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Motivation and Emotion
Motivation
• What motivates you? What do others use to try to motivate you? Do those things work?
• Motivation = a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
Big question: Why do people do what they do?
Instinct Theory
People/animals do what they do because it is what they do naturally
Idea became popular with Darwin’s theory of evolution
Instincts are found throughout a species and are unlearnedExamples of human instincts?
Does not explain behavior, just labels it
Drive-Reduction Theory
Physiological needs cause an aroused psychological state (drive) that organisms want to reduce
Drive-reducing behavior – drinking
water Need - water Drive - thirst
Drive-Reduction Theory cont.
Goal of drive-reduction = homeostasis, or internal equilibrium
Example: When we are hungry, we eat, when we are full, we stop eating
Drives push us to do a behavior
Arousal Theory
Goal = optimum level of arousal Different level for different people
(introverts, extroverts, thrill-seekers, autistic)
When we are bored, we prefer to increase stimulation by doing something
Too much stimulation is stressful and we try to reduce it
Incentive Theory
Incentives can be positive or negative (carrot or stick)
Highly dependent on culture, personal preference, and learning historyDoes bean curd motivate or disgust
you? Fried pickles?
Humanistic Theory
Abraham Maslow ranked needs in a hierarchy
Thought some needs must be satisfied before you can worry about the next level
Generally true across cultures, although some individuals may intentionally skip levels
1. Physiological needs
HungerThirstWarmthSleep
2. Safety Needs
Need to feel safe from• Physical harm• Embarrassment• Unpredictable events
3. Belongingness and Love Needs
To love and be loved
Be accepted and belong to a group
Avoid loneliness and separation
4. Esteem Needs
Self-esteemAchievementCompetence IndependenceRecognition and
respect from others
5. Self-Actualization Needs
Live up to our full potential
Contribute to the world
UniquenessJob satisfaction
6. Self-Transcendence Needs
Find meaning, purpose, and identity beyond the self
Not part of original hierarcy
Maslow’s hierarchy cont.
Forgot cognitive needsNeed to knowNeed to understand
It’s your first semester of college and you have to choose between studying for a test and rushing a sorority/fraternity. What would Maslow predict you would do? Why?
You are stranded in the wilderness and haven’t eaten since yesterday when you find an apple tree surrounded by signs that bears frequent this area. You know you should avoid the bears but you decide to stay and eat some apples anyway. How would Maslow explain your behavior?
Hunger, Eating Disorders, and Obesity
“”
Should the government be able to tax junk food?
Should junk food be taken out of schools?
Physiological Basis of Hunger
A decrease in glucose (blood sugar) causes brain to secret hunger hormones
Glucose is processed by insulin (hormone) Activity in lateral hypothalamus (LH – Large
Hunger) causes hunger by producing hormone orexin
Activity in ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH – Very Minute Hunger) decreases hunger
Physiological Basis of Hunger
Empty stomachs secret ghrelin, a hormone that causes hunger
Obestatin, PPY, and leptin all decrease hunger, but none have successfully been turned into drugs yet
Hormones may control the body’s set point (body’s natural preferred weight, influenced by genetics and available food)
Psychology of Hunger
Memory of time passing influences hunger Amnesiacs will eat 3 lunches if you offer
themFood affects brain chemistry and therefore
mood Ex: carbs help produce serotonin, which
calms people down when stressed
Adaptive Taste Preferences
All humans have a preference for sweet and salty foods
Other taste preferences are developed by learned aversions and by culture
Many cultures have taboo foods that would either be dangerous or too costly to eat
Unit Bias
Studies consistently find that people eat more with larger serving sizes
Many people eat larger portions of foods labled “low-fat” even though they enjoy them less
Eating Disorders
Show psychological impact on eating habits because they are not biologically healthy/natural
Often stem from warped perceptions, societal pressure, and/or motivation for acceptance/esteem
Affect about 3.6% of Americans at some point in their lives
Anorexia nervosa
75% of affected people are female (most are adolescents)
People are dramatically underweight but still feel fat, fear weight gain, and obsess over weight
50% follow a binge-purge-depression cycle
Bulimia nervosa
Mostly affects women 16-25Overeating followed by purging
(vomiting, laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise)
Weight fluctuates around/above normal range
Often accompanied by depression/anxiety
Binge-eating disorder
Individuals binge eat, but do not purge
Influences on Eating Disorders
Twins are more likely to both have a disorder if they are identical (some genetic influence)
Anorexia sufferers are often perfectionists and come from competitive, high-achieving families
Bulimia sufferers often come from families with high instances of childhood obesity and negative self-images
Idealization of thinness (girls) or muscularity (boys)
Eating disorders are often about issues of control and self-esteem
Controlling eating habits/weight may be seen as a way to control other aspects of life, such as athletic performance or social acceptance
Effects of Obesity
Has significant health risksSlender people are perceived as more
likable, more trustworthy, and more friendly
Discrimination against obese people affects women more strongly than men
Physiology of Obesity
Fat cells (adipose tissue) store fat, and if they get too full they divide
Dieting can shrink fat cells but not decrease their number
Dieting can slow metabolism (body uses less energy)
These factors make it more difficult to keep off weight that is lost
Causes of Obesity
Genetics Social influence – people tend to gain
weight along with their friendsSleep loss - causes hormonal imbalance
that promotes overeatingFood consumption and activity levels –
energy expenditure should match intake
Weight Loss Tips
Lose weight slowly – most crash dieters rebound quickly
Fill up with healthy foods Eat breakfast to wake up your metabolism Minimize temptation by avoiding junk food as
much as possible Eat more slowly Eat off of smaller plates
“”
It is better to accept oneself as a bit heavy than to diet and binge and feel continually out of control and guilty.
