Multiple Domains of Development

7/29/2019 Multiple Domains of Development

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Lifespan DevelopmentSecond Edition

The University of Manitoba

Robert J. HoffnungUniversity of New HavenMichele HoffnungQuinnipiac College

Houghton Mifflin Company Boston New York


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To our children

Elizabeth Katherine and Michael David Seifert K.L.S.Aaron Hoffnung and David, Graham, and Heather Burbank R.J.H.Josh andJesse Hoffnung Garskofand Sarah Grimke Faragher M.H.

Sponsoring editor Kerry BaruthBasic book editor Karla PaschkisSenior project editor Rosemary WinfieldSenior production/design coordinator Jill HaberSenior cover design coordinator Deborah Azerrad SavonaSenior manufacturing coordinator Sally CullerMarketing manager Pamela LaskeyCover design: Rebecca Fagan; cover images: Paul Clancy, Graphistock; KatherineSzoka, GraphistockAnatomical and biological illustrations by Nancy Kaplan: Figures 3.14, 8.3Illustrations by Patrice Rossi: Figure 2.1Illustrations by Elizabeth Seifert: Figure 6.3All othercredits appear on page A-1, which constitutes an extension of thecopyright page.

Copyright 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storageor retrieval system without the pliorwritten permission of Houghton Mifflin Company unless such copying is expressly permitted by federal copylight law. Address inquiries to College Permissions, Houghton Mifflin Company, 222 Berkeley Street, Boston, MA 021163764.Plinted in the U.S.A.Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 99-71932ISBN: 0-395-96771-623456789-VH-03 02 01 00 JAMESCoorUNIVERSITY

LIBRARY


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The ature of Lifespan Development 5es that it is easy to overlook its impOltance or to notice changes in our self-conceptsthey occur. Yet for each of us, identity evolves and changes as we grow older,the changes affect our actions and feelings differently when they occur.

Domains of Developmentthese examples suggest, human development can take many forms. For conveof discussion, this book distinguishes among three major types, or domains,development: physical, cognitive, and psychosocial. The organization of the bookflects this division by alternating chapters about physical and cognitive changesth chapters about psychosocial changes. The domain of physical development,biological change, includes changes in the body itselfand how a person uses his orr body. Some of these changes may be noticeable to a casual obselver, such as thefference in how a person walks when she is two years old, twenty years old, andghty years old. Others may be essentially invisible without extended obselvation orn medical investigation, such as the difference in the ability to hear between alty-year-old and his seventy-flve-year-old father. Like other forms of development,ysical changes often span velY long periods-literally years or even decades

h not always. For example, changes in height and weight occur rather rapidlyg the early teenage years but extremely slowly dming middle age.Cognitive development involves changes in methods and styles of thinking,nguage ability and language use, and strategies for remembeling and recalling inmation. We tend to think of these abilities and skills as somewhat isolated withindividuals; a person is said to "have" a good memory, for example, as ifhe or sherries that skill around all the time and can display it anywhere with equal ease, nowhat the situation. As later chapters will sometimes point out, however,

of cognitive development in this way may be more convenient than accumemOlY, language, and thinking are all heavily dependent on SUppOltS (andboth from other people and from circumstances. A child learns tomore easily, for example, if parents and teachers give lots of personal support

her efforts. In this sense cognitive changes of reading "belong" to the helpfulas well as to the child who acquires them, and the changes are best underas partially physical and social in nature, and not merely cognitive.

Psychosocial development is about changes in feelings or emotions as well asanges in relations with other people. It includes interactions with family, peers,ssmates, and coworkers, but it also includes a person's personal identity, or senseself. Because identity and social relationships evolve together, we often discussem together in this book. And, as already pointed out, they also evolve in combition with physical and cognitive changes. A 'vvidower who forms satisfying friendis apt to feel more competent than one who has difficulty doing so, and he isen likely to stay healthier as well. Each domain-physical, cognitive, and psyeach of the others.

domain A realm of psychologicalfunctioning.physical development The area ofhuman development concerned plimarily with physical changes such asgrowth, motor skill development,and basic aspects of perception.cognitive development The areaof human development concernedwith cognition; involves all psychological processes by which individuals learn and think about theirenvironment.psychosocial development Thearea of human development concemed pJimalily with personality,social knowledge and skills, andemotions.

