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Morfosyntax of Contemporary English 4
Morfosyntax of Contemporary English 5
(Seminar workbook for Bc study programmes)
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Ex.1 Read the passage and then choose the odd form out in each set listed below.
I sat down on a stone. I was exhausted. My ankle was aching and leg muscles that I never knew existed were
beginning to complain. The sun was casting long shadows and the silence worried me. There was no sign of the
path, and no other trail looked at all convincing. I could not see a single house, there were no familiar landmarks,
and the Indus was only a glinting trickle far below. I felt tired, miserable and slightly frightened. I sat for ten
minutes without moving, unsure of what to do. All options seemed equally unappealing. Then, immediately
above me, I heard gunshots. On other occasions the noise might have been sinister. Now they seemed
welcoming, almost homely. I clambered upwards, and soon found a track. Following it around a bluff of rock
I saw the source of the shots: a village of half-timbered huts clinging to the sheer hillside.
(William Dalrymple: In Xanadu A Quest)
Example: a stone my ankle complain no sing gunshots
Answer: The odd form out is complain because the rest are noun phrases.
1 verb phrases was exhausted was aching
were beginning to complain could not see might have been
2 noun phrases leg muscles that I never knew existed
casting long shadows me no sing of the path
the source of the shots
3 adjective phrases tired, miserable and slightly frightened
unsure of what to do equally unappealing
almost homely following it
4 adverb phrases never far below immediately above now upwards
5 prepositional phrases on a stone for ten minutes without moving
on other occasions almost homely
Ex.2 Look at the passage again and decide what function each of the following phrases has (Subject,
Object, Complement, Adverbial).
NPs 1 my ankle SUBJECT
2 leg muscles that I never knew existed ...................
3 long shadows . ...................
4 a glinting trickle ...................
AdjPs 5 at all convincing .....................
6 tired, miserable and slightly frightened .....................
7 welcoming, almost homely .....................
PPs 8 for ten minutes .....................
9 without moving .....................
10 on other occasions .....................
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Sentences and clauses
Ex.1 How much do you know about sentence structure? Complete the sentences by matching the
predicates (a) - (j) to the subjects (1-10). The first answer is 1c.
1 A sentence (a) are usually optional.
2 The subject (b) is the most important copular verb.
3 The verb (c) contains a subject and a predicate.
4 The predicate (d) only occur with transitive verbs.
5 The main elements of
sentence structure (e) have to occur in every sentence.
6 Not all of these (f) usually comes before the verb.
7 Objects (g) follow copular verbs like be or become.
8 Complements (h) are subject, verb, object, complement, adverbial.
9 The verb be (i) consists of a verb and possibly other elements.
10 Adverbials (j) has to agree with the subject.
Clause structure
There are basically seven types of clause – combining the elements of S(ubject), V(erb), O(bject), C(omplement)
and A(dverbial) in various ways.
Ex.1 Identify the sentence types that the following sentences belong to as SV, SVO, SVC, SVA, SVOO,
SVOC or SVOA.
1 I felt very tired. SVC / I=S, felt=V, very tired=C/
2 My feet hurt. ............................
3 The receptionist handed me my key. ............................
4 I wanted food. ............................
5 I placed my coat over a chair. ............................
6 I ordered myself something to eat. ............................
7 It seemed sensible. ............................
8 I lay on the bed. ...........................
9 A waiter brought coffee and sandwiches. ............................
10 He set the tray on a table. ............................
11 I was yawning. ............................
12 I found the bed rather hard. ............................
13 The thick curtains extended to the floor. .............................
14 But the hotel was situated on a busy street. .............................
15 The traffic noise kept me awake. .............................
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Verb phrases
Ex.1 Identify the finite verb phrases in the following article. Take each phrase as whole – do not classify
each word separately. Then find at least 5 nonfinite verb phrases.
It might seem odd in the 20th century to plan and carry out expeditions as means of making
a living, yet I had been doing just that for the past two years. I hadn’t consciously chosen such
a life; it had just worked out that way.
