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8/18/2019 Motivation(Main Part)
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Introduction
The most difficult job that faces a supervisor is learning how to effectively motivate and keep
his/her employees motivated . The average person when asked how to motivate someone will
tell you what motivates him or her. Unfortunately, everyone is different and what motivates
one employee may only make another employee angry. The method we use to motivate each
employee must be tailored to the individual employee. We must offer them something that
value as an incentive to work towards a goal. One sie does not fit all when it comes to
motivation.
!overnment employees too are not immune towards this need to be motivated. They want to
be recognied to ascertain their value for e"istence. #otivation, or rather the lack of it, is nota problem peculiar to the public sector. $owever, as government employees are highly
visible, our motivational problems are often in the spotlight.
%n the following sections of this booklet, we will be discussing ways of tackling motivational
problems and provide suggestions on ways you can take to turn lethargy into energy and
apathy into commitment with your employees.
Organisational Culture
&taff motivation is the cornerstone of open, fle"ible and caring management culture, which
the !overnment aims to establish through $'#.
To put it into practice, "open" means not only to listen to staff suggestions and opinions, but
also to empower staff, accept their constructive criticisms and use their suggestions. To be
"flexible", we may need to change the traditional ways of doing things. (s far as staff
motivation is concerned, the biggest challenge perhaps is to stop focusing on problems and
the guilty party )police behavior* and start looking for those responsible for things gone right
)coach behavior*.
"Caring" calls for a human leader who would give emotional support to individuals, and at
the same time attend to the overall emotional needs of team members + which includes
treating them all in a fair and impartial manner.
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%nstrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will be received
i.e. if % do a good job, there is something in it for me. This is affected by such things as0
1. 4lear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes 5 e.g. the
rules of the reward 6game7
2. Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome
3. Transparency of the process that decides who gets what outcome
alence is the importance that the individual places upon the e"pected outcome. 8or e"ample,
if % am mainly motivated by money, % might not value offers of additional time off.
$aving e"amined these links, the idea is that the individual then changes their level of effort
according to the value they place on the outcomes they receive from the process and on their
perception of the strength of the links between effort and outcome.
&o, if % perceive that any one of these is true0
1. #y increased effort will not increase my performance
2. #y increased performance will not increase my rewards
3. % don7t value the rewards on offer
9.
...then room7s e"pectancy theory suggests that this individual will not be motivated. This
means that even if an organisation achieves two out of three, that employees would still not
be motivated, all three are re:uired for positive motivation.
$ere there is also a useful link to the :uity theory of motivation0 namely that people will
also compare outcomes for themselves with others. :uity theory suggests that people will
alter the level of effort they put in to make it fair compared to others according to their
perceptions. &o if we got the same raise this year, but % think you put in a lot less effort, this
theory suggests that % would scale back the effort % put in.
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4rucially, "pectancy theory works on perceptions 5 so even if an employer thinks they have
provided everything appropriate for motivation, and even if this works with most people in
that organisation it doesn7t mean that someone won7t perceive that it doesn7t work for them.
(t first glance this theory would seem most applicable to a traditional+attitude work situation
where how motivated the employee is depends on whether they want the reward on offer for
doing a good job and whether they believe more effort will lead to that reward.
$owever, it could e:ually apply to any situation where someone does something because
they e"pect a certain outcome. 8or e"ample, % recycle paper because % think its important to
conserve resources and take a stand on environmental issues )valence*; % think that the more
effort % put into recycling the more paper % will recycle )e"pectancy*; and % think that themore paper % recycle then less resources will be used )instrumentality*
Thus, this theory of motivation is not about self+interest in rewards but about the associations
people make towards e"pected outcomes and the contribution they feel they can make
towards those outcomes.
Other theories, in my opinion, do not allow for the same degree of individuality between
people. This model takes into account individual perceptions and thus personal histories,
allowing a richness of response not obvious in #aslow or #c4lelland, who assume that
people are essentially all the same.
"pectancy theory could also be overlaid over another theory )e.g. #aslow*. #aslow could
be used to describe which outcomes people are motivated by and room to describe whether
they will act based upon their e"perience and e"pectations.
Theory X
%n this theory, management assumes employees are inherently lay and will avoid work if
they can. They inherently dislike work.
