Motivation Updated

7/29/2019 Motivation Updated

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MOTIVATION

AJAY SOLKHEFaculty

niversity School of Management,[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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162

What Is

Motivation?

The processes that account for an

individuals willingness to exert high

levels ofeffort to reach organizationalgoals, conditioned by the efforts abilityto satisfy some individual need.

Effort: a measure of intensity or

drive.Direction: toward organizational

goals

Need: personalized reason to

exert effort

Motivation works best when

individual needs are compatible with

organizational goals.


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163

Exhibit 16.1

The Motivation Process


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NeedAn internal state that makes certain outcomes appear

attractive.

An unsatisfied need creates tension which is reduced

by an individuals efforts to satisfy the need.


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EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

These early theories may not be valid,

but they do form the basis forcontemporary theories and are stillused by practicing managers.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

McGregors Theories X and Y

Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene

Theory

McClellands Theory of Needs

Alderfers ERG (Existence,

Relatedness, and Growth)


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Theory

Needs were categorized asfive levels of lower- to higher-

order needs.

Individuals must satisfy

lower-order needs beforethey can satisfy higher order

needs.

Satisfied needs will no longer

motivate.Motivating a person depends

on knowing at what level that

person is on the hierarchy.

Hierarchy of needs

Lower-order

(external):

physiological,

safetyHigher-order

(internal): social,

esteem, self-

actualization


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Copyright 2005 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 167

Exhibit 16.2


Lower OrdExternal

Higher OrderInternal


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McGregors Theory X and

Theory Y

Two distinct views of humanbeings:

Theory X (basically negative)

andTheory Y (positive).

Managers used a set of

assumptions based on their

view

The assumptions molded their

behavior toward employees


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Motivation is maximized by participative

decision making, interesting jobs, and goodgroup relations.

Theory X

Workers have littleambition

Dislike work

Avoid responsibility

Theory Y

Workers are self-directed

Enjoy work

Acceptresponsibility


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Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Job satisfaction and Job Dissatisfaction are

created by different factors.

Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental)

factors that create job dissatisfaction.

Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factorsthat create job satisfaction.

Attempted to explain why job satisfactiondoes not result in increased performance.

The opposite of satisfaction is not

dissatisfaction, but rather no satisfaction.


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Exhibit 16.3

Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory


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Exhibit 16.4

Contrasting Views of Satisfaction-

Dissatisfaction


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Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers

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Factors characterizing

events on the job thatled to extreme job

dissatisfaction Factors characterizing

events on the job that

led to extreme job

satisfaction

Source: Reprinted by permission ofHarvard Business Review. An exhibit from One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?by Frederick Herzberg,

SeptemberOctober 1987. Copyright 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College: All rights reserved.


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Motivation and Needs

David McClellands Three-

Needs Theory

There are three major acquired

needs that are major motives in

work.

Need for achievement (nAch)

The drive to excel and succeed

Need for power (nPow)

The need to influence the

behavior of others

Need of affiliation (nAff)

The desire for interpersonal

relationships

nAch

nPow

nAff


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E

GR

ERG THEORY (Clayton Alderfer)

There are three groups of core needs: existence,

relatedness, and growth. Existence: provision of basic material requirements.

Relatedness: desire for relationships.

Growth: desire for personal development.

* More than one need can be operative at the

same time.

* If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the

desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation

Goal-Setting Theory

Reinforcement Theory

Designing Motivating J obs

Equity Theory

Expectancy Theory


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Motivation and Goals

Edwin Lockes Goal-Setting Theory

Proposes that setting goals that are

accepted, specific, and challenging yetachievable will result in higher

performance than having no or easy

goals.

Benefits of Participation in Goal-Setting

Increases the acceptance of goals.

Fosters commitment to difficult, publicgoals.

Provides for self-feedback (internal locus

of control) that guides behavior and

motivates performance (self-efficacy).


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Exhibit 16.6

Goal-Setting Theory


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Factors influencing the GOALS

PERFORMANCE Relationship:

1.Goal commitment,

2.adequate self-efficacy,

3.task characteristics, and4.national culture.

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Self-Efficacy

The individuals belief that he or she is capable ofperforming a task.


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MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO)

MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.