In 1943, four months before I was born, my father died of wounds received not far north of
Monte Cassino whilst commanding a tank regiment, the Royal Scots Greys. When I was 16,
I decided to make the army my career, too. I had inherited my father’s title but not his brains,
so the Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst was out. However I managed to scrape
through…Cadet School and into the Greys on a three-year short service commission, which
I spent ploughing about Germany in tanks, canoeing along European rivers....and skiing in
Bavaria. All this gave me a taste for travel. (Ranulph Fiennes: To the Ends of the Earth)
Finite verb phrases Nonfinite verb phrases
.................................................... ......................................................
.................................................... ......................................................
.................................................... ......................................................
.................................................... ......................................................
.................................................... ......................................................
.................................................... ......................................................
.................................................... ......................................................
.................................................... ......................................................
.................................................... ......................................................
.................................................... ......................................................
.................................................... ........................................................
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Gerunds
A gerund is a nonfinite verb form that ends in -ing and functions as a noun.
Travelling might satisfy your desire for new experiences.(S)
They do not appreciate my singing. (Od)
My cat's favourite activity is sleeping. (Cs)
The police arrested him for speeding. (object of preposition)
Participles
A participle is a nonfinite verb form that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. Since they
function as adjectives, participles modify nouns or pronouns.
The crying baby had a wet diaper.
Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car.
Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.
Infinitives
An infinitive is a nonfinite verb form consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest "stem" form) and
functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject)
Everyone wanted to go. (direct object)
His ambition is to fly. (subject complement)
Comparing Gerunds and Participles
I was irritated by Bill's constant interrupting. (gerund functioning as a noun)
I was irritated by Bill, constantly interrupting. (participle modifying Bill, adjective function)
The guitarist's finger-picking was extraordinary. (gerund – noun function)
The guitarist, finger-picking, was extraordinary. (participle – adjective function)
Exercise 1: Decide if the non-finite verb forms written in bold are gerunds or participles.
He was not impressed with them competing. ............................................................
He was not impressed with their competing...................................................................
Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren, running and laughing.....................................................
Grandpa enjoyed his grandchildren's running and laughing. .................................................
Exercise 2: Identify by underlining infinitives, participles and gerunds in each sentence and label them.
1. Being a celebrity is like living in a fish bowl. _____________
2. My broken arm keeps me from playing tennis. _____________
3. I´m going to punish you for disobeying orders. _____________
4. Paying bills on time is necessary unless you want to be left without electricity. _____________
5. Drinking heavily, he nevertheless finished his novel. _____________
6. Matching the wall paper is not a sound basis for choosing painting. _____________
7. I just don´t feel like getting out of bed. _____________
8. The striking workers refused to let anyone cross their picket line. _____________
9. A rolling stone gathers no moss. _____________
10. It´s difficult to move after having been settled in a community for many years. _____________
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Deverbal nouns
Sometimes to give more ′weight′ to the end of a sentence, we use a rather general verb with not much meaning +
a noun derived from a verb (e.g. have an argument instead of just using the verb argue)
Ex.1 Rewrite the sentences, replacing the underlined verbs with one of the following verbs + an
appropriate noun.
do give have make take
Make any other necessary changes.
Example: I sighed with relief.
Answer: I gave a sigh of relief.
1. He rushes around madly photographing everywhere.
...............................................................................................................................
2. Some of them are very good. Look!
...............................................................................................................................
3. But one of these days he′ll injure himself.
...............................................................................................................................
4. I′d like to arrange for him to see a psychiatrist.
...............................................................................................................................
5. He doesn′t need you advising him.
...............................................................................................................................
6. Perhaps a holiday would be good for him.
...............................................................................................................................
7. He lectures me about interfering.
...............................................................................................................................
8. I′ve never harmed anyone.
...............................................................................................................................
9. I tried a lot but I still felt miserable. (use good)
...............................................................................................................................
10. He is not interested in anything else these days.
...............................................................................................................................
11. He looks at me in such a funny way.
...............................................................................................................................
12. I wish we could talk about it.
...............................................................................................................................
