Motor skills development

MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENTWHAT IS MOTOR DEVELOPMENT?Motor developmentrefers to thedevelopmentof a child's bones, muscles and ability to move around and manipulate his or her environment.Motor developmentcan be divided into two sections: grossmotor developmentand finemotor development.

IN INFANCYMOTOR DEVELOPMENTINFANCYReflexes: earliest movements can be elicited in new born infants, it is also the involuntary actions triggered by external stimuliPathological Reflexes indicate the possibility of some kind of irregular neural function.Examples: 1. Rooting reflex 2. Moro reflex3. Palmar reflex4. Plantar/ Babinski reflex5. Tonic Neck reflex6. Swimming reflex

Other examples of Reflex7. Doll-eye movementsCommon to premature babies and occurs during the first days of lifeIf the infants head is tipped forward, the eyes will tend to look upward and if the head is held backward, the eyes will look down ward the chin.In normal infants, this reflex is quickly replaced soon after birth with voluntary eye movements

Other examples of Reflex8. Righting Reflexes of the Head and BodyThe head will turn the same direction as hips are turned, same way when the head is moved, the hips will turn in the same direction

Other examples of Reflex9. The Labyrinthine Righting ReflexThe attempt of an infant to look upward on its stomach. Later the head is aided by the supportive reaction of the arms.More common during the middle of first year but first seen in 2nd month after birth

Other examples of Reflex10. Supporting Reactions of Arms and LegsThe human infant at about 4 months will react when brought towards surfaces by reflexively extending the arms, indicating a readiness to support himself.

Other examples of Reflex11. Pull-up Reaction of the ArmsOccurs several months after birthIf held upright by either hand and tipped off to one side or the other, the infant will tend to flex the appropriate arm and try to resume the original upright position.

Other examples of Reflex12. The Walking Reflex About 58% of infants on the 2nd week after birth, they will walk if held in an upright position with their feet permitted to touch a level of horizontal surface.Involves a distinct lift but does not involve other body parts. They can also climb stairs while supported in this manner and also be walk upside down.

Other examples of Reflex13. The Crawling ReflexIf the infant is placed face down on a surface and pressureis alternatively applied to the bottoms of the feet, he/she will perform a crawling pattern with the upper and lower limbs.Leads to voluntary creeping

Other examples of Reflex14. Climbing MovementsThis reflex resembles later the voluntary attempts to move in a horizontal plane, which manifest a reflex similar to vertical climbing.

The Phasing out of Reflexes and the Phasing in of Voluntary Movement

Gross Motor SkillsInvolves the large muscle of the body and include locomotor function such as sitting upright, walking and kicking. It depends on the tone and strength of the muscles. (Upton, 2011)

GROSS MOTOR SKILLS

GROSS MOTOR SKILLSVoluntary, Independent Locomotion1. CreepingOccurs when the infant has been allowed to remain in a front lying position for prolonged periods of time.2. CrawlingBegins to develop after the creepingThe first attempts are resulted from a bent-elbow posture, with feet drawn up under the hipsMoves in a contralateral extremities

GROSS MOTOR SKILLS3. SlidingSome infants develop an unusual method of locomotion involving a slide forward in a seated position using the hills with which to dig in.4. Standing upThis movement is the results of the aggregated reflexes and locomotor movements.Steps:Back-lying positionBy turning his/her head to its stomach (front-lying position)He/she begins to reach for objects and bring the feet under the bodySitting positionStanding up by hanging onto things (e.g. furniture)Proceeds walking

GROSS MOTOR SKILLS5. Upright gaitEarly attempts: wide stances, feet turned outward, knees are slightly flexed

GROSS MOTOR SKILLSMotor skills advance in definite sequence*normsDistinct pattern (cephalocaudal and proximodistal)Individual variation (2-4 mos.) is common without being atypicalEnvironmental factors influence the timing of m.s.d., not genetic influenceModern theories on m.s.d. emphasize the interaction between nature and nurtureDYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORYConstructivist approachBoth nature and nurture influence m.s.d.Childs active role in own m.s.d.At first, motor skills are reliant on innate reflexes, gradually the reflexes are reorganized into new and more complex actionsInitial motor behaviors are likely to be tentative, disjointed and coordinatedHowever, they are progressively modified and refined until the components fir together, resulting in smooth, well-coordinated action systemsDevelopment is seen as a self-organizing system Infant is driven by curiosity, motivating them for locomotionImproving physical strength, increases in neurological connections, sensory stimuli and parenting behaviors all play a role in motor skill development

