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MULTILINGUALISM AND GLOBAL EDUCATION ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF CROSS-
CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE FOR STUDENTS AT INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS
A thesis presented
by
Armineh Petrossian
to
The School of Education
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for
Doctor of Education
In the field of
Education
College of Professional Studies
Northeastern University
Boston, Massachusetts
March 2020
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©2020 Armineh Petrossian
All Rights Reserved
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Abstract
This study explores how alumni from International Baccalaureate (IB) schools worldwide make
meaning of their experiences with multilingualism, IB education, and cultural intelligence. As the
world becomes increasingly interconnected and interdependent, the combination of second
language acquisition and an IB education impacts a global perspective and mindset in students,
providing them effective tools to succeed in their chosen careers. To this end, semi-structured
interviews were conducted with nine graduates holding IBDP diplomas. Transcripts were then
coded and analyzed. Through this process, five themes emerged: IB students’ personal
connections with the IB education, ease of navigating different cultures, consequences of causal
learning, impact of IB schools and their learning environment, and global citizenship. These
findings were analyzed through the lens of second language acquisition, cross-cultural intelligence
and the Transformative Learning Theory. Teaching and learning a foreign language still remains
challenging on many levels. Even though learning strategies differ for young children and adults,
major research studies agree on the cognitive flexibility practice that bilingualism offers our
students. By learning a different language, students consequently learn about the cultures that
share that language, and thus integrate a tolerance for people’s differences into their global
perspective. Depending on when a second language is introduced, bilingualism affects the
cognitive flexibility of learners, as well as supports the cultural and social-emotional learning of
students in schools. Bilingualism may not be for everyone, but it needs to be accessible for all
who choose it in order for it to become a global standard rather than a privilege.
Keywords: global education, second language acquisition, immersion, bilingualism,
multilingualism, cross-cultural intelligence, International Baccalaureate, Transformative Learning
Theory.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………….…3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………………….6
DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………………………….8
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION………………………...…….……………………………..9
The International Baccalaureate (IB) and Forming Global Citizens..........................…...10
Statement of the Problem………………..……………………………………………….12
Significance of the Research Question…………………………………………………..15
Research Problem and Research Question………………………………………………18
Definition of Key Terminology………………………………………………………….19
Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………………………..22
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………..…..27
Cultural and cross-cultural intelligence………………………………………………….31
Bilingual education………………………………………………………………………34
Cognition and neuroscience…………………………………………………………...…39
The international baccalaureate (IB)…………………………………………………..…44
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY..……………………………..………………….….…49
Qualitative research approach…………………………………………………………....49
Overview and philosophical underpinnings……………………………………………...52
Participants……………………………………………………………………………….53
International school of Ukinoto……………………………………………………….…54
Procedures………………………………………………………………………………..55
Data collection…………………………………………………………………………...56
Data storage……………………………………………………………………………...58
Data analysis……………………………………………………………………………..59
Ethical consideration……………………………………………………………………..60
Role of the researcher…………………………………………………………………....61
Trustworthiness…………………………………………………………………………..64
Limitations……………………………………………………………………………….65
CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS OF DATA……….……...………………………………….…66
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Overview of participants…………………………………………………………………67
Emerging themes……………………………………………………………………...…70
IB students’ personal connections with the IB education………………………………..71
Ease of navigating different cultures………………………………………………….....75
The consequences of causal learning…………………………………………….........…80
Impact of IB schools and their learning environment…………………………………....83
Global citizenship………………………………………………………………………..87
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE……………......…93
Findings in relation to the literature……………………………………………………...94
Cultural intelligence……………………………………………………………………...96
Impact of IB schools……………………………………………………………………..98
Bilingual education………………………………………………………………………99
Limitations……………………………………………………………………………...102
Recommendations for future research ………………………………………………....105
Recommendations for Practice ……………..………………………………………….106
REFERENCES:…………………………………………………………………….…………..110
APPENDICES:
A. Recruitment letter for participants………………………………………………..…130
B. Initial Recruitment Email……………………………………………………………131
C. Recruitment Email (additional information about the study)………………………..132
D. Informed Consent Form……………………………………………………………..133
E. Interview Protocol Form……………………………………………………………..136
F. Notification of IRB Action…………………………………………………………..138
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Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Cherese Childers-McKee. I am
extremely grateful for your guidance, encouragement and feedback that pushed me forward even
during my most challenging times. Your positive attitude, wisdom and smile were always
greatly valued. I could not have asked for a better advisor. I also appreciate the feedback and
perspectives of my second reader, Dr. William Ewell, whose comments were instrumental to my
scholarly growth. I am very thankful to Dr. Adrienne Tierney for her patience and input as my
third reader. I deeply appreciate her enthusiasm and invaluable support throughout this process.
In addition, I would like to thank all the research participants for their time and effort. I was
lucky enough to encounter such a remarkable group of young people. Their level of maturity
and commitment to the study was truly noteworthy and greatly appreciated. I wish them all great
success in their chosen fields. Bravo!
This dissertation would not have been possible without the support from the school I
conducted my research at. I want to thank Richard Ulffers, head of school, Isabelle Praud, Peggy
Kirkpatrick, Pauline Dides and Sam Rodger for opening the door for my research and providing
me with resources I needed in order to succeed.
A special thank you goes to Jeanne Miller, who edited my final draft in record time. I
also appreciate the support from my colleagues and friends: Fernanda Gantier, Catherine
Rondeau, Christine Bodet, Marielle Taverna, Christine Mabardy-Higgins, Fred Bolzan and many
others. I am also grateful to all my friends and family in Boston whose fun-filled company and
friendship provided me the much needed relief throughout the long dissertation process.
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Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for their unconditional and unwavering
love and support: my husband, Boghos, and my children, Natalie, Patrick and Phillip, my sisters
Linda, Elsa and Nancy and my mother, Anahid, all of whom have never failed to remind me how
proud they are of me.
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Dedication
This doctoral thesis is dedicated to the most important people in my life: my children
Natalie, Patrick and Phillip, my husband Boghos, my sisters Linda, Elsa and Nancy and my
parents, Anahid and Badik.
I discovered my love of education once my children started going to school. I would like
to thank the hundreds of students over the years who have inspired me to become a dedicated
educator and have motivated me to grow as a mentor and an individual. I am privileged to be
able to help shape my young students in their formative years while also enjoying every second
of the process.
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
“One language sets you in a corridor for life. Two languages open every door along the way.”
Franck Smith
With a drastic surge in modern technology, improved communication tools and advanced
transportation systems, the world is becoming increasingly interconnected and interdependent.
This interconnection and interdependence has forced economic boundaries to shrink and has
potentially increased culturally based conflicts. In today’s globalized world, professionals as well
as students face linguistic challenges communicating with people around the world (Ng, Dyne &
Ang, 2009). Holding a position in industry, sciences or academics no longer demands strictly
interacting with those in close proximity, but also with partners from around the country and the
globe. Cultural intelligence, cultural knowledge, and cultural metacognition become key
elements in achieving global understanding, key elements that characterize the 21st century
(Thomas & al., 2008). In this qualitative interview based study, I explore how alumni from
International Baccalaureate (IB) schools make meaning of their experiences with
multilingualism, IB education, and cultural intelligence.
The interaction between language, global education, and cultural intelligence was
investigated through interviewing former students at the International school of Ukinoto (ISU).
The International School of Ukinoto has an International Baccalaureate (IB) curriculum and a
multilingual student population. Today’s social fabric is meshed with a rich diversity of cultures
in a pluralistic society (Bernardo, A. & Presbitero, A., 2018). In a shared space, to achieve
global understanding, it is crucial to learn another language not only for communication
purposes, but also to develop listening skills which are important for a better understanding of
global social issues, and to enhance one’s own cultural intelligence (Bernardo, A. & Presbitero,
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A., 2018). Culture is the medium through which people view, interact, and make meaning of the
world. In the past, learning another language was mainly for self-satisfaction (Sieloff-Magnan &
Tochon, 2001). However, in the 21st century, learning another language has become an integral
part of communicating and understanding varied perspectives in order to become culturally
competent. The amalgamation of languages and cultures helps shape the beliefs and the
behaviors that could lead to cultural intelligence and global education (Ang et al., 2007). By
learning a different language, students can learn about the cultures that share that language,
acquire cultural competency, and have the potential to integrate a tolerance for people’s
differences into their personal identities. It is in this context that the International Baccalaureate
program helps form multilingual global citizens and helps develop cultural intelligence in the
future work force.
The International Baccalaureate (IB) and Forming Global Citizens
IB schools around the world share a common curriculum and educational objectives
under the auspices of its mission statement: “to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and caring
young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural
understanding and respect (IBO, 2016, p.1).” An IB education provides students with an
understanding of language and culture, critical tools to become globally engaged and culturally
competent. All the attributes required for an IB education provide coherence across four
programs of study and help establish the IB learner profile. The IB learner profile describes the
values, attitudes and behaviors that each program aims to develop in its students by helping them
become “thinkers, balanced, reflective, risk takers, communicators, principled, open minded,
caring, inquirers and knowledgeable (IB, 2016).”
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Currently there are over 4,300 IB schools worldwide. This number represents a 56.4%
increase of IB schools since 2011 and it is continuing to rise (IBO, 2016). The growth of the IB
school has been impressive. By 2020, the IBO projects to be educating 205 million children in
10,000 schools across the globe (Bunnell, 2011). The IB is now seen as a reliable product
conforming to consistent quality standards throughout the world. As such, the IB Diploma
Program (IBDP) is now viewed as “a provider of global cultural capital (Bunnell, 2011, p. 173)”
and has gained momentum: 92% of IB schools in the US are public. In parallel, the IB Diploma
Program (IBDP) is also rapidly gaining access to elite private schools in the US (Bunnell, 2011).
In the US, over 1,700 public and private schools offer IB programs (IBO, 2016). To promote
international mindedness and global citizenship, there are three programs that are at the core of
the IBDP: Creativity, Action and Service (CAS), involving 150 hours of volunteer work, Theory
of Knowledge (ToK) and Extended Essay (EE), a 4,000 word essay on an approved subject
chosen by the student. These three core requirements are in addition to six disciplinary areas,
including a second language, from which students must choose their courses in their quest for
either the Standard Diploma (SD) or the highly coveted Bilingual Diploma (BD). In 2013, there
were 127,284 IBDP candidates worldwide, of which the majority sought the Standard Diploma
(SD). In 2012, 68% of the diplomas awarded were Standard, while 32% were Bilingual (IBO,
2016). According to the International Baccalaureate Organization, students who are bilingual,
with prior academic knowledge of two or more languages, are more likely to pursue the
Bilingual Diploma (IBO, 2016). In tandem, IB students in countries where the most commonly
spoken language is not English, view acquiring English as an international language (IBO,
2016). This reinforces the fact that English is indeed a global language that acts as “lingua
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franca,” a common language used by all to communicate on an equitable basis (De Costa, 2016).
This value added component is what demonstrates the strength of the global student.
As global educators, IB teachers are trained in IB courses to follow an identical learning
curve with other IB teachers across the three IB regions: Africa/Europe/ Middle East, Asia-
Pacific, and the Americas. All IB teachers strive to cultivate social justice commitments and
challenge students’ perceptions of themselves in a fair world. Global engagement and global
citizenship are clearly addressed as IB values through social statements such as “globally
engaged people critically consider power and privilege, and recognize that they hold the earth
and its resources in trust for future generations (IBO, 2016).” The concept of being action-
oriented is a primary quality of an IB education and students are encouraged and given the
opportunity to become change-agents through the CAS program (IBO, 2013, 2015).
Statement of the Problem
In a global economy, human interaction now encompasses different cultures, religions,
and socioeconomic backgrounds, which, for many, breach a comfort zone. As inhabitants of this
world, people are no longer just citizens of a country, but members of a global citizenry (Young,
Haffejee & Corsun, 2017), and as such could benefit from a global education. Global education
has the potential to promote positive values and to help students take responsibility for their
actions (De Lissovoy, 2011). Global education endorses awareness of social justice,
understanding of identity, and cultural diversity in developing intercultural understanding
(Korzilius, Bücker & Beerlage, 2017). As global citizens, students learn to contribute to a more
peaceful, just and balanced world (Mbugua, 2010). In theory, a global and social approach,
along with learning a second language, is embedded into each state’s curriculum to improve
language arts, social studies, mathematics and sciences, etc. (Goh, M., 2012). In practice, this
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approach is not as simple nor is it as accessible as more and more immigrant students enter the
current system of education (Apple, 2011). In addition, cultural intelligence is an area that
remains elusive for many (Ng, Dyne & Ang, 2009). Therefore, the goal for a global education is
to connect students’ personal lives and backgrounds to their studies (Bacon & Kischner, 2002).
As students make connections between their own backgrounds and the subjects they study, they
become active participants in a global awareness exchange that enriches their learning and
ultimately contributes to their cultural intelligence.
Current educational standards are often challenged by rapid technological and social
changes such as shifting demographics, increased mobilization, and changing cultural dynamics
within the classrooms (Esposito & Baker-Ward, 2013). Apple (2011) claims that the most
important thing influencing global educational policies and practices is an amalgamation of
international economies. Whatever happens in one country significantly affects other countries,
be it economically, educationally or ideologically. To paraphrase Apple (2011) on the subject of
cultural intolerance “the problem with the Americans is that they don’t understand that their
history constantly occurs outside their borders (p. 223).” Capital, population, knowledge and
power are all interlocked and interconnected through globalization. As the United States
continues to be a land of immigrants there is a widespread misconception that there is no value
or nothing to learn from immigrants (Apple, 2011). In recent years, global education and
cultural awareness have become topics of discussion in many schools (Baylis, 2015). Global
education supports understanding of interdependencies and the importance of working towards a
just future, in which all people have equal access. Multicultural societies in the world are now
demanding a diverse educational system that necessitates an essential understanding of cultural
differences. In a multicultural classroom, as in most classrooms today, a monolingual norm is no
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longer adequate. In order to succeed and give students a global competitive edge, the
fundamental meaning of curriculum and instruction needs to adapt and recognize the societal
changes, by accepting the significant advantages of a multilingual education (Carstens, 2015).
Students need to feel empowered and in charge of their learning, as well as responsible for their
future. Learning a second language could bridge the gap of cultural understanding and provide
learning strategies to respect and understand cultural differences. Hence, it is deduced that
globalization could redefine cultural identities. Therefore, multilingualism and IB education are
cornerstones of this study for understanding different cultures and learning strategies to manage
cultural differences and become culturally intelligent (Jones, 2018).
It is important to note that an IB education is not the only way to earn an “international”
education (Dvir, Shields & Yemini, 2018). Many countries such as France and Israel, albeit for
political or social reasons, have instituted their own “international” curricula. International
education encompasses learning another language and it is the relationship between language
acquisition and cultural awareness that allows students to build a better understanding of global
ethics and cross-cultural empathy (Contini & Maturo, 2010). The concept of educating the
whole person through personal, emotional, and social growth, as well as focusing on the dynamic
combination of knowledge, skills, and international mindedness are essentially the goals of
educating students for a life of active and responsible global citizenship (Baylis, 2015).
In multicultural classrooms, teachers try to infuse global awareness and cultural
competency into their teachings to effectively shape the behavior of their students (Fong et al.,
2016). Jean Moule (2012) describes cultural competence and awareness in schools as “[the
development of] certain personal and interpersonal awareness and sensitivities, learning specific
bodies of cultural knowledge, and mastering a set of skills that, taken together, underlie effective
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cross-cultural teaching.” The importance of this teaching becomes apparent when globalization
manifests itself from pre-school through 12th grade education.
International schools seek to develop a global educational identity and they reflect a
greater student diversity than in years past. The present study is contextualized within an
international school setting. Initially, international schools were created for pragmatic reasons
(i.e. teaching children of expats, diplomats, etc.) rather than on principles of an international
education ideology or globalism (Hayden & Thompson, 1995). The schools were designed to
provide continuity of specific national curricula and matriculate students into premier
universities in their home countries. However, over the last thirty years, the international school
context has shifted. The necessity of a single national curriculum and inclusion of monocultural
identity are no longer valid. Research shows that children who have grown up with a globally
nomadic lifestyle are likely to become internationally mobile citizens in the future (Baumann,
2012). Currently, international schools and the IB educational system continue to permeate
global educational structures and to influence the denationalization of education systems across
the world (Goh, 2012).
Significance of the Research Question
Student engagement plays an essential role in student success and is a catalyst for a
successful learning experience. Schools, educators and parents work together to complete each
student’s educational journey. It is an obligation to make it so all students become “students,”
with a thirst for learning, an understanding of societal obligations, and readiness to become
leaders of tomorrow. Language acquisition and cross-cultural intelligence in IB schools supports
understanding of the interdependencies and the importance of working towards a just future, in
which all people have equal access (Dvir, Shields & Yemini, 2018).
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To prepare students to succeed as global citizens in the 21st century, learning a second
language would be beneficial to all students. Competency in another language and general
language awareness are both directly related to intercultural and cultural intelligence (Byram,
2012). To compete in the world arena and to maintain a position of strength, students need to be
multilingual, and schools need to become grounds for language and cultural intelligence (Contini
& Maturo, 2010).
Although the meaning of the word “multilingualism” in the US is changing, many still
need to be convinced that multilingualism is not solely for the immigrants or the privileged few,
but essential to the formation of culturally intelligent global citizens (Halle et al., 2014). Factors
influencing the acquisition of a second language are all inter-related, but their relationships
remain complex. In the United States there is not much of a consensus between the different
states on how to teach a foreign language or the need for it. Different approaches, such as
immersion, second language acquisition, or multilingualism have been tried to achieve a desired
level of cultural competency. These approaches and definitions in themselves remain
problematic as each word may have a different meaning from one state to another (López, 2012).
It is the responsibility of each student to make sense of his or her learning. Over time,
there needs to be more research on how language learning could ease cultural biases arising in
today’s diverse classrooms and help students attain cultural intelligence (Contini & Maturo,
2010). Regardless of the program of study or the percentage of instruction time in the target
language, bilingual education appears to have become very desirable in forming culturally
intelligent global citizens.