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Usually these managers feel the sole purpose of the employees interest in the job is money.
They will blame the person first in most situations, without :uestioning whether it may be the
system, policy, or lack of training that deserves the blame. ( Theory = manager believes that
his or her employees do not really want to work, that they would rather avoid responsibility
and that it is the managers job to structure the work and energie the employee. One major
flaw of this management style is it is much more likely to cause >iseconomies of &cale in
large businesses.
Theory Y
%n this theory management assumes employees may be ambitious, self+motivated, and
e"ercise self+control. %t is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work
duties. ( Theory ? manager believes that, given the right conditions, most people will want
to do well at work. They believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong
motivation. #any people interpret Theory ? as a positive set of beliefs about workers. (
close reading of The $uman &ide of nterprise reveals that #c!regor simply argues for
managers to be open to a more positive view of workers and the possibilities that this creates.
Theory X and Theory Y combined
8or #c!regor, Theory = and ? are not different ends of the same continuum. 'ather they are
two different continua in themselves. Thus, if a manager needs to apply Theory ? principles,
that does not preclude him from being a part of Theory = @ ?.
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McGregor and Maslows hierarchy
#c!regors work was based on #aslows hierarchy of needs. $e grouped #aslows hierarchy
into -lower order- )Theory =* needs and -higher order- )Theory ?* needs. $e suggested that
management could use either set of needs to motivate employees.
4riticisms
Today the theories are seldom used e"plicitly, largely because the insights they provided have
influenced and been incorporated by further generations of management theorists and
practitioners. #ore commonly, workplaces are described as -hard- versus -soft.- Taken too
literally any such dichotomy including Theory = and ? seem to represent unrealistic
e"tremes. #ost employees )and managers* fall somewhere in between these poles. Aaturally,
#c!regor was well aware of the heuristic as opposed to literal way in which such
distinctions are useful. Theory = and Theory ? are still important terms in the field of
management and motivation. 'ecent studies have :uestioned the rigidity of the model, but
#c!regors =+? Theory remains a guiding principle of positive approaches to management,
to organiational development, and to improving organiational culture.
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There are a number of different views as to what motivates workers. The most commonly
held views or theories are discussed below and have been developed over the last 1BB years
or so. Unfortunately these theories do not all reach the same conclusionsC
Taylor
8rederick Winslow Taylor )1DEF 5 1G1H* put forward the idea that workers are motivated
mainly by pay. $is Theory of &cientific #anagement argued the following0
Workers do not naturally enjoy work and so need close supervision and control
Therefore managers should break down production into a series of small tasks
Workers should then be given appropriate training and tools so they can work as efficiently as
possible on one set task.
Workers are then paid according to the number of items they produce in a set period of time+
piece+rate pay.
(s a result workers are encouraged to work hard and ma"imise their productivity.
Taylor7s methods were widely adopted as businesses saw the benefits of increased
productivity levels and lower unit costs. The most notably advocate was $enry 8ord who
used them to design the first ever production line, making 8ord cars. This was the start of the
era of mass production.
Taylor7s approach has close links with the concept of an autocratic management style
)managers take all the decisions and simply give orders to those below them* and
#acgregor7s Theory = approach to workers )workers are viewed as lay and wish to avoid
responsibility*.
$owever workers soon came to dislike Taylor7s approach as they were only given boring,
repetitive tasks to carry out and were being treated little better than human machines. 8irms
could also afford to lay off workers as productivity levels increased. This led to an increase in
strikes and other forms of industrial action by dis+satisfied workers.
Mayo
lton #ayo )1DDB 5 1G9G* believed that workers are not just concerned with money but could be better motivated by having their social needs met whilst at work )something that Taylor
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ignored*. $e introduced the $uman 'elation &chool of thought, which focused on managers
taking more of an interest in the workers, treating them as people who have worthwhile
opinions and realising that workers enjoy interacting together.
#ayo conducted a series of e"periments at the $awthorne factory of the Western lectric
4ompany in 4hicago
$e isolated two groups of women workers and studied the effect on their productivity levels
of changing factors such as lighting and working conditions.