FINE MOTOR SKILLSInvolves small muscles of the body that enable functions such as grasping and manipulating small objects. Writing, drawing and fastening clothing rely upon motor skills. (Upton, 2011)

FINE MOTOR SKILLS (3-5 Months)Childs ability to reach out and manipulate objects changes significantly over the first year of lifeVoluntary reaching and grasping usually develops at 3 monthsPrior to this, uncoordinated swipes that rarely result in the capture of the objectsCapacity for interaction with the environmentAt 4-5 months, palmar reflex is replaced by ulnar grasp, the voluntary transferring of objects from hand to hand. It is clumsy and claw likeIt eventually develops into the pincer grasp which is far superior and comes with the development of dexterityREFERENCESCratty, Bryant J., Perceptual and Motor Development in Infants and Children 2nd Edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewoods Cliffs, New Jersey 07632, 1979Upton, Penney. , Upton, Dominic., Critical Thinking in Psychology: Developmental Psychology, Learning Matters Ltd., 2011

In childhoodMotor skills developmentEarly CHILDHOOD (2-3 years)GROSS MOTOR SKILLSStop toddling and develop a smoother gait in walkingDevelops ability to run, jump, and hopCan participate in throwing and catching games with larger ballsCan push themselves around with their feet while sitting on a riding toy.FINE MOTOR SKILLSCan build towers out of blocks and mold clay into rough shapesCan turn the pages of a bookCan scribble with a crayon or pen (random scribbling at age 2 and controlled scribbling at age 3)Often begin showing a preference for using one hand more often than the other

HANDEDNESS (Hand Preference)Seems to have a strong genetic basisStudies have shown that adopted childrens handedness is related to their biological (not their adoptive) parents handednessPrenatal ultrasound scans show that most fetuses show a preference of their right hand in sucking their thumbsThis strongly suggests that hand preference develops before sociocultural influences can have effect * Ambidexterity can be developed through practiceHANDEDNESS (Hand Preference)Right hand preference dominates in most cultures at a ratio of approximately 9:1Handedness is traditionally though to have been strongly linked to brain organization (right handed, left sphere language dominant; left handed, right sphere language dominant)90 % of right handed people are left sphere language dominant, however, so are more than 50% of left handed peopleAccording to Knecht et al. (2000), left handedness is neither a precursor nor a necessary consequence of right hemisphere language dominance However, left handedness does increase the likelihood of right hemisphere dominance for language processingHANDEDNESS (Hand Preference)Left handedness is often seen in artistic and creative individuals such as musicians and artistsFamous left handed artists include: Michaelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Pablo Picasso, Lewis Carroll, and Johann Sebastian Bach.Left handed people tend to have exceptional visual-spatial skillsThey also have a tendency to score higher on intelligence testsHowever, they are also more likely to have reading problems than right handed people, which might be related to the way they process language.Early CHILDHOOD (3-4 years)GROSS MOTOR SKILLSCan climb up stairs using a method of bringing both feet together on each step before proceeding to the next step However, young children may still need some "back-up" assistance to prevent falls in case they become unsteady in this new skill. Will be stumped when it's time to go back down the stairs; they tend to turn around and scoot down the stairs backwards. FINE MOTOR SKILLSStart to manipulate clothing fasteners, like zippers and buttonsContinue to gain independence in dressing and undressing themselves. Can also begin using scissors to cut paper (not very well).

Early CHILDHOOD (3-4 years)GROSS MOTOR SKILLSCan jump and hop higher as their leg muscles grow stronger. Many can even hop on one foot for short periods of time.Begins skippingRiding, steering and pedaling a tricycle FINE MOTOR SKILLSContinue to refine their eating skills and can use utensils like forks and spoonsCan also use larger writing instruments, like fat crayons, in a writing hold rather than just grasping them with their fist.