Traditionally, immigrant were expected to assimilate into the dominant culture, at the
expense of their own culture, language, and values. Globalization has in a way amended this
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monocultural logic to value inclusion over assimilation, cultural tolerance over intolerance, and
international connectedness over an “America First” policy (Fischer, 2017). In recent times, the
connection between languages and cultures have evolved to influence positively the monolingual
attitudes that can lead to intolerance or lack of understanding of multicultural peers (Dasli,
2011). Dack and Tomlinson (2015) stated that “all people are shaped by the culture in which
they live (p.11).” This statement in itself does not explain why there is an intolerance or lack of
understanding of peers who are multilingual and multicultural. However, taken in the context of
the current multicultural school population, the question arises as to “whose” culture is the norm,
because people tend to make judgements according to their own cultural lenses. Interpreting the
behavior of those with a different culture than oneself might be defined as impolite, defiant, rude,
or discourteous resulting in a waste of human potential (Dack & Tomlinson, 2015).
The legitimacy of monolingual attitude in public schools is being challenged by the dual-
language stimulus (Byram, 2012). Languages other than English are no longer considered as
“foreign,” but are now regarded as world languages (Baumann, 2012). In the last ten years,
teaching and integrating the immigrant community into mainstream monolingual America is
appearing to shift (Cummins, 1998). Achieving multilingual proficiency, high academic
achievement, and cross-cultural awareness is gaining momentum as much as the idea that
multilingualism is an asset to obtain and preserve (Dasli, 2011). Although the United States does
not have an official native language (like most European countries), because of its immigrant
population, it is becoming a multilingual nation. To move America forward on a global setting
and produce world citizens, it is essential to develop a philosophy where world languages, global
education, and cultural intelligence are valued on a daily basis and gradually become the norm
(Lenchuk &Ahmed, 2013).
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Research Problem and Research Question
In a globalized world, one way to achieve multilingualism and cross-cultural intelligence
is through the relationship between the acquisition of languages and a global education offered
by the IB curriculum. The purpose of this interview based study is to explore how ISU alumni
make meaning of their experiences with multilingualism, IB education, and cultural intelligence.
My research interest is to explore how students perceive their multilingualism and how
an IB education has developed their cross-cultural intelligence and has prepared them to meet the
challenges of a global world. Therefore, the research question I examine is:
• How do ISU alumni make meaning of their multilingualism, IB education, and cultural
intelligence?
Definition of Key Terminology
Throughout the dissertation, many terms will be used to describe students and their
language proficiency levels. Sometimes they will be used interchangeably, at times alone, or
even together. These terms will help demonstrate a connection between the study of languages
and the cultural impact it has on students. To avoid confusion, here is a short description of each
term referred to in this review.
Monolingualism
This term refers to a person with competency in one language.
Multilingualism
This term refers to a person who has the ability to communicate effectively in three or
more languages.
Plurilingualism
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This term is derived from multilingualism and it refers to a person with competencies in
two or more languages who can switch from one language to another and vice versa (Linton,
2004).
Bilingualism
The term bilingualism or bilingual is the ability to speak two languages. A person who
can also read and write proficiently in two languages is known as biliterate. A biliterate person
is considered bilingual, but a person who is bilingual is not necessarily biliterate (Delbridge &
Helman, 2015). In the United States, bilingual education is a term initially used to help an
immigrant student transition from his/her native language to English. The native language,
referred to as L1, is the first language learned at birth, the home language or mother tongue. The
second language or L2 is the language a student acquires. There are three methods for acquiring
a second language.
One-way immersion (Canadian model) is when two languages are used to teach various
subjects to students simultaneously, and they are referred to as L1, the native language and L2,
the second language to be acquired. In this case, L1 is used as a tool to help teach L2 (Pufhal &
Rhodes, 2011).
Two-way immersion (US model) is a transitional program aimed at immigrant students
who are acquiring English as a second language with the objective of English replacing the home
language (Tochon, 2009).
Dual-language education is used to develop academic proficiency in both L1 and L2
concurrently; that is, learning a second language while continuing to study the native language
(Esposito & Baker-Ward, 2013).
Globalization
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The concept of globalization is a reality because the world we live in has become an
interconnected world. Due to advancements in transportation and communication technology,
global interaction in trade and culture has increased within countries around the globe. This
interaction has created a more inclusive world or a global community where people from all over
the globe have to communicate and interact with each other (Sobol, Cleveland & Laroche, 2018).
Global citizen or “kosmopolite” is how Diogenes, a Greek philosopher, is credited with
the first know use of the word to described himself. A cosmopolitan or global citizen is someone
who is open minded and works actively to build relationships with others. This person also
identifies as being a member of the world community and shares the values of globalization (De
Costa, 2016).
Global education is the concept of integrating within the curriculum a worldview of
teaching the studied subjects. The aim of this concept is to connect students with people all over
the world (Goren & Yeminy, 2017).
Global citizenship education (GCE) is to encourage civic awareness of democracy,
diversity, social justice and environmentalism through school curriculums (Pak & Lee, 2018).
Global Education Achievement Certificate is a collegiate level certificate program of
the Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. To earn this certificate, students are
encouraged to take classes with a “global content in the arts, sciences and humanities”
(Singmaster & Manise, 2019, p. 21-25).
Culture
Culture is “the belief systems and value orientations that influence customs, norms,
practices, and social institutions, including psychological processes (language, caretaking
practices, media, educational systems) and organizations (media, educational system)-
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. . . all individuals are cultural beings and have a cultural, ethnic, and racial heritage.
Culture has been described as the embodiment of a worldview through learned and
transmitted beliefs, values, and practices, including religious and spiritual traditions. It also
encompasses a way of living informed by the historical, economic, ecological, and
political forces on a group. These definitions suggest that culture is fluid and dynamic and
that there are both cultural universal phenomena and culturally specific or relative
constructs (American Psychological Association, 2003, p. 380).”
Culture is the shared social beliefs and values of a group of people. A multicultural
person has the ability to relate to many or several cultures. The term intracultural relates to
people of one culture interacting with people within the same culture. The term intercultural is
the ability to interact between or among people of different cultures (Presbitero, 2016).
Cultural competencies are a general term for over three hundred concepts related to
cultural competence, such as self-awareness, cultural empathy, etc. (Ang, Rockstuhl and Tan,
2015).
Cross-cultural ability is a term used for someone who can communicate effectively
across many cultures. In a globalized world, cross-cultural intelligence is the ability to function
competently with others despite their cultural differences (Sieck, Smith & Rasmussen, 2013).
Cultural intelligence is the ability to connect and work effectively across cultures
(Crowne, 2009). This ability is formed with the following four factors: metacognitive, cognitive,
motivational, and behavioral (Al-Dossary, 2016) and can be measured by Ang, Van Dyne, and
Koh’s (2006) cultural intelligence scale (Schlägel & Sarstedt, 2016).
Multiculturalism is the effect of exposure and internalization of two or more cultures
(Korzilius, Bücker & Beerlage, 2016).
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Theoretical Framework
The goal is to explore how ISU alumni make meaning of their experiences with
multilingualism, IB education, and cultural intelligence. The Transformative Learning Theory
will serve as the theoretical framework for this study.
Transformative Learning Theory (1991)
Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory stems from his research of women
continuing their education, after an interruption, in the 1970’s. According to Mezirow, his
theory demonstrates that “learning is understood as the process of using a prior interpretation to
construe a new or revised interpretation of the meaning of one’s experience in order to guide
future actions (Mezirow, 1996, p. 162).” His conclusion was that ten key factors contributed to
the transformations. The ten factors are: a disorienting dilemma, a self-examination with
feelings of guilt, a critical assessment of epistemic, sociolinguistic, or psychological
expectations, recognition of one's discontent and the process of transformation are shared,
exploring new options, planning a course of action, acquisition of new skills, trying new roles,
building of competences and reintegration based on one’s new perspectives (Christie, Carey,
Robertson & Grainger, 2015).
Mezirow’s model (1991) has evolved into a complete description of how learners
interpret, confirm, and reformulate the meaning of their experience. Even though it was
designed for adult learners, the theory can be applied to learners of second language, regardless
of their age. The participants in my study are young adults who reflect on their middle/high
school learning experiences at an international school. For learners to go through a
transformation, they have to engage in critical reflection of their lived experiences as do the
participants in my study as they reflect on their experiences. Learning and making meaning
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occurs through instrumental and communicative learning. Instrumental learning focuses on
learning through task-oriented problem solving and cause and effect relationships.
Communicative learning involves how learners communicate their needs, feelings and desires
(Mezirow, 2003). Making meaning is central to the theory and is divided into three tenets:
sociolinguistic, psychological, and epistemic. Contemporary theorists, such as Mezirow, have
largely used John Dewey’s concepts of transformational educative experience (Dewey, 1929) as
the basis to derive their transformative theories. Theorists such as Robert Boyd (1991) use
transformation as individuation and Paulo Freire (1970) uses it as consciousness-raising.
Boyd (1991) shares a commitment with Mezirow to understand and facilitate personal
transformation as he views transformative learning theory within the sphere of transformative
education. His work stems from the psychological perspective and differs from others because
he derived his beliefs from Carl Jung’s development of the consciousness, which he calls
“individuation.” Boyd’s primary concern was the expressive or emotional dimensions of
learning and as such, learners learn unconsciously. The goal of transformative learning is to
achieve a knowledge of self and the world through symbols and day-to-day actions (Boyd,
1991). Images establish dialogue and represent a constructive relationship between the
consciousness and the psyche. Freire (1970) called his transformative learning “consciousness-
raising.” His ideas originated from his work with literacy education of the poor in Brazil.
Freire’s work has significantly influenced the development of a critical perspective in adult
education. For Freire, education aims to foster critical consciousness among learners, while
teaching them how to read, through the desire of political liberation and freedom of oppression
(Freire, 1970).
24
In the 1990s, the National Standards in Foreign Language Education suggested the
following standards to be included into second language instruction programs known as the five
C’s (Figure 1). The five C’s consist of Communication, which allows students to bond;
Connections, which allow people from different cultures to meet; Comparisons, which challenge
people to perceive the world through different perspectives; Culture, which pushes people to
gain a better understanding of others; and, finally, Communities, which engage people to
participate in multilingual activities (Lear & Abbott, 2008, p.76). With the five C’s in mind,
Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory assumes that, over time, a person acquires a set of
beliefs about one’s self, the world and other people. In turn, these beliefs form boundaries
through which the person recognizes and comprehends the world around. Therefore, learning
occurs through perceptual and cognitive instructions, which provide meaning and subsequently
transform all learning (Christie, Carey, Robertson & Grainger, 2015).
Figure 1. ACTFL’s Standards for Foreign Language Learning, the 5 C’s (Lear & Abbott, 2008,
p.76)
25
Counterarguments
As Mezirow’s theory gained importance in academia, many scholars used it as the basis
for their dissertations. In 1997, Edward Taylor concluded that the studies showed that it was not
enough just to show context in transformative learning. He stated the importance of critical
reflection in conjunction with other ways of knowing as well. In 1989, Collard and Law argued
that Mezirow failed to take into consideration the importance of a collective social action. In
1993, Mark Tennant pointed out that Mezirow’s theory did not recognize the socially constructed
nature of development. A group of inquirers also claimed that Mezirow used cognition at the
expense of other learnings such as affective or intuitive learnings.
Applications to this Study
Despite the above counterarguments, Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory
provides the researcher the flexibility to explore changes given a person’s learning abilities or
frame of reference (Kitchenham, 2008). A person’s frame of reference is established given
assumptions through which experiences are understood (Taylor, 2007). Learning is a social
process, therefore, this theory is an appropriate vehicle to study how international schools foster
bilingualism to close cultural gaps and increase cultural intelligence. International schools and
bilingualism provide the frame of reference upon which the process of effecting change is based
to close cultural gaps and increase cultural intelligence later on in life.
Closing cultural gaps and increasing cultural intelligence by learning a second language
can enhance students’ understanding and ability to assess their own values, goals and progress
(Calleja, 2014). This is a reflection of the Transformative Learning Theory as it encourages new
ways of seeing, thinking, deciding and acting on experiences, making it an appropriate lens for
this study.
26
Conclusion
The 2007 US government census released in 2010 revealed that 12% of the US
population, more than thirty-eight million people, were foreign born. The information released
by the census bureau further revealed that 80% of the immigrants were coming from Latin
America and Asia. It is also worthy to note that one out of every eight persons in the US is a
first-generation immigrant (Dack & Tomlinson, 2015). Thus, although challenging, teaching and
learning foreign languages, along with a globally minded and culturally intelligent curriculum
are now necessary commitments for the future. In addition to providing advantages,
multilingualism serves as an added skill in today’s globalized world. Global education, through
language education, promotes awareness of social justice, understanding of identity and cultural
diversity in developing intercultural understanding. By receiving a global education, learning a
different language and developing cultural intelligence, students have the opportunity to learn
about the cultures that share that language, work for international companies, manage employees
from other cultures and countries, collaborate in joint ventures and compete with people from all
over the world. An international education allows students to complete their transformation
learning process.
27
Chapter Two
Literature Review
“Language shapes the way we think, and determines what we can think about.”
Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)
In 1820, Wilhelm von Humboldt, a German linguist stated, “In each language there lies a
specific view of the world.” His idea stemmed from the belief that culture influences the
structure of language, and that language in turn influences thoughts and behaviors (Pajević,
2016). In a globalized world, a culturally intelligent global citizen is a member of the world
community, who identifies with and whose actions influence the world community’s values and
practices (Thomas, 2006). Given this statement, languages and an international based
curriculum can be considered integral components of forming culturally intelligent global
citizens. Learning a foreign language can help to develop a global perspective and mindset in
students, giving them critical tools to succeed in their chosen careers. International schools and
their culturally minded curriculum become the vehicles through which students learn culturally
intelligent behavior and develop sociopolitical consciousness (Ladson-Billing, 2006). The
purpose of this study is to explore how ISU alumni make meaning of their experiences with
multilingualism, IB education, and cultural intelligence.
This literature review will begin with a discussion of culture and cross-cultural
intelligence. Next, various bilingual models will describe bilingual education, followed by the
cognitive and neuroscience effects a bilingual education has on a learner. Finally, the
International Baccalaureate Organization will be described briefly. This research will address
the importance of bilingualism and global education on the development of cross-cultural
intelligence for students at IB schools.
28
In general, a global approach is embedded into curriculums to improve language arts,
social studies, mathematics and sciences. It is designed to teach students to think in different
perspectives. In the United States, student fluency and knowledge of a second language is the
intended purpose for foreign language instruction. Unfortunately, learning a second language is
still not fully integrated into the general mindset nor is it supported by the data (O’Rourke, Zhou
& Rottman, 2016). World foreign language instruction in the United States was on the decline a
decade ago (Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011). In contrast, foreign language instruction in the European
Union has been on the rise (O’Rourke, Zhou & Rottman, 2016). Since 2004, with the shifts to
focus on math, science, and English-language arts, there is no more mandatory testing of foreign
languages at the elementary, middle or high school levels despite many states requiring a
minimum of two years of foreign language instruction (Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011). In its 2008
survey, the Center for Applied Linguistics found that the number of U.S. elementary schools
teaching foreign languages has decreased to 15 percent from a high of 25 percent in 1997
(O’Rourke, Zhou & Rottman, 2016). Since 2001, the U.S. government has tied school funding
to Adequate Yearly Progress on standardized test results in math and English language. As
foreign languages are not assessed in standardized tests, their importance has been devalued.
Other subjects, such as social studies, history and art were created to help teach math and English
in an integrated way; this should not have been at the expense of other subjects. In regards to
foreign language instruction, the Massachusetts Framework in particular states that foreign
language programs should begin in elementary school, since language acquisition is more easily
accomplished at a young age, and continue beyond grade twelve (Massachusetts Foreign
Language Curriculum Framework, August 1999).
29
The inconsistency between what is “written” and what is “practiced” is what creates this
deficiency in acquiring a second language and is a problem. First, the states were left to develop
their own Curriculum Frameworks, without a consensus on the terminology particularly as it
pertains to the Foreign Languages curriculum. Now, the “newly” introduced Common
Core Standards assert a clear set of shared goals and expectations for the knowledge and skills
students need in English language arts and mathematics to prepare them to succeed in college,
career, and life. To prepare students to succeed as global citizens in the 21st century, all students
needed to learn another language (Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011). Competency in another language,
language awareness, is directly related with intercultural and cultural awareness (Byram, 2012).
To compete in the world arena and have an edge, students need to be bilingual, and schools need
to become grounds for language/cultural awareness (Contini & Maturo, 2010). Despite efforts
by many states to embed a global approach into the curriculum, learning a second language is
still not fully appreciated, nor are its virtues completely understood (Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011).
This is an important problem of practice of the educational system, particularly as the
opportunity to study and learn a second language is essential for students to become culturally
intelligent global citizens (O’Rourke, Zhou & Rottman, 2016).
A multicultural and diverse classroom is the ideal environment for learning, while taking
into consideration the cultural heritage of all students (Thomas, 2007). In a global environment,
our diverse and multicultural classrooms promote language and cultural awareness to enrich
student learning (Thomas, 2007). Once students recognize that they are not alone in their
learning and are not much different from their peers, they gain confidence and perform better
(Thomas, 2007). Educational leaders and policy makers need to understand and acknowledge
30
that the problem of global education and second language acquisition is becoming a major force
guiding our educational system (O’Rourke, Zhou & Rottman, 2016).
Cultural intelligence is a term that is often at the forefront of globalization, diversity and
cross-cultural awareness (Thomas, 2007). Our classrooms today are composed of an increasing
number of ethnically diverse students; consequently, the curricular objectives need to reciprocate
the needs of a culturally diverse student population (Thomas, 2007). According to Cox and
Blake (1991), a growing number of students are already bilingual (Cox & Blake, 1991).
Bilingual competence is the ability to use the second language effectively for personal
advancement purposes and is therefore a marker of cultural diversity (Thomas, 2007). As such,
it has a great impact on global ethics, cross-cultural empathy and cultural intelligence (Cox &
Blake, 1991). This research will explore how, in a globalized world, international schools and
learning a second language can close cultural gaps and increase cultural intelligence. Therefore,
to attain this objective, three factors need to be considered: cultural intelligence, bilingual-
immersion education, and cognition and neuroscience. These three factors contribute equally to
attain culturally intelligent global citizens. Even though learning strategies differ for young
children and adults, major research studies do agree on the cognitive flexibility practice that
bilingualism offers language learners (Tochon, 2009). By learning a different language, learners
will consequently learn about the cultures that share that language, and thus integrate a tolerance
for people’s differences into their personal identities (Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011). Bilingualism
may not be for everyone, but it needs to be accessible for all who choose it in order for it to
become a global standard and not a privilege.