Sometimes human behavior can be prettypuzzling! The field of human developmentcan help in understanding apparent con-tradictions and inconsistencies-likewhen this child first does not, and thendoes, want to take a bath.


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6 Chapter 1 Study ing Li fespan Development

DOMAINPhysical Cognitive Psychosocial

II WidowhoodII Retirement

I I Finding a mateI I Earning a livingII Making a home

II Interest in oppositesex (for most)II Dating (for some)II First job

II Family changesI I Death of parents

II Preferred playmatesII Gender roleawareness

II Racial awareness

II FriendshipsII Gender segregation

II Achievement ofwisdom

II Expertise andpracticalintelligence

I I Developmentof postformalthought

II Problem solvingII ReadingII Writing

II Some abstractthinkingII Development ofadult-like interests

II VocabularygrowsII Dramaticplay

I I Declinein physicalstrength

Peak of strengthand speed

II Declinein fertility

II PubertyI I Growth spurt

Climb stairsFirst throws ballU Simple drawingsII Writing

SkillfulrunningI I ThrowingII Special skills(e.g., ride bicycle)

MiddleAdulthood(ages 40-60)

LateAdulthood(ages 60 andbeyond)

Adolescence(ages 12-18)

EarlyAdulthood(ages 20-40)

Infancy II Walking II Language II Becomes(ages 0-2) II Standing acquisition attached toII Reaching & II Searches for caregiver(s)grasping lost objects

Birth I I Startle reflex II Visual II CriesI I Grasping II Auditory II Soothes atI I Sucking II Tracking feeding

MiddleChildhood(ages 6-12)

EarlyChildhood(ages 2-5)


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The Nature of Lifespan Development 7Figure 1.1 shows some major landmarks of development in each of the three

I t also hints at some of the connections among specific developments,h between domains and within each single domain. Gender role awareness, foris noted as emerging in early childhood; it sets the stage for gender segre-tion in middle childhood. Retirement is noted as happening in late adulthood.is change in social circumstances is sometimes (but certainly not always) accom-by declines in health or physical strength-though which change causesis not always clear. In addition to these examples from Figme 1.1, numerousrelationships exist between and within domains of development. In laterpters we will point these out more explicitlywherever appropriate. Meanwhile,o get a better sense of what development from a lifespan perspective means, con-der a more extended, complete example.

from a Lifespan Perspective:he Example of Jodifar, though we have talked about the importance of relationships among various

of development, our examples have been a bit diverse and fragmented. Howuld developments tie together in the life of a real person? What relationshipsong them could we see then? These are not simple questions to answer fully, butou can begin to get partial answers by considering a child whom one of the authorspersonally: Jodi.\i\Then Jodi was four, one of her brothers died. Roger had been 2Y2 years older, aiendly kid and a decent Sibling. Jodi played with him more than with her sister andtl1er brother, who were both older than Roger. He died suddenly one winter fromof chicken pox. The doctors said he may have reacted to the aspirin

had taken for his fever. They said you weren't supposed to give aspirin to chil-but Jodi didn't know that, and apparently her parents didn't know it either.

For a few years after that, they were a three-child family "with a hole in theddle," said Jodi to her best friend, where Roger \-vas supposed to be. It was noteal for Jodi, but i t was tolerable: she didn't have the playmate she used to have,t she did have her family ("What's left of it!") and her friends from school. Lifeot back to normal-sort of.