Early CHILDHOOD (3-4 years)GROSS MOTOR SKILLSDevelop better upper body mobility. As a result, their catching and throwing abilities improve in speed and accuracy. Can also kick a larger ball placed directly in front of their bodies.FINE MOTOR SKILLSCan also use a twisting motion with their hands, useful for opening door knobs or twisting lids off containers.

Early CHILDHOOD (4-5 years)GROSS MOTOR SKILLSCan go up and down the stairs alone in the adult fashion (i.e., taking one step at a time). Running continues to smooth out and increase in speed. Can skip better and add spin to their throws. Have more control when riding their tricycles (or bicycles), and can drive them faster.FINE MOTOR SKILLSContinue to refine fine motor skills and build upon earlier skills. Can button and unbutton their clothes by themselves. Artistic skills improve, and they can draw simple stick figures and copy shapes such as circles, squares, and large letters. Drawing more complex shapes, however, may take longer.

Kelloggs (1970) four stages of childrens drawings

Kelloggs (1970) four stages of childrens drawings

Early CHILDHOOD (5-7 years)GROSS MOTOR SKILLSContinue to refine earlier skills. Running even faster and can start to ride bicycles with training wheels for added stability. Can step sideways. Begin mastering new forms of physical play such as the jungle gym, and begin to use the see-saw, slide, and swing on their own. Often start jumping rope, skating, hitting balls with bats, and so on. FINE MOTOR SKILLSBegin to show the skills necessary for starting or succeeding in school, such as printing letters and numbers and creating shapes such as triangles. Able to use paints, pencils and crayons with better control.

Early CHILDHOOD (5-7 years)GROSS MOTOR SKILLSEnjoy learning to play organized sports such as soccer, basketball, or swimmingOften like to participate in physical extracurricular activities such as karate, gymnastics, or dance. * Children continue to refine and improve their gross motor skills through age 7 and beyond.FINE MOTOR SKILLS

Can also complete other self-care tasks beyond dressing and undressing, such as brushing their teeth and combing their hair. Can also independently feed themselves without an adult's immediate supervision or help.

Middle-LATE childhood (7-12 years)GROSS MOTOR SKILLSContinue to build on and improve gross motor skills; the large-scale body movement skills such as walking and running that they first learned during earlier developmental stages. In general, boys develop these skills slightly faster than do girls, except for skills involving balance and precise movements such as skipping, jumping and hopping.FINE MOTOR SKILLS

Continue to hone their fine motor skills which can be distinguish from gross motor skills in that they require hand-eye coordination. In contrast to how gross motor skills develop, girls tend to develop fine motor skills slightly faster than do boys.36Middle-LATE childhood (7-12 years)GROSS MOTOR SKILLSRun faster than previously possibleCan also jump higher and fartherNo two children will develop physical skills in exactly the same pattern or time frame.FINE MOTOR SKILLS

Show dramatic improvements with regard to their printed handwriting and ability to write in cursive letters (e.g., "script" forms of handwriting). 37Middle-LATE childhood (7-12 years)GROSS MOTOR SKILLSRefine their control over gross motor skills, learning to master where they hop, skip, throw, and jump. They are able to gain this improved control and coordination due to increases in their flexibility (e.g., their range of movement in joints and muscles), balance, and agility (e.g., their ability to change their body's position, which requires a combination of balance, coordination, speed, reflexes, and strength)

FINE MOTOR SKILLS

Develop the ability to draw complex and detailed pictures that for the first time begin to incorporate depth cues (i.e., such as drawing farther away objects smaller) and 3D elements. Often, children's artistic ability can truly begin to shine during this stage as improved fine motor skills and imagination combine.Middle-LATE childhood (7-12 years)GROSS MOTOR SKILLSLearn how to synchronize the movement of their body's various parts, allowing for the development of smoother, more coordinated whole-body movement routines such as are needed for participating in organized sports (e.g., throwing a football, batting a baseball, or dribbling a basketball). FINE MOTOR SKILLS

Learn how to use their hands to successfully accomplish manual activities other than drawing or writing. Become capable of executing complex detail-oriented craft projects (beading, sewing, scrap booking, building models, and good at using simple tools such a hammer or a hand mixer)Middle-LATE childhood (7-12 years)GROSS MOTOR SKILLSDue to their progress with regard to the growth and maturity of motor, cognitive, and social skills, many children will now become capable and competitive participants on sports teams.FINE MOTOR SKILLS