Given learning a second language is one of the six disciplinary areas of the IB Bilingual
Diploma, this literature review will analyze bilingualism and second language acquisition
31
broadly through two venues. The broad definition for bilingual education includes programs for
students whose native language is English (majority-language) as well as programs for minority-
language students, mainly immigrants, and identifies with higher academic achievement
(Tochon, 2009). While the general curriculum in the United States no longer debates the
importance of second language acquisition, many states still struggle with how to best implement
and enhance the learning and teaching of foreign languages to native English speakers (Marian,
Shook & Schroeder, 2013). In addition, bilingualism enhances the cognitive and neurobiological
advantages by changing the brain structure and function (Bialystok, Craik & Luk, 2012). Factors
influencing the acquisition of a second language are all inter-related, but their relationships
remain complex (Bialystok, Craik & Luk, 2012). The summary demonstrates why acquiring a
second language needs to become as important as learning how to read, write and count in
English, in addition to fostering students’ view that language learning is a positive step towards
cultural intelligence (Tochon, 2009). Based on the latest worldwide statistics, over four million
students follow an international curriculum, over 64% of CEO’s are bilingual and over 66% of
the world population is bilingual (CIEP – Département langues française. Alain Chevallier,
2015).
CULTURAL AND CROSS-CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE
A discussion of cultural and cross-cultural intelligence is a vital component of my study.
Past research has addressed multiculturalism primarily as it related to the business world. Today
multicultural societies in the world are demanding a diverse educational system that necessitates
an essential understanding of cultural and cross-cultural differences (Earley & Peterson, 2004).
In a multicultural classroom, as in most classrooms today, a monolingual norm is no longer an
adequate option for 21st century learning. The U.S. Census predicts minority populations will
32
increase to 48 percent of the total population by 2050 (U.S. Census, 2010). In order to succeed
and give our students a global competitive edge, the fundamental meaning of curriculum and
instruction needs to adapt and recognize the societal changes, by accepting the significant
advantages of language and cultural education (Carstens, 2015). This is supported by
multinational organizations voicing their need of culturally intelligent trained global executives
(Earley & Peterson, 2004).
In a global setting, cultural and cross-cultural intelligence is defined as the ability to
connect and work successfully across cultures and in culturally diverse situations (Presbitero,
2017). A culturally intelligent person is someone who understands cultural differences and is
capable of both empathizing and interpreting the differences as a native would (Early &
Mosakowski, 2004). A person can acquire cultural intelligence by being exposed to experiences
in other cultures, such as traveling, studying, or interacting with someone from that culture
(Crowne, 2008). Four critical areas are identified in the development of cross-cultural
intelligence (MacNab & Worthley, 2010). They are:
• Metacognitive is defined as the ability of information processing to understand cultural
differences (Crowne, 2008). Individuals with high metacognitive cultural intelligence are
aware of their own thinking processes and are capable of adapting their views and
questioning their own cultural assumptions when engaging in intercultural interactions
(MacNab & Worthley, 2010). As an example of a metacognitive exercise, Sternberg
(1985) identified several characteristics of core mental processes: recognizing the
existence of a problem, defining the nature of the problem, finding solutions to resolve
the problem, and allocating, defining and evaluating solutions to the problem.
33
• Cognitive relates to learning about different cultures and cross-cultural interactions
(Early & Mosakowski, 2004) through self-awareness and knowledge of one’s social
environment (MacNab & Worthley, 2010). An example of this would be knowing one’s
own cultural background and being conscientious of the way this can shape one’s
viewpoints for understanding other cultures (Early & Mosakowski, 2004).
• Motivational aspect of cultural intelligence is a person’s ability in learning and
functioning in cross-cultural situations (MacNab & Worthley, 2010). This component
requires greater levels of commitment to staying engaged and adjusting to new cultural
settings (Crowne, 2008). Not giving up too soon when encountering challenging
situations in inter-cultural dealings is an example of the motivation component (Li,
Mobley & Kelly, 2015)
• Behavioral demonstrates a person’s ability to adjust his or her behavior when interacting
with people of different cultures (Crowne, 2008). For example, a person with high levels
of behavioral cultural intelligence may adjust his or her communication manners to
interact more effectively with people from different cultures by using appropriate words,
correct tone of voice, body language, and facial expressions (Early & Mosakowski,
2004).
Conclusion
Researchers have found that cultural intelligence cannot be considered in a vacuum and is
dependent on multilingualism (Zentella, 2009). As classrooms become more diverse, students
are encouraged to actively participate and take ownership of their learning. There is a difference
between “know-that knowledge and know-how knowledge (Thomas, 2007).” In other words, it
is not the accumulation of facts and figures that will “educate” a person, but the way one
34
analyzes and draws from his/her own experiences and those of others (Thomas, 2007).
Therefore, it is important to understand that cultural intelligence encapsulates aspects of
intelligence that are common across cultures and not what differentiates them. The following
graphic (Figure 2) is a representation of cultural intelligence that describes the nature of the
interaction among the critical areas (Thomas et al., 2008, p. 128). In this figure it is important to
note that Cognitive and Motivational areas are represented by Cultural knowledge which is the
mental process at the core of cultural intelligence (Thomas et al., 2008). Depending on the depth
and extent of exposure to other cultures, learners will eventually reduce their cultural gaps and
increase their cultural intelligence. Ultimately, cultural intelligence will emerge as the leading
skill in developing global leaders through one’s ability of self-analysis, learning experiences, and
language and cultural aptitude (Barner-Rasmussen, Ehrnrooth, Koveshnikov & Mäkelä, 2014).
Figure 2. Domain of cultural intelligence (Thomas et al., 2008, p. 128)
BILINGUAL EDUCATION
Language research has shown that bilingual education is central in closing cultural gaps
and increasing cross-cultural intelligence (Zentella, 2009). Bilingual education is a factor of
social and multicultural movement across borders (Soldatova & Geer, 2013). Because of these
movements in the last twenty years, the number of private bilingual schools has grown
exponentially in the United States, at a cost not afforded by many (Maxwell, 2012). Some states
35
such as New York, Texas and Utah have put programs in place that allow students to enroll in
full immersion programs. These immersion programs are funded by the state and demand seems
to grow every year (Linton, 2004). In Massachusetts, more and more public schools offer
language immersion programs successfully (Eaton, 2012). As the benefits of learning a second
language at a young age become more evident, many more states are also initiating such
immersion programs in French, Spanish or Mandarin, just to name a few (Maxwell, 2012). The
following are three methods of acquiring a foreign language, potentially contributing to closing
cultural gaps and increasing cultural intelligence.
One-Way Immersion
In this model, language instruction in the target language is both the content and medium
of instruction. Students learn the language by receiving instruction in the language. Immersion
education gained importance in Canada during the sixties as the French language was instated in
elementary schools for students who spoke only English at home. Even though immersing
students in a second language was not a novel idea, the research conducted to evaluate its
success was (Cummins, 1998). In a one-way immersion program, there are three basic paths of
instruction to follow. Early immersion starts early in a child’s schooling, during pre-
kindergarten to first grade. Middle immersion follows in the elementary school (beginning in
grade four or five), and late immersion ensues in the middle school (beginning in grade seven or
the initial grades of secondary school). In a typical early immersion program, children have a
full day of instruction in the second language with only a few hours of English. In the middle
immersion, most of the instruction is carried through the second language with a few more hours
of English instruction added on. As the children’s proficiency in the second language increases,
the amount of English instruction increases as well, particularly in the middle school. Although
36
there may be variations in dual-language instruction, a few characteristics do remain constant
and must be adhered to. Other than the instructional time in the second language described
above, there must be a distinct separation of the two languages without any mixing (Pufahl &
Rhodes, 2011). Teachers in immersion programs will use the native language to help teach
English. The point is to educate children in both languages, and to use the native language as a
tool and resource to elevate their level of learning, comprehension, compassion, and brain
elasticity (Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011).
Two-Way Immersion
In this model, a balanced number of native English speakers and native speakers of
partner language are joined to receive instruction in both their native and the target language. In
the United States, to better serve the immigrant population two-way immersion programs were
adopted. There are three basic models: the transitional bilingual program, where the students’
home language is used in their primary schooling while they acquire English as a second
language with the implicit or explicit goal of English replacing the home language, the
developmental bilingual program, and the two-way immersion program, both aiming for full
competence in the students’ home language and English. The main difference with the Canadian
model is that dual-immersion programs in the United States are designed to teach English as a
second language, the dominant societal language, to minority students as opposed to in Canada
where the second language is considered the minority language relative to the importance of
English (Cardoza, 2018). Currently, Spanish is the predominant language taught in dual-
immersion programs, followed by Mandarin, Portuguese and French. As the success of the
existing immersion language programs are studied and duplicated, they have unfortunately failed
to effectively become the norm for our public schools (Tochon, 2009). Irrespective of these facts
37
and the long waitlist for entry into bilingual schools, other obstacles remain. Beyond the
reconciliation of theory and practice, funding, time and specialized training of teachers seem to
be major deterrents. Regardless of the problems, the collected data still does support the
following fact: children enrolled in dual-language programs have smaller reading and math
achievement gaps compared to their native English speaking peers (Maxwell, 2012).
Although there is no national curriculum for immersion programs, the bilingual programs
integrate the core curriculum prescribed by the state and add the second language factor. These
programs have many more benefits beyond the two obvious advantages: speaking two languages
and cognitive skills such as working memory (Bialystok, Craik & Luk, 2012). The goals for
children going through the immersion programs are high academic achievement, high level of
proficiency in the native language as well as the second language, and positive cross-cultural
attitudes and understanding while maintaining their cultural heritages (Maxwell, 2012).
Bilingual – Dual-Language Education
Another way of acquiring a second language is through the Dual-Language model. This
model is based on having up to an equal amount of instruction provided by native speakers of
each language. In other words, a dual language learner acquires two or more languages
concurrently, learning a second language while continuing to study his or her native language or
mother tongue (Halle et al., 2014). Usually, dual-language classrooms are comprised of an equal
number of language-majority and language-minority students (Esposito & Baker-Ward, 2013).
In the U.S. where there is a large native Spanish speaking population, it has been noted that,
through this model, language-majority students acquire Spanish fluency while language minority
students achieve comparable competencies in English (Esposito & Baker-Ward, 2013). It is
important to mention that neither language group in dual-language classrooms has demonstrated
38
any loss in English proficiency (Halle et al., 2014). This model is not solely based on the
Spanish language, but has also inspired many other language groups such as French, Mandarin,
Vietnamese, German, etc. (Halle et al., 2014).
Dual-language programs are generally established in private schools and some charter or
magnet schools to promote long-term academic achievement for all students. The program
usually starts in pre-school/kindergarten level and extends to high school in some cases. This
two-language instruction model needs a commitment of at least five years to achieve academic
success, biliteracy, and a better understanding of linguistic and cultural diversity (Roy, 2008).
Conclusion
Regardless of the program of study or the percentage of instruction time in the target
language, bilingual education has become equivalent to increased cognitive flexibility,
particularly when the second language is acquired early on in life (Berken, Gracco & Klein,
2017). Multilingualism and bilingualism have become the norm in Europe, Asia and Africa
(Tochon, 2009). In the U.S., the legitimacy of monolingual attitude in public schools is still
being challenged by the dual-language stimulus (Tochon, 2009). Languages other than English
are no longer considered as “foreign,” but are now regarded as world languages (Tochon, 2009).
In the last ten years, teaching and integrating the immigrant community into mainstream
monolingual America has shifted (Linton, 2004). Immigrant children are no longer viewed as an
obligation which schools must take care of (Tochon, 2009). Instead, bilingual proficiency, high
academic achievement, and cross-cultural awareness is gaining momentum as much as the idea
that bilingualism is an asset to obtain and preserve (Linton, 2004). Although the United States
does not have an official native language, like most European countries, it is becoming a
multilingual nation due to its immigrant population (Tochon, 2009). It is now important to make
39
the difference between “bilingual” education and “dual-language” education, which promotes
bilingualism (Linton, 2004). Bilingual education, programs established under the Bilingual
Education Act of 1968, provided an equal educational opportunity to students with no or limited
proficiency in English to ease their integration into the regular classrooms (Tochon, 2009).
Many scholars have come to believe that this program helped children learn English, but did not
produce bilinguals because many viewed the program as a threat to national unity and
Americanism (Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011). As the language debate continues in the U.S., the dual-
language option has begun to gain momentum (Linton, 2004). To move America forward on a
global setting and produce world citizens, dual-language programs in schools are developing a
philosophy where multiculturalism, world languages and multicultural studies are valued and
have become the norm for personal advancement in the world community (Pufahl & Rhodes,
2011). “The road to bilingualism is incremental, and so are the accrued advantages (Bialystok,
Peets & Moreno, 2014, p. 189).”
COGNITION AND NEUROSCIENCE
Many countries, such as France, start to teach their students a foreign language in the first
grade. In doing so, they have come to realize that the earlier the second language is introduced,
the better the students retain the mechanics and incorporate that language and associated cultures
into their identities (Roy, 2008). Experts seem to agree that the ideal period for learning a
second language is before the age of six, during which time acquisition may occur in the same
manner as the mother tongue (Bialystok, Craik & Luk, 2012). In that window of time, through
early training, children get better results, especially in phonology (Tochon, 2009). The
effectiveness of this training depends on the learners’ exposure to the foreign language. Another
European country, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a trilingual country in which
40
Luxembourgish (the national language), German and French are recognized as official languages
(Tochon, 2009). In this case, the cognitive mechanisms of working memory, phonological
awareness and ability in the child’s first language are identified and explored in relation to
second and third language acquisition as early as pre-kindergarten (Engel de Abreu &
Gathercole, 2012). It is also argued that the brain can restructure itself through the process of
second language acquisition, based on the age at acquisition and the proficiency level (Vanhove,
2013).
Cognitive Development
Today, it is generally assumed that the number of languages that children learn, through
either natural exposure or educational intervention, has consequences for their development. In
the early days, most educators believed that learning two languages at once would slow the
child’s cognitive growth by disorienting them. Since then, countless studies have shown that
learning multiple languages does not cause confusion in children, but it actually reshapes the
brain. Penfield and Roberts first introduced this concept of “critical period” for second language
acquisition in 1959 (Vanhove, 2013). This hypothesis states that second language acquisition
needs to take place between the age of two and puberty, and that the learning needs to be
continuous over several years. Over the years, many scholars have made use of the hypothesis
and developed theories such as the “critical period theory” based on the age-susceptibility
function (age at which proficiency is attained) by taking into account the age and exposure a
child has to the second language (Vanhove, 2013). This theory, in conjunction with images of a
scanned bilingual brain, shows a greater grey-matter density, which demonstrates structural
reorganization and physiological differences between bilingual and monolingual brains. This
implies that brain structure is notably altered in early-bilinguals by improving its executive
41
function. For example, compared to monolinguals, bilinguals seem to be better at solving certain
kinds of mental puzzles, ignoring distractions, and planning and performing mentally demanding
tasks (Bialystok, Craik & Luk, 2012). No matter the model or the variables used, assessments of
bilingual children in both languages have confirmed the positive effects of bilingualism.
Bilingual children not only have equal or higher capacities in phonological awareness,
vocabulary, grammar, literacy, and reasoning than monolingual children but also have a higher
level of cultural consciousness (Li, Mobley & Kelly, 2015). They also reflect a higher
performance of executive function, which is the ability to manage cognitive processes such as
working memory, reasoning, task flexibility, and problem solving (Esposito & Baker-Ward,
2013).
Social – Emotional Development
The relationship between language acquisition and cultural intelligence is what allows us
to build a better understanding of global ethics and cross-cultural empathy (Della Chiesa, 2010).
Social and emotional intelligences are factors that relate and interact directly with cultural
intelligence (Crowne, 2009). Emotional intelligence is the ability to acknowledge and recognize
one’s own emotions as well as those in others, and the aptitude to use the intelligence in making
correct choices (Crowne, 2009). Cultural intelligence is the capacity to function in multiple
cultures efficiently (Crowne, 2009). In cultural intelligence, there is the added focus and ability
to navigate the different cultural environments with ease (Crowne, 2009). Advancements in
technology have made the world a smaller place to live with an increasing amount of interactions
among its citizens. Cultural and language differences shape the way we view others and
ourselves (Della Chiesa, 2010). Given this phenomenon, the human brain has the capacity to
adapt when it detects similarities. By adapting, the brain then guides us towards better social
42
behavior in diverse cultural settings (Della Chiesa, 2010). Chomsky introduced the notion of
universal grammar in the 1960s, which is a system of human principles and structures for the
acquisition of language. It states that linguistically, humans are in more ways similar to one
another than they are dissimilar (Rolbin & Della Chiesa, 2010). Universal grammar asserts that
learning grammar and syntax are properties that all human languages share and that the human
brain is innately predisposed with this linguistic ability without being taught (Rolbin & Della
Chiesa, 2010).
As language and culture mesh together in the mastering of a language, values and
perceptions of the world will change overtime, thus cultivating a global awareness in culturally
intelligent beings (Della Chiesa, 2010). It is due to our diverse and multicultural classrooms that
bilingualism is becoming the norm in many countries and cultural/intercultural awareness has
become an integral part of teaching a second language (Baker, 2012). It is this
cultural/intercultural awareness, combined with the acquisition of a second language that is the
focus of attaining culturally intelligent leaders over time (Abbott, Austin, Mulkeen & Metcalfe,
2004). Today, global companies are confronted with the challenges of intercultural differences
within their work force and their business dealings (Early & Peterson, 2004). Global leadership
and cultural awareness depend on cultural and leadership recognition of others (Baker, 2012).
Therefore, learning another language has become a necessity (Early & Peterson, 2004). In
today’s classrooms, in order to succeed, the fundamental meaning of curriculum and instruction
needs to adapt and recognize the changes society has undergone. Learning a language is not
solely based on phonetics, grammar, syntax, vocabulary and rules of knowledge. Learning is
most definitely influenced by positive environmental factors, i.e. an affirmative view of the
language and culture (Tochon, 2009). These positive environmental factors will over time
43
provide the second language learner with the ability to understand and empathize with people
from different cultures (Ng, Dyne & Ang, 2009).
