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This textbook is designed to: Explain systems analysis and design using an appealing full-color format, numerous screen

shots and illustrations, and an easy-to-read style that invites students to learn.

Introduce project management concepts early in the systems development process, with anew chapter that explains project management tools and techniques.

Challenge students with a Question of Ethics mini-case in each chapter that asks them torespond to real-life ethical issues in an IT environment.

Provide multi-method coverage, including a comparison of structured, object-oriented, andagile systems development methods.

Emphasize the importance of planning, implementing, and managing an effective IT securityprogram.

Explain how IT supports business requirements in todays intensely competitiveenvironment, and describe major IT developments and trends.

Provide case studies and exercises that promote critical-thinking skills and encouragestudents to apply their skills and knowledge.

Describe a systems analysts job in a typical business organization, and show students howto use various tools and techniques to improve their skills and manage their careers.

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contains 16 learning units in twelve chapters and a four-part Systems Analysts Toolkit that teaches valuable cross-functional skills.

Each chapter contains the following features to help youget started:

1. Chapter Opening Features Chapter Introduction Read the Chapter Introduction for a brief

overview of the chapter. Chapter Objectives The Chapter Objectives lists the main skills

and knowledge you will have when you finish the chapter. Chapter Introduction Case: Mountain View College Bookstore The

Mountain View College Bookstore case is a continuing case studythat introduces each chapter and provides a real-world overviewof the topics that will be covered in the chapter. As you workthrough the textbook, you will see how the Mountain View IT teamdiscusses the issues, identifies the key points, and creates specifictask lists.

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To navigate the slide presentation, use thenavigation bar on the left OR use your right and leftarrow keys.

Move your mouse over the key terms throughout the

presentation to see a definition.

Click on to view reference figures.

For further exploration, links to selected web sites

are included. Click under this bannerthroughout the presentation.

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Chapter 1 is the first of three chapters in thesystems planning phase. This chapter describes therole of information technology in todays dynamicbusiness environment. In this chapter, you will learn

about the development of information systems,systems analysis and design concepts, and varioussystems development methods. This chapter alsodescribes the role of the information technologydepartment and its people.

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Identify various types of information systemsand explain who uses them

Distinguish between structured analysis,object-oriented analysis, and agile methods

Compare the traditional waterfall model withagile methods and models

Discuss the role of the information

technology department and the systemsanalysts who work there

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Companies use information as a weapon inthe battle to increase productivity, deliverquality products and services, maintaincustomer loyalty, and make sound decisions.

In a global economy with intense competition,Information technology can mean thedifference between success and failure.

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Book p3

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Information Technology (IT) Combination of hardware and software products

and services that companies use to manage, access,communicate, and share information

Firms treat information as a vital asset that must beused effectively, updated constantly, andsafeguarded carefully

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The Future of IT More than ever, business success depends on

information technology. IT is driving a new economy,where advances in hardware, software, and connectivityare providing enormous benefits to businesses andindividuals around the world. IT occupations will see robust growth for at least a decade,

the greatest need will be for systems analysts, networkadministrators, data communications analysts, andsoftware engineers

Although economic trends affect IT spending levels,most businesses give IT budgets a relatively highpriority, in good times or bad. The reason is simple during periods of growth, companies cannot afford tolag behind the IT curve. Conversely, when the economyslows down, firms often use IT to reduce operatingcosts and improve efficiency.

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The Role of Systems Analysis and Design Systems Analysis and Design

Is a Step-by-step process for developing high-qualityinformation systems.

An information system combines informationtechnology, people, and data to support businessrequirements.

E.g., information systems handle daily businesstransactions, improve company productivity, and

help managers make sound decisions. Systems Analyst

Plan, develop, and maintain information systems

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Who develops Information Systems? Traditionally:

o In-house applications (a company developits own information systems)

o Software packagespurchased systems fromoutside vendors.

Today: Internet-based application services Outsourcing Custom solutions from IT consultants Enterprise-wide software strategies

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Who develops Information Systems? How versus What:

Regardless of the development method, launching a newinformation system involves risks as well as benefits.The greatest risk occurs when a company tries to

decide how the system will be implementedbeforedetermining what the system is supposed todo.Instead of putting the cart before the horse, acompany must begin by outlining its business needsand identifying possible IT solutions. Typically, thisimportant work is performed by systems analysts and

other IT professionals. Later on, as the system isdeveloped, a systems analysts role will varydepending on the implementation option selected.

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Information is data that has been transformedinto output that is valuable to users

Information systems have five key components:hardware, software, data, processes, and people

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1. Hardware Is every thing in the physical layer of the

information system, e.g. servers, workstations,networks, telecommunications equipment, fiber

optic cables, and other technology basedinfrastructure.

