Muslims in Global Societies Series

Volume 4

Series EditorsGabriele MarranciNational University of Singapore, Singapore

Bryan S. TurnerWellesley College, Wellesley, USA

For further volumes:http://www.springer.com/series/7863

Christopher M. Joll

Muslim Merit-Makingin Thailand’s Far-South

123

Christopher M. JollMuslim Studies CentreInstitute of Asian StudiesPhyathai Road, PatumwanBangkok 10330Thailandjoll@psmail.net

ISBN 978-94-007-2484-6 e-ISBN 978-94-007-2485-3DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-2485-3Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011939218

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or byany means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without writtenpermission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purposeof being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

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Acknowledgements

There are many people who have contributed—both directly and indirectly—tothe writing this book. Between Waipukurau, Palmerston North, Songkhla, andChiang mai/Kunming parents and in-laws exemplified support over 10 years ofliving and working in, and researching and writing about in Pattani. Asante sanato the Hulme-moir clan. Wish Helen was still around to see this book come out!Others in New Zealand deserving a word of thanks are Mick Duncan, Rob andLois Bellingham, Ray and Paul Windsor, Blayne and Elizabeth, Ron Taylor, TonyAndrews, John Roxborogh, Chris Marshall, and Stephen Pattemore. Others friendsliving elsewhere that I wish to thank are Doug and Jill, Robert and Ruth, Greg, andZomia addicts Kaaren and Jeph. Bruce and Dia Taylor’s house in the mountainsof Chiangmai—one of the few places in Thailand where one can enjoy sitting bya roaring fire—both a place of welcome rest, and where I had some of my mostproductive writing retreats.

Khoop khun khrap to the following significant people in South Thailand: ForDr Hasan Madmarn’s warm encouragement, Dr Worawit Baru’s ongoing interest,Dr Ruslan Uthai’s help on the Pattani Malay, and Dr Bordin Waelateh’s warm friend-ship; and Shukri Langputeh who lend me some of the standard works on Islam inThailand, and introduced me to life-changing mind-mapping software.

I also wish to extend a terima kasih to the following people at the NationalUniversity of Malaysia (UKM). Professor Dr Mohamed Yusoff Ismail graciouslytook on a very accidental anthropologist. The former director of ATMA, ProfessorDatuk Dr. Shamsul Amri Baharuddin, was unceasingly welcoming and supportive—as was his successor Professor Dr Che Husna Azhari. While supervising my doctoraldissertation, Professor Che Wan Ahmad Zawawi bin Ibrahim, not only offered hos-pitality, and encouragement but succeeded in getting me to read less, write more,and to stop asking others to answer questions I should answer myself.

Most of the work on this book was completed while a research fellow at theMuslim Studies Centre at Chulalongkorn University’s Institute of Asian Studies,in Bangkok. I wish to thank Muslim Studies Centre’s director, Dr Sarawut Aree,and the director of Institute of Asian Studies, Dr Sunait Chutintaranond. I com-pleted this publication while at a visiting research fellow that the Religious

v

vi Acknowledgements

Studies Department, School of Art History, Classics and Religious Studies, VictoriaUniversity, Wellington, New Zealand. Thanks to Professor Paul Morris for his warmwelcome.

The following colleagues deserve a mention. In 2004, Alexander Horstmannsuggested I consider studying at ATMA. A number of South Thailand special-ists shared ideas, located articles, and loaned books to me. These include: FrancisBradley, Muhammad Arafat bin Muhammad, Matt Wheeler, Michael Jerryson,Stefan Ruholl, Patrick Jory, Joseph Liow, Saroja Dorarirajoo, Imtiyaz Yusuf,Chaiwat Satha-Anand, Duncan McCargo, and Marlane Guelden. Special thanks tofellow antipodean and Pattani-based anthropologist—and raconteur—Marc Askewfor his good company and no nonsense comments on my ideas and methods.

Studying Muslim merit-making in Cabetigo has only been possible through itsresidents being willing to tolerate a fly in their ointment. Special thanks to the fam-ilies of Ased, Omar, and Abdul Khayum, and our landlord Ali Halabi. Terimo kasihdan maaf zahir batin!