Conclusion
To ensure a successful second language acquisition program, both cognitive and social
development aspects need to be considered. Recent research indicates this assumption is also
directly correlated with the learner’s desire to learn a second language. Therefore, the learning
needs to empower the student to take ownership of his or her learning, and success is achieved
when the student takes on this responsibility, as learning and teaching are, in a way,
complementary. Learning a language, as stated before, is not solely based on phonetics,
grammar, syntax, vocabulary and rules of knowledge. Learning is absolutely influenced by
positive environmental factors and an affirmative viewpoint of the language and culture. Rolbin
& Della Chiesa (2010, p.196) stated that “becoming plurilingual constitutes an essential step
toward metalinguistic and metacultural awareness.” In his linguistic theory, Noam Chomsky
(2011) believes that human beings are genetically inclined to learn languages, regardless of their
socio-cultural differences. Advances in neuroscience have allowed us to perceive the slightest
variations in the human brain as it relates to how we think, feel, and empathize towards one
another, despite our language and cultural differences (Rolbin & Della Chiesa, 2010). The belief
is that, by becoming multilingual and multicultural, cross-cultural empathy will allow the
“expansion of our own being”, as stated by Dewey (1934, p.339). This personal growth and
cultural awareness is an important element of “Global Ethics” and the formation of “Global
Citizens.”
Plurilingual, multilingual, and bilingual are all terms describing someone who speaks
another language at some level of proficiency. Compared to 56 percent of Europeans, only 17
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percent of Americans speak more than one language proficiently (Tochon, 2009). In a global
economy, and with the need to form global citizens, second language instruction needs to be
seriously addressed by our educational system. While English is considered as a world language,
second and/or third languages need to be taught in our schools and be made accessible to all
(Tochon, 2009). Multicultural classrooms provide an ideal learning environment for all, while
taking into consideration all students’ cultural heritage (Byram, 2012). Learning a second
language has both explicit and implicit components that affect the learner at all levels (Gardin,
1976), particularly as it relates to cultural intelligence.
THE INTERNATIONAL BACCALAUREATE (IB)
An efficient and established program for learning a second language is the International
Baccalaureate, and the one I chose to examine in my study. The International Baccalaureate
Organization (IBO) is a non-profit educational foundation, founded in 1968 in Geneva,
Switzerland. As a non-profit educational foundation, the IBO offers four International
Baccalaureate (IB) programs (IBO, 2016). These programs have language acquisition as an
integral part of their curriculums, to ensure that the curriculum develops international
mindedness in their students.
The IB Primary Years Program (IBPYP), ages 3 to 12, prepares students to become
active, caring, lifelong learners who demonstrate respect for themselves and others and have the
capacity to participate in the world around them. The program focuses on the development of the
whole child and consists of five essential elements in its curriculum, including learning another
language (IBO, 2016).
The IB Middle Years Program (IBMYP), ages 11 to 16, encourages students to make
practical connections between their studies and the real world, is inclusive by design; students of
45
all interests and academic abilities can benefit from their participation. The MYP comprises
eight subject groups, including language acquisition (IBO, 2016).
The IB Diploma (IBDP), ages 16 to 19, aims to develop students who have excellent
breadth and depth of knowledge – students who flourish physically, intellectually, emotionally
and ethically. This program also has language acquisition as part of its six subject groups
required to complete the program (IBO, 2016).
Career-related program (ages 16 to 19) addresses the needs of students engaged in career-
related education. This program allows students to combine academic subjects with their
professional interests and skills (IBO, 2016).
The above four programs are designed to develop the intellectual, personal, emotional
and social skills needed to live, learn and work in a rapidly globalized world from an early age.
The IB encourages students to become active and compassionate members of society, whether at
a national or global level. As lifelong learners, with a holistic curriculum that makes meaning
through personal connections, IB students are encouraged to work together and face global
challenges through inquiry, action and reflection. In a global context, the IB is designed to
develop international mindedness. At times, the terms “international” and “global” seem to be
interchangeable. However, they differ given the meaning from which they are addressed:
“international” refers to nation states and their relationships with each other and “global” refers
to issues concerning the planet as a whole (Bunnell, 2011).
All IB schools around the world share a common curriculum and the same educational
standard under the auspices of its mission statement, which states: “to develop inquiring,
knowledgeable and caring young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world
through intercultural understanding and respect (IBO, 2016, p.1).” All the attributes required for
46
an IB education provide coherence across the four programs of study and help establish the IB
learner profile. The IB learner profile describes the values, attitudes and behaviors that each
program aims to develop in its students by helping them become “thinkers, balanced, reflective,
risk takers, communicators, principled, open minded, caring, inquirers and knowledgeable (IB,
2016).” This international exposure aims to provide not only the knowledge but also the social
context that influences a higher level of cultural intelligence, be it cognitive, metacognitive,
motivational and behavioral (Şahin, Gurbuz & Köksal, 2013)
Global Citizenship Education (GCE)
Despite a lack of consensus in defining Global Citizenship Education (GCE), many
educational systems from around the world are cognizant of the need to include some form of
global citizenship education into their curricula (Gardner-McTaggart & Palmer, 2018).
Established educational entities, such as the International Baccalaureate, have developed
programs to promote cross-cultural intelligence, social justice and conflict resolution (Dreamson,
2018). Concurrently, many states, such as Wisconsin, Massachusetts and North Carolina, have
also designed a Global Certification program to validate their students’ engagements in global
learning (Singmaster & Manise, 2019). Nevertheless, Global Citizenship Education (GCE) is a
vehicle to advocate “increased understanding of and respect for the world’s diverse cultures”
(Misiaszek, 2016, p. 596).
Conclusion
In a globalized world and in the quest for becoming world citizens, education is a
significant element that provides people with a better chance of employment and way of life
(Presbitero, 2017). Personal background and life experiences also greatly influence the views on
the subject (Bigelow, 1999). In a way, they are the catalyst to each person’s positionality and
47
biases. For an objective assessment, it is necessary to be aware and conscious of the elements
that shape opinions and ideologies in today’s globalized society. Global education is developing
a global perspective and mindset in students, by providing them with the best tools to succeed in
their chosen careers, as they become global citizens (Apple, 2011). The most important factor
that influences global educational policies and practices is an amalgamation of international
economies (Deyneka, 2017). Whatever happens in one country significantly affects other
countries be it economically, educationally or ideologically. Capital, populations, knowledge
and power are all interlocked and interconnected through globalization. It is not surprising that
the 2007 US government census released in 2010 revealed that 12% of the US population, more
than thirty-eight million people, were foreign born. The information released by the census
bureau further revealed that 80% of the immigrants were coming from Latin America and Asia.
It was also worthy to note that one out of every eight persons in the US was a first generation
immigrant (Parra, 2013). Therefore, school environments require a specialized approach and a
second language acquisition of a “foreign” language, according to the Massachusetts Foreign
Languages Curriculum Framework, is intended to take the educational system into the 21st
century through knowledge and technology. It states very specifically as its Core Concept
“Language learning is never just about words. Language is the medium in which human beings
think and by which they express what they have thought. The study of language—any
language— is therefore the study of everything that pertains to human nature, as humans
understand it (Massachusetts Foreign Languages Curriculum Framework, August 1999).”
Foreign languages are key to developing a global perspective and mindset in students in order to
give them the best tools to succeed in their careers, increase their cognitive development, and
help them become culturally intelligent global citizens. In a global age, economy, science and
48
technology, environment, and migration are trends representing a completely new set of
challenges for everyone (Gurin et al., 2002). Even though students are exposed to diversity, they
may not necessarily all experience the same outcome; however, the exposure will affect the
students’ social development and their cognitive growth (Earley & Peterson, 2004). Therefore,
international schools can develop their students’ cultural intelligence not only through cognitive
learning but also by exposing them to different cultural environments and a social learning
process (Şahin, Gurbuz & Köksal, 2013).
Most developed countries and the European Union face similar cultural and linguistic
challenges so they integrate culture into their second or foreign language curriculums. In their
efforts to preserve their own national identities, developed countries have recognized the need to
assimilate and embrace globalization through cultural intelligence and bilingualism. It is time to
recognize this phenomenon in the United States and embrace the global culture that is expected
of the leader of the free world.
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Chapter Three
Methodology
“If we spoke a different language, we would perceive a somewhat different world.”
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951)
The objective of this general qualitative study is to understand the role of bilingualism
and global education on the development of cross-cultural intelligence for students at
International Baccalaureate (IB) schools worldwide, focusing on graduates from the International
School of Ukinoto (pseudonym) located in the north east of the United States. A culturally
intelligent person will have a better understanding of global ethics, cross-cultural empathy and
will strive to become an active member of the global community (Palmer, 2016).
In this chapter, in order to address this problem, basic qualitative research design will be
presented, as well as a description of participants, the school, and data analysis. Finally, the
chapter will conclude with a discussion of the researchers’ role and the trustworthiness of the
study.
Qualitative Research Approach
Mezirow’s Transformational Learning Theory (1991) will be used as a lens through which
to explore and interpret the stories of the participants in my study. Mezirow, a constructivist,
believes that learners learn by interpreting and giving meaning to their experiences. A deductive
approach uses the research question to group data and look for similarities and differences.
The process of data analysis will be Labov’s thematic organization method (Coffey &
Atkinson, 1996). This method is considered useful to understand major events in the story and
the effect those events have on the individual constructing the story. Labov’s approach (Figure
3) utilizes an “evaluation model” that organizes the data into an abstract (What was this about?),
an orientation (Who? What? When? Where?), a complication (Then what happened?), and
50
evaluation (So what?), a result (What finally happened?), and a coda (the finished narrative)
(Coffey & Atkinson, 1996). It is important to note that as a story is retold, there may be
elements in the story recounted multiple times. The data at this point is explored in terms of
participants’ stories, by looking for theme similarities between stories.
Figure 3. Labov’s Thematic Organization Method (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996)
Qualitative research has its origins in psychology, law and social science, and as Merriam
(2009) emphasizes, “qualitative researchers conducting basic qualitative study would be
interested in 1) how people interpret their experience, 2) how they construct their worlds, and 3)
what meaning they attribute to their experiences” (Merriam, 2009, p. 23). In basic qualitative
research “researchers are interested in understanding how people interpret their experiences, how
they construct their worlds, and what meaning they attribute to their experiences” (Merriam,
51
2009, p. 5). Furthermore, a qualitative research strategy was used to gather data through a
participant’s own words in his or her natural environment (Creswell, 2012). Within the
qualitative framework, Ponterotto (2005) explains that the constructivist-interpretivist paradigm
is the symbolic way to understand a social phenomenon. The constructivist-interpretivist
paradigm is based upon the premise that reality is constructed in the mind of a person rather than
being imposed from the outside. It is the knowledge that human beings produce knowledge from
the interactions between their experiences and their ideas. This phenomenon was tied directly to
the interaction between the researcher and the object of research through joint dialogue and
understanding. The researcher assumes that meaning is embedded in people’s experiences and is
facilitated through the researchers own insight (Patton, 1990). The goal of this paradigm is that
progress happens over time when the inquirer is cast both as the participant and as the facilitator
of the research. Multiple understandings can co-occur given the differences in gender, social,
economic and culture of the researchers. Given my problems of practice, the philosophical
assumptions would be as follows.
Ontologically the paradigm will be viewed as beliefs are formed through many
experiences and are products of static human understandings. In the case of my problem of
practice, the cultural differences of bilingual students should be considered an advantage to build
upon and to improve over time. This will facilitate the transfer of knowledge from one language
to another. Epistemologically it will assume, as knowledge is created, that the researcher and its
subject are linked to one another and their findings. In regards to my problem of practice, the
student and the teacher work closely to decrease the learning gaps in bilingual students through
set programs. Methodologically the intention is to have an accord that is informed and secured
through qualitative facts. Given the problem of practice, the students’ cross-cultural intelligence
52
is an indicator of the program’s success. The axiological view is that the experience and value
biases of the investigator should be recognized, as they cannot be isolated from him/her. The
laws that govern our educational system mostly reflect this. Rhetorical structure of this
paradigm is based on the growing acceptability of including both qualitative and quantitative
methods in the guidelines when presenting controversial programs.
Overview and Philosophical Underpinnings
According to Creswell (2012), a qualitative study is best suited when there is not an
abundance of information about the study and a participant’s perception is needed for further
understanding. Creswell (2013) recognized common characteristics visible in qualitative studies
such as using a natural setting and relying on the researcher to collect and analyze the data. In a
basic qualitative study, the researcher concentrates on the participants’ personal views as the
main source of data collection (Creswell, 2015). Therefore, to avoid the researchers’ unwilling
influence on the outcome, personal biases and positionality are clearly stated beforehand.
Denizen and Lincoln (2000) define an interview based study as “attempting to make sense of, or
to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them (p.3).” Yin (1994)
proclaimed, “interviews are the preferred strategy when ‘how’ or ‘why’ questions are posed,
when the investigator has little control over event, and when the focus is on contemporary
phenomenon within some real-life context (p.1).” Denizen and Lincoln (2000) state “it consists
of a set of interpretive, material practices that make the world visible. These practices transform
the world. They turn the world into a series of representations.” and Creswell (1998) views it as
“detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in context (p.
61).”
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A qualitative study is an approach which allows participants’ visual expressions and
spoken words to be used to retell their stories. Qualitative researchers rely on participants to
offer an insightful interpretation of their experiences. This type of approach captures emotions,
spoken and unspoken words to make stories come to life. It then relays the lived experiences as
data to be used in the study. It is a powerful tool in the transfer and sharing of information
(Creswell, 2012). This qualitative interview-based study (Creswell, 2015) explores bilingualism
and cultural intelligence in students through qualitative questioning of multiple students over
eighteen years of age that are alumni of the International School of Ukinoto. According to
Thomas (2007), basic qualitative research design attempts to allow for continuous reflection and
revision of the participants’ responses, and only after the participants felt satisfied with their
responses, including responses to follow-up questions, would they be considered complete and
subsequently coded. The result of a basic qualitative research approach is to identify the most
important themes found in the collected data (Thomas, 2007). This approach allows a theory to
emerge from the data (Thomas, 2007) instead of needing to find the data to prove or disprove the
premise of the study. As such, the basic qualitative research allowed students to be aware of the
data they produced, and to be able to check if it adequately represented their views. This
approach minimized ambiguity and biases, and is well aligned with the research questions and
purpose of this study.
Participants
This qualitative interview-based study is extensively used in qualitative research when
collecting stories from participants. The interview-based method provides the researcher with
the ability to select information-rich participants and sites (Patton, 1990). It also gives insight
into how the participants talk for effect and how they construct meaning from their life
54
experiences (Creswell, 2012). This method also allows the researcher to learn and understand
issues central to the problem of study and its central phenomenon in-depth (Creswell, 2012).
The reason for using the interview-based method is to access participants and sites with
predetermined criterion of importance to the study in order to assure the quality of the study
(Patton, 1990). The sample size of nine participants are all eighteen years of age and alumni of
the International Baccalaureate program from the International School of Ukinoto (ISU). Given
that the study is a basic qualitative inquiry, the small sample size was weighed contextually.
The data was collected through interviews and was evaluated for its depth and length (Creswell,
2012; Patton, 1990). As students make connections between their own backgrounds and the
subjects they study, they become active participants in a cultural exchange that enriches their
learning. The emphasis in this interview-based study was on exploring how multiculturalism,
world languages and global studies might be valued daily and become an educational norm.
International School of Ukinoto
For this study, the participants were mainly alumna of the International school of Ukinoto
(ISU), located in New England. Once IRB was granted, participants were contacted to
participate in the study. The willing participants in this study are graduates of ISU’s IB program.
They represent different ethnic backgrounds, countries of origin, and are multilingual. Most
importantly, all participants currently live in New England. Once the interviews were scheduled,
I received waivers of informed consent (Appendix D) to record and verbally conduct the
interviews from the participants in this study.
A member of the Association of French Schools in North America (AFSA), the
International School of Ukinoto (ISU) was founded in 1962. Over the years, the school has
grown from a kindergarten school of three students to an international school of over 640
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students. The student population is composed of 49 nationalities, of which about 40% are
French nationals and 60% are of other nationalities, including American. Even though ISU
started out as a purely French school, as the school grew, changes were made to the curriculum
and the organization in order to accommodate the increasing number of non-French nationals. In
the US today, there are forty-nine schools similar to ISU, all accredited by the French Ministry of
Education, who face the same challenge of providing a bilingual education to over 25,000
students.
Today, ISU has four divisions: early education (petite section, moyenne section, and
grande section), lower school (1st to 5th), middle school (6th to 8th), and high school (9th to
12th) in Cambridge, MA. The first two divisions are based on the French National educational
system. Instruction begins with 90% French in early education, and progresses to a 50/50 split in
the 3rd grade. In middle school, students are taught in both French and English, and have the
option to choose a study path in either language in order to best fit their future endeavors.
Students who graduate from ISU have either the French Baccalaureate (the Baccalauréat in
France, administered by the French Ministry of Education) or the International Baccalaureate
(IB) diploma, in addition to the American high school diploma.
Procedures
The nature of this study, a qualitative interview-based study of other people’s
experiences, is a relevant tool in making the case that learning a foreign language to become
bilingual as well as a global education are important factors in developing cross-cultural
intelligence for students at IB schools. I utilized an interview protocol I designed to prompt rich
descriptions of the participants’ experiences. In a basic qualitative research study, data
56
collection and analysis takes place simultaneously (Patton, 1990), therefore given the questions
and answers the interview protocol had the possibility of moving in an unanticipated direction.
Data collection
An interview-based method accepts the premise that knowledge can be held in stories that
can be communicated, kept and shared. According to Bruner (1996), the following four steps are
to be followed. First, develop research questions by asking why and how. Second, select or
produce raw data. Third, organize data and fourth, interpret the data. Scholars using the
interview-based method agree on these steps and that interviewing participants is an appropriate
venue to collect raw data. However, they differ on the method used to organize the gathered
data.
