My beloved family and fabricating subsonic wing.pdfApproval Sheet The project report attached here to, entitle "Modelling and Fabricating Subsonic Wing" prepared and submitted by Khairul

Approval Sheet

The project report attached here to, entitle "Modelling and Fabricating Subsonic

Wing" prepared and submitted by Khairul Amin bin Othman in partial fulfillment of

the requirement for Bachelor of Engineering with Honours in Mechanical Engineering

and Manufacturing System in hereby read and approved by:

ý ýýýý -, -2- S 20 0 s-

Dr. Mohhril bin Osman Date Supervisor MEl 2005

MODELLING AND FABRICATING SUBSONIC WING

KHAIRUL AMIN BIN OTHMAN

This project is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering with Honours

(Mechanical Engineering and Manufacturing Systems)

Faculty of Engineering UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

2004

For my Father and Mother And

My beloved family

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alhamdulillah, Thank God for all His blessing and permission I was able to

complete this Final Year Project. First and foremost I would like to take this

opportunity to thank my supervisor, Dr. Mohd. Shahril Osman for his valuable

advices, his patience and willingness to assist me completes this report. Without his

support, the work is never have been finished. I would like to mention my special

thanks to my mother and my father, my parents for their continuous encouragement

and support in my life. I am forever grateful to them for that.

I would like to thank Mr Masri and Mr Rhyier and other lab technicians for

their willing to work overtime n enabling me to collect necessary data and prepare

the tools and machines that needed in this project. They have always been

exceptionally helpful whenever I faced any problem in developing the experimental

set up.

I am grateful to all my supportive friends and mechanical lecturers, without their

help I would be still taking data. Last but no the least, I want to expressed my thank to

my roommate. Nizam and my friends, Zulkurnain, Dahri especially Elizah for just being

there in my difficult times.

i

ABSTRACT

Aerodynamics is the study of forces and the resulting motion of objects

through the fluid. Aerodynamics affects the motion of a large airliner, a model

rocket, or a kite flying high overhead. The purpose of this study is to determine the

best subsonic wing profile. The airfoil of the wing is developed and fabricated for

test. The aerodynamics characteristics such as lift force and drag force, lift and drag

coefficient, lift drag ratio and other properties is measured and analysed. Several

experiments have been carried out in open subsonic wind tunnel using the four

models of NACA 4- digit airfoil. According to experiment, the maximum model

NACA 1221 has a high lift coefficient which is 1.86882 and NACA 2317 airfoil has

the lowest drag coefficient of 0.01127. In addition, the result is compared with other

experimental past data. From the lift over drag ratio results, we can conclude that

NACA 2317 airfoil model is the effective airfoil compare to the other three tested

airfoil.

11

ABSTRAK

Aerodinamik merupakan kajian tentang daya dan akibat dari pergerakan

objek melalui cecair dan gas. Aerodinamik memberi amat penting kepada kapal

terbang, model roket mahupun pergerakan layang-layang diudara. Kajian ini

bertujuan untuk menentukan dan mencari sayap terbang 'subsonic' yang terbaik.

Dengan itu, 'airfoil' telah direka dan dibentuk untuk digunakan dalam pengkajian ini.

Sifat aerodinamik seperti daya terbang dan daya seretan, koefisien terbang dan

seretan dan juga lain- lain ciri aerodinamik telah diukur dan dianalisis. Beberapa siri

eksperimen telah dibuat dalam terowong udara 'subsonic' terbuka menggunakan

'airfoil' 4- digit NACA yang telah dibuat pada awalnya. Daripada eksperimen itu,

`airfoil' NACA 1221 mempunyai koefisien terbang paling tinggi iaitu 1.86882 dan

'airfoil' NACA 2317 mempunyai koefisien seretan paling rendah 0.01127. Sebagai

tambahan, keputusan eksperimen dibandingkan dengan data dari eksperimen lain.

Dari keputusan bandingan terbang terhadap seretan, dapat disimpulkan bahawa

'airfoil' NACA 2317 merupakan model yang paling effektif dibandingkan dengan

tiga 'airfoil' yang lainnya.