Although extensively reworked, this book is based on my doctoral dissertation(Joll 2009). I first articulated some of this monograph’s ideas and arguments in arange of conference papers, book chapters, and journal articles. Material relatedto the anthropology of Islam were presented in papers at “Voices of Islam inEurope and Southeast Asia”, in Nakhon Si Thammarat (January 19–22, 2006),“The International Conference on Southeast Asia”, University of Malay (December12 2005), and in a chapter of Social Science and Knowledge in a GlobalisingWorld, a book edited by Wan Ahmad Zawawi bin Ibrahim and published by theInstitute of Southeast Asian Studies in Singapore. Arguments about the “creole”characteristic of the earliest ambassadors in Patani were presented in a paper pre-sented at “Phantasm in Southern Thailand: Historical Writings on Patani and theIslamic World”, held at Chulalongkorn University, December 11–12, 2009. As wellas being published in this conference’s proceedings. Material on Muslim identifi-cations and ethnicization will appear in a forthcoming publication New Directionsin Islamic Studies in Southeast Asia: Voices of Young Southeast Asian Scholars,edited by Patrick Jory and Kamaruzzaman Bustamam-Ahmad. My comments relat-ing to Salafism and the Tablighi Jama’at in South Thailand appeared in a paperpresented at “An Anatomy of an Insurgency, 2004–2009”, a conference organizedby Ian Storey at the Institute of Southeast Asia Studies in Singapore between March10th and 11th, 2009. This was later published in a special edition of ContemporarySoutheast Asia (32:2).

There have been a number of people involved in the preparation of thismanuscript. I wish to thank the editors of “Muslims in Global Societies” monographseries, Professors Gabriel Marranci and Bryan Turner who walked me through myfirst book. While I have appreciated the input of both, if straws were drawn beenthem, Gabriel appears to have drawn the shortest. I received prompt, positive andunceasingly patient replies to my many emails. His patience must have been testedas some of these were sent at times in the publication process that were person-ally and professionally particularly challenging, Thanks also to Anita Fei van derLinden and her team at Springer. I also wish to thank Jim McInnes and Dr Helen

Acknowledgements vii

Greatrex who both read through and edited my entire manuscript at different times.Any inaccuracies or inconsistencies encountered by readers are, of course, entirelymy responsibility.

Sandra wins “long-suffering writing widow and solo mother” award as I wrotemy way through the doctoral tunnel and preparation of this monograph. Althoughonly rarely physically absent, I am under no illusions that Michaela and Nathansuspected that I was not always completely present—especially as I wrote under thestairs situated in the corner of our kitchen in Pattani.

I have dedicated this book to David Matthew Joll, my oldest (and only) brotherwho died suddenly on July 10th 2005. His estate made it possible for me and myfamily to live and work in Pattani longer than most. My final thanks are offeredto God.

Pattani Christopher M. JollOctober 2010

Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1The Tham Bun Conundrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Other Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Fieldwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Limits, Structure and Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 Indic, Islamic and Thai Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Sanskrit Cosmopolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Circulating Islam and Connected Creoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Initial Adhesion and Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Patani Post-1785: From Malay Kerajaan to Thai Province . . . . . . . . 35Assimilation Through Legislation Post-1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Revolution and Reform in the Hijaz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Mecca’s Patani School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44Resident Modernisers, Reformers and Revivalists . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3 Religious, Ethnic and Linguistic Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Omar’s Roti Shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Traditionalists, Reformists and Revivalists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Plural and Porous Identifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66Factors Affecting Autonym Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74Modern Multi-lingualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4 Thai and Malay Merit-Making Rhetoric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83Delineating Merit-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84The Searches for Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

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Arabic Terms and Islamic Ideation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5 Potent Words and Sacred Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103Qur’an’s Multiple Rewards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104The Qur’an and Personal Merit-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108Reading for the Dead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110Fardu Prayers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115What Worship Is Worth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119Funeral Prayers and Fardu Khifayah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121Sunnat Prayers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