When Jodi was nine, her parents adopted another child, a boy of twelve, aboute same age Roger would have been had he lived. Frank had lived in numerousster care homes, some of which had not been happy experiences for him. In t"m

the discipline had been extremely strict, but it was hard for Jodi to know this,Frank did not tell her as much as he told the social workers or his newparents, and her parents did not say much about Frank's past. In fact,said little to Jodi about anything; he seemed distinctly cool toward all threehis new Siblings.Except for his periodic visits to Jodi's room at night. The first time it happened,

di was startled out of her sleep: Frank was standing by her bed and demandedhat she take off her nightgown. That was all for that time. But he came back evelYew weeks, each time asking for more than the t ime before and threatening to hurtr badly if she revealed "our secret."So Jodi learned not to sleep deeply. She also learned to avoid being alone in theuse with Frank. In high school and college, she learned to avoid talking to boys aot, except in a joking way and in the presence of others. In class she learned to lookerested in what the instructors said even though she often was "sleeping inside,"

1.1Landmarks of Development

is a continual unfolding and integration of changes in all domains,at birth. Changes in one domain often affect those in another domain.


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8 Chapter 1 Studying Lifespan Development

Ecological System LevelsEcological LevelMicrosystem

Mesosystem

Exosystem

Macrosystem

DefinitionSituations in which the person hasface-to-face contact with influentialothers

Relationships between microsystems; the connections betweensituationsSettings in which the person doesnot participate but in which significant decisions are made affectingthe individuals who do interactdirectly with the person"Blueprints" for defining andorganizing the institutional life ofthe society

ExamplesFamily, school, peer group, church,workplace

Home-school, workplacefamily, school-neighborhoodSpouse's place of employment,local school board, localgovernment

Ideology, social policy, sharedassumptions about human nature,the "social contract"

Issues Affecting the IndividualIs the person regarded positively?Is the person accepted?Is the person reinforced for competent behavior?Is the person exposed to enough diversity inroles and relationships?Is the person given an active role in reciprocalrelationships?Do settings respect each other?Do settings present basic consistency in values?Are decisions made with the interests of theperson in mind?How well do social supports for families balancestresses for parents?Are some groups valued at the expense of others(e.g., sexism, racisml?Is there an individualistic or a collectivisticorientation?Is violence a norm?

Source: Adapted from Garbarino (1992a).

as she put it. So Jodi learned a lot from Frank, though not things she wanted tolearn and not things most of her classmates were learning.Jodi's StOly shows several things about human development over the lifespan. I tshows, for example, tha t the domains of development all unfold together. Jodi'sthoughts and feelings about Frank occurred in the context of phYSical changes happening to herself. Being physically older or younger may not have protected he rfrom abuse, but it probably would have altered the eX1Jerience, both in impact andin quality.Jodi's StOly also suggests the impOltance of unique, personal experiences whenexploring human development in general. Some things about Jodi may always beunique because of her encounters with Frank; she may always be a bit mistrustfulof boys and men, for example. But other things about Jodi can be understood as ex-amples of human changes that are universal or nearly universal. In experiencingabuse, for example, Jodi responds to gender role differences that pervade nearly allsocieties; in most societies, women enjoy less power than men do.

From the point of view of lifespan development, Jodi's story also raises questions about continuity and change across wide ranges of time. We are left wondering whether Jodi's initial responses to abuse will persist throughout her life.Assuming she will be cautious about men even as a thilty-year-old adult, will shestill be cautious as a sixty-year-old? After so many years go by, society itself may develop new attitudes about the significance of childhood abuse, just as society already has done in the past few decades. How \,vill Jodi respond to those changes,still decades away, when she becomes an older adult?To help organize thinking about developmental questions like these, the developmental psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner has originated a widely used framework for thinking about the multiple influences on individuals (Bronfenbrenner,1989; Garbarino, 1992a). He describes the contexts of development as ecologicalsystems, which are sets of people, settings, and recurring events that are related toone another, have stability, and influence the person over time. F igure 1.2 andTable 1.1 illustrate Bronfenbrenner's four ecological systems.1. The 1nicmsystem refers to situations in which the person has face-to-face contact with influential others. For Jodi, the microsystem consists ofher immedi-


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Churchgroup

F r i e n d S ~f ~ N e i g h b o r sfamilyMicrosystem

Family School

' - ' ; ~ - : i - + - Health PeersservicesW"kpl,rea

The Nature of Lifespan Development 9

FIGURE 1 .2Bronfenbrenner's Four Ecological Settingsfor Developmental ChangeAs shown here, Bronfenbrenner describeshuman development as a set of overlappingecological systems. All of these systemsoperate together to influence what a per-son becomes as he or she grows older. Inthis sense, development is not exclusively"in" the person but is also "in" the person'senvironment.Source: Adapted from Garbarino (/992a).

ate family (though note that the membershipof this family changed over time)as well as her teachers and peers at school.

