requirement

home electronics accounts for 105 of all power

consumption

-Videocassette recorders(VCR)

-Gas-burning water heaters

-Audio appliances

-Telephone with FAX

-Television

-Making of lighting Fluorescent

lamp

-LED Traffic lights:

-power consumption is about

1/5 of the lamp types

- Reducing thepower

- Introduction of energy

consumption consumption technique into

Buildings or Hotels

- Introducinginverter-controlled

- Reduction of power

systems consumption(Effect of 30% ormore

- Effective Use ofincineration

- Performance equal with general

Ash, sewage plantsludg

cement

- Recycle foodwaste to composts

- Making of food waste loss in

or feeds weigh

- Reduction of CO2 - Material Cost: Threetimes

-Plastics of biomass origin general plastics

-Resolve by microorganism in soil

32 Utilization ofRecycled foodwaste

33 Promotingincreased use ofbiodegradableplastics

- Carbon neutral

30 Making waterand sewagetreatment plantsmore energy--

- M$ 1.5-3 / 100kW

31 Promotingincreased use ofEco-cement andReady-mixed

- Manufacturing cost :$250/ton (Capacity110,000ton/year)

28 Introduction ofhigh-efficiencylighting

-Reducing thepowerconsumption

-Two times general Lamp

29 Makingbuildings moreenergy--efficient

26 Adoption of co-generation bybusinesses

- M$ 5,000-7,000 /55MW

27 Making electrichouseholdappliances moreenergy-efficient

-Utilization energyefficiently-Introducingcogeneration intoprivate facilities

- Hospitals

- Hotels

- Officebuildings- ShoppingCenters etc.- Lower standbyelectricity of

- Standby electricity requirement

home electronics accounts for 105 of all power

consumption

-Videocassette recorders(VCR)

-Gas-burning water heaters

-Audio appliances

-Telephone with FAX

-Television

-Making of lighting Fluorescent

lamp

-LED Traffic lights:

-power consumption is about

1/5 of the lamp types

- Reducing thepower

- Introduction of energy

consumption consumption technique into

Buildings or Hotels

- Introducinginverter-controlled

- Reduction of power

systems consumption(Effect of 30% ormore

- Effective Use ofincineration

- Performance equal with general

Ash, sewage plantsludg

cement

32 Utilization of

33 Promoting

30 Making waterand sewagetreatment plantsmore energy--

- M$ 1.5-3 / 100kW

31 Promotingincreased use ofEco-cement andReady-mixed

- Manufacturing cost :$250/ton (Capacity110,000ton/year)

28 Introduction ofhigh-efficiencylighting

-Reducing thepowerconsumption

-Two times general Lamp

29 Makingbuildings moreenergy--efficient

26 Adoption of co-generation bybusinesses

- M$ 5,000-7,000 /55MW

27 Making electrichouseholdappliances moreenergy-efficient

- Making of food waste loss in- Recycle foodwaste to composts

32 Utilization ofRecycled foodwaste weighor feeds

- Material Cost: Threetimes

- Reduction of CO2- Carbon neutral33 Promotingincreased use ofbiodegradableplastics

-Plastics of biomass origin general plastics-Plastics of biomass origin general plastics

-Resolve by microorganism in soil

Annex V

Page 254

2012

Sr.No.

Project Name Counterpart Agency ImplementationSite

Duration ofProject

1 Demonstrative Research on PredictionMethod of Average W ind Speed

Minis try of ElectricPower(MOEP)

Nationwide 1999

2 Wind power and Photovoltaic EnergyAssessment by Numerical WeatherMethod

Department of Meteorologyand Hydrology

Nationwide 1999

3 Feas ibility Studies for ResearchCooperation on Photovoltaic PowerGeneration Sys tem

Minis try of Electric PowerEnterprise(MEPE)

Nationwide 1998

4 Cooperative Research Project on Waterand Wastewater ; Small EquipmentAdaptation by Photovoltaic PowerGeneration Sys tem Utilization

Kownship DevelopmentAffairs

KyaukseTownship

2001

Minis try of Energy(MOE),

PetrochemicalEnterprise(MPE)

1999

6 Feas ibility Studies for the Model Projectfor High Efficiency Gas TurbineTechnology


DPE, MOEP,Ywama PowerPlant

2001

7 Bas ic Research Project for EfficientEnergy consumption and CooperationProject for Energy consumptionSeminar

Foreign Economic RelationsDepartment(FERD), Minis tryof Energy

Yangon 1999

8 Survey on Adaptation of Energyconservation Equipment for a Pulp Plant

Minis try of Indus try No.(1) Myanmar Paperand ChemicalsEnterprise,Sittaung PaperMill