Learning to touch type becomes a serious possibility at this time. Commonly become quite skillful at playing complicated games involving hand-eye coordination, including video and computer games.REFERENCEShttp://bhcmhmr.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=12755&cn=462http://sevencounties.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=37676&cn=1272Dacey, John S. (2009). Human development across the lifespan. New York : McGraw-Hill Higher EducationUpton, P. and Upton, D. (2011). Critical Thinking in Psychology: Developmental Psychology, Learning Matters Ltd.

In ADULTHOODMotor skills development

Gross Motor SkillsMotor skills that involve large-muscle activities (milestones achieved)Infancy Development of posture Locomotion and crawling Learning to walk Help of caregivers important; cultural variation exists More skilled and mobile in second yearMotor Development43

Gross Motor SkillsChildhood Improved walking, running, jumping, climbing, learn organized sports skills Positive and negative sport outcomes Movement smoother with age

Adolescence - Skills continue to improve

Adulthood Peak performance of most sports before 30 Biological functions decline with ageMotor Development44

Fine Motor SkillsInvolves more finely tuned movements, such as finger dexterity.

Infancy: Reaching and grasping Size and shape of object matters Experience affects perceptions and vision

Early Childhood: Pick up small objects Some difficulty building towers Age 5: hand, arm, fingers move togetherMotor Development45

Fine Motor SkillsChildhood and adolescence: Writing and drawing skills emerge, improve Steadier at age 7; more precise movements By 10-12, can do quality crafts, master difficult piece on musical instrument

Adulthood: Speed may decline in middle and late adulthood, but most use compensation strategies Older adults can still learn new motor tasksMotor Development46PHASEAGESTAGEBirth6 month2 years6 years12 years18 yearsPrenatalInfancyEarly ChildhoodLate ChildhoodAdolescenceAdulthood30 years70 yearsOlder AdulthoodReflexRudeFundSportRefinePeakRegressionFrom Gabbard, 1996Adolescence period of integrating motor skills (15-20 years)

As adolescents continue to mature they become better able to move their bodies with greater skill and precision. Gross and fine motor skills improve continuously during adolescence. Adolescents can do more complex and strenuous activities compare when they were in their middle childhood.

Beyond Infancy: Motor Development in Childhood and Adolescence

Boys and girls are nearly equal in physical abilities until puberty, when boys continue to post gains on tests of large-muscle activities, whereas girls level off or decline.Biological developments do not account for all the difference in large-muscle performance between boys and girls; nor do they adequately explain the declining performance of girls, who continue to grow taller and heavier, between ages 12 and 17.Jacqueline Herkowitz (1978) believes that the apparent physical decline of adolescent girls is a product of gender-role socialization.

AdulthoodEarly adulthood : forming working motor skills,climax of sports activity, stage of motor performance culmination with majority of sportspeopleMiddle adulthood:stage of stabilized efficiency,gymnastic activity decreases, it is replaced by healthy walks of lower intensityLate adulthood:stage of decreased motor efficiency, the repertory of locomotive skills decreases, period of balancing.

Old ageMotor condition: motor abilities regress more dramatically (mainly with speed abilities), less dramatic regression of static-power abilities, endurance abilities decrease by approx. 50 %; such decrease, however, can be positively influenced by training (70-year old marathoners), length of step shortens (up to 1/4), bad arm coordination, extreme leg raising, axis shift. Movement in AdulthoodUpright static balance is maintained by postural swaying. Postural swaying deteriorates gradually and by the time we are 80 years of age our ability to maintain static upright balance is like a 6 year old child.Postural sway increases with age.Poor vision increases postural sway and decreases balance.Incident of fall is related to postural sway and static balance.Half of elderly who fall and break a bone never regain functional walking.Men seem to experience a greater mortality rate from falling that females.Falls are due to a deterioration of balance associated with walking

Walking speed is slower because they adopt a conservative pattern of walking to prevent falling.Adopting a slower pace reduces strength in lower limbs.Stride length decreases with greater tendency to toe-out to improve lateral stability.Greater flexion of the hip when taking a stride with less ankle extension at the end of stance phase in walking which reduces stride length.Step height decreases.Movement Speed in AdulthoodWelford(1982) found:

Spatial transpositions (simple reaction time situations) develop early in life and resist decline where as symbolic translations (choice and discriminate reaction time situations) decline.Threshold of excitation of the muscles decline.Sense organs and loss of brain cells reduced signal levels which causes slower motor movements.Aged is willing to sacrifice speed of movement for accuracy and therefore more cautious.