Moores Law: In 1965, Gordon Moore, predictedthat the number of transistors on an integrated

circuit would double about every 24 months.

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2. Software: Software refers to the programs thatcontrol the hardware and produce the desiredinformation or results, consists of system softwareand application software.

System software: manages the hardwarecomponents, examples of system software include theoperating system, security software, device drivers,and utility programs that handle specific tasks such asdata backup and disk management. System software

also controls the flow of data, provides data security,and manages network operations. In todaysinterconnected business world, network software isvitally important.

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Application software: consists of programs that support day-to-day business functions and provide users with the information theyrequire, can serve one user or throughout the company. Enterprise applicationsExamples of company wide applications,e.g.,

order processing systems. On a smaller scale, individual users increase their productivity with

tools such as spreadsheets, word processors, and databasemanagement systems.

Includes horizontal and vertical systems. Horizontal systemsuch as an inventory or payroll application, that

can be adapted for use in many different types of companies. Vertical system designed to meet the unique requirements of a specific

business or industry, such as medical practice When planning an information system, a company must consider how

a new system will interface with older systems, which are calledLegacy systems.

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3. Data Is the raw material that an information system

transforms into useful information

information system can store data in various

locations, called tables By linking the tables, the system can extract

specific information

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People People who have an interest in an information system

are calledStakeholders. Stakeholders include the management group

responsible for the system, the Users (sometimescalled end users) inside and outside the company whowill interact with the system, and IT staff members,such as systems analysts, programmers, and network

administrators who develop and support the system. the success or failure of a system usually depends on

whether it meets the needs of its end users.

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24

IT professionals must understanda companys business operations todesign successful systems. Each business situation is different and hasunique information systems requirements. For example, a retail store,

an Internet auction site have unique information systems requirements.

Systems analysts use a process called business process modeling torepresent a companys operations and information needs. Businessprocess modeling requires a business profile and a series of models

that document various business processes.

Business Process Modeling

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Business ProfileA business profile is an overview that describes acompanys overall functions, processes, organization,

products, services, customers, suppliers,competitors, constraints, and future direction. To

develop a business profile, a systems analystinvestigates a companys products, services, andInternet opportunities. The analyst also studiesinteractivity among the firms information systems,specialized information needs, and future growthprojections. Armed with a business profile, the

analyst then creates a series of business models.

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26

BusinessModelsA business model is a graphical representation of one or more businessprocesses that a company performs, such as crediting a customer accountwhich makes it easier for managers and systems analysts to understandday-to-day business operations.A business process describes a specific set of transactions, events, tasks,and results.For example, Figure 1-11 shows a business model called HANDLE SALESORDER. Notice that the model represents an event, three separatebusiness processes, and a result. Complex business operations require aseries of linked models to show the overall picture. When companiesattempt to simplify operations or reduce costs, a popular strategy is to

have managers and systems analysts perform business processreengineering (BPR). ProScis BPR Online Learning Center shown in Figure1-12 offers comprehensive resources for business process reengineering,including articles, tutorials, and information on reengineering toolkits andtemplates.

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FIGURE 1-11 A simple business modelmight consist of an event, three processes,

and a result. FIGURE 1-12 ProScis BPR OnlineLearning Center offers manyresources for business process

reengineering.

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New Kinds of Companies Traditionally, IT companies were identified as product-oriented or service-oriented.

Production-oriented: Product-oriented firms manufactured computers, routers,or the microchips

Service-oriented: include resellers and providers of information and various ITservices.

Today, those distinctions are much less meaningful. Most successful IT companies offera mix of products, technical and financial services, consulting, and customer support.

Many firms believe that long-term profitability lies in value-added services rather thanhardware,

Internet-dependent: The newest company category is the Internet-dependent firm, often described as a dot-com (.com) company becauseits primary business depends on the Internet rather than a traditionalbusiness channel. Google, Yahoo, and eBay are examples of pure dot-com companies.

Brick-and-mortar: are more traditional companies, because they conductbusiness primarily from physical locations. Today, that distinction nolonger exists. Most successful brick-and-mortar firmssuch as Lowes,Target, and Wal-Marthave added Web-based marketing channels toincrease sales and serve customers more effectively.

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B2C (Business-to-Consumer)Using the Internet, consumers can go online to purchase an enormous variety

of products and services. This new shopping environment allows customers

to do research, compare prices and features, check availability, arrangedelivery, and choose payment methods in a single convenient session. Manycompanies, offer incentives for online transactions because Web-basedprocessing costs are lower than traditional methods.

B2C commerce is changing traditional business models and creating new ones.The surge in B2C marketing has created strong competition among Web

designers to create attractive sites that increase online sales. The B2C trendalso means more demand for systems analysts and programmers who candevelop Web-based information systems and applications.