$e e"pected to see productivity levels decline as lighting or other conditions became
progressively worse
What he actually discovered surprised him0 whatever the change in lighting or working
conditions, the productivity levels of the workers improved or remained the same.
8rom this #ayo concluded that workers are best motivated by0
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(ll of the needs are structured into a hierarchy )see below* and only once a lower level of
need has been fully met, would a worker be motivated by the opportunity of having the ne"t
need up in the hierarchy satisfied. 8or e"ample a person who is dying of hunger will be
motivated to achieve a basic wage in order to buy food before worrying about having a secure
job contract or the respect of others.
( business should therefore offer different incentives to workers in order to help them fulfill
each need in turn and progress up the hierarchy )see below*. #anagers should also recognise
that workers are not all motivated in the same way and do not all move up the hierarchy at the
same pace. They may therefore have to offer a slightly different set of incentives from worker
to worker.
!erberg
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8rederick $erberg )1G23+* had close links with #aslow and believed in a two+factor theory
of motivation. $e argued that there were certain factors that a business could introduce that
would directly motivate employees to work harder )#otivators*. $owever there were also
factors that would de+motivate an employee if not present but would not in themselves
actually motivate employees to work harder )$ygienefactors*
#otivators are more concerned with the actual job itself. 8or instance how interesting the
work is and how much opportunity it gives for e"tra responsibility, recognition and
promotion. $ygiene factors are factors which 6surround the job7 rather than the job itself. 8or
e"ample a worker will only turn up to work if a business has provided a reasonable level of
pay and safe working conditions but these factors will not make him work harder at his job
once he is there. %mportantly $erberg viewed pay as a hygiene factor which is in direct
contrast to Taylor who viewed pay, and piece+rate in particular
$erberg believed that businesses should motivate employees by adopting a democratic
approach to management and by improving the nature and content of the actual job through
certain methods. &ome of the methods managers could use to achieve this are0
Iob enlargement 5 workers being given a greater variety of tasks to perform )not necessarily
more challenging* which should make the work more interesting.
Iob enrichment + involves workers being given a wider range of more comple", interesting
and challenging tasks surrounding a complete unit of work. This should give a greater sense
of achievement.
mpowerment means delegating more power to employees to make their own decisions over
areas of their working life.
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#esigning $obs that Motivate and Challenge %mployees
&ernie %rven
#epartment of 'gricultural( %nvironmental and #evelopment %conomics
)hio *tate +niversity
Introduction
#anagers have the opportunity to influence the motivation of employees through design of
their jobs. Well+designed jobs help accomplish two important goals0 getting the necessary
work done in a timely and competent manner, and motivating and challenging employees.
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managers defaulting job design to employees. Iob design starts with determining the duties,
tasks and activities for each job.
The process of determining the content of jobs is called job analysis. Iob analysis is
sometimes considered the foundation of human resource management. The content of jobs,
job descriptions, hiring, orientation and training are all built on what is learned from job
analysis. %n this paper, we will consider four keys to the design of jobs that motivate and
challenge employees0 job analysis, job design, characteristics of desirable jobs and fine
tuning of jobs through job enrichment and adjusted work schedules to further increase their
capacity to motivate and challenge employees.
$ob 'nalysis
Iob analysis is a process of obtaining the information necessary for job design. Iob analysis
re:uires efficient collection of data about e"isting jobs and needs that new jobs are to address.
( manager has several important sources of data about job needs. %n most businesses, the
people now doing a job understand it best. Their e"periences and insights are critical to
understanding what the job is, the e"tent to which it is meeting the needs of the business and
opportunities for an improved design. ( cautionary note to keep in mind is that employees
may fail to understand that job analysis is a process of gathering data about the job not an
evaluation of the person doing the job. #anagers need to e"plain carefully to employees that
the goal is to improve their jobs not find a substitute
for annual performance reviews. &upervisors can add additional understanding of a job. %n
many farm and ranch businesses, managers and supervisors have often done many of the jobs
in the business. Therefore, their e"periences in the job are a valuable source of information.
Iob analysis should generate data about tasks, duties and responsibilities of the person in the
job. 8or a milker, the tasks, duties and responsibilities might include0 with one other person,
prepare and milk 3BB cows; e"amine cows for health problems; clean milking e:uipment and
milking parlor after milking; and perform preventive maintenance on the milking e:uipment.