2001

9 The Adaptation of Pipeline in the CrudeOil Unloading Sys tem at ThanlyinRefinery

MOE, MPE,ThanlyinRefinery

2001

10 Feas ibility Studies for GreenhouseGases Reductions by Ins talling ModemRefinery Facilities at Thanlyin Refinery


2000

11 The rehabilitation Project as CDMAimed at Reducing Emiss ions of GHG

Tharkayta GasTurbine PowerPlant, owned bythe MyanmaElectric PowerEnterprise(MEPE)

2000

12 Project for Reduction of Integrated Lossfrom Supply and Demand/ ThermalPower Generation

Bago, Magweand Mandalay

1999

13 Demonstrative Research on a Grid-Connected Photovoltaic powerGeneration Sys tem

Department of electricPower, Minis try of Electricpower

Chaungthar,AyeyarwadyDivis ion

1999-2004

14 The Model Project on High-EfficiencyGas Turbine Technology

Minis try of electric Power Myanmar electricPower Enterprise,Yangon

2002-2004

15 The Model Project for EnergyConservation in Fertilizer Plant

Myanmar Petrochemicalenterprise(MPE), minis try ofenergy

No. 3 Kyaw ZwaFertilizer Factory,MPE

2000-2002

5 Feas ibility Studies for the Model ProjectImplementation Saving Energy inFertilizer Plant

MOE, MPE, No. 3Kyaw ZwaFertilizer Factory

Sr.No.

Project Name Counterpart Agency ImplementationSite

Duration ofProject

1 Demonstrative Research on PredictionMethod of Average W ind Speed


Nationwide 1999

2 Wind power and Photovoltaic EnergyAssessment by Numerical WeatherMethod

Department of Meteorologyand Hydrology

Nationwide 1999

3 Feas ibility Studies for ResearchCooperation on Photovoltaic PowerGeneration Sys tem

Minis try of Electric PowerEnterprise(MEPE)

Nationwide 1998

4 Cooperative Research Project on Waterand Wastewater ; Small EquipmentAdaptation by Photovoltaic PowerGeneration Sys tem Utilization

Kownship DevelopmentAffairs

KyaukseTownship

2001

Minis try of Energy(MOE),

PetrochemicalEnterprise(MPE)

1999

6 Feas ibility Studies for the Model Projectfor High Efficiency Gas TurbineTechnology


DPE, MOEP,Ywama PowerPlant

2001

7 Bas ic Research Project for EfficientEnergy consumption and CooperationProject for Energy consumptionSeminar

Foreign Economic RelationsDepartment(FERD), Minis tryof Energy

Yangon 1999

8 Survey on Adaptation of Energyconservation Equipment for a Pulp Plant

Minis try of Indus try No.(1) Myanmar Paperand ChemicalsEnterprise,Sittaung PaperMill

2001

9 The Adaptation of Pipeline in the CrudeOil Unloading Sys tem at ThanlyinRefinery


2001

10 Feas ibility Studies for GreenhouseGases Reductions by Ins talling ModemRefinery Facilities at Thanlyin Refinery


2000

11 The rehabilitation Project as CDMAimed at Reducing Emiss ions of GHG

Tharkayta GasTurbine PowerPlant, owned bythe MyanmaElectric PowerEnterprise(MEPE)

2000

12 Project for Reduction of Integrated Lossfrom Supply and Demand/ ThermalPower Generation

Bago, Magweand Mandalay

1999

13 Demonstrative Research on a Grid-Connected Photovoltaic powerGeneration Sys tem

Department of electricPower, Minis try of Electricpower

Chaungthar,AyeyarwadyDivis ion

1999-2004

14 The Model Project on High-EfficiencyGas Turbine Technology

Minis try of electric Power Myanmar electricPower Enterprise,Yangon

2002-2004

15 The Model Project for EnergyConservation in Fertilizer Plant

Myanmar Petrochemicalenterprise(MPE), minis try ofenergy

No. 3 Kyaw ZwaFertilizer Factory,MPE

2000-2002

5 Feas ibility Studies for the Model ProjectImplementation Saving Energy inFertilizer Plant

MOE, MPE, No. 3Kyaw ZwaFertilizer Factory

Annex V

Page 255

2012

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Acronyms

AAAC AnnualAllowable CutA1TMES Reference Scenario of Climate Secnarios ofVarious Climatic ElementsADORC Acid Deposition and Oxidant Research CenterADPC Asian Disaster Preparedness CenterAL Affected LevelALGAS Asia Least Cost Greenhouse GasAbatement StrategyAR Afforestation/ReforestationASCMG ASEAN Subcommittee on Meteorologyand GeophysicsAWOS Automatic Weather Observing Systems