III

CONTENTS

Contents Page Number

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT

ABSTRAK

CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURE

LIST OF TABLE

NOMENCLATURE

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.0 General Overview of Aerodynamic

1.1 Overview of airplane

1.1.1 Wing Geometry

1.2 Overview of the Project

1.3 Objectives of Project

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

2.2 NACA Airfoil

2.2.1 NACA 4-Digit Airfoil

2.3 Airfoil Selection

2.4 Airfoil Characteristics

2.4.1 Lift Coefficient

2.4.2 Drag Coefficient

2.4.3 Lift / Drag Ratio

I

ii

111

iv

vii

X

Xlll

I

2 3

6

7

9

10

11

11

12

12

13

13

iv

2.5 Angle of Attack

2.6 Factor That Effect the Lift

2.7 Drag

2.7.1 Parasite Drag

2.7.2 Induced Drag

2.7.3 Total Drag

2.8 Speed of Sound

2.9 Mach Number

2.10 Boundary Layer

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Material Selection

3.3 Model and Fabricate Airfoil Model

3.4 Subsonic Wind Tunnel

3.5 Smoke Generator System

3.6 Hanley Innovation VisualFoil

3.7 Experimental Setup

14

15

15

15

16

16

17

18

19

21

21

22

26

27

28

28

CHAPTER 4: EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1

4.2

Introduction

Result and Discussion

4.2.1 Result of surface roughness of an

airfoil model

4.2.2 Result of subsonic wind tunnel

boundary condition

4.2.3 Results of upstream pressure

4.2.4 Discussion of upstream pressure

4.2.5 Results of downstream pressure

4.2.6 Discussion of downstream pressure

31

31

31

32

33

45

46

60

V

4.2.7 Results of Reynold Number, speed of sound

and Mach number

4.2.8 Discussion of Results of Reynold Number,

speed of sound and Mach number

4.2.9 Results of Lift force, Drag force,

Drag Coefficient and Lift Coefficient

4.2.10 Discussion Results of Lift force, Drag force,

Drag Coefficient and Lift Coefficient

4.3 Limitation of the study

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION

61

63

64

80

84

5.1 Conclusion 86

5.2 Recommendation 88

REFERENCES 90

APPENDICES

Appendix A 93

Appendix B 101

Appendix C 102

vi

LIST OF FIGURE

FIGURE

Figure 1.1:

Figure 1.2:

Figure 1.3:

Figure 1.4:

Figure 2.1:

Figure 2.2:

Figure 2.3:

Figure 3.1:

Figure 3.2:

Figure 3.3:

Figure 3.4:

Figure 3.5:

Figure 3.6:

Figure 3.7

Figure 3.8:

PAGE NUMBER

Airplane configuration

Airplane geometry top view

Airplane geometry front view

Airplane geometry side view

Angle of attack

Boundary layer

Laminar and turbulent flow

Top view of airfoil model 2 or airfoil 2617

Side view of airfoil model 1 or airfoil 2413







Figure 3.9: TE54 subsonic wind tunnel

Figure 3.10: Smoke generator system

Figure 3.11: Airfoil is located in working section

of wind tunnel during testing

Figure 4.1: Graph of upstream pressure versus height of working

section of wind tunnel for NACA 2413 airfoil model.

2

3

4

5

14

19

19

23

23

23

24

24

25

25

25

26

27

30

43

vii


section of wind tunnel for NACA 2417 airfoil model. 43





Figure 4.5: Graph of downstream pressure versus height of working








Figure 4.9: Downstream pressure versus height of working

section of wind tunnel for four tested airfoil models

with angle of attack is 5 degrees at different speed 57

Figure 4.10: Downstream pressure versus height of working

section of wind tunnel for four tested airfoil models


Figure 4.11: Downstream pressure versus height of working section

of wind tunnel for four tested airfoil models


Figure 4.12: Lift coefficient, CL versus angle of attack, a

for NACA 2413 airfoil model 71

viii







Figure 4.16: Comparison of lift coefficient, CL versus

angle of attack, a for airfoil models 73

Figure 4.17: Comparison of drag coefficient, CD versus

angle of attack, a for NACA 2417 airfoil model. 74








angle of attack, a for airfoil models 76

Figure 4.22: Comparison of lift over drag polar for experiment

airfoil models 77

Figure 4.23: Graph of comparison lift over drag polar for

airfoil models using VisualFoil program. 78

Figure 4.24: Comparison of lift coefficient versus angle of attack

for (a) NACA 2412; (b) NACA 2418.81

Figure 4.25: Drag coefficient versus angle of attack for NACA 2412 airfoil 83

ix

LIST OF TABLE

TABLE PAGE NUMBER

Table 4.1: Surface roughness of airfoil models

Table 4.2: Results of upstream pressure of the airfoil models

with velocity of 35 m/s and a of 5 degree.

