Through this method, Bruner (1996) describes the interview process as the desire to
communicate a story at a particular moment in time. By capturing the emotions of the moment,
through participants’ retelling of their stories, the interview process allows the story to become
an active event rather than a passive one. In this case, interview transcriptions or raw data can
also include notes compiled during interviews. The goal of organizing data is to refine the
research question and separate all non-essential information. There are several approaches to
organizing data. Gee (1999) focuses on the interaction between speaker and listener. In this
case, the pauses and other structural aspects of speech are included as relevant information in the
raw data. William Labov’s (1972) thematic organization organizes the data to understand major
events in the story and the effect those events have on the participants’ retelling of the story.
Bruner’s (1996) functional approach to interview analysis organizes data by interpreting events
related to a participant’s retelling of a story.
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For my study, nine participants were chosen from alumni at the International School of
Ukinoto. I purposely chose participants from varying backgrounds, such as different foreign
nationals and Americans studying and working in the United States. I believe Labov’s (1972)
thematic organization method was the best way to organize my raw data. Once the data was
considered complete, it was coded and analyzed.
Interview-based studies make use of an interviewer who coordinates the process and asks
questions, and an interviewee who responds to the questions asked (Patton, 1990). This study
gathered detailed information through individual audio-recorded interviews. The validity of
findings was dependent on the triangulation of the data collected from this source (Creswell,
2012). A set of questions about the participants’ education, work experience, assumptions and
perceptions was used to gather data for further analysis and in support of the research. I recorded
the gathered data electronically on a computer.
For data collection, semi-structured interview questions, 45 to 60 minutes in length
interviews were conducted to gather data for further analysis. The naturalistic approach allowed
me a few minutes to establish trust through friendly and non-aggressive means as well as ensure
the interviewees were comfortable and knowledgeable about their rights. Patton (1990)
describes structured interviews as those that pose flexibly worded open-ended questions. I then
asked open-ended questions in order for the participants to share their experiences in the least
constrained environment. Merriam (2009) states that interviewing is necessary when one cannot
observe behavior, feelings, or how people respond to their surroundings, or when experiences are
important to the issue of study. I created different types of questions using Patton’s suggestions
(as cited in Merriam, 2009): “1) elicits experience and behavior, 2) elicits opinions and values, 3)
elicits feelings, 4) elicits knowledge, 5) elicits sensory details, and 6) elicits background or
58
demographic information” (Merriam, 2009, p.96).” As an outline, an interview protocol was
designed and used with all participants (Appendix E). The questions were first field-tested and,
if necessary, modified in order to prompt a richer description of participants’ experiences. I took
advantage of any probing opportunities during the interview that would lead the interviewee to
voice something noteworthy. During an interview, Merriam (2009) describes probing as a way
to ask more detail, request clarification, or to elicit examples and also contends that data
collected from interviews and observations is no different from data collected from documents.
Merriam (2009) emphasizes the importance of determining the authenticity and accuracy of the
documents, noting, “it is the investigator’s responsibility to determine as much as possible about
the document, its origins and reasons for being written, its author, and the context in which it was
written (Merriam, 2009, p. 151).” All interviews were voice-recorded and transcribed. I then
verified and corrected all transcripts for further analysis. All data, active listening, and
observations about body language and nonverbal expressions are crucial in capturing the
interviewees’ experiences. Reflected memos also document my impressions and all information
was considered data for the first coding and categorizing phase (Saldana, 2013). Ultimately, I
was the one to determine the suitability of all documents (personal, researcher-collected, public
records, artifacts, etc.) for the study.
Data storage
Numerous actions were taken to safeguard and keep the data confidential (Miles et al.,
2014). The audio recording of the interviews, the electronic surveys, the documents and notes
related to the research were kept and protected by a password on my personal computer. The
names of the participants were replaced by pseudonyms to protect their identity. After the
completion of the dissertation, all data pertaining to the research will be deleted.
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Data Analysis
In basic qualitative research, data analysis is suggested to be done simultaneously with
data collection because it can become overwhelming and unfocused (Merriam, 2009). Findings
were formed by the collected data and the analysis took place concurrently during the research
study. My vision and instincts guided the steps in the data collection process, which led to
revising the interview questions if necessary. Therefore, I carefully scheduled the interview
sessions and observations in a timely manner. Merriam (2009) asserted that interview based data
analysis is “an intensive, holistic description and analysis of a single, bounded unit (Merriam,
2009, p.203).” Therefore, articulating an understanding of the interviews was vital to the data
analysis process. Labov’s Thematic Organization Method was used in the process of data
analysis. This method is considered useful to understand major events in the story and the effect
those events have on the individual constructing the story. Labov’s approach utilizes an
“evaluation model” that organizes the data into an abstract (What was this about?), an orientation
(Who? What? When? Where?), a complication (Then what happened?), and evaluation (So
what?), a result (What finally happened?), and a coda (the finished narrative) (Coffey &
Atkinson, 1996). The interviews were then transcribed and organized and verified in a timely
manner (Creswell, 2012). I used a service to transcribe the interviews. As soon as the transcripts
were ready, I checked them for accuracy and made all necessary corrections. I then coded the
data by writing notes, comments and observations and made use of the feature for notes in the
chosen coding software NVivo. I then tentatively coded categories or themes that addressed the
research question (Merriam, 2009). Coding was the initial step towards analyzing the data.
Subsequent cycles of recoding focused on the most important qualitative data points to generate
categories, themes, and/or concepts (Saldaña, 2013).
60
It is important to note that as a story is retold, there may be elements in the story
recounted multiple times. The data at this point was explored in terms of participants’ stories, by
looking for theme similarities between stories. To analyze the data, I used various coding cycles
as defined by Saldaña (2013) in the Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers. The initial
coding process began with open coding, which is a wide approach to coding since it can include
single words, phrases, paragraphs or thoughts. Saldaña (2013) describes a code in qualitative
inquiry as “a researcher-generated construct that symbolizes and thus attributes interpreted
meaning to each individual datum for later purposes of pattern detection, categorization, theory
building, and other analytical processes (p.3).” Merriam (2009) defines coding as a process of
making notations that the researcher finds interesting or potentially relevant to the study.
Data management is an important factor in effectively analyzing the data. Merriam
(2009) suggests that the most efficient way to analyze data in a qualitative study is to do it
simultaneously with data collection. I created an electronic file for each participant to include
the interview transcript. To present the findings, narrative visualizations such as tables, diagrams
and charts, were used in support of the storytelling. Figures such as various diagrams also
helped visualize the information through compare and contrast. I envision presenting this study
to curriculum specialists, teachers and teacher education programs and educational leaders
interested in bilingualism and cross-cultural intelligence.
Ethical Considerations
As Merriam (2009) contended, “to a large extent, the validity and reliability of a study
depend upon the ethics of the investigator (p.228).” It was most important for me to treat all
participants in accordance with ethical guidelines of the American Psychological Association
(APA) and the Northeastern University’s Review Board. When conducting this study, all ethical
61
considerations were kept in mind and informed consent was discussed and obtained from each
participant prior to each interview.
The human subjects are young adult alumni of the International School of Ukinoto and I
pledged to be honest, respectful and protective of the data. The approval of the Doctoral Thesis
Proposal and the Application for Use of Human Participation in Research submitted to
Northeastern University’s Institutional Review Board were obtained before the collection of
data. The approved documentations are a testimonial to the ethical research practices I observed
(Appendix G).
Role of the Researcher
The qualitative researcher is responsible for data collection and analysis. Therefore,
personal biases or subjectivity could potentially affect the study (Merriam, 2009). It is
imperative for me to identify any biases and monitor them throughout the study. My interest in
the role of second language acquisition in the development of cross-cultural intelligence for
students at an International Baccalaureate school stems from both personal and professional
experiences. My personal background and life experiences greatly influence my views on the
subject. In a way, they are the catalyst to my positionality and biases. For an objective
assessment, it is necessary to be aware and conscious of the elements that shape one’s opinions
and ideologies.
I moved to the United States at the age of 17 to finish my schooling at a boarding school
in Pennsylvania. Within a month, two things struck me. First, I realized that I knew more about
the United States than many of my classmates knew about the rest of the world. Second, despite
my language deficiency, as I did not know any English (my prior education had been in French),
I was put on the honors list for math. Throughout my schooling, math had never been my
62
subject of choice; therefore, I was amazed that somehow, I was that good in math. What I
deduced from my two initial observations was that one, most Americans lacked cultural
intelligence (Ng, Dyne & Ang, 2009), and two, either I had become a math wizard overnight, or
math instruction in the U.S. was not on par with other nations. I believed it was the latter. Over
the course of forty plus years in this country, my initial beliefs on education and cultural
intelligence still hold true in some ways. I have always wondered why a country such as the
U.S., with so many opportunities and advantages over other less developed countries, would be
lagging in education, be it formal or informal. Over the years, I came to the realization that one
way to explain this phenomenon was through the lens of the evening news. What does reporting
the news have to do with education or cultural intelligence, you might ask? In context, nothing;
however, in my mind, they are very similar in structure.
News reports are omnipresent, but what ends up being reported is at the pleasure of the
reporter (Brown & Treviño, 2006). Likewise, in education what is taught is at the discretion of
the school systems, districts and towns even though the written curriculum is extensive.
Multicultural cities such as Boston, New York or Los Angeles are more exposed to news and
events from other cultures. What influences these decision making processes and understanding
of different cultures? Is it the geographic location of these cities, the cultural exposure, diversity
or cultural experience? Maybe it is a combination of all of these factors. What is certain is that
global leaders are assets for multinational organizations and international competition (Ng, Dyne
& Ang, 2009).
In the case of the news, it is the beliefs and affiliations of the news reporting companies
and their audiences that shape the content of their reporting. For the schools, it is the resources
available for education in each town, the school board, the teachers and the socioeconomic level
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of the students attending the schools. Both the news and schools contribute in different ways to
the students’ cultural intelligence. Is news available to everyone everywhere, at all times?
Absolutely. However, not all news is reported. Topics are picked and chosen by individuals and
organizations at their discretion. The same can be said for education and cultural understanding.
As impartial news is very rare, it is important to be cognizant of the reporting channel.
Perception is key. Many people do not bother finding out for themselves and will take whatever
is reported as a gospel. In my mind, the same can be said for education. It is at the discretion of
the student to search and request the knowledge, hence the myriads of different kinds of schools
and one of the reasons for the existing inequalities.
Upon my family’s return to the US from Europe, I enrolled my oldest child at the
International School of Ukinoto (ISU). She started in the Pre-K class. With two other children
at home, I became very involved in my daughter’s academic life by becoming a member of the
Parent Committee, a Room Parent and volunteering for numerous school related activities. Over
time, once all three of my children were enrolled at ISU, I continued to be involved in my three
children’s school life. Teaching is a second career for me. It is by sheer luck that I had the
opportunity to substitute teach, and thus discovered that I enjoyed being in the classroom.
Hence, I went back to school to earn my teaching credentials and licenses to become a teacher
and I have been an educator for nineteen years. Leading by example is my modus operandi, be it
with my own children, my students or my colleagues. In my capacity as a lead teacher, I have
had the opportunity to work on many school-wide projects, be it our harmonized curriculum,
various parent/teacher committees, accreditation coordinator or teachers’ pay and evaluation
projects. In closing I would like to mention a little of my own language acquisition experience.
As an immigrant, I entered 12th grade without any prior English knowledge. I was never pulled
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out, given any specialized instruction or put in any bilingual education program to help me learn
English. Albeit, I had a strong language base in three other languages, which I believe, allowed
me to gain English fluency much faster. I was not a special case; this experience was and is
shared by many foreign students in this country. By recognizing that my personal experiences
and biases may have an impact on my research, I acknowledge that keeping an open mind will be
crucial to the validity of my inquiry.
Trustworthiness
To be useful, research findings need to be reliable and trustworthy. To ensure the
trustworthiness of the collected data, Lincoln and Guba (1985) have established four criteria:
credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Credibility refers to the researcher’s certainty that the collected data is accurate and reflects
reality. Transferability refers to, in theory, applying the findings of the study to other situations.
This is a very important concept in qualitative research, which is also called naturalistic inquiry.
According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), a researcher can offer “thick description” (Lincoln &
Guba, 1958, p.316) to provide the needed perspective for readers to relate the findings to their
context. Dependability refers to repeatability, which is the assumption of repeating an interview
or observation twice and obtaining the same results. In order to ensure the reliability of the
study, the same protocol needs to be followed for all interviews and observations. Finally,
confirmability refers to the impartiality of the researcher who conducts a study.
In addition, to ensure the lack of bias that might be caused by the researcher’s
positionality, the findings of the study, or data credibility, need to be corroborated by others.
Therefore, to assure internal validity, I used a member check strategy to have participants review
their interview transcript and change, delete, or add any information they feel is needed.
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Member checking is an important way of tackling possible misinterpretation of what the
participant said or did, as well as allowing the researcher to identify her own biases and
misunderstanding of what was observed (Merriam, 2009).
Limitations
Interview-based study research is a common study design in education because it allows
understanding phenomenon in real-life situations. This being the case, it also presents
limitations in its usage (Merriam, 2009). The researcher is the primary vehicle in the data
collection and the analysis process; this can have its advantages but it can also present problems.
The researcher’s sensitivity and integrity will contribute to the validity and reliability of the
study and the findings will in turn rely on the researcher’s instincts and abilities. In addition, the
researcher’s biases can also affect the study’s findings.
The researcher’s interest in the topic of study is entrenched in both personal and
professional experiences. Consequently, this can be viewed as a bias and limitation given that
reality cannot be measured directly due to its connection to people’s own experiences and
personal interpretations (Creswell, 2012). In this study, the collected data was each participants’
subjective opinion. I maintained a keen sense of my own biases, making sure not to influence
the participants with my own experiences and expectations, nor contaminate the collected data
and its interpretation (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
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Chapter Four: Analysis of Data
“Experience with several different cultural communities may also provide cognitive and social
flexibility and the potential for new syntheses of cultural ways.”
Kenneth Rogoff
The purpose of this qualitative interview based study is to explore how ISU alumni make
meaning of their experiences with multilingualism, IB education, and cultural intelligence.
The relationship between language acquisition and cultural intelligence is what allows us to
build a better understanding of global ethics and cross-cultural empathy. Therefore, to prepare
students to succeed as global citizens, the IBDP (International Baccalaureate Diploma Program)
curriculum has “language acquisition” as one of its six subject groups needed to graduate (Figure
4). The data presented and analyzed in this chapter demonstrates how bilingualism affects the
development of cross-cultural intelligence in students who have been educated at IB schools.
Competency in another language and general language awareness are both directly related to
cultural intelligence.
This chapter will provide findings from nine interviews, beginning with an overview that
describes the participants. The participants are all graduates of international schools and holders
of IB diplomas, eight from the International School of Ukinoto (pseudonym) and one from an
international school in South America. The collected data shows how participants from
international schools make meaning of their experiences with multilingualism, IB education, and
cultural intelligence. A summary of the major themes will then be discussed.
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Figure 4. Diploma Programme Model (Image Credit: http://www.ibo.org/en/programmes/)
OVERVIEW OF PARTICIPANTS
The nine participants (four males and five females) in this study were first asked to
discuss general background information about their studies, families, and their travel experiences
inside and outside the United States whether for leisure or work. They then followed it up with
their perceived definition of cultural intelligence and what an IB education meant to them
personally. In the second part of the interview, the participants responded to questions about
their experiences as multilingual and multicultural individuals and offered insight into both
positive and negative experiences they have encountered since graduating with a Bilingual
Diploma from the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program. Below is a brief description of
the nine participants:
Five of the participants currently attend four year colleges in the Boston area. Their
fields of study vary, ranging from social studies to engineering and sciences. The other four
participants attended college outside of the Boston area and are currently employed in various
disciplines ranging from art to sciences. All nine participants grew up in multicultural and
multilingual families, and all plan to pursue advanced degrees and/or continue their education.
Parents of all nine participants hold advanced degrees in sciences, math and engineering. The
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following is a brief description of the participants (pseudonyms) who agreed to share their
experiences for this study.
Stella is bicultural French and Egyptian, born and raised in the United States. Growing
up in a multicultural family, Stella heard and interchanged four languages on a daily basis. She
has family members living on three continents and has travelled extensively all around the world.
Stella attended ISU from pre-k through grade 12. She has one older brother who also attended
ISU. She stated that she is “fluent” in two languages (French and English) and “proficient” in
two others (Italian and Arabic). Her field of study is political science.
Carol, who is Lebanese with Palestinian roots and Greek ancestors, moved to the United
States at the age of two. Carol grew up speaking Arabic and then learned French and English in
school. She has traveled to many European countries and Argentina during her study abroad.
Carol is fluent in four languages (French, English, Arabic and Spanish) and also attended ISU
from pre-k through grade 12. Her field of study is occupational therapy and dance.
Richard has a multicultural background and was born in France. He has traveled to
several countries in Central America, North America, Europe, Africa and Asia. Richard is fluent
in three languages (French, English, and Armenian) and proficient in one (Spanish). He attended
ISU from pre-k through grade 12. His field of study was biology and he currently works as a
research assistant in a biotech firm in the Boston area.
Nancy grew up in a multicultural and multilingual environment. She reported that she
speaks three languages (French, Armenian and English) with “native fluency” and two others
“conversationally” (German and Spanish). Nancy has travelled considerably throughout the
world with her family and friends. She attended ISU from pre-k through grade 12. Nancy’s
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field of study was biology and neuroscience and she is currently employed in the Boston area as
a researcher in a biotech firm.
Marie was born in London and grew up in a multicultural and multilingual environment.
Her father is French (born in Morocco) and her mother is American. Since she was little, she has
travelled extensively around the world with her family. Marie stated that she is “fluent” in two
languages (French and English) and “proficient” in two others (Hebrew and Spanish). Marie and
her younger brother attended ISU from pre-k through grade 12. Her field of study is forensic
science.
Claire grew up bicultural French and American. She spent her much of her childhood
travelling, spending summers in France and winters in the Caribbean. Claire reported being
“fluent” in three languages (French, English and Spanish) and attended an international school
from preschool through grade 12. Claire’s field of study was interior design and art and she is
currently employed in the Boston area at a design firm.
Henry was born and raised in South America, in an Asian family who immigrated to
South America. He is multicultural and speaks three languages fluently (Hindi, English and
Spanish). Henry has travelled to China, India, Singapore as well as many countries in North
America and Europe. He attended an international school from preschool through grade 12 and
he is currently studying advertising.