BBANCA Biodiversityand Nature ConservationAssociationBBIMSTEC Bayof Bengal Initiatives for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic CooperationBEHS Basic Education High SchoolBEMS Basic Education Middle SchoolBEPS Basic Education PrimarySchoolBMD Burma Meteorological DepartmentBOD Boichemical OxygenDemandBSS Burma Selection System

CCBD ConventiononBiological DiversityCBO CommunityBased OrganizationCCC Climate Change ConcernCCR Coastal CommunityResilienceCDM Clean Development MechanismCDMA Code Division MultipleAccessCFC ChlorofluorocarbonCFI CommunityForestryInstructionsCGAP Code of GoodAgriculture PracticeCH4 MethaneCIC Climate Information CenterCIF Climate Investment FundsCITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora and faunaCL Confidence LevelCLICOM CLImat COMputingCLMV Cambodia, Laos PDR, Myanmar, VietnamCMA ChinaMeteorologicalAdministrationC/N Carbon/Nitrogen ratioCNG Compress Natural GasCO Carbon MonoxideCO2 Carbon Dioxide

Acronyms

2012

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CONOPS Concept of OperationsCOP Conferences of the PartiesCPU Catch Per UnitCSIRO Commonwealth Scientific andIndustrial Research OrganizationCSO Central Statistical Organization

DDDA Department for DevelopmentAffairsDFN Departure From NormalDMH Department of Meteorologyand HydrologyDNA Designated NationalAuthorityDoF Department of FisheriesDO Dissolved OxygenDZGD DryZone Greening Department

EEANET Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in EastAsiaECC Environmental Conservation CommitteeECCDI Ecosystem Conservation andCommunityDevelopment InitiativeEIA Environmental ImpactAssessmentEEZ Exclusive EconomicZoneENSO El NinoSouthern OscillationEPA Myanmar National Environmental PerformanceAssessmentEST EnvironmentallySoundTechnologyESTIS EnvironmentallySoundTechnologiesInformationSystemETPA Education, Training and PublicAwareness on climate change

FFAO Food andAgriculture OrganizationFCR Crop Residue FertilizerFD Forest DepartmentFON Organic Nitrogen FertilizerFPRP False Positive Report Probability(Genetics)FRA Forest ResourceAssessmentFREDA Forest Resources Environment DevelopmentAssociationFSN Synthetic Nitrogen Fertilizers

GGDP Gross Domestic ProductGFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamics LaboratoryGEF GlobalEnvironmentFacilityGHG Greenhouse gasGLOSS Global Observing Sea StationsGMS Greater Mekong SubregionGPG Good Practice GuidanceGSM Global System for Mobile CommunicationGSN Global Surface Network

Acronyms

2012

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HHCFC HydrocholrofluorocarbonHFA Hyogo Framework forActionHFC HydrofluorocarbonHPMP Hydrofluorocarbon Phase out Management PlanHWP Harvested wood products

IICS Incident Command SystemICT InformationCommunicationTechnologiesIEC InformationEducation and CommunicationIETC International EnvironmentalTechnologyCentreIFAD International FundforAgricultural DevelopmentIIT Indian InstituteofTechnologyIMO International Meteorological OrganizationINC InitialNationalCommunicationIndOOS Indian Ocean Observing SystemINGO International Non Government OrganizationIOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic CommissionIPCC Inter-governmental Panel on Climate ChangeITTA InternationalTropicalTimberAgreementIUCN International Union for Conservation of NatureIWRM Integrated Water Resources ManagementIWT Inland Water Transport

JJAXA JapanAerospace ExplorationAgencyJCOMM Joint WMO/IOCTechnical Commission for Oceanographyand Marine

MeteorologyJI Joint ImplementationJICA Japan International CooperationAgencyJIFPRO Japan International ForestryPromotion and Cooperation CenterJMA Japan MeteorologicalAgency

KKOICA Korea International CooperationAgency

LLBVD Livestock Breeding andVeterinaryDepartmentLDCF Least Developed Countries FundLNGO Local Non Government OrganizationLPG Liquefied Petrolium Gas

Acronyms

2012

MMAGICC/SCENG-EN Model for theAssessmentofGreenhousegasInducedClimateChange/

SCENario GENerator Scenariogenerator is thesoftware tospecificallydesigened to allow simulation of whole health and social care systems

MAPDRR MyanmarAction Plan on Disaster Risk ReductionMDG MillenniumDevelopmentGoalMEA . MultilateralEnvironmentalAgreementMESSAGE Model for EnergySupplyStrategyAlternatives and their General