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Internet-based commerce is called e-commerce (electronic commerce)or I-commerce (Internet commerce).E-commerce includes two main sectors: B2C (business-to-consumer)and B2B (business-to-business).

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B2B (Business-to-Business)

Although the business-to-consumer (B2C) sector is more familiar to retailcustomers, the volume of business-to-business (B2B) transactions is many timesgreater as more firms use advanced technology to improve efficiency and lowertheir acquisition costs.

Online trading marketplaces initially were developed as company-to-company data-sharing arrangements called electronic data interchange (EDI). EDI enabledcomputer-to-computer transfer of data between companies. As B2B volumesoared, the development of extensible markup language (XML) enabled company-to-company traffic to migrate to the Internet. XML is a flexible data descriptionlanguage that allows Web-based communication between different hardware andsoftware environments.

Because it allows companies to access the global marketplace, B2B is especiallyimportant to firms under pressure to reduce costs. B2B enables smaller suppliers

to contact large customers, and allows purchasers to obtain instant informationabout market prices and availability. This popular form of online B2B interaction iscalled supplier relationship management (SRM).

Infor is a software firm that offers SRM solutions designed to reduce supply chaincosts.

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Web-Based System DevelopmentInternet-based systems development is changing

rapidly, as software industry giants compete in marketfor overall software services, rather than individualproducts. These services include powerful Web-development environments and software solutions.For example, IBM claims that its WebSphere strategy isbest, while Microsoft counters with a broad visioncalled .NET that redefines that companys approach toWeb-based application development. In addition,many firms offer Web services, which are Internet-based support programs that can be executed as anintegral part of an information system. For example, areal estate brokerage Web site might offer instantmortgage calculations, which are performed by a Webservice provided by a third-party company.

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In past, IT managers divided systems intocategories based on the user group thesystem served. Categories and users included Office systems (administrative staff),

Operational systems (operational personnel), Decision support systems (middle-managers and

knowledge workers)

Executive information systems (top managers).

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Today, traditional labels no longer apply. Forexample, all employees, including top managers,use office productivity systems. Similarly,operational users often require decision support

systems. As business changes, information usealso changes in most companies

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1. Enterprise computing systems information systems that Support company-wide operations and

data management requirements, e.g., inventory control system,production control systems, and Hotels reservation system.The main objective of enterprise computing is to integrate acompanys primary functions (such as production, sales, services,inventory control, and accounting) to improve efficiency, reducecosts, and help managers make key decisions. Enterprisecomputing also improves data security and reliability by imposinga company-wide framework for data access and storage.

In many large companies, applications called enterprise resourceplanning (ERP) systems provide cost-effective support for usersand managers throughout the company, For example, a car

rental company can use ERP to forecast customer demand. Because of its growth and potential, many hardware and

software vendors target the enterprise computing market andoffer a wide array of products and services.

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2. Transaction processing (TP) systems: Systems that process data generated by day-to-day

business operations by performing a series of taskswhenever a specific transaction occurs, e.g., customerorder processing (figure 1.17), and warranty claim

processing. Involve large amounts of data and are missioncriticalsystems because the enterprise cannot functionwithout them.

Efficient because they process a set of transaction-related commands as a group rather than individually.

To protect data integrity, TP systems ensure that ifany single element of a transaction fails, the systemdoes not process the rest of the transaction.

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Transaction processing systems

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Figure 1-17 A singlesales transactionconsists of sixseparate tasks, whichthe TP systemprocesses as a group

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Business support systems A business support system can work hand in hand with a TP

system. For example, when a company sells merchandise to acustomer, a TP system records the sale, updates thecustomers balance, and makes a deduction from inventory. A

related business support system highlights slow- or fast-moving items, customers with past due balances, andinventory levels that need adjustment.

To compete effectively, firms must collect production, sales,and shipping data and update the company-wide business

support system immediately. The newest development in dataacquisition is called Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)Technology, which uses high-frequency radio waves to trackphysical objects, such as the item shown in Figure 1-18.

40FIGURE 1-18 Retailers use RFID tagsfor security and inventory control

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Business support systems An important feature of a business support system is

decision support capability. Decision support helps usersmake decisions by creating a computer model and applying

a set of variables. For example, a retailer might use what-ifanalysis to determine the price it must charge to increaseprofits by a specific amount while volume and costs remainunchanged.

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4. Knowledge management systems Called expert systems because they simulate human reasoning by

combining a knowledge base and inferencerules that determinehow the knowledge is applied.

Consists of a large database that allows users to find information

by entering keywords (e.g., Fig 1.19). uses inference rules, which are logical rules that identify data

patterns and relationships.