Goals must be: S M A R TTangible

Verifiable

Measurable

Corporate goals are broken down into smaller,more specific goals at each level oforganization.

Four common ingredients to MBO programs:

Goal specificityParticipative decision making

Explicit time period

Performance feedback


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Banduras Self-Efficacy Theory

An individuals belief that he or she is capable ofperforming a task.

Higher efficacy is related to:

Greater confidence

Greater persistence in the face of difficulties

Better response to negative feedback (work harder)

Self-Efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory.

Given Hard Goal

Higher Self-Set Goal

Increased Confidence

Higher Performance


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Increasing Self-Efficacy

Enactive mastery

Most important source of efficacy

Gaining relevant experience with task or job

Practice makes perfect

Vicarious modeling

Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task

Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to

him- or herself

Verbal persuasion

Motivation through verbal conviction

Pygmalion and Galatea effects - self-fulfilling prophecies

Arousal

Getting psyched up emotionally aroused to complete task

Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task


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Motivation and Behavior

Reinforcement TheorySimilar to Goal-Setting Theory, but focused on a

behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one

Assumes that a desired behavior is a function ofits consequences, is externally caused, and if

reinforced, is likely to be repeated.

Positive reinforcement is preferred for its long-term

effects on performanceIgnoring undesired behavior is better than

punishment which may create additional

dysfunctional behaviors.


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Designing Motivating Jobs

Job Design

The way into which tasks can be combined to formcomplete jobs.

Factors influencing job design:

Changing organizational environment/structure

The organizations technology

Employees skill, abilities, and preferences

Job Enlargement

Increasing the scope (number of tasks) in a job.Job Enrichment

Increasing responsibility and autonomy (depth) in a

job.

J b Ch t i ti M d l (JCM)


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Job Characteristics Model (JCM)

A conceptual framework for designing motivating jobs that

create meaningful work experiences that satisfy

employees growth needs.

Five primary job characteristics:

Skill variety:The degree to which a job requires a

variety of different activities.

Task identity:The degree to which the job requirescompletion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.

Task significance:The degree to which the job has a

substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.

Autonomy:The degree to which the job providessubstantial freedom and discretion to the individual inscheduling the work and in determining the proceduresto be used in carrying it out.

Feedback: do workers know how well they are doing?


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Job Characteristics Model

Source:J.R. Hackman and J.L. Suttle (eds.). Improving Life at Work(Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1977). With permission of the authors.


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Exhibit 16.8

Guidelines for Job Redesign

Source:J.R. Hackman and J.L. Suttle (eds.). Improving Life at Work(Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1977). With permission of the authors.


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Designing Motivating Jobs (contd)

Suggestions for Using the JCMCombine tasks (job enlargement) to create more

meaningful work.

Create natural work units to make employees work

important and whole.Establish external and internal client relationships to

provide feedback.

Expand jobs vertically (job enrichment) by giving

employees more autonomy.Open feedback channels to let employees know how

well they are doing.


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Motivation and Perception

Equity Theory

Proposes that employees perceive what they get

from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what

they put in (inputs) and then compare their inputs-

outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios ofrelevant others.

If the ratios are perceived as equal then a state of

equity (fairness) exists.

If the ratios are perceived as unequal, inequity existsand the person feels under- or over-rewarded.

When inequities occur, employees will attempt to do

something to rebalance the ratios (seek justice).


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Equity Theorys Relevant Others

Can be four different situations:

Self-Inside

The persons experience in a different job in the same

organization

Self-Outside

The persons experience in a different job in a different

organization

Other-Inside

Another individual or group within the organization

Other-Outside

Another individual or group outside of the organization


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Employee responses to perceived

inequities:

Distort own or others ratios.

Induce others to change their own inputs or

outcomes.

Change own inputs (increase or decrease

efforts) or outcomes (seek greater rewards).

Choose a different comparison (referent)other (person, systems, or self).

Quit their job.

Employees are concerned with both the

absolute and relative nature oforganizational rewards.


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Exhibit 16.9

Equity Theory


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Justice and Equity Theory

Overall perception

of what is fair in the

workplace.


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Distributive justice

The perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of

rewards among individuals (i.e., who received what).

Influences an employees satisfaction.

Distributive

The perceived fairness of the process use to determine

the distribution of rewards (i.e., how who received

what).Affects an employees organizational commitment.