Table 4.11: Results of downstream pressure of the airfoil models

32

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

X

with velocity of 35 m/s and a of 5 degree. 46

















Table 4.20: Result of the Reynold number, speed of sound and

Mach number of the airfoil models 63

Table 4.21: Result of maximum chamber and aspect ratio of the airfoil 65

Table 4.22: Result of the Lift Coefficient, Drag Coefficient the

lift force and the drag force of airfoil model NACA 2413.67






X1

lift force and the drag force of airfoil model NACA 1221 70

Table 4.26: Result of the Lift / Drag ratio 79

xii

NOMENCLATURES

a: Angle of attack

p Mass density

pa : Local air density

y Ratio of specific heat

v: Kinematics viscosity

AP1 : Dynamic pressure

a: Speed of sound

A: Airfoil area

Ap : Planform area

AR : Aspect ratio

c: Chord

CD : Total drag coefficient

CD; : Induced drag coefficient

CD- Drag of infinite span airfoil

CL Lift coefficient

D Drag force

h /c maximum chamber

L Lift force

L: Length of the airfoil

L/D: Lift drag ratio

Ma : Mach number

Pa : Ambient atmospheric pressure

X111

R: Gas constant

Ra Average roughness

Re : Reynolds number

s: Span

T: Temperature

Ta : Ambient temperature

U External velocity

V: Velocity of wind relative to the body

xiv

Chanter I Iulroduction

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 General Overview of Aerodynamic

Aerodynamics is the study of fluids in motion. Anderson (2001), states that

aerodynamics is an applied science with many practical applications in engineering.

No matter how sophisticated an aerodynamic experiment, may be, the efforts are

usually at one or more of the following practical objectives:

a. The prediction of forces and moments on, and the heat transfer to,

bodies moving through the fluid (usually air).

b. Determination of flows moving internally through the duct.

The application in first item come heading of external aerodynamic since they

deal with external flows over the body. In contrast, the application in second item is

involve internal aerodynamics because they deal with flow internally within ducts.

This project consider to the external aerodynamics of the airplane wing and much

more focusing on the airfoil shape design that will best suit for the subsonic airplane.

1 Modelling trnct f'uhricuting subsonic wing,

Chapter I

1.1 Overview of airplane

JJriruducliun

Airplanes come in many different shapes and sizes. The wings generate most

of the lift to hold the plane in the air. To generate lift, the airplane must be pushed

through the air by the jet engines to provide the thrust to push airplane forward. This

moving will cause the oppose force due to air resistant called drag.

Vertical Stabilizer Control Yaw

Horizontal Stabilizer Control Pitch

Flaps Change Lift and Drag

Aileron Change Rail (Rotate Body)

Spoiler Cockpit

Command and Control Fuselage (Body) Hold Things Together (Carry Payload - Fuel)

Change Lift and Drag (Rotate Body)

Slats Change Lift

Figure 1.1: Airplane configuration (Courtesy from Bensen, 2004)

Figure 1.1 shows the generally airplane parts. wing is located at the centre of

the fuselage. Vertical stabilizer and horizontal stabilizer located at the airplane tail to

provide stability for the airplane, to keep it fly straight. the function of the vertical

stabilizer is to avoid airplane nose from swinging side to side, while horizontal

stabilizer prevent up and down nose motion. Rudder is the hinged part of the vertical

stabilizer, used to deflect the tail to the left and right. The hinged part at the

horizontal called elevator; to deflect the tail up and down as shown in the Figure 1.0.

2 Aladeilittg ancifaGricating subsonic wing

C'htzptar I lniroductron

Aileron and spoiler at the wing used to rotate the body of the airplane; aileron

change the roll and spoiler decrease the lift force when it is deployed.