Many knowledge management systems use technique calledfuzzy logic, the results of a fuzzy logic search will display in

priority order, with the most relevant results at the top of the list.

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Knowledge management systems

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Figure 1-19 Theinteractive 3ComKnowledgebaseallows users tosearch for solutions.

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5. User productivity systems Companies provide employees at all levels with technology that

improves productivity.

Examples ofuser productivity systems include e-mail, wordprocessing, automated calendars, database management,

spreadsheets, desktop publishing, presentation graphics, companyintranets, and Internet access.

User productivity systems also include groupware. Groupwareprograms run on a company intranet and enable users to share data,collaborate on projects, and work in teams.

With computers performing most of the repetitive work, managers

realized that office personnel could handle tasks that required morejudgment, decision-making, and access to information.

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Information systems integration Most large companies require systems that combine transaction

processing, business support, knowledge management, anduser productivity features

For example, suppose an international customer has a problem

with a product and makes a warranty claim. A customer servicerepresentative enters the claim into a TP system. Thetransaction updates two other systems: a knowledgemanagement system that tracks product problems and warrantyactivity, and a quality control system with decision supportcapabilities. A quality control engineer uses what-if analysis todetermine if it would be advantageous to make product designchanges to reduce warranty claims. In this example, a TP systemis integrated with a knowledge management system and abusiness support system with decision support features.

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A systems analyst must understand thecompanys organizational model to recognizewho is responsible for specific processes anddecisions and to be aware of what information

is required by whom A typical organizational model identifies

business functions and organizational levels,as shown in Figure 1-20.

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Figure 1-20

A typical organizational

model identifies businessfunctions andorganizational levels.

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Top managers: Top managers develop long-range plans, calledstrategic plans, which define the companys overall

mission and goals. such as How much should the

company invest in information technology? orShould the company build new factories orcontract out the production functions?.

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Middle Managers and Knowledge Workers Middle managers provide direction, necessary resources, and

performance feedback to supervisors and team leaders. Becausethey focus on a somewhat shorter time frame, middle managersneed more detailed information than top managers, but somewhatless than supervisors who oversee day-to-day operations. For

example, a middle manager might review a weekly sales summaryfor a three-state area, whereas a local sales team leader would needa daily report on customer sales at a single location.

Knowledge workers include professional staff members such assystems analysts, programmers, accountants, researchers, trainers,

and human resource specialists, Knowledge workers also usebusiness support systems, knowledge management systems, anduser productivity systems. Knowledge workers provide support forthe organizations basic functions.

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Supervisors and Team LeadersSupervisors, often called team leaders, oversee operational

employees and carry out day-to-day functions. Likeother managers, supervisors and team leaders needdecision support information, knowledge management

systems, and user productivity systems to carry out theirresponsibilities.

Operational Employees Operational employees include users who rely on TP systems to

enter and receive data they need to perform their jobs.

In many companies, operational users also need information tohandle tasks and make decisions that were assigned previouslyto supervisors. This trend, called empowerment, givesemployees more responsibility and accountability,empowerment improves employee motivation and increasescustomer satisfaction.

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In addition to understanding businessoperations, Systems analysts must know how touse a variety of techniques such as modeling,prototyping, and computer-aided systems

engineering tools to plan, design, and implementinformation systems.

Systems analysts work with these tools in a teamenvironment , where input from users, managers,

and IT staff contributes to the system design.

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1. ModelingModeling produces a graphical representation of a concept or process that systems

developers can analyze, test, and modify. A systems analyst can describe andsimplify an information system by using a set of business, data, object, network,and process models.

business model, or requirements model, describes the information that a systemmust provide.

data model describes data structures and design. object model describes objects, which combine data and processes. network model describes the design and protocols of telecommunications links. process model describes the logic that programmers use to write code modules.

System developers often use charting tools such as Microsoft Visio to displaybusiness-related models. Visio is a popular tool that systems analysts can use to

create business process diagrams, flowcharts, organization charts, networkdiagrams, floor plans, project timelines, and work flow diagrams.

Modeling involves various techniques, including data flow diagrams and entityrelationship diagrams, and unified modeling language.

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2. Prototyping A prototype is an early working version of an

information system. Systems analysts construct andstudy information system prototypes. A prototypecan serve as an initial model that is used: as a benchmark to evaluate the finished system, or the prototype itself can develop into the final version of the

system. Either way, prototyping speeds up the development process

significantly.

A possible disadvantage of prototyping is that

important decisions might be made too early, beforebusiness or IT issues are understood thoroughly. A prototype based on careful fact-finding and

modeling techniques, however, can be an extremelyvaluable tool.

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Many options exist for developing information systems. the most popular alternatives are structured analysis,

which is a traditional method that still is widely used,and object-oriented analysis (O-O), which is a newer

approach that many analysts prefer, and agile methods,also called adaptive methods which include the latesttrends in software development.