Environmental impactMFPTMA Myanmar Forest Products and Timber Merchants’AssociationMIAT MultidisciplinaryIntegratedAssessmentTeamMOECAF MinistryofEnvironmentalConservationandForestryMOF MinistryofForestryMOGE Myanmar Oil and Gas EnterpriseMOMSEI Monsoon Onset Monitoring and Its Social & Ecosystem ImpactsMOU Memorandum of UnderstandingMPA Myanmar PortAuthorityMPBND Ministryof Progressof BorderArea Development and National Races

and DevelopmentAffairsMPCI Myanmar Paper and Chemical IndustriesMRCS Myanmar Red Cross SocietyMSS Myanmar Selection SystemMSW Municipal solid wasteMSY MaximumSustainableYieldMTE MyanmarTimber EnterpriseMV Modern Varieties

NNAP NationalAction ProgramNAPA NationalAdaptation Programmes ofActionNMVC Non-Methane Volatile CompoundNBSAP National BiodiversityStrategyandAction PlanNCCC National Climate Change CommitteeNCEA NationalCommissionfor EnvironmentalAffairsNCSA National CapacityNeeds Self-AssessmentNCV Net CalorificValuesNDPCC National Disaster Preparedness Central CommitteeNECC National EnvironmentalConservation CommitteeNEDO New Energyand industrial technologyDevelopment OrganizationNFC Northern Forest ComplexNFMP National Forest Management PlanNGO Non Government OrganizationNIOT National Institute of Ocean TechnologyNMS National Meteorological CenterNMHS National Meteorological

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Acronyms

2012

NMVC Non-Methane Volatile CarbonNMVOC Non-Methane Volatile Organic CarbonNPP Net PrimaryProductionNR Natural RegenerationNST National StudyTeamNTWCs NationalTsunamiWarning Centres

OODS Ozone Depleting SubstancesODU Ozone Depleting Unite

PPAS ProtectedArea SystemPCCDs Pollution Control and Cleansing DepartmentsPFC PerfluorocarbonPFE Permanent Forest EstatePMT Project Management TeamPRA ParticipatoryRapidAppraisalPRECIS Regional Climate Impact StudiesPTC Panel onTropical CyclonesPV Photovoltaic

RRC Regional CentreRDF Refuse-Derived FuelREAM Renewable EnergyAssociation MyanmarREDD Reduction of Emission on Deforestation and DegradationRIMES Regional Integrated Multi-hazard EarlyWarning SystemRMP Refrigeration Management PlanROAP Regional Office forAsia and the PacificRSO Research Systematic ObservationRTF Round-trip Paddling Fermenter

SSCCF Special Climate Change FundSEA South EastAsiaSEASTART RC South EastAsia SysTemAnalysis Research andTraining Regional

CentreSEAFDEC SoutheastAsian Fisheries Development CenterSEAGOOS South EastAsia-Global Observing SystemSF6 SulphurhexafluorideSM Mean ScoreSME Small andMedium EnterprisesSPA StrategyPriorityforAdaptationSRES Special Report on Emission Scenarios

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Acronyms

2012

SSB Single Side BandSST Sea Surface TemperatureSTART SysTemAnalysis Research andTrainingSWDS Solid Waste Disposal to Site

TTARNS TsunamiAlertRapid Notification SystemTCP Tropical Cyclone ProgrammeTICA Thailand International Development CooperationAgencyTNA TechnologyNeedsAssessmentTNA TechnologyNeedsAssessmentTRS Tropical RevolvingStorm

UUKHadCM3 UK Hadley Centre Coupled Model version 3UKHadGEM1 UK Meteorological Office Hadleycentre Global Enviroment modelUMMB Urea Molasses Mineral BlockUNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat DesertificationUNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and DevelopmentUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNEP-ROAP UNEPRegional Office forAsia and the PacificUNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission forAsia and the

PacificUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural OrganizationUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeUNIDO United Nations Industrial Development OrganizationUNOCHA United Nations Office f or The Coordination of Humanitarian affairsUSAID United StatesAgencyfor International Development

VV&A VulnerabilityandAdaptationVI VulnerabilityIndexVL VulnerabilityLevelVSS Vital Statistic System

WWCP World Climate ProgrammeWCS Wildlife Conservation SocietyWESTPAC Western PacificWHO World Health OrganizationWLL Wireless Local LoopWMO World Meteorological OrganizationWWW World Weather Watch

YYCDC Yangon autonomous CityDevelopment Committees

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Acronyms

Documents

Myanmar's 1st National Communication