The wings have additional hinged, rear sections near the body that are called

flaps. Flaps are deployed downward on takeoff and landing to increase the amount of

force produced by the wing. Slat, the front part of the wing will also deflect at

takeoff and landing to produce additional force. The spoilers are also used during

landing to slow the plane down and to counteract the flaps when the airplane is on

the ground.

1.1.1 Wing Geometry

Top View

Top View Trailing Edge

Chord c .

Span ýCeyttezline

,ga

Wing Area A

Leading Edge

Figure 1.2: Airplane geometry top view (Courtesy from Bensen, 2004)

The Figure 1.2 shows a simple wing geometry in the top view. The front of

the wing is called the leading edge; the back of the wing is called the trailing edge.

The distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge is called the chord, denoted

by the symbol, c. The ends of the wing are called the wing tips, and the distance from

one wing tip to the other is called the span, given the symbol, s. The shape of the

3 Modelling and fabricating subsonic wing

Chapter 1 Iniroduetion

wing, when viewed from above looking down onto the wing, is called a planform.

The wing area, A, is the projected area of the planform and is bounded by the leading

and trailing edges and the wing tips.

Front View

Tip Tip

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Dihedral Angle

Figure 1.3: Airplane geometry front view (Courtesy from Bensen, 2004)

According to Bensen (2004), the front view of this wing shows that the left

and right wing do not lie in the same plane but meet at an angle. The angle that the

wing makes with the local horizontal is called the dihedral angle. Dihedral is added

to the wings for roll stability; a wing with some dihedral will naturally return to its

original position if it encounters a slight roll displacement. The wing tips are farther

off the ground than the wing root. A negative dihedral angle is called anhedral.

4 Modelling and fahricaling subsonic wing

Chapter I Introduction

Side View

Thickness Mean Camber .. ý Line

Chord Line Camber

Figure 1.4: Airplane geometry side view (Courtesy from Bensen, 2004)

A cut through the wing perpendicular to the leading and trailing edges will

show the cross-section of the wing called an airfoil. The straight line drawn from the

leading to trailing edges of the airfoil is called the chord line. The chord line cuts the

airfoil into an upper surface and a lower surface. Plotting the points that lie halfway

between the upper and lower surfaces, will obtain a curve called the mean camber

line. For a symmetric airfoil (upper surface the same shape as the lower surface) the

mean camber line will fall on top of the chord line. But in most cases, these are two

separate lines. The maximum distance between the two lines is called the camber.

The maximum distance between the upper and lower surfaces is called the thickness.

(Bensen, 2001).

5 iiOft8ll111}; C111dftlj)Ylt'"aling, subs(N1lC wing

Chapter I Irrirurlurtiu»

1.2 Overview of the Project

The project is to fabricate and airplane model and to design the airfoil shape.

So, the part that will consider in this project is the airfoil of the wing. This project

starts with the designing of the airfoil. The reference model to be compared is NACA

four digit series which is model 2412. There are four airfoil model used in this

project which is

" Model 1- The span length is 0.255 m with the chord length is 0.098

m. Maximum chamber thickness is 0.002 m located 0.004 m from the

leading edge. The maximum thickness is 0.0126 m. By using the

NACA four digit systems, the airfoil can be name as 2413 airfoil.


m. Maximum chamber thickness is 0.002 m located 0.006 m from the

leading edge. The maximum thickness is 0.0170 m. By using the

NACA four digit systems, the airfoil can be name as 2617airfoil.


m. Maximum chamber thickness is 0.00275 r located 0.0046 m from

the leading edge. The maximum thickness is 0.0170 m. the airfoil can

be name as 2417 airfoil using the NACA four digit systems.


m. Maximum chamber thickness is 0.0015 m located 0.0017 m from

the leading edge. The maximum thickness is 0.021 m. Using the

NACA four digit systems, the airfoil can be name as 1221 airfoil.

( Modelling rrrrd fuhricating subsonic wing

Documents

My beloved family and fabricating subsonic wing.pdfApproval Sheet The project report attached here to, entitle "Modelling and Fabricating Subsonic Wing" prepared and submitted by Khairul