Figure 1-23 (book) provides an overview of the threemethods.

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System developers may mix and match methods of theseapproaches to gain a better perspective. In addition to these three main development methods,

some organizations choose to develop their own inhouseapproaches or use techniques offered by softwaresuppliers, CASE tool vendors, or consultants.

Many alternatives exist, and most IT experts agree that noone system development method is best in all cases. The important thing for a systems analyst is to understand

the various methods and the strengths and weaknesses ofeach approach.

Regardless of the development strategy, People, tasks,

timetables, and costs must be managed efficiently Project management is the process of planning,

scheduling, monitoring, controlling, and reporting uponthe development of an information system.

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Structured Analysis: is a traditional systems development technique that is time-

tested and easy to understand. Structured analysis uses a series of phases, called the systemsdevelopment life cycle (SDLC), to plan, analyze, design,

implement, and support an information system.

is based on an overall plan, similar to a blueprint forconstructing a building, so it is called a predictive approach. Structured analysis uses a set of process models to describe a

system graphically. Because it focuses on processes that transform data into useful

information, structured analysis is called a process-centeredtechnique.

In addition to modeling the processes, structured analysis alsoaddresses data organization and structure, relational databasedesign, and user interface issues.

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Structured Analysis:

Process modeling identifies:

the data flowing into a process,

the business rules that transform the data, and

the resulting output data flow.

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FIGURE 1-24 is a VisibleAnalyst screen showing asimple process model for aschool registration system.The REGISTER STUDENTS

process accepts input datafrom two sources and

transforms it into output data.

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Structured Analysis:

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Structured Analysis The SDLC model usually includes five steps

1. Systems planning

2. Systems analysis

3. Systems design4. Systems implementation

5. Systems support and security

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Structured Analysis1. Systems Planning The systems planning phase usually begins with a

formal request to the IT department, called asystems request, which describes problems or

desired changes in an information system or abusiness process.

When managers and users develop their businessplans, they usually include IT requirements that

generate systems requests. The request can bevery significant (e.g. new information system) orrelatively minor (e.g. a new feature or a change tothe user interface).

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Structured Analysis1. Systems Planning The purpose of this phase is to perform a preliminaryinvestigation to evaluate an IT-related business opportunity or

problem. A key part of the preliminary investigation is a feasibility study

that reviews anticipated costs and benefits and recommends acourse of action based on operational, technical, economic, andtime factors.

Analyst first step is to determine whether it makes sense tolaunch a preliminary investigation at all. Often needs to learnmore about business operations before he can reach aconclusion. After an investigation, you might find that the

information system functions properly, but users need moretraining. In some situations, you might recommend a businessprocess review, rather than an IT solution. In other cases, youmight conclude that a full-scale systems review is necessary. Ifthe development process continues, the next step is the systemsanalysis phase.

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Structured Analysis2. Systems Analysis The purpose of the systems analysis phase is to build alogical model of the new system. The first step is requirements modeling, where you

investigate business processes and document what the new

system must do to satisfy users. Requirements modelingcontinues the investigation that began during the systemsplanning phase.

To understand the system, you perform fact-finding usingtechniques such as interviews, surveys, document review,observation, and sampling. You use the fact-finding resultsto build business models, data and process models, and

object models. The deliverable for the systems analysis phase is the systemrequirements document. The system requirements document

describes; management and user requirements, costs andbenefits, and outlines alternative development strategies.

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Structured Analysis3. Systems Design The purpose of the systems design phase is to create a physical

model that will satisfy all documented requirements for the system.At this stage, you

design the user interface.

identify necessary outputs, inputs, and processes.

design internal and external controls, including computer-basedand manual features to guarantee that the system will be reliable,accurate, maintainable, and secure.

determine the application architecture, which programmers will use

to transform the logical design into program modules and code. The deliverable for this phase is the system design specification,

which is presented to management and users for review and approval.Management and user involvement is critical to avoid anymisunderstanding about what the new system will do, how it will doit, and what it will cost.

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Structured Analysis4. Systems Implementation During the systems implementation phase, the new system is

constructed.

Whether the developers use structured analysis or O-O methods, theprocedure is the same programs are written, tested, and documented,

and the system is installed. If the system was purchased as a package,systems analysts configure the software and perform any necessarymodifications.

The objective of the systems implementation phase is to deliver acompletely functioning and documented information system. Final

preparations include converting data to the new systems files, trainingusers, and performing the actual transition to the new system.

The systems implementation phase also includes an assessment, called asystems evaluation, to determine whether the system operates properlyand if costs and benefits are within expectations.