Thats it. Thank you.Aging is inevitable but the process is very variable. Thus, the key is to experience a slow rate of aging.

References:http://www.jstor.org/stable/1168268?seq=6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3592105/http://www.sevencounties.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=41154&cn=1310https://www.google.com.ph/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CFQQFjAEOAo&url=http%3A%2F%2Fiws.collin.edu%2Fmrose%2FHandouts%2FLifespan%2520Development%2FMedia%2520Presentations%2FBiological.Motor%2520and%2520Sensory.pptx&ei=Hbc-VMCnOMPkuQSO8oDYCQ&usg=AFQjCNFPMTAbY6i3B9RBClotdLykFtA1Ng&bvm=bv.77412846,bs.1,d.c2Ehttp://iws.collin.edu/mrose/Handouts/Lifespan%20Development/Media%20Presentations/Biological.Motor%20and%20Sensory.pptxhttp://www.d.umn.edu/~dmillsla/courses/motorlearning/documents/MovementinAdulthood.pdfhttp://www.fsps.muni.cz/~tvodicka/data/reader/book-19/04.htmlFACTORS AFFECTING MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENTToneOngoing contraction and state of the muscle at rest. Can be normal, hypotonic or hypertonicCerebral palsyFACTORS AFFECTING MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENTStrength-The force of a muscle contraction purposefully exerted against resistance to carry out an activity Endurance- The ability to maintain the exertion required for an activity-Involves many factors such as muscle tone and strength, heart and lung function, and motivationFACTORS AFFECTING MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENTBalanceThe delicate interaction of equilibrium(or vestibular) centers in the brain with sensory inputSensory input includes vision, body-position awareness, and muscle strength and tone. These factors all work together to allow your child to maintain an upright posture and to move between positions needed for activities such as sitting, crawling, walking, and reaching

FACTORS AFFECTING MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENTMotor PlanningThe complex, and often intuitive, ability to know how to carry out the steps needed to complete a physical activityMotor planning requires the coordination of the systems that regulate perception, sequencing, speed, and intensity of movementsFACTORS AFFECTING MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENTSensory IntegrationThe ability to accurately interpret sensory input from the environment and to produce an appropriate motor responseChildren may have a different threshold for responding to sensory input They may exhibit a reduced (under stimulation) or heightened (over stimulation) response to sensory informationFACTORS AFFECTING MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENTEnvironmentalLiving conditionsParental involvementEducational experiencesGrowth CulturalTypical American children roll over at 3 months, sit at 6 months and walk at 12 months- Genetic makeupFACTORS AFFECTING MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENTSocialPersonality, self-perception and self-motivation, genderAlbert Bandura: children who believe they can acquire new skills are more likely to try harder when challenged, less likely to become discouraged and more likely to positively react to learning experiences. However, children who view their abilities as a reflection of their aptitude tend to have a negative reaction when they have trouble mastering a skill.63FACTORS AFFECTING MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENTDiseasesCerebral palsyDown syndromeAutism Spectrum DisorderDyspraxiaReferenceshttp://www.abilitypath.org/areas-of-development/physical-development/motor-skills/articles/motor-skill-development.html

http://www.livestrong.com/article/1005763-environmental-cultural-social-factors-influence-motorskill-development-children/

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-factors-affect-motor-development-in-early-childhood.htm

http://kidshealth.org/parent/medical/brain/cerebral_palsy.html

http://www.down-syndrome.org/information/motor/overview/

http://www.humankinetics.com/excerpts/excerpts/research-shows-children-with-autism-spectrum-disorders-exhibit-some-motor-skill-deficiencies

http://ncld.org/types-learning-disabilities/dyspraxia/what-is-dyspraxia