13. But he just gets offended.
...............................................................................................................................
14. How can one excuse that sort of behaviour?
...............................................................................................................................
15. Oh well, it′s time we got moving.
...............................................................................................................................
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Phrases and sentence elements
Exercise 1: Identify the phrase type (noun, adjective, adverbial or prepositional).
1. Ice fishing is a popular winter pass-time.
2. Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.
3. My sister bought a blue and green sweater.
4. He scored the goal very quickly.
5. Dad was happy about the goal.
6. The man in the house rented it.
7. The crazy old lady in the park feeds the pigeons every day.
8. The arctic explorers were caught unaware by the spring breakup.
Exercise 2: Identify subject, verb (copular, intransitive, monotransitive, ditransitive, complex transitive),
object (direct or indirect), complement (subject or object) and adverbial (of place) in the following
sentences:
1. You must keep calm.
2. We are in a bit of mess.
3. The headmaster put George into the second class.
4. I remember the reasonableness of my father’s argument.
5. I can’t keep my hands warm.
6. That made Stanley angry.
7. His annoyance did not last.
8. He was a lawyer.
9. He proved himself a great soldier.
10. Michael gave him back his saddle-bags.
11. Keep your hands off me!
12. Do you call yourself a porter?
13. Could you call me a porter, please?
14. Keep me a seat, will you?
15. He threw himself from his horse.
16. Every increase in knowledge augments our capacity for evil.
Exercise 3: Indicate whether the underlined parts in the sentence are Oi, Od, Cs, Co. Identify also the types
of verbs (transitive, copular, intransitive, etc.) in the sentences.
1. I didn’t tell anybody anything.
2. The young men grew very depressed.
3. His mother-in-law was driving him mad.
4. It‘s so cold. I can’t get warm.
5. He grew his hair long.
6. Can’t you give them your address?
7. Keep quiet. Keep those children quiet.
8. His in-laws had simply made him their servant.
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The Parts of the Simple Sentence
Exercise 1: In each sentence below, underline the verb and decide if it is transitive (monotransitive, ditransitive,
complex transitive), linking or intransitive.
1. The company is a genetic engineering firm. ____________
2. The cats lie in the shade under our cars. ____________
3. It has become a leader of a brand-new industry. ____________
4. She introduced the school head to her parents. ____________
5. She made me her assistant. ____________
6. Norman speaks Russian fluently. ____________
7. They do not feel afraid of competition. ____________
8. All students passed the exam. ____________
9. James went to the campus cafe. ____________
10. The company sign seems modest. ____________
Exercise 2: In each of the following sentences, state whether the underlined phrase is an object complement, subject
complement or adverbial complement.
1. My friend wants her coffee black.
2. Jack has put his coat in my bedroom.
3. The noise is driving me mad.
4. The leaders of the company are research scientists.
5. Show me to my seat.
6. The focus of the project is DNA recombination.
Exercise 3: Identify each sentence element by writing the appropriate abbreviation in the brackets after it.
S – subject
V- verb
Od – direct object
Oi – indirect object
Cs – subject complement
Co – object complement
Ca – adverbial complement
A - adverbial
1. Ancient peoples ( ) used ( ) salt ( ) in all their major sacrifices ( ).
2. Today ( ) these caves ( ) are ( ) tourist attractions ( ).
3. The Romans ( ) gave ( ) their soldiers ( ) special allowances for salt. ( )
4. Many people ( ) consider ( ) the accidental spilling of salt ( ) bad luck ( ).
5. Salt ( ) was ( ) the first food seasoning ( ).
6. The first salt mines ( ) were located ( ) in Austria ( ).
Exercise 4: In each sentence below, identify the subject, underline the predicate and circle the verb (phrase).
1. Analysts predict several years of diminished business.
2. In Europe, the tourism industry has been affected.
3. People prefer to travel by train.
4. The general public is still nervous about flying.
5. The loss of consumer confidence will damage the euro.
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Exercise 5: Identify the underlined elements in the following sentences by stating their form (phrases) and
function (sentence elements). Sometimes it is not possible to identify a sentence element.