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Structured Analysis5. Systems Support and Security During this phase, the IT staff maintains, enhances, and

protects the system. Maintenance changes correct errorsand adapt to changes in the environment, such as new taxrates. Enhancements provide new features and benefits.

A well-designed system must be secure, reliable,maintainable, and scalable. A scalabledesign can expandto meet new business requirements and volumes.

Information systems development is always a work inprogress. Business processes change rapidly, and mostinformation systems need to be updated significantly or

replaced after several years of operation.

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Object-oriented Analysis Whereas structured analysis treats processes and data as

separate components, object-oriented analysis combinesdata and the processes that act on the data into thingscalled objects.

Systems analysts use O-O to model real-world business

processes and operations. The result is a set of softwareobjects that represent actual people, things, transactions,and events. Using an O-O programming language, aprogrammer then writes the code that creates theobjects.

An object is a member of a class, which is a collection ofsimilar objects.

Objects have characteristics called properties, which theobject inherits from its class orpossesses on its own (Fig1-26).

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Object-oriented Analysis

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FIGURE 1-26 ThePERSON class includesINSTRUCTOR and

STUDENT objects,which have their ownproperties andinherited properties.

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Object-Oriented Anaylsis: In O-O design, built-in processes called methods can change an objects

properties. For example, in a Web-based catalog store, an ORDER objectmight have a property called STATUS that changes when a CUSTOMER objectclicks to place, confirm, or cancel the order.

One object can send information to another object by using a message;

A message requests specific behavior or information from another object. Forexample, an ORDER object might send a message to a CUSTOMER object thatrequests a shipping address. When it receives the message, the CUSTOMERobject supplies the information. The ORDER object has the capability to sendthe message, and the CUSTOMER object knows what actions to perform whenit receives the message.

O-O analysis uses object models to represent data and behavior, and to show

how objects affect other objects. By describing the objects and methodsneeded to support a business operation, a system developer can designreusable components that speed up system implementation and reducedevelopment cost.

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Object-Oriented Anaylsis Object-oriented methods usually follow a series of

analysis and design phases that are similar butless agreed upon -to the SDLC.

In an O-O model, the phases tend to be more

interactive. Figure 1-27 shows a systemdevelopment model where planning, analysis, anddesign tasks interact continuously to produceprototypes that can be tested and implemented.The result is an interactive model that canaccurately depict real-world business processes.

O-O methodology is popular because it providesan easy transition to O-O programming languages.

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FIGURE 1-27 In this model, planning,analysis, and design tasks interact continuously.Interactive models often are used with O-Odevelopment methods.

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Agile Methods structured analysis is a traditional approach, and agile methodsare the newest development.

Structured analysis builds an overall plan for the informationsystem, just as a contractor might use a blueprint for constructinga building. Agile methods, in contrast, attempt to develop asystem incrementally, by building a series of prototypes andconstantly adjusting them to user requirements. As the agileprocess continues, developers revise earlier versions into the finalproduct.

An agile approach emphasizes continuous feedback, and eachincremental step is affected by what was learned in the prior steps.

Iterativedevelopment is a new notion to software development,

but can be traced back about 20 years to Japanese auto firms thatwere able to boost productivity by using a more flexiblemanufacturing system, where team-based effort and short-termmilestones helped keep quality up and costs down.

Because it is stresses a team-based culture, the agile communityhas published the Agile Manifesto, whichis the set of principlesshown in Figure 1-29. 73

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Agile Methods

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FIGURE 1-29 The AgileManifesto is a set of

team-based principlespublished by the agilecommunity.

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Agile Methods Agile methods typically use a spiral model, which

represents a series of iterations, or revisions, basedon user feedback, as shown in Figure 1-30.

As the process continues, the final product graduallyevolves. An agile approach requires intenseinteractivity between developers and individual users,and does not begin with an overall objective. Instead,the agile process determines the end result.

the spiral model believe that this approach reducesrisks and speeds up software development.

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Agile Methods

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FIGURE 1-30 Agilemethods typically

use a spiralmodel, whichrepresents a seriesof iterations, orversions, based onuser feedback.

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Agile Methods Spiral models were suggested in the1990s by Barry

Boehm. He stated that each iteration, or phase, ofthe model must have a specific goal that isaccepted, rejected, or changed by the user, orclient. Thus, each iteration produces feedback andenhancements, which enable the team to reach theoverall project goal. Typically, each iteration in aspiral model includes planning, risk analysis,engineering, and evaluation, as shown in the tablein Figure 1-31. The repeated iterations produce a

series of prototypes, which evolve into the finishedsystem. Notice that these phases resemble SDLCtasks, which also can be iterative.