2. The mesosystem refers to the connections and relationships that exist betweentwo or more microsystems and influence the person because of their relationships. An example would be the contacts between Jodi's parents and the socialworkers responsible for Frank's adoption: their contacts l ed them (perhapswrongly) to withhold information aboutFrank from Jodi.3. The exosystem consists of settings in which the person does not participate butstill experiences decisions and events that affect him or her indirectly. An example in Jodi's case might be the medical system, which either lacked theknowledge needed to save Roger at the time of his death or had been organized

in a way that interfered with communicating needed medical knowledge toJodi's parents.4. The macmsystem is the overarching institutions, practices, and patternsof be-liefthat charactelize s o c i ~ t y as a whole and take the smaller micro-, meso-, andexosystems into account. Ai! example that affected Jodi was gender role: a wide

spread belief that men shou ld domina te women may have contributed toFrank's coercive actions against Jodi, as well as to Jodi's caution with boys andmen as she got older.In the pages ahead we will keep in mind these multiple systems, such as thoseimplied by Jodi'S StOlY, as \ovell as the importance both of long-term developmentsduring adulthood and of historical changes. Only in this way will we be able to

convince you that lifespan developmental psychology has something to say about


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10 Chapter 1 Studying Lifespan Development

FOCUSING ON . . .Wanted: A Child and Family Policy

Parents generally do value their children, want thebest for them, and make sacrifices on their behalf. Inspite of this SUppOlt, though, the lives of children areoften difficult: In th e early 1990s, more than 20 percent of allchildren in the United States under age six lived infamilies that were officially poor (Huston, 1994).This is more than tv"ice the rate of poverty inCanada and about ten times the rate of poverty inSweden. A similar proport ion of children have failed to receive routine immunizations against polio, measles, and other childhood diseases. Here too theUnited States ranks much lower than many otherdeveloped counhies.

About a third of all children liVing today "vill eventually experience the divorce of their parents, withall of the stress i t brings (Hetherington, 1995).One of the stresses will be poverty, because theparent who usually has major custody, the mother,tends to earn much less than the father.

In the United States, on average, an infant is borninto poverty every thirty-five seconds, a child isphysically punished in school every four seconds,and a preschooler is murdered evelY fourteenhours (Children's Defense Fund, 1995).A major reason these problems exist is that the

United States lacks a comprehensive, integrated set ofpolicies for caring for its children. Programs to remedy social problems have tended to focus on problemsselectively rather than recognizing the impact of oneproblem on another. School programs to assist withlearning difficulties, for example, tend to work withchildren individually, even though health, nutrition,illness, and family disruptions contribute to learningdifficulties in major ways. A more effective approachis to provide a set of related and coordinated servicesto support families: pediatric care, combined withspecial help at school and a supportive social worker

or nurse to visit parents at home to provide encouragement and information. When Victoria Seitz andNancy Apfel tried this approach with some low-SESfamilies, they found improvements in cognitive abilities not only for the children originally at lisk but alsofor their Siblings who had not even been a focus of theintervention (Seitz & Apfel, 1994)!Similar conclusions have followed from studies of

the supports needed by low-SES Single mothers whowish to attend college (Kates, 1995). The most effective form of support has not been restricted to themothers as individuals. Career counseling and campus advocacy services, for example, are useful for lowSES Single mothers. More useful is to combine theseselvices with supports for the mother's family andfriends, such as by proViding child care as needed orhelp with finding hOUSing. Best of all is to include,along with these services, programs to actively develop awareness of these students' needs among university faculty and administrators so that they in turncan help the shldents find what they need.Such combined approaches to children's welfare

may look expensive and difficult when organized asspecial demonstration projects, bu t experience inother developed countries suggests that costs decrease markedlywhen implemented universally andthat organizational problems can in fact be solved(Chafel, 1993; U.S. General Accounting Office, 1993).The real challenge, it seems, may be political: enlisting the SUppOlt ofleaders in government and businessto develop comprehensive poliCies for children, andthereby ensllling the future of society.