1. Our English teacher is going to retire soon. …………………………………
2. Our English teacher is going to retire soon. …………………………………
3. Nicole Kidman is a talented actress. …………………………………
4. Nicole Kidman is a talented actress. …………………………………
5. The reporter asked the senator a leading question. …………………………
6. The reporter asked the senator a leading question. …………………………
7. The pie looked delicious. …………………………………
8. The pie looked delicious. …………………………………
9. Maria would like to travel to Spain. …………………………………
10. Maria would like to travel to Spain. …………………………………
11. Hiking in the mountains was an enjoyable experience. ………………….…..
12. Hiking in the mountains was an enjoyable experience. ………………………
13. Hiking in the mountains was an enjoyable experience. ………………….…..
14. Hiking in the mountains was an enjoyable experience. ………………………
15. His stupid questions made Peter very upset. …………………………………
16. His stupid questions made Peter very upset. …………………………………
17. They walked right across the street. …………………………………
18. They walked right across the street. …………………………………
19. They don´t believe in ghosts. …………………………………
20. They don´t believe in ghosts. …………………………………
21. You should eat breakfast in the morning. …………………………………
22. You should eat breakfast in the morning. …………………………………
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Verb + object + prepositional object
Some verbs take an object and then another object after a particular preposition. (I addressed the letter to the
Chairman).
Ex.1 Complete the sentences, using the information given. Add suitable prepositions and make any other
grammatical changes necessary.
Example: The hotel gives you everything except a toothbrush!
Answer: It provides you WITH EVERYTHING EXCEPT A TOOTHBRUSH.
1. She looks like my cousin. She reminds me .................................................................................................
2. Well done. I′m so glad you′ve passed your exam. I congratulated her .......................................................
3. It′s wrong to keep offering people drinks. Don′t keep plying .....................................................................
4. They said I′d borrowed the car without asking.
They accused ................................................................................................... ...........................................
5. I′d like to meet your parents. Please introduce ................................................... ........................................
6. My aunt sent me a wonderful present. I must write and thank ...................................................................
7. Some people ruin their own lives. But you just can′t prevent ................................................................ ....
8. £ 100 sounds reasonable for that camera. Have you looked at prices in other shops?
Have you compared ...................................................................................... ..............................................
9. It′s not safe these days to make remarks about a woman′s appearance.
Feminists think i tis ′sexist′ to compliment ................................. her appearance.
10. They probably find it ′degrading′ if anyone wants to buy them a meal.
It is probably even more ′sexist′ to try and treat .......................................................................................
Verbs with/without an indirect object
Ex.1 Complete the following by inserting us where an indirect object is necessary. Where it is optional,
add to us or just x.
Example: He persuaded us that he was the ideal person for the job.
He didn′t disclose x that he had no experience.
1. He admitted .............................. his application contained errors of fact.
2. He assured ........................ it was all an innocent mistake.
3. Obviously he wouldn′t confess ...................... that he had wanted mislead us.
4. He somehow convinced ............................. he was well suited to the job.
5. He explained ........................... that he had just the right experience.
6. He informed ......................... that he enjoyed a challenge.
7. He didn′t mention ................ that he might only stay a year.
8. He predicted ..................... he would be a great success.
9. He reminded ......................... that his uncle had been in the firm.
10. He repeated ........................ he was well qualified.
11. He swore .......................... that everything would be all right.
12. He told ....................... he was really keen.
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Subject complements
Some copular verbs can be followed by both adjective and noun complements.
Ex.1 Rewrite the following, using and adjective in place of the noun complement. Make all other necessary
changes.
Example: I felt a real idiot.
Answer: I felt really idiotic.
1. I felt a real fool. ...........................................................
2. It sounded an excellent idea. ...........................................................
3. But it hasn′t proved a particular success. ...........................................................
4. She looked a sensible person. ...........................................................
5. She′ll probably end up a rich woman. ...........................................................
6. He′s become a thorough bore. ...........................................................
7. The whole things seems utter madness to me. ...........................................................
8. That′s just selfishness. ...........................................................
9. They′ve remained friends. ...........................................................
10. It′s turned out a nice day again. ...........................................................
Ex.2 Complete the sentences with the adjectives given.
bad brown calm clear delicious
flat old open peculiar ready true
Example: Stand clear of the doors.