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Agile Methods Extreme Programming (XP) is another adaptive

process that focuses on forceful interaction betweendevelopers and users to define and achieve project

goals. XP, like agile methods generally, stressescertain key values, such as communication,simplicity, feedback, and respect among teammembers. When properly implemented, its

proponents believe that Extreme Programming canspeed up development, reduce costs, and improvesoftware quality.

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Agile Methods Analysts should recognize that these approaches have

advantages and disadvantages.1. By their nature, agile methods can allow developers to be

much more flexible and responsive, but can be riskier thanmore traditional methods. For example, without a detailed setof system requirements, certain features requested by someusers might not be consistent with the companys larger gameplan.

2. Other potential disadvantages of agile methods can includeweak documentation, blurred lines of accountability, and toolittle emphasis on the larger business picture.

3. Also, unless properly implemented, a long series of iterations

might actually add to project cost and development time. Thebottom line is that systems analysts should understand thepros and cons of any approach before selecting adevelopment method for a specific project.

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Other Development Methods Although agile methods are relatively new, IT departments have long

sought to avoid systems that were developed without sufficient input fromusers. Over time, many companies discovered that systems developmentteams composed of IT staff, users, and managers could complete theirwork more rapidly and produce better results.

Two methodologies became popular:joint application development (JAD)and rapid application development (RAD). Both JAD and RAD use teamscomposed of users, managers, and IT staff. The difference is that JADfocuses on team-based fact-finding, which is only one phase of thedevelopment process, whereas RAD is more like a compressed version ofthe entire process.

you might encounter other systems development techniques, systemsanalyst can choose from an entire industry of IT software companies andconsulting firms. For example, a popular approach offered by the Rationalgroup at IBM is called the Rational Unified Process (RUP), RUP offers aflexible, iterative process for managing software development projects thatcan minimize risk, ensure predictable results, and deliver high-quality

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Other Development Methods Another option is what Microsoft calls Microsoft SolutionsFramework (MSF),which documents the experience of its own

software development teams. Although the Microsoft processdiffers from the SDLC phase-oriented approach, MSF developersperform the same kind of planning, ask the same kinds of fact-finding questions, deal with the same kinds of design and

implementation issues, and resolve the same kinds of problems.Using this approach, MSF examines a broader business andorganizational context that surrounds the development of aninformation system.

Companies often choose to follow their own methodology. UsingCASE tools, an IT team can apply a variety of techniques ratherthan being bound to a single methodology, many CASE tools offer

a complete set of analysis and modeling tools that support variousmethods and strategies. Regardless of the development model, itwill be necessary to manage people, tasks, timetables, andexpenses by using various project management tools andtechniques.

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2. Involve users and listen carefully to them Ensure that users are involved in the development

process, especially when identifying andmodeling system requirements. Modeling and

prototyping can help you understand user needsand develop a better system.

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3. Use project management tools to identify tasksand milestones:

Regardless of the development methodology, thesystems analyst must keep the project on track

and avoid surprises. Create a reasonable numberof checkpoints . An example of a checkpointmight be the completion of interviews conductedduring a preliminary investigation.

Microsoft Project 2007 help you define tasks,manage resources, monitor progress, and createreports on systems development projects

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The information technology (IT) department developsand maintains a companys information systems.

The structure of the IT department varies amongcompanies. Figure 1-34 shows a typical IT organizationin a company that has networked PCs, enterprise-wide

databases, centralized processing, and Web-basedoperations.

The IT group provides technical support, which includessix main functions: application development, systemssupport and security, user support, database

administration, network administration, and Websupport.These functions overlap considerably and oftenhave different names in different companies

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1. Application Development Traditionally, IT departments had an applicationdevelopment group composed of systems

analysts and programmers who handledinformation system design, development, andimplementation. Today, user involvement isseen as critical at all stages. The IT departmentshad an application development group typicallyprovides leadership and overall guidance, but

the systems themselves are developed by teamsconsisting of users, managers, and IT staffmembers.

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2. Systems Support and Security provides vital protection and maintenance services for

system hardware and software, including enterprisecomputing systems, networks, transaction processingsystems, and corporate IT infrastructure.

implements and monitors physical and electronic

security hardware, software, and procedures. also installs and supports operating systems,

telecommunications software, and centralized databasemanagement systems.

provide technical assistance to other groups in the ITdepartment. If a site has a large number of remote

clients, the systems support group often includes adeployment team that installs and configures theworkstations.

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3. User Support User support provides users with technical information,training, and productivity support. The user support

function usually is called a help desk or informationcenter (IC). A help desks staff trains users andmanagers on application software such as e-mail, word

processors, spreadsheets, and graphics packages. Usersupport specialists answer questions, troubleshootproblems, and serve as a clearinghouse for userproblems and solutions.