The e:uipment that will be operated and tools used are also included in job analysis. 8or an
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officer manager, the list of e:uipment and tools might include a computer, copy machine, fa"
machine, paper shredder and telephone. The job analysis also shows the knowledge, skills,
abilities, e"perience and licenses
necessary for the job and the performance standards for the person doing the job. 8or a truck
driver, this list might include at least two years of e"perience in over+the+road driving, valid
commercial license and no moving violations during the last two years. The performance
standards might be safe operation of the truck, no moving violations and timely delivery and
pick ups as assigned. >etermination of physical demands is also important for some jobs,
e.g., be able to lift a EB+pound bo" to a height of 9D inches and carry the bo" 2B yards. %t is
difficult to illustrate the importance of job analysis with a few simplistic e"amples. Jerhaps a
set of :uestions can give an added sense of the importance of job analysis. Aote that all of the
:uestions are trying to clarify what is or is not a part of the
job being analyed.
K >oes the officer manager need to know how to design a computeried payroll system or will
the person in the position simply be doing payroll with a system already in placeL
K %s the truck driver responsible for routine maintenance of the truckL
K %s the head milker responsible for annual performance evaluations of milkers or are these to
be done by the herdspersonL
K >oes the crop manager help plan the year7s cropping plan or just carry out the plan
developed by the farm managerL
K %s the cow manager responsible for decisions about which cows to cull or is this the
responsibility of the herdspersonL
K Who is authoried to buy parts for machinery repairL
K Who is authoried to answer :uestions raised by a newspaper reporter who makes an
unannounced visit to the ranch or farmL
One can easily see from this short list of :uestions that the importance of job analysis grows
as a business grows, becomes more comple", and involves more employees. (t some point in
sie and comple"ity of a business, managers must either take a more systematic approach to job design or deal with the many problems of inconsistency across employees, supervisors
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and crews. Iob analysis also paves the way for determination of policies, procedures and rules
to guide employee decisions. Iob analysis and the resulting job design do not provide all the
guidelines for employee behavior. Jolicies, procedures and rules complement job design.
$ob #esign
(fter the job analysis has provided the necessary job data, managers are ready to design jobs.
The job analysis provides an important reminder to keep employees in mind as jobs are
designed. Iob design is the structuring of jobs to improve the efficiency of the business and
improve employee satisfaction. Uninteresting or boring jobs will cause problems. mployers
can capitalie on employees7 interests and the advantages they see in farm work. To illustrate,
people who love animals are motivated by the opportunity to work with animals. Iobs
emphasiing animals attract such people. &ome people like machinery much more than
animals. Others enjoy repairing machinery more than operating it. &ome people like office
work; others want to be outdoors. Iob design provides guidelines to help get appropriate fit
between employees and their jobs. The results of the job analysis make it possible to design
jobs while taking into consideration the tasks that must be accomplished for the business to
succeed. #anagers can add consideration of what individuals want in their jobs. &ometimes
minor changes in job design can dramatically improve a job in the employee7s view, e.g.,
changing a calf feeder7s job to include, or no longer include, e"planation of calf care to farm
visitors. (nother e"ample is asking the employee to work closely with the veterinarian to
improve calf health instead of simply reporting problems to a supervisor who in turn talks
with the veterinarian.
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Iob design cannot overcome the fact that no job is perfect. 8arm jobs have some
disadvantages managers need to address when designing jobs. ach of the following job
:ualities responds to often stated disadvantages of farm work0 reasonable number of work
hours per day and per week, proper e:uipment in good repair, well lighted and ventilated
work areas, training, some fle"ibility in scheduling work hours and regular communication
with the supervisor. Jaying little attention to these common concerns about farm jobs makes
it almost certain that employees will not be satisfied with the jobs.
#efinition, Iob nlargement is the horiontal e"pansion of a job. %t involves the addition of
tasks at the same level of skill and responsibility. %t is done to keep workers from getting
bored. %t is different than job enrichment )see sidebar*.
%xamples, &mall companies may not have as many opportunities for promotions, so they try
to motivate employees through job enlargement.
$ob Characteristics
(nticipating what job characteristics will help motivate employees is important in job design.