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Motivation, Perception, and Behavior

Expectancy TheoryStates that an individual tends to act in a certain way

based on the expectation that the act will be followed by

a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that

outcome to the individual.Key to the theory is understanding and managing

employee goals and the linkages among and between

effort, performance and rewards.

Effort: employee abilities and training/developmentPerformance: valid appraisal systems

Rewards (goals): understanding employee needs


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Simplified Expectancy Model

Expectancy of

performance

success

Instrumentality

of success in

getting reward

Valuation of the

reward in

employees eyes


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Motivation, Perception, and Behavior

(contd)

Expectancy Relationships

Expectancy (effort-performance linkage)

The perceived probability that an individuals effort will

result in a certain level of performance. Instrumentality

The perception that a particular level of performance

will result in the attaining a desired outcome (reward).

ValenceThe attractiveness/importance of the performance

reward (outcome) to the individual.


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Exhibit 16.11

Integrating

Contemporary

Theories ofMotivation


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Current Issues in Motivation

Cross-Cultural ChallengesMotivational programs are most applicable in cultures

where individualism and quality of life are culturalcharacteristics

Uncertainty avoidance of some cultures invertsMaslows needs hierarchy.

The need for achievement (nAch) is lacking in other

cultures.

Collectivist cultures view rewards as entitlements to

be distributed based on individual needs, not individual

performance.


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Current Issues in Motivation (contd)

Cross-Cultural Consistencies Interesting work is widely desired, as is growth,

achievement, and responsibility.

Motivating Unique Groups of Workers

Motivating a diverse workforce through flexibility:

Men desire more autonomy than do women.

Women desire learning opportunities, flexible work

schedules, and good interpersonal relations.


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Flexible Work/Job schedulesCompressed work week

Longer daily hours, but fewer days

Flexible work hours (flextime)

Specific weekly hours with varying arrival, departure,lunch and break times around certain core hours during

which all employees must be present.

Job Sharing

Two or more people split a full-time job.Telecommuting

Employees work from home using computer links.


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Motivating ProfessionalsCharacteristics of professionals

Strong and long-term commitment to their field of

expertise.

Loyalty is to their profession, not to the employer.Have the need to regularly update their knowledge.

Dont define their workweek as 8:00 am to 5:00 pm.

Motivators for professionals

Job challengeOrganizational support of their work


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Motivating Contingent WorkersOpportunity to become a permanent employee

Opportunity for training

Equity in compensation and benefits

Motivating Low-Skilled, Minimum-Wage

Employees

Employee recognition programs

Provision of sincere praise


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Designing Appropriate Rewards ProgramsOpen-book management

Involving employees in workplace decision by opening

up the financial statements of the employer.

Employee recognition programsGiving personal attention and expressing interest,

approval, and appreciation for a job well done.

Pay-for-performance

Variable compensation plans that reward employees onthe basis of their performance:

Piece rates, wage incentives, profit-sharing, and lump-sum

bonuses


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Designing Appropriate Rewards Programs(contd)

Stock option programs

Using financial instruments (in lieu of monetary

compensation) that give employees the right topurchase shares of company stock at a set (option)

price.

Options have value if the stock price rises above the

option price; they become worthless if the stock price

falls below the option price.


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Exhibit 16.12b

Recommendations for Designing Stock Options

* Vesting refers to the time that must pass before a person can exercise the option.

Source:P. Brandes, R. Dharwadkar, and G.V. Lemesis, Effective Employee StockOption Design: Reconciling Stakeholder, Strategic, and Motivational Factors,

Academy of Management Executive, February 2003, p. 84.


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Exhibit 16.12b

Recommendations for Designing Stock Options

Source:P. Brandes, R. Dharwadkar, and G.V. Lemesis, Effective Employee StockOption Design: Reconciling Stakeholder, Strategic, and Motivational Factors,

Academy of Management Executive, February 2003, p. 84.


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Copyright 2005 Prentice Hall Inc All rights reserved 1648

From Theory to Practice:

Guidelines for Motivating Employees

Recognize individual

differences

Match people to jobs

Use goals

Ensure that goals are

perceived as attainable

Individualize rewards

Link rewards to

performance

Check the system for

equity

Use recognition

Dont ignore money

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Motivation Updated