Alex grew up in a multicultural and multilingual family. He speaks three languages
fluently (French, Armenian and English) and has enjoyed travelling to destinations in Europe,
Africa, Asia and North America. Alex attended ISU from pre-k through grade 12 alongside his
two older siblings. Alex’s field of study is operational management and computer science.
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Fred grew up in the Boston area in a bilingual household with South American parents.
He is fluent in three languages (French, English and Spanish) and is currently learning another
one (Italian). Fred has travelled extensively throughout the world and is an avid soccer player.
He attended ISU for his high school years and his field of study is mechanical engineering.
After interviewing the participants and transcribing the interview contents, a thematic
analysis through coding of the data revealed five major themes with sub-themes.
Emerging Themes
The interviews provided vast and multifaceted data that allowed for several important
themes to emerge (Figure 5). The first theme that emerged was the connection between students’
personal lives and backgrounds to their IB diploma education. The sub-themes that emerged
were tolerance and awareness of other people’s cultures in school and beyond and cultural
intelligence. The second theme reflected the ease with which participants navigated different
cultures. Sub-themes were: multilingualism, ease of travel and cross-cultural empathy. The
third theme was the effect of causal learning in bringing about change in the society through the
sub-themes of developing students’ intellectual development and personal, emotional and social
intelligences needed for transformative learning. The fourth theme was the impact of IB schools
and their learning environment in understanding different cultures through the sub-themes of the
IB learner profile and international mindedness. The fifth theme was global citizenship and how
IB students learn to become active participants in a fast-changing and interdependent world. The
sub-themes of global engagement, global awareness, and global thinking emerged as an
enrichment of student learning.
The following figure 5 represents the themes and subthemes as identified through the
coding process. A dialogue of each major theme, along with quotes from the interview
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transcripts follows. The quotations in the themes below provide a voice to the IB participants in
the research study.
Figure 5. Emerging themes and sub-themes
IB STUDENTS’ PERSONAL CONNECTIONS WITH THE IB EDUCATION
In the first theme, the participants expressed connections between their personal lives and
their IB education. The expressed connections were very much in line with each of the
participants’ personal portrayal of their multicultural and multilingual backgrounds. All nine
participants of the study were adamant in stating that they could not have imagined attending a
non IB school given their multicultural and multilingual upbringing. They all expressed how
comfortable they felt at school among their peers because of the school’s multicultural ambiance.
Many of their friends grew up in bicultural homes similar to their own and switching between
languages was as natural as speaking in English. The participants truly believed that the school’s
IB environment contributed to and affirmed their beliefs of being multicultural. The sub-themes
that emerged related the students’ personal experiences with their IB education. These included
a tolerance of ideas and cultures other than their own, cultural intelligence and an alignment of
IB students' personal
connections with the
IB education
Tolerance and
awareness
Cultural intelligence
Ease of navigating
different cultures
Multilingualism
Ease of travel
Cross cultural
empathy
Consequences of
causal learning
Intellectual
development
Personal,
emotional and
social intelligences
Transformative
learning
Impact of IB schools
and their learning
environment
IB learner profile
International
mindedness
Global citizenship
Global engagement
Global awareness
Global thinking
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their values with international mindedness. International mindedness will be discussed in more
detail as a sub-theme of “impact of IB schools and their learning environment.” While the sub-
themes can stand on their own, many participants discussed the overarching themes of
international mindedness and cross-cultural intelligence as a result of their multicultural
background and IB education.
Tolerance and awareness
Participants were asked about their experiences inside and outside the school, including
discussions of current events and global issues related to environment, society, and culture. The
participants described their international school as a place where students from over forty
different nationalities felt very much at ease to share their cultures, languages and viewpoints
with each other. Almost all of the participants discussed how their Theory of Knowledge (ToK)
and Creativity, Activity, Service (CAS) classes prompted discussions of past and current events.
These classroom discussions, in conjunction with the participants’ personal experiences, greatly
influenced their views on culture and international mindedness, particularly their views on how
to be tolerant, appreciative and cognizant of other cultures. Stella stated:
“I am half-French and half-Egyptian but was born and raised in Boston. I grew up in a
multicultural and multilingual environment. In my ToK class, we discussed many current
events and the ethical consideration they entailed such as global warming and events in
the Middle East.”
In the following quote, Stella also explained how her values and experiences inside and
outside of the classroom reflected a strong multicultural understanding of a subject matter and
her ability to incorporate concepts that required reflection and looking through an international
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lens. To develop and maintain her friendships she pointed to the fact that she had to be tolerant
and respect all points of views.
“During my IB education, the more knowledge I acquired about the global world caused
my attitude to change and I became a more tolerant and open-minded person. I mostly
appreciated the fact that we may all have different points of views but that does not mean
we cannot be friends.”
Strengthening the understanding of valuing other people, Fred shared his experience as evidence
for becoming more tolerant and sympathetic to social causes through his IB education.
“I grew up in a bilingual household with Argentinian parents. My IB education exposed
me to local and global communities through activities like CAS. For example, I was very
involved in helping an orphanage in Argentina and ran many fundraising events to collect
funds and school materials for the orphanage.”
These participants described the multicultural nature of the school as the norm for their
interactions at school and beyond. It is important to note that the interviews revealed that
tolerance can be a learned behavior, resulting from being immersed in a multicultural
environment.
Cultural intelligence
One of the interview questions was “What is cultural intelligence to you?” As discussed
in Chapter Two, cultural intelligence has three components: cognitive, physical, and
social/emotional. All of the participants in this study responded without hesitation that their
multicultural background coupled with their multicultural school allowed them to develop
organically their cultural intelligence. The quote below demonstrates what Nancy thought about
the issue and had a very clear answer to the question.
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“Cultural intelligence, to me, is the ability to understand and empathize with cultures that
are different than your own. I believe that this comes directly from exposure to different
people, traditions, languages, etc. And as a result, you develop the skill of analyzing and
understanding people and situations from different perspectives.”
In a way, Nancy’s understanding of cultural intelligence demonstrates her cultural agility and the
ease of interacting across cultures. This agility is also a byproduct of her IB education and
school environment. Another participant, Richard shared:
“Cultural intelligence is being able to understand and relate to people of different
cultures and backgrounds. It also makes it easier for me to be able to create meaningful
connections and friendships with people from around the world.”
On the same subject, Fred also stated:
“Cultural intelligence is my knowledge of the world beyond where I live and who I
interact with directly. It is being aware and sensitive to different people and their
perspectives.”
The IB was viewed by all the participants as a challenging and sometimes difficult program.
Nevertheless, all of the participants agreed that it was well worth their efforts because it provided
them with the opportunity to reinforce their cultural intelligence.
It is widely documented that cultural intelligence is mainly acquired by traveling and
exposing oneself into new environments (Ng, Dyne & Ang, 2009). It can also be fostered
through hearing stories from people who had diverse experiences across the globe or through
learning another language. All of these reasons were reflected in the experiences described
above.
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Conclusions
Throughout the research and interview process, it was apparent that participants in this
study were very proud of their heritage and worked hard to maintain their cultural values, while
developing a tolerance and acceptance of other cultures. The two classes that were most
discussed by the participants were ToK and CAS. These two classes were recognized by all
participants as classes that promoted international mindedness. It is important to note that this
international mindedness was developed alongside the participants’ appreciation of their own
values and differences and not despite it. Their IB course work in a way reinforced their beliefs
and provided them with a reason to expand upon it. Some of the participants overtly expressed
their gratitude for their international upbringing, while acknowledging that their IB education
may or may not help them further along in their chosen careers. The four IB graduates that are
currently employed were very clear about the perceived benefits their education had on their
lives. They all plan to live in big cities, they all travel frequently, and they all speak different
languages throughout the day whether part of their employment or by personal preference. They
all expressed their desire to continue learning either for personal satisfaction such as learning
another language or for professional advancement.
EASE OF NAVIGATING DIFFERENT CULTURES
When asked to define cultural differences Claire acknowledged that being culturally
intelligent did not mean you are forced to accept a different way of life and consequently forget
your roots. The participants unilaterally expressed that being culturally intelligent gave them the
ability to navigate with ease between cultures. They stated that developing an understanding and
appreciating cultures different from your own does not diminish one’s cultural roots but actually
enhances it. Claire stated:
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“I grew up bicultural, French and American. I spent much of my childhood travelling,
spending summers in France and winters in the Caribbean. I was raised, educated, and
lived my life as a person that does not belong to a single isolated culture, but as a person
that belongs to a greater global network.”
The following sub-themes reinforce and explain how IB learners are able to be at ease
navigating through different cultures.
Multilingualism
By definition a multilingual or multilingualism is having the ability to speak three or
more languages. Through their schooling at the International School of Ukinoto (ISU), the
participants chose one or two additional languages in their quest for the IB diploma. All of the
participants shared the common trait of multilingualism. It is not a coincidence, but rather a fact
proven through the literature review, that knowing multiple languages will allow a person to
learn about different cultures. The literature also revealed that depending on when a second
language is acquired it will determine the learner’s level of native fluency. It is the level of
native fluency that will in turn facilitate navigating through different cultures. The following
participants explained in their interviews how knowing more than one language helped them
become multilingual and how that knowledge translated into learning and appreciating another
language and culture. Stella stated:
“I speak French and English fluently. My third language was Italian which was easier to
learn after being proficient in French, since the two are romance languages. Learning my
fourth language, Arabic, has proven to be more difficult. However, I do believe that
having been bilingual has strongly helped me learn the third and fourth languages and has
made me love and appreciate their cultures.”
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Another participant, Carol, expressed how gratified she felt being multilingual:
“I speak French, Spanish and English fluently. I understand Arabic completely, but
speaking is tough. Despite that fact, I do not shy away and feel very much at ease
culturally.”
The above quotes indicate how multilingualism can contribute to increasing cultural
understanding. Only one of the participants, Henry, expressed difficulty learning the third
language. Going through the literature review and the interviews it became apparent that Henry
was the exception to the rule. This fact is totally acceptable, as we are human, and not everyone
has to follow one path to achieve a common goal.
Ease of travel
The school population at ISU is divided between French expats and other nationals,
including Americans who travel because of their work. Needless to say, the majority of the
students have travelled well outside of the US and within the fifty US states. Starting in middle
school, the school promotes curriculum-based and cultural trips (i.e. art and drama trips to New
York, NY and Dallas, TX, China, Martinique and Iceland). Language and exchange programs
to Austria and Germany are open to students learning German and programs in Tenerife, Canary
Islands and Madrid, Spain are available to students learning Spanish. Community service trips
are also available to students with a community service component in mind, such as “Identity
and Justice in the Nation’s Capital” in Washington, DC, discussing climate change issues with a
school in China, helping with the lingering effects of hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, LA,
fundraising efforts to help a small Peruvian school in Peru and helping a village community in
Vietnam build a road through the jungle. The following is a quote by Marie that depicts how
travel all around the world is seen as an extension of the learning.
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“My travel with the school to Argentina prepared me for my study abroad in college to
Spain as well as travels to France, England, Ireland, Netherlands, Portugal and Italy.”
Throughout the interviews it was apparent that this group of participants felt no anxiety
travelling outside their comfort zone. Not only was there no fear of the unknown, but they were
all looking forward to learning and growing from their travel experiences. As further evidence
of this, Stella talked with passion about her extended family living all over the world and the
ease she felt travelling.
“I have been travelling ever since I was a baby, especially because my family is located
all over the world, in Egypt, France, Switzerland, Italy and different parts of the United
States. Additionally, my parents and my family have always loved travelling to see
family but also to explore other parts of the world.”
Cross-cultural empathy
To bring “change in our society through an active learning process based on universal
values of tolerance, solidarity, equality, justice, inclusion, co-operation and non-violence”
(Crowne, 2009) is one way of describing what a global education is. What is cross-cultural
empathy? Is there a relationship between social, emotional and cultural intelligence? Empathy
is one of the skills that students learn by completing their IB education and is often reflected in
these three forms of intelligences. Every student in an IB diploma program has to complete
some hours of community service to enhance their educational experience. At ISU, students in
middle and upper school are encouraged to invest their time in service-based projects. Does this
mean every student that graduates with an IB diploma is an empathetic person? No one can
know the answer to this question; however, research has proven that empathy is a learned
behavior and chances are that with repetition this skill can be attained (Crowne, 2009). In
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addition, at ISU, programs such as the Global Issues Program (GIP) help instill in student’s
international mindedness, creative thinking, empathy, communication and conflict resolution.
The following two quotes by Richard and Alex are examples of this subtheme and demonstrate
how this subtheme fits into the profile of IB learners.
“The world is becoming increasingly interconnected. At my previous employment, I
worked directly with individuals who had migrated to the US. I do believe that my IB
education was instrumental in setting my values and attitudes and establishing my
commitment to social justice and human rights.” (Richard)
“I see myself as a global citizen because I feel as though I am able to understand the
world in a much more interconnected way. I am able to see how choices nations make
for themselves have global impacts that affect us all, no matter the size or influence of
any particular nation.” (Alex)
Both quotes demonstrated how strongly this group of participants felt about the world in general.
The participants recognized the importance of being internationally minded in today’s society as
a civil obligation, as evidenced in the quote below by Carol.
“My education has given me the ability to recognize and accept cultures other than my
own. It’s more of an emotional intelligence to me and an ability to empathize and relate
with other cultures.”
Conclusions
Instructing students to become global citizens involves coherence in the message taught
throughout the whole school environment from pre-k through high school. Therefore, the
school’s mission statement and core values need to be shared with the school community at all
levels. ISU core values of “community, character and excellence” are widely shared with the
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student population and programs such as the Babson Entrepreneurial Leadership Program, the
Model UN Club and Digital Citizenship (a mandatory course) help ISU students develop
personal traits that will help them navigate through different cultures. This ability demonstrates
how cultural intelligence relates to other intelligences, especially social and emotional ones. All
of the participants validated this fact through their responses.
THE CONSEQUENCES OF CAUSAL LEARNING
What is causal learning and how can it bring about change in the society at large? This is
a question that my participants were asked to answer. They were all able to express in a similar
fashion that causal learning is understanding the relationship between a “cause” and its “effect.”
Global education and cultural awareness are support structures to prepare IB learners for critical
and active engagement in their lifelong learning journeys. Our world today is fast-changing and
interconnected. Therefore, it is of absolute necessity to teach our students the necessary
knowledge and interpersonal skills, values and attitudes needed to succeed in a globalized
society and economy. As an educator, I do believe that what our students learn in school will
carry them into adulthood and help shape who they become.
Intellectual development
As discussed in Chapter Two, the first few years of life are most important for children to
develop physically, cognitively, linguistically, socially and emotionally. Intellectual or
intelligence development represents the result of such changes that occur in a child as they grow.
As an example, at ISU, the Maternelle program (early childhood) is based on the French
National Curriculum and it is designed to nurture and develop the intellectual development of the
students, while laying the foundation for all future learning. As explained in the literature
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review, early childhood programs are most important in a child’s development. The following
quote expressed by Nancy is in support of this subtheme.
“I attended ISU from pre-k through 12. I remember I was four years old when I joined
the pre-k class at ISU in April as my family moved back to the US from Brussels,
Belgium. In Brussels, I was already going to school and knew how to speak French.
Therefore, it was easy to continue with my new class. My school day at ISU was exactly
the same as my school day in Brussels. My new class had sixteen students from varied
cultures and backgrounds and to this day I am still in touch with most of them.”
The importance of early childhood education was established in Chapter Two and it is currently
a topic of much interest and discussion in the current political climate. As discussed by
politicians in an election year, early childhood education is no longer a choice but a necessity to
improve students learning experiences.
Personal, emotional and social intelligences
The majority of the participants attended ISU from pre-k through 12th grade. Therefore,
it is important to recognize the early childhood program (Maternelle) the participants
experienced at ISU. The Maternelle is where the three intelligences are visibly part of the
curriculum. The curriculum is comprised of three instructional years: Petite section, Moyenne
section and Grande section. The curriculum, which is based on the French National Curriculum,
is divided into five major areas which closely follows the early developmental growth pattern of
children: physical development, cognitive development, language acquisition, communication
skills and social/emotional growth. This program is also very similar to the Primary Years
program offered by the IB (IBO, 2012). In a way, the IB core values reflect the characteristics
that form these intelligences: self-awareness, self-management, empathy, motivation and social
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skills. The following quote by Alex depicts this subtheme and demonstrates the importance of
early childhood education in the overall education of IB learners.
“From my Maternelle years, I remember the cooking club I participated in when I was in
Pre-k. I still love cooking and it is one of my hobbies. I also remember my theater class
and the play “Les enfants de la lune”/ “Children of the moon,” because of pictures that
we have at home. We were all in our pajamas and were pretending we woke up on the
moon. The play was in French and we had to do a lot of singing and dancing. It was a
lot of fun!”
In pre-k (Petite section), the students are generally three years of age. It is important to note that
at this young age Alex was already speaking three languages, cultivating his math skills through
cooking, as well as improving his social skills by interacting with other students.
Transformative learning
Mazirow’s Transformative Learning Theory states that learning is acquired through a
process of interpreting one’s prior knowledge to build new knowledge (Mezirow, 1996). That is
what the majority of the participants stated as they thought about the IB program. Beyond
learning another language, all stated that they all made a transformation in their everyday life
after participating in classes that discussed other cultures, or after meeting a new classmate.
Some of the participants also expressed that their IB learning channeled their desire to continue
learning other languages to complement the ones they already knew. Nancy stated:
“I grew up learning three languages at the same time. I learned French and English in
school from pre-k to high school and Armenian more from growing up and speaking it at
home. In middle school we had to choose another language and I chose German. Since
graduating from the university, I chose to learn Spanish because I like to travel and
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wanted to learn it. When travelling, most times, people do not look at me as a tourist and
my interactions with them are much more genuine.”
Conclusions
As discussed in Chapter Two, the early learning program is most important in the
developmental growth of children, and the structured path that follows reinforces the learnings
and prepares the students for the learnings that are to follow. Through the interviews, it became
apparent that participants (Richard, Stella, Carol, Alex, Nancy and Marie) who had attended ISU
from pre-k through 12 were all cognizant of this and understood the connection between “cause”
and “effect”. The fact that they grew up in a multicultural and multilingual environment directly
impacted their view of themselves as global citizens, they affirmed. All participants were very
grateful for the education they had received inside and outside of school.