#anagers can do their best to give each job the following five key characteristics.
8irst, design jobs whenever possible to encourage employees to use a variety of skills.
'emind yourself of the reasons that assembly line jobs are boring. &tanding in one place
using only one or two skills doing the same thing repeatedly is not satisfying for most people.
One reason that many workers like varied work is that they get to use a variety of skills.
&econd, design jobs whenever possible so that an employee does a total job, e.g., all aspects
of calf raising as contrasted with just feeding or a milker position that includes more
responsibilities than just milking. ven such a simple task as repairing gates may be more
satisfying if one person has the responsibility to do everything including determining what
parts are needed, buying parts, taking the gate apart, replacing parts, reassembling and testing
to be sure everything is in order.
Third, design jobs so that the employee understands the significance of his or her job to the
farm. Why is power washing importantL Why is calf raising importantL What contribution is
the person making by doing a good job with dry cowsL What problems are caused later on if
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pigs are not given proper careL The employee should have answers to these kinds of basic
:uestions.
8ourth, design jobs so that each employee has responsibility, challenge, freedom and the
opportunity to be creative. This re:uires the supervisor or owner/operator of the farm to
delegate some authority. >elegation can be a powerful tool for improving a job. M?ou can do
the job however you want as long as you get results.N &uch powerful words, such effective
de3
legation and such important responsibility are likely to have positive impacts on employees.
8inally, make feedback a part of job design. Well+designed jobs anticipate the need for
communication. #ost employees want to know what is e"pected of them in the job, how they
are doing, how they can improve, what latitude they have in changing how they do their
tasks, what should be discussed with a supervisor and when the discussion should occur.
mployees rarely complain about too much communication with their supervisor. They often
want more communication.
%rgonomics
The tradition in farm and ranch work is to e"pect the person to adjust to the tool. ( Mone siefits allN mentality is common. The sie may refer to an operator7s seat, chairs for a staff
meeting, volume of music in the milking parlor or length of handle on a tool. The message is,
M?ou need to adjust.N
rgonomics turns the Mone sie fits allN mentality on its head. rgonomics asks how the
machine can be made to fit the person rather than how the person can fit the machine.
"amples include adjustable operator seats, fle"ible lighting, variable temperature controls,
padded floors, safety e:uipment, work areas adjustable to appropriate heights and angles and
comfortable yet durable work clothes.
(n increasingly diverse work force has made ergonomics more important. #en and women
may use the same e:uipment. ( FE+year+old man E feet F inches tall may take a turn operating
a machine usually operated by a 2B+year+old man F feet F inches tall. 4learly, it makes no
sense to e"pect all employees to adjust to an unadjustable machine. Iob design can contribute
to employee motivation by taking advantage of the many advances that have been made
through ergonomics.
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$ob %nrichment
&ometimes employees want more from their jobs than is now possible. Iob enrichment is a
response to employees ready for more responsibility, variety and challenge. Wanting more is
only part of what is re:uired to make job enrichment a success. mployees must be able to
handle the enriched jobs that are being developed for them. #anagers need to consider
carefully each employee7s physical capabilities, mental skills, organiational competence and
capacity for learning before inviting an employee to take on an enriched job. 8orcing more on
employees than they are capable of handling
will likely hurt the business and frustrate the employees. The usual dimensions of job
enrichment in the farm and ranch setting include thefollowing0
K #ake a job more challenging by making it more difficult. The job may be made more
difficult, for e"ample, by including more problem+solving, increasing the number of people
with whom cooperation is necessary, increasing the comple"ity of tasks included in the job
and providing less specific directions and rules.
K (ssign challenging new tasks that the employee must learn to do through selfstudy, off+site
training, on+the+job training, e"perimentation and/or contact with others who have the
necessary e"pertise.
K >elegate responsibility and authority to an employee. &ome e"amples include delegated
responsibility and authority to0 improve a part of the business such as pig mortality, resolve a
specific problem such as employee turnover or gather the necessary information for
determining the best alternative for replacing a major piece of machinery.
K (sk the employee to become the farm7s e"pert in an area of interest to him or her, e.g., corn
varieties.
K Jrovide the employee with performance reports about enterprises or major cost categories
and ask that he or she provide analysis and suggestion on how to improve performance.