6 Sedekoh and Meritorious Smorgasbords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129The Forms of Sedekoh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131Sedekoh for the Dead and Living . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134Variables Affecting the Amount of Merit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137The Merit-Generating Elements of Feasting Complexes . . . . . . . . . . 140Funeral Feasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144Mawlid Feasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149House-Warming Feasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151General Tham Bun Feasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

7 Ramadan Scales and Meccan Multiplications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159The Performance of Ramadan and Its Multiple Rewards . . . . . . . . . 160Hari Rayo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167Poso Sunnat and Rayo Ne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169The Haj: Prerequisites and Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171Performance of the Haj and Mecca’s Multiplications of Merit . . . . . . 176Reasons for Repetitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178The Sunnat Lesser Pilgrimage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

8 Merit-Making Rationales and Motivations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185Obligations to Allah and Preparations for Alam Al-Barzakh . . . . . . . 186Obligations to the Deceased and Merit-Transference . . . . . . . . . . . 188The Efficacy of Merit on Dunio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191A Muslim Economy of Merit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

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Thai Influences and Islamic Credentials Reconsidered . . . . . . . . . . 196Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Appendix: Transcription of Vernacular Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Chapter 1Introduction

Abstract This chapter introduces readers to the circumstances behind my arrivalin the Malay community of Cabetigo. I relate how curiosity at what Thai-speakingMuslims mean by tham bun (Th. merit-making) led to my metamorphosis into anaccidental anthropologist. Readers are also introduced to how other anthropologistshave sought to explain references by Thai-speaking Muslims to merit-generation,and how past approaches to studying Muslim societies affected the conclusionsreached. Details are also supplied about elements of the anthropology of Islamwhich has informed the conceptualisation of Muslim diversity, assessments of localadat (tradition), and the ethnographic significance of ‘ibadat, (Islam’s globally nor-mative ritual repertoire). Particulars about data collection and the issues encounteredduring the course of fieldwork are given before addressing the limits, structure andstyle of this study.

This is a study of Muslim merit-making in one of Thailand’s Malay-dominatedfar-south provinces (Map 1.1). I lived and worked in Pattani between 2000 and2010, apart from two six-month and one three-month interludes in New Zealand.My Thai-born wife and I had long planned to work in Thailand while our childrenwere young. Her excellent Thai and my English teaching job in Pattani were notonly our primary reasons for moving to Thailand, but they also greatly assisted ouracceptance by most Cabetigo residents. During our first years in this community,Thai language study was my top priority, before beginning the more challengingtask of learning the Pattani Malay dialect. Most of my language was acquired inlocal coffee/tea shops (PM. keda kopi, Th. raan naam cha).1 Throughout these firstyears we attended local weddings and funeral feasts whenever invited, and visitedneighbours and students over the two Muslim festivals of Hari Rayo (Ar. Id Il-Fitri)and Hari Rayo Haji (Ar. Id al-Adha). While we sought to actively participate in allcommunity activities, our level of involvement in the religious life of the commu-nity depended on what was being performed. Another factor was who was present.We soon discovered that there was often no consensus on what non-Muslims couldparticipate in.

1 Throughout this study, I specify the language of all vernacular terms with the following abbre-viations: Arabic (Ar.); PM. (Pattani Malay); Th. (Thai); Persian (Pr.); Indonesian (Id.); StandardMalay (SM.); Tamil (Tm.); Urdu (Ur.).

1C.M. Joll, Muslim Merit-Making in Thailand’s Far-South, Muslims in GlobalSocieties Series 4, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-2485-3_1,C© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012

2 1 Introduction

Map 1.1 Pattani province

The community of Cabetigo is located in Pattani town (Th. amphur muang) (seeMaps 1.2 and 1.3), which is the capital of Pattani province (Th. jangwat). Cabetigois one of oldest, largest and most important of Pattani’s Malay communities. Itderives its name from the three-way intersection located at its heart. The north-ern boundary of Cabetigo is marked by the intersection of Cabangtiga Road andYaring Road that borders Pattani’s main commercial district. The western perime-ter of Cabetigo is formed by the Pattani river (Th. khlong, maenam Pattani, PM.Sunga Taning), with its eastern boundary marked by Yarang Road, along which traf-fic between Pattani and Yala travels. Its southern extremity is the northern border ofa community referred to as Ta’lubut on Yarang Road.