IMPACT OF IB SCHOOLS AND THEIR LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
The intent of the International Baccalaureate is to develop students’ intellectual, personal,
emotional and social skills needed to live, learn and work in a globalized world. There are
currently over 5,100 IB school worldwide in 157 countries. With over 1,700 schools, the US has
the largest concentration of IB schools, of which 90% are established in public schools. These
numbers clearly demonstrate the recognition of the IB program worldwide and particularly in the
US.
IB learner profile
The IB learner profile is actually the IB mission statement that is converted into a set of
learning outcomes distributed throughout the curriculum for each level. IB learners strive to
become inquirers, knowledgeable thinkers, good communicators, principled and open minded,
and caring risk-takers who have a balanced and reflective view of the world. From the
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interviews, it was very clear that all of the participants adhered to the IB mission statement and
shared the IB learner profile. The IB had, over the years of instruction, guided students towards
the desired outcomes. The desired outcomes were quoted by almost all of the participants during
the interviews. Claire stated:
“ISU and the IB diploma program provided me a set of interpersonal skills that I do not
think I could have obtained anywhere else.”
Throughout the interviews it was very apparent that the participants had adopted the IB mission
statement and were fully endorsing the intended outcome. As per their statements, the
participants spoke of the IB as if it was a club where they had a lifetime membership and had no
hesitation propagating their perception of an IB education. The following two quotes by Carol
and Nancy are evidences of this.
“The IB was the best thing I ever did in terms of my education, and I am forever grateful
to my parents for placing me in an international school for my whole life. I believe it
made me the global citizen that I am today, and I am excited to one day potentially do the
same for my children!” (Carol)
“I am extremely thankful for growing up in a multi-cultural and multi-lingual
environment. It has allowed me to be more curious and accepting of different cultures
and having grown up this way, I could not see having grown up any other way.” (Nancy)
It was important to me to include both quotes as evidence for the desired outcome of an IB
education. It is the intent of the IB curriculum to promulgate the IB in general. The program is
structured to include everything needed to encourage students to become globally minded,
culturally savvy independent thinkers and open minded risk takers.
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International mindedness
What is international mindedness? The IBO (2012) defined international mindedness in
students as the mindset: to understand and appreciate culture and personal histories; to be open to
the perspectives and value the traditions of other individuals inside and outside of their
communities while seeking and evaluating a range of points of viewpoint of others; to accept and
celebrate diversity and empathy for people who are different; to possess the quality of being an
open-minded individual; to balance interdependence with individuality; to take action and accept
responsibility.
Participants such as Carol passionately described her IB classes as vehicles to talk about all
international matters regardless of the class subject.
“In my history, English, and French classes we talked about different parts of the world
pertaining to specific subject matters. In our ToK class, we discussed ethical
considerations for the civil unrest in the Middle East.”
While interviewing IB diploma students at the International School of Ukinoto, it became
clear to me that the IB program’s mission is develop international mindedness in their students.
All IB participants described how their values and experiences in and outside of school affected
the decisions and choices they made after graduating with an IB diploma. All of the participants
reflected that the subject matters they chose to study at the university were viewed through an
international lens. The following quotes are examples of how the participants constantly looked
to align their values with global concepts and how this exercise developed international
mindedness in this group of participants. Marie expressed:
“I was born in England. My dad is French and my mom is American; both have different
religious backgrounds. I grew up celebrating both holidays with the ability to recognize,
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accept and appreciate both cultures. Because of this, I can connect with people while
being aware of their similarities and differences.”
The following quote by Henry exemplifies what international mindedness really means to this
group of participants.
“I am interested in what happens elsewhere, in different parts of the world. I have
travelled extensively with my family and by myself and through this opportunity I have
become multilingual and multicultural. This ability has allowed me to think beyond
myself and from multiple perspectives when analyzing events and interacting with
others.”
Conclusions
The IB mission statement (Figure 6) compels students to participate in shared inquiry
alongside their teachers. Students act together as reflective practitioners in a cycle of knowledge
creation for continual improvement. The following image reflects that students are taught to act,
plan, execute and reflect continuously to enrich their learning and promote global thinking.
Figure 6. IB mission statement (Image Credit: http://www.ibo.org/en/programmes/)
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GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP
The third theme which emerged and which the IB program fosters is global citizenship.
The International Baccalaureate Bilingual Diploma is one way to achieve forming global
citizens, but it is not the only way. The goal for global education and citizenship is to connect
students’ personal lives and backgrounds to their studies. This global exchange is what enriches
their learning and ultimately promotes language and cultural awareness. In a globalized world,
education is an important element that provides people with a better chance of employment. To
achieve this goal, the language of globalization should be used to understand both the global and
local forces of power that could prevent one from reaching their potential. Global exchange is
what enriches student learning and ultimately promotes language and cultural awareness beyond
national boundaries (Hanna, 2011).
Global Engagement
Students with an IB diploma should at the end of their studies be capable to recognize
and show their understanding of global issues, make conscientious decisions, and take proper
action in response to a local or international problem, i.e. environmental concerns, world health,
etc. The question I asked the participants pertaining to fulfilling the CAS requirement of 150
hours, over two years, was: What did you do to fulfill your CAS requirement and how did it
enrich you personally? The CAS program is a way to balance academics and activities outside
of the classroom. What is important to note is that students make a personal commitment to
activities outside of school in order to expand their vision and mind. Nancy said:
“I am Armenian and to fulfill my CAS requirements I chose to do community service at
my Armenian Saturday Morning School. Since I had already graduated from the school,
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I went back to help out in the classrooms. I really liked giving back to the school and my
community at large.”
Nancy’s response indicates that she equated her CAS requirement as a stepping stone to be
globally engaged not only in her immediate community but as a channel to give back or pay
forward to help others. Another participant, Carol, expressed her involvement as:
“I am very involved in my church and every summer I help out at my church’s
community events. When I was younger, I attended the summer camp but now I go back
as a counselor every summer to continue helping. It is most enriching to be able to help
others. I have always taken dance classes and dancing is an important part of my life.
After many years, I wanted to share my love of dancing, so I started to help out children
with disabilities enjoy the art of dancing.”
The above quotes represent the global engagement level of two participants and how they each
viewed their responsibility to give back to their respective communities whether helping out at
their community centers, churches, or help fundraising events to collect funds for the Red Cross
or orphanages abroad.
Global awareness
Cultural awareness is understanding that other people’s cultural values and beliefs may
differ from your own cultural values. With this in mind, a well-rounded IB education includes
global awareness which is an understanding of how environmental, social, cultural, economic
and political factors impact the world. Despite this, it is very important for the younger
generation to be aware of issues that involve all of us regardless of our differences. Here is
Claire’s perspective:
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“I am a vegetarian and the well-being of animals is very important to me. I also think a
lot about climate change and how we can help and contribute to the protection of the
planet. My parents are firm believers of recycling. Now that I live away from home I
have kept up my family’s commitment to recycling and do not use plastic.”
Claire’s statement demonstrates how global awareness issues played an active role in the views
and actions that dictated her behavior. She recycled, was a vegetarian by choice and believed her
actions made a difference not only in her life but to the life of the planet.
“When I was at ISU, I represented the Red Cross club. One of our activities was to help
raise funds to vaccinate children against measles and rubella across the world. I now
work as a research assistant to help discover cures for diseases.” (Nancy)
The above quotes by Claire and Nancy demonstrate that global awareness was impacted by
learning. Consequently, global citizenship can be considered a learned behavior that is formed
over the course of one’s studies, whether at home or at school.
Global thinking
One of the bi-products of an IB Bilingual Diploma is the thinking routines that students
master when trying to find solutions for complex global issues, such as climate change. Today’s
globalized world urges people to look at the big picture. To solve problems, students learn to
first define the goal that they have to achieve, collect all the necessary information and then
come up with a strategy. Courses such as ToK foster global thinking. Richard described it as
follows:
“Global thinking is one of the benefits of being bilingual and multi-cultural. Because of
it, I am able to better communicate my ideas and thoughts with more people directly,
without needing anyone to translate my ideas in their words to someone. Few years ago,
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I volunteered for a non-profit organization that serves under represented communities. It
was one of my best experiences and I learned a lot about myself, the environment and the
global community that we all share. This experience is an example of what makes me a
global thinker.”
During our discussions, many of the participants mentioned current events and how important it
was for them to follow and be aware of what was going on in the world. The participants not
only cared about their own wellbeing and advancement, but they also cared deeply about social
issues concerning our planet and its inhabitants. Nancy expressed her views as:
“At my previous employment, I worked directly with individuals who had migrated to the
US to pursue their careers in science. Since I have been exposed to many different
cultures throughout my life, I found it easy to communicate with them, both
professionally and personally. In situations such as these, cultural backgrounds are at
play as well and it was practical that I was able to understand where they were coming
from and meet them half way.”
The above quotes evidence how the IB program impacted each participant’s learning and the
way they viewed the world. It was most encouraging for me to witness this kind of maturity in so
many young people.
Conclusion
This chapter reviewed the findings of the study. Nine participants were interviewed for
this study and candidly shared their thoughts and experiences. The participants of the study had
similar experiences even though one attended a different IB schools than ISU. The interview
data was analyzed and coded to determine emerging themes. As a result, five themes were
developed, including sub-themes. These themes and sub-themes presented in this study
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demonstrate the role that bilingualism and global education played on the development of cross-
cultural intelligence for students at International Baccalaureate (IB) schools. The research
questions brought to light how students perceived their bilingualism and how an IB education
increased their cultural intelligence and prepared them to meet the challenges of a global world.
The relationship between language acquisition and cultural intelligence is what allowed the
participants to build a better understanding of global ethics and cross-cultural empathy. Students
felt that to succeed as global citizens, they needed to be bilingual or multilingual. They
expressed that competency in another language and general language awareness were both
directly related to cultural intelligence. An IB diploma is not just an education, but rather it
teaches a way of life. Becoming a global citizen is a work in progress that is achieved through
continuous learning and understanding of global issues. Because of technological advancements
the globe is shrinking. A health outbreak in a corner of the world is no longer isolated to that
region. The effects of a climate calamity are felt many miles away as if it was next door. The
participants clearly think about global issues and actively choose to participate in bettering their
lives and the lives of others by being part of global solutions.
What is interesting about the themes that emerged, regardless of the participants’
background differences, is that all agreed on the importance of being internationally and socially
minded in a global society. All of the participants also expressed that the IB program had
prepared them well for university classes, including being granted college credits. Within the IB
curriculum, the IB participants knew that the program was rigorous, yet felt it was very
rewarding and well worth it. The themes and sub-themes which emerged in the participants’
candid responses demonstrate the commonality of experiences shared by IB students. Chapter
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Five will further explore how these thoughts and reflections relate to the theoretical framework
and literature review.
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Chapter Five: Discussion and Implications for Practice
“Cross-cultural experience by itself does not ensure cultural intelligence, but when wed with the
other capabilities of cultural intelligence, it plays a significant role.”
David Livermore
Language learning research usually highlights the importance of cultural learning within
a language learning context (Gao, 2006). To explore this further, research still needs to explore
how students at international schools make meaning of their experiences with multilingualism,
IB education, and cultural intelligence. Many researchers concur that bilingualism affects
multiculturalism (Cartens, 2015; Alon, et al., 2018; Baylis, 2015; Ambe, 2006; Aronson &
Laughter, 2016). However, much of the literature emphasizes specific aspects of learning a
second language in monolingual educational systems, with few studies exploring
multilingualism, cross-cultural intelligence and IB education. I attempt to address this gap with
this study. The purpose of this qualitative interview based study was to explore how ISU alumni
make meaning of their experiences with multilingualism, IB education, and cultural intelligence.
The following research question guided this study:
• How do ISU alumni make meaning of their multilingualism, IB education, and cultural
intelligence?
The goal of this study was to provide a rich description of students’ beliefs and
experiences in learning different languages and the meaning their IB education at ISU had on
their cross-cultural intelligence and abilities to navigate a global environment. The findings that
emerged highlight the significance that multilingualism, an IB education and cultural intelligence
had on the participants in my study. In the section that follows, I describe the impact of the three
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major findings on former IB students. The chapter concludes with recommendations for practice
and for future research.
FINDINGS IN RELATION TO THE LITERATURE
Mezirow’s (1991) Transformational Learning Theory was used as a lens through which
to explore and interpret the stories of the participants in my study. Mezirow, a constructivist,
believes that learners learn by interpreting and giving meaning to their experiences (Dirkx,
1998). A deductive approach used the research question to group data and look for similarities
and differences. Mezirow’s Transformative Learning Theory states that learning is acquired
through a process of interpreting one’s prior knowledge to build new knowledge (Mezirow,
1991). This statement is a cornerstone of learning a second language as explained in Chapter
Two. Given the nature of my study, a sociological perspective in a global community, a
narrative of other people’s experiences is a relevant tool in the assumption that learning a foreign
language is an important factor of global education (Della Chiesa, Scott & Hinton, 2012). The
ability to speak more than one language fluently relates to culturally competent knowledge. This
result coincides with the literature that describes a connection between culture and language.
According to Rolbin and Della Chiesa (2010) language shapes the way the world is viewed.
Words take on meaning when they are a statement of the speaker’s world view, which in turn
explains the relationship between culture and language (Barner-Rasmussen, Ehrnrooth,
Koveshnikov & Mäkelä, 2014). The goal for a global education is to connect students’ personal
lives and backgrounds to their studies (Apple, 2011). As students make connections between
their own backgrounds and the subjects they study, they become active participants in a global
awareness exchange that enriches their learning (Dreamson, 2018). In this study, transformative
learning was viewed as “a deep, structural shift in basic premises of thought, feelings, and
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actions” (Mezirow, 1981). Dewey (1938) also highlighted experiential learning as a process
connected to students’ lives through action, to turn learning into knowledge, and to develop
personal meaning of the world through experience. The findings from Chapter Four also concur.
For this phenomenon to become the norm, it is important to share and analyze participants’
stories in this study. During several months, data was collected through semi-structured
interviews, coded and analyzed. The participants shared through their semi-structures interviews
that they learned from their experiences and reflections as much as they learned from the
curriculum at school.
Therefore, three major findings emerged from the data which reflect the attitudes,
perceptions, and beliefs of participants in regard to their experiences. The theoretical
implications of the findings are also discussed with each theme. First, cultural development and
language development occur simultaneously due to the relationship between language learning
and cultural learning. Second, the impact of IB schools on students’ language learning and
becoming global citizens is discussed. Third, the concept of multilingualism is examined as
participants started out learning two languages simultaneously and then went on to learn another
or more languages as adults. From this perspective, multilingualism is considered an ability that
contributes to developing cross-cultural intelligence via the IB curriculum. The following figure
7 represents the three major findings and accentuates the fact that all three are interrelated as
each theme can affect the whole person.
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Figure 7. The three major themes
CROSS-CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE
Cross-cultural intelligence, defined as a person’s ability to connect and work across
cultures (Crowne, 2009), emerged in the study as an important influential and transformative
element in today’s globalized world. The overarching theme in this study reveals that IB
students involved in the IB diploma program expressed an understanding of cross-cultural
intelligence as perceived from their bilingual studies. This is crucial for understanding the
context of multilingualism and its impact on cross-cultural intelligence, particularly when one is
learning to think in more complex ways (Goh, 2012). To think differently allows an expansion of
initial knowledge and perspectives, and enrichment of learnings. It is the impact of an IB
education on cross-cultural intelligence and multilingualism that aligns with Goh’s (2012)
assertion that multiculturally educated students will develop cross-cultural intelligence on their
way to becoming global citizens.
The literature discussed in this study reaffirms that a carefully designed and implemented
multilingual program, such as the IB, not only contributes to forming multilingual and
multicultural global citizens, but also develops students’ sense of responsibility and cross-
cultural intelligence from a very young age (Young, Haffejee & Corsun, 2017). According to the
Multilingual
Education
Impact of IB
Schools
Cross-
cultural
Intelligence
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participants, the desire to learn multiple languages was a motivating factor in attending an
international school. The participants believed that learning different languages allowed them to
manage information more efficiently and have a greater ability to choose, organize and plan their
future (De Lissovoy, 2011). The participants expressed views on how cross-cultural intelligence
has helped them develop in four critical areas: metacognitive, cognitive, motivational and
behavioral (Tochon, 2009; Bialystock, Craik & Luk, 2012; Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011). The
essential component to understanding and appreciating the meaning behind cross-cultural
intelligence is developing a more compassionate view of the world (Apple, 2011). Cultural
understanding of people, self-reflection, and the positive relationship among peers was very
apparent in participant interviews. The significance of cross-cultural intelligence that emerged
from the interviews supports the research discussed in the literature review (Goh, 2012). The
participants shared their personal values and discussed their understanding of international
mindedness, their adaptive approach of inquiry and learning, a responsible and caring attitude
towards the environment and a multi-cultural perspective and tolerance that comprises global
consciousness. The following image (Figure 8) represents the understanding of cross-cultural
intelligence identified through the research.
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Figure 8. Beliefs and attitudes on cross-cultural intelligence
IMPACT OF IB SCHOOLS
The second finding that emerged through the study is the impact that IB schools had on
the participant’s multilingualism, cross-cultural intelligence and international mindedness. The
mission of the IB program is to foster students’ intellectual, personal, emotional and social skills
needed in globalized world. The data from the interviews indicates that IB students have
significant experiences in international mindedness through their travels, interaction with
culturally diverse people at school or at work and communicating at near native fluency in
multiple languages. The IB curriculum provided the vehicle by which students’ home languages
and cultures could flourish and develop. It provided an opportunity to interact and learn about
new cultures and languages; it provided targeted instruction about global issues with a focus on
services to the world community (Hill, 2012). Despite many differences among the
interviewees, the interviews revealed that all the participants shared an understanding of the
world around them and the process for developing international mindedness. There are over four
million students that follow an international curriculum, and through the IB program these
Cross-
cultural
intelligence
Understand
cultural
differences
Understand how
one's own culture
can shape one's
view of other
cultures
Bilingualism,
international
mindedness and
global citizenship
Not giving up too
quickly when
encountering
challenging
situations
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students learn to have greater mobility and greater ability to adapt and interact across cultural
differences (Hughes, 2014). The participants viewed the curriculum implementation, the foreign
language requirement, the required Theory of Knowledge class, the Creativity, Action, and
Service requirement as components needed for personal growth. The desire to study in a
rigorous program, think analytically about the world and develop cross-cultural intelligence was
an influential element that was developed through the IB curriculum. The participants truly
believe that their IB education gave them the needed strategies to understand and develop an
awareness of international mindedness. The following image (Figure 9) represents the impact of
an IB education revealed by the study participants, and confirmed by the literature review.