Iob enrichment is a tool for improving employee motivation through satisfying a need for
more challenge. Iob enrichment pays more attention to employee needs than to needs of the
business. %n particular, job enrichment responds to employee need for achievement, self+
esteem and self+fulfillment. Iob enrichment is likely to be counterproductive when employeesdo not have these higher level needs. &uch employees are likely to see job enrichment as little
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more than employers trying to take advantage of them and frustrating them unnecessarily. Iob
enrichment has compensation implications. One would e"pect that an employee who takes on
an enriched job with no loss in work :uality would realie some financial benefit. $owever,
the impetus for job enrichment is increased motivation through more challenging work rather
than higher pay through more responsibility. Iob enrichment recognies that non+monetary
rewards are important to job satisfaction. 8urthermore, to have a sense of progress in their
careers, many employees need more
than gradually increasing compensation. Iob enrichment meets the need for nonmonetary
progress by providing a steady increase in challenges and professional development.
-or. *chedules
The eight+hour work day/9B hours per week is the standard for most of the country7s labor
force. 8or several reasons, this has never been the standard for farm and ranch work. The 8air
abor &tandards (ct e"empts farm and ranch work from overtime pay re:uirements when the
workweek e"ceeds 9B hours. Thus, a farm or ranch employer can have a standard workweek
of si", ten+hour days and have the same hourly pay rate for all FB hours. The work ethic
common to farming and ranching also contributes to acceptance of long workweeks. The
seasonal nature of agriculture re:uires an all out
effort during some weeks of the year. 4onse:uently, work schedules have been dictated more
by how to get the work done than by seeking ways to increase employee motivation. &ome
employers outside agriculture have made adjustments to traditional work schedules. #ost
common are fle"ible beginning and ending times, a compressed workweek and job sharing.
These adjustments remain uncommon in agriculture. Aevertheless, farm and ranch managers
sometimes have the option of changing traditional work schedules. 8le"ible beginning and
ending times, usually called fle"time, eliminate common beginning and ending times for
employees doing the same job. %nstead, employers permit employees to choose daily startingand :uitting times. To illustrate, a manager with five employees might have two beginning
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fourth person if necessary. "perience is so limited with job sharing in agriculture that an
employer would benefit from finding a nonfarm employer and employee with job sharing
e"perience to gain their insights about the pros and cons.
Concluding Comment
Iob design is a tool for helping to motivate and challenge employees. ike all other
motivational tools, it fails to provide a magical answer for all employees in all situations.
Aevertheless, inattention to job analysis, job design, job enrichment and work scheduling
means that motivation problems will be created that need not be created. mployees are
likely to appreciate an employer7s efforts to make their jobs as motivational and challenging
as feasible. #any employees will welcome the opportunity to help improve their jobs. They
will see the benefits for themselves and for the business. Traditional jobs can be changed. (n
employer7s imagination and creativity applied to job design have the potential to yield
impressive results.
Case *tudy
The %ffectiveness of /on Monetary 0ecognition 1rograms ,
(lthough the concept of positive reinforcement and the related principle that you get what
you reward are well+founded in the psychology literature, the effective use of positive
reinforcement by practicing managers is uneven and often totally lacking in day+to+day
business operations. This article e"plores the conditions that enable or inhibit the use by
managers of non+monetary recognition )A#'*.
The *tudy
8or each of 39 organiations, data from a set of managers who were identified as fre:uent
users of non+monetary recognition were matched against a set of managers who were
infre:uent users of the behavior, using three forms of validation to confirm accurate category
placement. $igh+use )$U* and low+use )U* managers were initially identified by an
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organiational sponsor and then confirmed by a managers self+report and reports by at least
three employees who reported to each manager.
( broad+based national survey was conducted of all managers in the sample, based on
variables drawn primarily from three domains of the motivation literature. &urvey :uestions
e"plored the motivation for the use of non+monetary recognition, ranging from past
e"perience with the behavior )social learning theory*, to present reinforcement of the
behavior )reinforcement theory*, to future e"pectations from the behavior )e"pectancy
theory*.
&ibliography
-ebsites
http0//www.google.co.in
http0//www.recognitionrewards.com
http0//www.business+magaines.com
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