There are a number of important landmarks on Yarang Road. Pattani’s largest(although not its most important) mosque is the Central Mosque (Th. Masyid Klang,PM. Masyid Baru) (Fig. 1.1) which was constructed by the Thai government. It islocated in front of the Pattani Provincial Islamic Council (SM. Majlih Agama Islam,PM. Majlih Ugamo Islam, Th. Khanat Kamakarn Islam).

South of the Central Mosque along Yarang Road is Pattani’s largest Muslimcemetery, Kubor Tok Ayoh. Opposite it is the entrance of Masyid Rajo (SM. MasjidRaja) (Fig. 1.2). Constructed as it was by the rajo of Pattani in a traditional Malaystyle, this is the most important mosque in Cabetigo. Its Arabesque domes wereonly added when extensions were made 20 years ago. Following the destruction of

The Tham Bun Conundrum 3

Map 1.2 Map of Cabetigo

Kruset, the Sultan of Patani constructed a palace (PM. koto) in Cabetigo which isencircled by an impressive three-metre high and two-feet thick brick wall.

While Masyid Rajo, Kubor Tok Ayoh and Koto Rajo together represent Cabetigo’ssymbolic core, other centres also exist. The official centre for the administrationof Islam in the province is the aforementioned Islamic Council, and twice a weekon market days (Th. wan nat) Cabetigo’s central three-way intersection becomesthe centre of commerce. While Cabetigo’s mosques, prayer rooms and kubors areall important religious centres, its numerous tea shops, restaurants and food stallsfunction as social centres.

The Tham Bun Conundrum

Between 2000 and 2004 I became intrigued at how frequently Thai-speakingMuslims in Cabetigo referred to merit-making (Th. tham bun). Indeed, on the daywe shifted into our house our landlady, Hassanah, asked whether we would bemaking merit (Th. ja tham bun mai). While inviting friends and neighbours to afeast we were holding to celebrate the safe arrival of our son Nathan in October

4 1 Introduction

Map 1.3 Map of the Pattani municipality showing location of Cabangtiga/Cabetigo

2001, we discovered that many in Cabetigo referred to feasts as tham bun. Afterextending our invitation, we explained that we had delegated the acquisition of thetwo obligatory goats, preparation of the curry, and the hiring of all the crockery andcutlery to a Muslim friend. As non-Muslim hosts, clarity on such details was crucial,as no one would come if there were any fears that halal food would be served onuncontaminated plates. Almost every neighbour asked whether we were “makingmerit”. After denying that this was our intention, an answer that created more thana little confusion was that we wished to publicly give thanks to God for our son’ssafe arrival.

I once returned home to discover a plastic bag hanging on the handle of our grilldoors. In it was some freshly made curry that had been sealed with a tightly woundrubber band. A neighbour explained that she had also received a bag, and that thishad been left by neighbour who was making merit, so that the dream she had hadthe previous night would come true.

At a friend’s house before my first Ramadan in Cabetigo, I enquired about thesignificance of the fast month. He replied by itemising the things he must abstainfrom and apply himself to. He concluded by saying that in the month of Ramadan

The Tham Bun Conundrum 5

Fig. 1.1 Pattani’s Central Mosque

Fig. 1.2 Masyid Rajo

Muslims “have to make a lot of merit” (Th. raw tong tham bun hai maak). On theeve of Hari Rayo at the end of Ramadan, I overheard a Thai Buddhist ask a Muslimfriend about how he would be making merit the next day. He was told that as well aspaying zakat fitroh, Muslims made merit for ancestors at the kubor (PM graveyard).In a similar way, those curious about how I worshipped asked about how I mademerit (Th. khun tham bun yang rai). On one occasion when it became apparent thatit was not clear about what I had been asked, I was provided an answer template inslow, clear Thai: “Muslims pray at the mosque, and Buddhists go to the temple, butwhat do you do?”