Figure 9. IB impact on students
BILINGUAL EDUCATION
The third finding that emerged from the study was how important language learning and
multilingualism are not only in the development of international mindedness of participants but
Impact
of IB
schools
Inquirers
Knowledgeble
thinkers
good
communicators
Principled and
open minded
Caring risk-
takers
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also in their cognitive and social-emotional development. For students to compete in a
multicultural and globalized world speaking more than one language is not an option anymore
but an imperative. Teaching children a second language at a young age not only allows them to
communicate with a larger population, but makes them more competitive in a global job market.
The study revealed five benefits for becoming multilingual. These benefits were also
reinforced through the findings in the literature review in Chapter Two. As stated, one way to
learn a second language is through immersion programs with three basic paths to follow. Early
immersion starts early in a child’s schooling, followed by middle immersion in the elementary
school and late immersion in secondary school. The two-way immersion model was created to
serve the immigrant population in the United States as a transitional model designed to teach
English as a second language. The Dual-Language model provides equal amounts of instruction
offered by native speakers of each language. In this model, the dual-language learner acquires
two or more languages concurrently. In addition, by introducing language learning at a young
age, experts (Eaton, 2012; Maxwell, 2012; Vanhove, 2013; Bialystock, Craik & Luk, 2012)
believe that a child’s cognitive abilities will increase and contribute to their creative
achievements, academic achievements and cognitive flexibility. This cognitive flexibility will in
turn bring about an increase in their social and cultural capital. Bilingual development cannot be
considered independently of social, emotional and cultural development (Tochon, 2009).
Learning a second language demands a commitment which includes adequate funding of
the program, trained and qualified teachers, a well thought out curriculum design and an
appropriate amount of time to meet the goal. The IB program is an answer to this challenge.
The participants of the study who studied at the International School of Ukinoto (ISU) started out
their educational path in an early immersion program for their pre-kindergarten to first grade
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years. The ISU participants then had a dual-language instruction for the elementary school with
a 20-80 split for first grade, 30-70 for second grade and 50-50 for third, fourth and fifth grades.
In the middle school, the participants had the choice to study some subjects in one or the other
language. Two of the participants in the study, Fred and Henry, did not attend ISU from the
early age, but rather joined the school at the high school level and chose the IB Diploma track.
Through the IB, these participants had the opportunity to learn another language by building on
their other languages to acquire a new language, indicative of the Transformative Learning
Theory. It is important to note that 66% of the world’s population is bilingual. It is proven that
being multilingual allows a person to communicate with ease in a multicultural setting, accept
and value diversity, listen and develop a sense of empathy, be more creative, adapt to diverse
situations with ease and have less of a challenge learning additional languages.
Countless studies have shown that learning two languages at once enhances the cognitive
development of the learner (Berken, Gracco & Klein, 2017; Bialystock, Craik & Luk, 2012;
Carsten, 2015; Delbridge & Helman, 2016). The results have shown that bilingual children’s
capacity in phonological awareness, vocabulary, grammar, literacy and reasoning are at the same
level or exceed results from assessments of monolingual children (Tafaroji, 2013). Bilingual
children have higher level of cultural consciousness and also reflect higher executive
functioning.
Social-emotional development is what provides bilingual learners the ability to build a
better understanding of global ethics and cross-cultural intelligence (Crowne, 2009). Given this
phenomenon, one can conclude that bilingual individuals have better control over their attention,
manage information more efficiently, and have a greater ability to choose, organize, plan and
deal with change. This fact was most apparent in the participants of the study. The participants
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had the opportunity to study in multicultural classrooms, learn from classmates’ cultural
heritages and develop their own cultural intelligence. Accordingly, the participants believe that
their bilingual education allowed them to build their social-emotional intelligence and empathy.
Many of the participants are involved in social justice causes involving their community and
other communities around the world, such as helping an orphanage in South America, helping to
build schools and homes in countries ravaged by natural disasters, etc. The following image
(Figure 10) is a depiction of how bilingual education affects all learning.
Figure 10. The effects of bilingualism on learning
LIMITATIONS
This qualitative interview based study explored how ISU alumni made meaning of their
experiences with multilingualism, IB education, and cultural intelligence. The evidence gathered
for this study is from the perspective of the participants who attended ISU and not specifically
about the IB curriculum. It is important to note that all IB schools follow a common curriculum
and all students adhere to the IB learning mission and philosophy; but not all IB schools are the
Bilingual
Education
One-Way and
Two-Way
Immersions
Dual-Language
Model
Cognitive
Development
Social-
Emotional
Development
103
same. Because of this, the following limitations are noteworthy. First, this study could have
benefited from a sample size that included participants from a number of different IB schools, be
it public or independent schools, in the US and abroad. As a result, it would have been
interesting to see if the demographic characteristics of participants and their environment
affected the participants’ experiences. Second, it is worth mentioning that not all international
schools have all three IB programs (IBPYP, IBMYP, and IBDP). This discrepancy may be
important in assessing the value of an IBDP education versus a full IB education as a whole.
Third, the researcher was the primary collector of the data and in charge of the analysis process.
I am not sure how this would have affected the results, but it may or may not have been an
avenue to investigate. Fourth, the researchers’ personal and professional experiences were
omnipresent and the researcher was very aware of this fact. Therefore, the researcher had to be
very vigilant to make sure not to influence the participants in any way with her own experiences
or expectations. Fifth, the participants were asked to recall their past experiences, which may or
may not have resulted in missed information or recall deficiency. Sixth, the number of
participants in this research study was relatively small. Consequently, the data might not be as
rich as with a larger pool of participants.
Following the careful analysis of the data and the presentation of the research findings, it
is clear that further research on the topic is required to fully understand the importance of
multilingualism on the development of culturally intelligent people. Thus, there is still an
abundance of data to be discovered in regards to multilingualism and the impact of an IB
education on cultural intelligence and empathy. In this study, the IB program was used as the
global education medium for students to attain bilingualism and cultural intelligence. Many
countries in Asia and Europe have since established their own versions of a global education
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program that reaches the same results as the IB (Pak & Lee, 2018) and so confirming the need
for further research.
CONCLUSION
Technological and economic globalization are at the base of a rapid and continuous
change. It is very clear that the future workforce needs to learn how to effectively navigate
through this ever-changing world to achieve success. Schools and educators are beginning to
recognize this and are adapting their programs and their missions to fit the needs of a global
economy. My research question guiding my study is:
• How do ISU alumni make meaning of their multilingualism, IB education, and cultural
intelligence?
The question was designed to obtain a thorough and integrative understanding of the role
bilingualism and global education have on the development of cross-cultural intelligence for
students at IB schools. The findings of my research on bilingualism, cross-cultural intelligence
and the need for an internationally minded curriculum, such as the IB, have highlighted the
urgency of multicultural global understanding in our society. Although this study has made
recommendations that support the need for bilingualism and cross-cultural intelligence, the goal
is to make it a standard approach for schools to consider. Current learning institutions have
begun to synthesize bilingualism, cultural intelligence and empathy as 21st century skills needed
to guide students towards becoming multilingual and multicultural global citizens. As global
competition intensifies, global education and cultural intelligence have emerged as key sources
of long-term competitive advantage in the global economy. A rapidly developing world has
become the guiding light that leads future generations through a maze of needed skills such as
languages, global thinking and cross-cultural intelligence to be successful and compassionate
105
leaders of tomorrow (Early & Peterson, 2004). Schools that assimilate 21st century skills create a
place for students to grow into global citizens and culturally intelligent global thinkers.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The purpose of this study was to explore how alumni from International Baccalaureate
(IB) schools worldwide make meaning of their experiences with multilingualism, IB education,
and cultural intelligence. The goal of the study was to identify, examine, and investigate
experiences of IB graduates through individual interviews. The participants of this study were
graduates of ISU. ISU is not a full IB educational system, but rather offers the IBDP option in
high school. Despite this, there was consistency in the findings with prior research and some
developments brought forth the importance of bilingualism and cross-cultural intelligence in
developing global citizens. However, it may be of interest for future research to investigate if
there is a difference in IB education dependent on the entry points into the IB curriculum.
Over the years, there have been many attempts to teach foreign languages at different
ages, using different models, but not all results are as expected. Despite this lack of program
uniformity, the number of immersion and IB schools is on the rise in the United States not only
for independent schools but also public institutions. As discussed in limitations, in further
studies, the sample pool should include members of IB programs from both public and
independent schools. One major limitation to this study was the fact that all of the participants
were members of highly educated multilingual and multicultural families. Further qualitative
research is needed to explore the perception and lived experiences of IB students as they pertain
to the development of languages, cross-cultural intelligence, and tolerance despite their socio-
economic standing. There are variations in IB schools depending on student demographics. It is
important to investigate the connection between IB education and language learning for students
106
who are monolingual as well as for students who experience poverty and prejudice. Hughes
(2014) noted how international education curriculum can effectively reduce prejudice and
increase intercultural competence or intelligence. Furthermore, a system needs to be put in place
that evaluates the role of educators, their training and their belief system on languages,
multiculturalism and cross-cultural intelligence. This study was an initial exploration of the
relationship between learning a second language, cultural intelligence and an IB education.
Educational researchers may consider to further explore these relationships and maybe find a
way to encourage and accelerate the much needed changes from the existing monolingual and
monocultural way of life.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE
My study explored how alumni from an International Baccalaureate (IB) schools make
meaning of their experiences with multilingualism, IB education, and cultural intelligence, and
based on the conclusion of my findings it is very clear that learning another language should not
be an option anymore. For students living and competing in today’s multicultural and globalized
world, speaking more than one language is more an imperative than an option. More and more
employers require multinational and cross-continental teamwork. Teaching children a foreign
language at a young age not only provides them with a useful tool that allows them to
communicate with a larger population, it also allows them to build a better understanding and
appreciation of different cultures. To accomplish this task, schools and learning institutions need
to integrate language learning and cultural tolerance and understanding into their curriculums.
The IB program is a valuable option based on the ways my participants made meaning of their
experiences. The IB program sponsors a complete education, whether intellectually, personally,
emotionally or socially, by focusing on language learning, IB education and cultural intelligence.
107
A world class education must be inclusive, but how does that apply to an IB education? The
answer to this question hinges on the reality that 57% of IB schools are state schools where
students do not pay any tuition. An IB education is not solely for the privileged few, but is a way
to “level the playing field” for the less privileged gifted members of society (Hughes, 2014).
Atal (2001) describes how a good education “should neither uproot people nor insulates them
from change, should emphasize the process of learning rather than collecting knowledge itself,
and should train the mind in a holistic, interdisciplinary framework (p. 16).” Towards fulfilling
that goal, Atal (2001) stipulates that the intention of IB programs is to develop “internationally
minded people who, recognizing their common humanity and shared guardianship of the planet,
help to create a better and more peaceful world (p.17).” To fully accomplish this, Hill (2012)
adds that “emphasis should be laid in a basic attitude of respect for all human beings as persons,
understanding of those things which unite us and an appreciation of the positive values of those
things which may seem to divide us, with the objective of thinking free from fear or prejudice
(p.11).” I recently attended a Panel Discussion on “Bilingualism: Challenges and Benefits of
Learning and Living in Multiple Worlds.” This discussion echoed the premise of my study and
was a testimony in support of my findings. During the discussion one other element was
discussed which I did not overtly discuss in my study and that was the “family.” Through the
findings in my study it became clear that there are social circumstances under which a child
becomes bilingual and multicultural. Schools can set the foundations for learning, but it is up to
the student to build upon this and become bilingual and multicultural. These multilingual and
multicultural children are mostly part of an elite group of students, come from bilingual families
or their monolingual families see the benefits of learning another language. In either case
108
“family” is the social building block as language develops from “interactions” with others and
not from textbooks. Bilingualism and biculturalism develop cognitive, social and emotional
skills in children which in turn develop cultural understanding and tolerance. This statement
proved to be true by findings in my study and is supported by a large number of research studies
(Ang et al., 2007; Rolbin & della Chiesa, 2010; Bialystok, Peets & Moreno, 2011; Westby,
2007).
Even though learning a second language can be accomplished by adults, it is still best to
start learning languages at a young age. A carefully designed and successfully implemented
program, such as the IB, not only helps guide children into being bilingual and multicultural
global citizens, but also develops their sense of responsibility from a very young age. When
students take charge of their learning, they naturally develop their autonomy and learn skills that
prepare them to face social challenges they may encounter in the future. This autonomous and
responsible independence is a lifelong skill that will continue to develop into their adult lives.
Another consequence of bilingualism and cultural intelligence is the high level of adaptability
and cultural tolerance that students develop through their schooling. International schools offer a
similar set of learning skills as any other school, with the added advantage of operating in a
multicultural and multilingual setting. To survive such a complex setting from the age of three,
students gradually develop a set of strong life skills, such as flexibility, adaptability, and cultural
tolerance which prepares them for greater challenges in the future. It may be argued that many
positive outcomes revealed in this study were achieved through the structure and privilege of an
IB school and a model of unconventional curriculum. However, many basic concepts and ideas
could be shared with and adopted by other institutions as well, such as: responsible and caring
109
attitude towards the environment, a multicultural perspective and a tolerance that embraces
global consciousness.
The participants’ interviews revealed a clear evidence that family dynamic and privilege
was a big factor in transformative learning, but not the only thing. Teachers also played a big
role in the education and learning of students (Mezirow, 2012; Taylor, 2007; Palmer, 2016;
Moloney & Saltmarsh, 2016; Misiaszek, 2016; Meier, 2009; Ng, Van Dyne & Ang, 2009; Sahin,
Gurbuz & Köksal, 2014; Tochon, 2009, Sobol, Cleveland & Laroche, 2018; Wlodkowski &
Ginsberg, 1995). Teachers at IB schools model the IB mission and are themselves multilingual,
multicultural and representatives of different ethnic groups. This was evident looking at the
faculty roster of ISU which represented over fifteen different cultures and languages.
In conclusion, change is not easy but it is inevitable. Some countries seem to be more
open to change and have a higher level of adaptability than others. Nevertheless, all educators
are partly responsible to bring about change for the better of students, schools and communities
we interact with. An old Armenian proverb states “Kani lezou guides, aynkan mart es” which
translates into “you’re as much a person as the number of languages you speak.” This proverb in
a way summarizes everything I tried to accomplish through this study and affirms what needs to
be done.
110
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Appendix E
Interview Protocol Form
Northeastern University – College of Professional Studies
Doctor of Education Program
Participant: _______________________
Interviewer: _______________________
Research Question: What are the roles of bilingualism and global education in developing
cultural intelligence for students at an international school?
A. Introductory Session (5-7 minutes)
Objective: Build rapport, describe the study, answer any questions (under typical circumstances
an informed consent form would be reviewed and signed here).
Introductory Protocol
You have been selected for this interview because you have been identified as someone who has
a great deal to share about bilingualism and global education in the development of cross-
cultural intelligence for students at an International Baccalaureate (IB) school. My research
project focuses on understanding the role of bilingualism and global education in developing
cultural intelligence for students at an international school. Through this study, we hope to gain
more insight into how students perceive their bilingualism and IB education has increased their
cultural intelligence and has better prepared them to meet the challenges of a global world. I
hope that this will allow us to identify ways in which we can maximize the learning experiences
and achieve our goal of forming culturally intelligent global citizens.
Because your responses are important and I want to make sure to capture everything you say, I
would like to audio tape our conversation today. Do I have your permission to record this
interview?[if yes, thank the participant, let them know you may ask the question again as you
start recording, and then turn on the recording equipment]. I will also be taking written notes. I
can assure you that all responses will be confidential and only a pseudonym will be used when
quoting from the transcripts. I will be the only one privy to the tapes which will be eventually
destroyed after they are transcribed. To meet our human subject’s requirements at the university,
you must sign the form I have with me [*provide the form – Appendix C]. Essentially, this
document states that: (1) all information will be held confidential, (2) your participation is
voluntary and you may stop at any time if you feel uncomfortable, and (3) we do not intend to
inflict any harm. Do you have any questions about the interview process or how your data will
be used?
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This interview should last about 45 minutes. During this time, I have several questions that I
would like to cover. If time begins to run short, it may be necessary to interrupt you in order to
push ahead and complete this line of questioning. Do you have any questions at this time?
B. Interviewee Background (5-10 minutes)
Objective: To establish rapport and obtain the participants’ story.
1) Please tell me a little about your background? Your travels?
2) How would you define cultural intelligence?
3) What does international education represent to you?
B. Interviewee Experience (40-45 minutes)
Per reference to our prior discussion, I would like to hear about your experiences and
perspectives as a multilingual and multicultural person. As you know, the mission of the
International School of Boston (ISB) is global education, which promotes positive values and
helps students take responsibility for their actions. Essentially, I hope to comprehend and
garner inside knowledge pertaining to both positive and negative interactions you have
encountered since you graduated with a Bilingual Diploma from the International Baccalaureate
Diploma Program. I will ask you a variety of queries and prompts relating to your personal
experiences. In order to maintain confidentiality and anonymity, please use a pseudonym if you
mention other people.
1. What is bilingualism to you?
2. What is cultural intelligence to you?
3. How does cultural intelligence influence international education?
4. Do you see yourself as a global citizen? Why?
5. Have you always attended an international school?
6. Do you speak more than two languages?
7. Was it easier to learn the 3rd, 4th, etc. languages?
8. What are the benefits of being bilingual?
9. What are the challenges of being bilingual?
10. Does your bilingualism and cross-cultural intelligence affect your current employment?
11. Do you see a clear advantage in being bilingual?
12. Can you share an experience where your international education was helpful to you?
13. Would you measure and contribute your success since graduation to the education you
received?
Ask participant if he/she has any questions and thank them for their participation.
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Appendix F