Belonging
Adaptive Value
Being part of a group improves survival chances
People often rank relationships as the most important contributor to their happiness
People sometimes feel that even unhealthy relationships may be better than no relationship at all
Ostracism
Being excluded from social situations stimulates the same brain areas as physical pain
Excluded people are more likely to underperform on tests and to show aggression to those who excluded them
Achievement MotivationAPPENDIX B
Achievement MotivationDesire for accomplishments, mastering
skills/ideas, and for quickly reaching a high standard
Studied by industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists
Either intrinsic or extrinsicLevel of achievement motivation is a
better predictor of success than intelligence (10 year rule)
Factors that influence achievement motivation
Job satisfaction?Feeling valued, useful, respected, and
well-treated at workWhether or not the task is something
you feel good atHaving specific goals
Beliefs on Achievement Motivation
Theory X Workers are lazy and
extrinsically motivated by money.
They should be given simple tasks, closely monitored, and given incentives to do more.
Theory Y Workers are
intrinsically motivated.
They should be reinforced for doing well, have good relationships with co-workers, and have opportunities to fulfill their potential.
Theories of Emotion
Emotions have 3 components
1. physiological arousal (ex. Pounding heart, sweaty hands)
2. expressive behaviors (ex. Smiling, pacing, fidgeting)
3. consciously experienced thoughts and feelings
Big question: Which of these happens first?
James-Lange Theory
William James and Carl Lange suggested this order:
1. physiological response2. notice the physiological response
(awareness)3. experienced emotion (put a cognitive
label on it)
Example: While crossing the street without paying attention, you almost get hit by a car. Your heart races and you feel shaky. As you realized what just happened, you realize you are afraid.
Evidence in Favor of James-Lange
People paralyzed from the neck down report diminished emotional intensity except for emotional symptoms experienced above the neck (crying, choking up, etc.)
Cannon-Bard Theory Said that James-Lange was wrong because
Physiological response are very similar across emotions
Physiological responses take too long to be the cause of emotions
They said that physiological arousal and emotional awareness happen separately and at the same timeSignal is routed to cortex and sympathetic
nervous system simultaneously
Example: You almost get hit by a car. Your heart starts pounding and you feel afraid at the same time.
Evidence in Favor of Cannon- Bard
Lie detectors (which only measure physical symptoms) are not fool-proof, suggesting cognitive awareness can influence physiological responses
Our interpretation of situations influences our emotional reaction
Schachter (and Singer) Two-Factor Theory
Two factors are 1) physiological arousal and 2) a cognitive label
Both are necessary to experience emotion
Example: You almost get hit by a car. You know this is a scary situation and your heart is pounding. You therefore feel afraid.
Figure 8B.1 Theories of emotion
© 2011 by Worth Publishers
Physiology of Emotions
Most emotional states have similar effects on heart rate, breathing, and perspiration
Different emotions use different facial muscles and brain circuits
Negative emotions tend to be experienced in the right hemisphere and positive emotions more in the left
Most emotions activate the frontal cortex, fear and anger also use the amygdala
Cognition and Emotion Inciting a physiological response by exercising
causes people to feel strong emotions, but the emotion they experience depends on how they cognitively interpret a situation – cognition can define emotion
Subconscious stimuli can affect our emotional responses, indicating simple emotions can occur without cognition
More complex emotions such as guilt or love are influenced by memory, experience, and interpretation (all cognitive)
Stress
Stress
Stress is the process of coping with challenges
Short-lived stress can arouse people to conquer challenges
Long-term stress weakens immune system and cause DNA loss (shortened telomeres) similar to aging
Yerks-Dodson LawOn simple, well-
learned tasks, higher levels of stress improve performance
On difficult tasks, a low-to-moderate amount of stress yields the highest performance
What causes stress? Catastrophes
Natural disasters, terrorist attack Life changes
Marriage, baby, leaving home, job lossExperiencing multiple events in a short time
compounds the effects Daily hassles
Waiting in line, traffic, argument with friendSeem small but add up and affect blood
pressure
Personality And Stress
Competitive, anger-prone Type A people experience stress more strongly and may cause themselves more stress
They are more prone to heart attacks than laid-back Type B
Women are more likely to cope with “tend-and-befriend” strategy
General Adaptation Syndrome
Phase 1: AlarmBody prepares for fight-or-flight; may
include temporary state of shockPhase 2: Resistance
State of arousal continues Phase 3: Exhaustion
If stress lasts too long, your body’s resources are depleted and you are more vulnerable to illness/collapse/death
Expressing Emotion
Facial expressions are universal
Hand gestures and other nonverbal cues are not