What Do You Think?Suppose child care were made universally availablein the United States and Canada as it currently is incertain European nations. What effect would thispolicy have on children's development?What effectwould it have on their families? Would your feelingsabout universal child care depend on the age of thechildren?

particular human lives: about how you, I, or a friend of yours changes and growsand what those changes may signify for our lives as a whole. In taking this perspective, we do not wish to imply that shorter-term changes do not matter. What happened to Jodi at age nine, for example, mattered greatly to her at age ten. We do,however, want to emphaSize that developmental changes often have consequencesthat are l1wre than sholt term, and that the consequences are not necessmuy identi-


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calor even similar to each other. Jodi's response to abuse one month or one year after the experience may-or may not-be the same as her response many years later.We encourage'you to think of her story as a reminder of these complexities.

Why Study Development?Knowing about human development can help you in five major ways. First , it cangive you realistic eA'Pectations for children, adolescents, and adults. Developmentalpsychology tells you, for example, when infants usually begin talking and whenschoolchilcL'en tend to begin reasoning abstractly. I t also describes the issues facedby parents-and grandparents, for that matter. Admittedly, it often gives such information only as averages or generalities: when a "typical" person acquires a particular skill, behavior, or emotion. Nonetheless, the averages can help you knowwhat to expect from specific individuals.Second, knowledge of development can help you respond appropriately to aperson's actual behavior. I f a preschool boy tells his mother that he wants to marryher, should she ignore his remark or make a point of correcting his misconception?If a father is worried about his elderly mother's complaints about health, should heactively intervene in her medical decisions or learn to have faith in her ability todeal with them herself? Developmental psychology can help answer such questionsby indicating the sources and significance of many patterns of human thought, feelings, behavior, and growth.Third, knowledge of development can help you recognize the wide range ofnormal behaviors, and thus when depmtures from normal are h"uly significant. If achild talks very lit tle by age r,o, should he r parents and doctors be concerned?What if she still does not talk much by age four? I f a fifty-year-old breadwinner reports feeling a lot less ambitious at work than he did when younger, are his feelingsunusual or typical? vVe can answer tllese questions more easily if we know bothwhat usually happens and what can happen to people as they move through life.Lifespan psychology will help by placing particular behaviors in a broader context,one tllat (like Bronfenbrenner's framework pictured in Figure 1.2) calls attention tothe many simultaneous influences on every person's life. As we will see in tlle chapters ahead, this perspective leads to the conclusion that the importance of any particular behavior depends not just on the age of the person doing it bu t on the placeof the behavior in the overall life ofthe person.Fourth, studying development can help you understand yourself. Developmental psychology makes explicit the processes of psychological growth, processes thateach of us may overlook in our personal, everyday lives. Even more important, i tcan help you make sense out of your own eA'Periences, such as whether it really mattered that you reached puberty earlier (or later) than your friends did.

Finally, studying development can make you a more professional advocate forthe needs and rights of people of all ages, whether young, old, or in bet\een. Byknowing in detail the capacities of people of diverse ages and backgrounds, you willbe in a good position to persuade otllers of their importance and value. All of us, including most readers of this book, have a common stake in making our society amore humane place to live. Yet, as the accompanying Focusing On box indicates,we as a society can do a better job of supporting human development than we infact have done.

Why Study Development? 11

WHATDO YOUT H I ~ K '1

What do 'JOlt hope to gain by studying lifespan development (besides a collegecredit, of course!)? Take a minute to think about this question-maybe even jotdown some notes about it. Then share your ideas with two or three classmates.How do they differ?

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Multiple Domains of Development