In many companies, the user support team also installsand configures software applications that are used

within the organization. Although user supportspecialists coordinate with other technical supportareas, their primary focus is user productivity andsupport for user business processes.

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6. Web Support Web support specialists, often called webmasters,support a companys Internet and intranet operations.

Web support involves design and construction of Webpages, monitoring traffic, managing hardware and

software, and linking Web-based applications to thecompanys existing information systems.

7. Quality Assurance (QA) Reviews and tests all applications and systems changes

to verify specifications and software quality standards Is a separate unit that reports directly to IT management

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CASE IN POINT 1.3: WHAT SHOULD LISA DO?P 28

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Responsibilities Analysts help translate business requirements

into IT projects: When assigned to a systems development

team, an analyst might help documentbusiness profiles, review business processes,select hardware and software packages, designinformation systems, train users, and plan e-commerce Web sites.

A systems analyst plans projects, developsschedules, and estimates costs.

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Career Opportunities The demand for systems analysts is

expected to remain strong. Companies willneed systems analysts to apply new

information technology. With anunderstanding of technical and businessissues, a systems analyst has an unlimitedhorizon.

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Career Opportunities Job titles: First, do not rely on job titles alone. Some

positions are called systems analysts, but involve onlyprogramming or technical support. In other cases,systems analyst responsibilities are found in positionstitled computer specialist, programmer,

programmer/analyst, systems designer, softwareengineer, and various others. Company organization: Find out all you can about the

company and where the IT department fits in theorganization chart.

Company size: If you like more variety, a smaller firm

might suit you best. If you want to specialize,however, then consider a larger company with state-of-the-art systems.

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Career Opportunities Corporate cultureIn addition to having goals,

methods, and information systems requirements,every firm has an underlying corporate culture. Acorporate culture is the set of beliefs, rules,traditions, values, and attitudes that define acompany and influence its way of doing business.To be successful, a systems analyst mustunderstand the corporate culture and how it affectsthe way information is managed.

Salary, location, and future growth Finally, considersalary, location, and the companys prospects forfuture growth and success.

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IT refers to the combination of hardware andsoftware resources that companies use tomanage, access, communicate, and shareinformation

The essential components of an informationsystem are hardware, software, data,processes, and people

Most companies offer a mix of products,

technical and financial services, consulting,and customer support

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Information systems are identified asenterprise computing systems, transactionalprocessing or operational systems, businesssupport systems, knowledge management

systems, or user productivity systems Organization structure includes top

managers, middle managers and knowledgeworkers, supervisors and team leaders

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Systems analysts use modeling, prototyping,and computer aided systems engineering(CASE) tools

Three popular system development

approaches are structured analysis, object-oriented analysis (O-O), and agile methods,also called adaptive methods

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Regardless of the development strategy,people, tasks, timetables, and cost must bemanaged effectively using projectmanagement tools

The IT department develops, maintains andoperates a companys information systems

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Systems analysts need a combination oftechnical and business knowledge, analyticalability, and communication skills

Systems analysts need to consider salary,

location, and future growth potential whenmaking a career decision

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1. What is the role of a systems analysis anddesign?

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1. What is the role of a systems analysis anddesign? Systems analysis and design is a step-by-step

process for developing high-quailty informationsystems.

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2. What are the five key components ofinformation systems?

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2. What are the five key components ofinformation systems?

Hardware

SoftwareData

Processes

People

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3. How are business information systemsidentified?

Functions and features

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4. True/False: WebSphere is a strategymaintained and managed by Microsoft.

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4. True/False: WebSphere is a strategymaintained and managed by Microsoft.

False

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5. SDLC is an example of a ________ method,while Extreme Programming is an exampleof an __________ method.

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5. SDLC is an example of a structured analysismethod, while Extreme Programming is anexample of an agile approach.

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6. CASE tools are:a) an object oriented methodology

b) techniques or tools to help plan anddesign information systems

c) team-based fact finding techniques

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6. CASE tools are:a) an object oriented methodology

b) techniques or tools to help plan anddesign information systems

c) team-based fact finding techniques

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7. Objects, classes, and methods are all termsused in structured/object orientedmethodologies

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7. Objects, classes, and methods are all termsused in object oriented methodologies

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8. What are the phases of the systemsdevelopment life cycle?

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8. What are the phases of the systemsdevelopment life cycle?

Systems planning

Systems analysis Systems design

Systems implementation

Systems support and security

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9. List at least three of the six functions of atypical IT department

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9. List at least three of the six functions of atypical IT department1. Application development

2. Systems support

3. User support4. Database administration

5. Network administration

6. Web support

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10. True/False: Certification is an importantcredential that is valued by companies.

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10. True/False: Certification is a professionalcredential that is valued by companies.

True

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8 Systems Analysis & Design

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8th Edition