1. The leaves had turned .............................. It would soon be winter.
2. I felt I was growing ............................. too - like the year.
3. I was just getting ............................ to have my supper.
4. When suddenly the door sprang ........................... and I heard gunfire.
5. I threw myself to the ground and lay .......................... on the floor.
6. You have to keep ........................... in an emergency.
7. The coffee smelled ................................ .
8. But I feared the meat had gone..............................
9. It had tasted .............................. the previous day.
10. At this rate my dreams would never come ..............................
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Classification of adjuncts
Ex.1. Indentify the underlined adjuncts in the sentences below:
1. He is standing almost square.
2. Artistically, the work had little merit.
3. Lytton Strachey ranked much of Hugo’s poetry highly.
4. He was highly critical of one particular play of Hugo’s.
5. Hugo’s revolutionary aims were purely literary.
6. Butler was conceited and rather self-conscious.
7. We even thought it was going to explode.
8. An unstable community is especially liable to suspect its neighbours.
9. The eyes are a little sad if you look at them alone.
10. That is one of those fruitful ideas that carry society forward.
11. These ideas are already improving society.
12. They deliberately spread their culture.
Ex.2 Say whether the place adjuncts in the sentences below refer to position or direction:
1. They worked for 6 months in a tunnel.
2. They tunnelled their way into the rock.
3. The thermometer had slipped inside the tank.
4. The bull charged furiously at the gate.
5. Wait at the gate till you hear the whistle.
6. It was safely over the fence.
Ex. 3 Indicate if the phrase underlined is a place adjunct or it is postmodifier in a noun phrase.
1. The spectators in the grandstand were singing.
2. The house next to ours was damaged.
3. Upstairs the people are having a party.
4. In the village there are several old cottages.
5. A house was destroyed near us.
6. The olive oil in my country is delicious.
Ex.4 Indicate if UP is used as a prepositional adverb of direction or it is used perfectively.
1. Can I help you up?
2. There is no electricity. We must walk up.
3. Let’s lock up and go to bed.
4. It has gone half past nine. You must wake up.
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SIMPLE SENTENCE ANALYSIS
1. Example: She lives in a cottage. S V A (subject animate, verb intransitive, adverbial – place, position
adjunct); declarative sentence, predicate simple extended (extending element – A)
2. The children were running very fast from the school.
...........................................................................................................................................
3. We ought to condemn such activities here.
...........................................................................................................................................
4. Has the house been empty since the war?
.................................................................................................................................................
5. Practise playing the piano at every opportunity.
..........................................................................................................................................
6. He was killed with a bullet.
.........................................................................................................................................
7. They annoy me a great deal.
.........................................................................................................................................
8. He favours particularly the young women.
.........................................................................................................................................
9. We have already had breakfast.
.........................................................................................................................................
10. We decided to treat the patient surgically.
.........................................................................................................................................
11. My daughter is crying.
.........................................................................................................................................
12. He always writes e-mails in a carefree manner.
.........................................................................................................................................
13. You should do the assignment by Thursday morning.
.........................................................................................................................................
14. They called them cowards.
...........................................................................................................................................
15. Personally, she is not very clever.
...........................................................................................................................................
16. That car was apparently scratched by a screwdriver.
..........................................................................................................................................
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ADVERBIALS
Ex.1 Determine whether the underlined adverbial in each sentence is an adjunct, disjunct or conjunct.
Then specify individual adverbials in detail.
1. It is almost always this warm in Texas. A D C
2. Frankly, Martha is a bit scary. A D C
3. If she starts singing again, then I´m not staying. A D C
4. She often plays the piano alone. A D C
5. I love chocolate, however, I´m allergic to it. A D C
6. She told him the instructions repeatedly, yet he just sat there. A D C
7. His mom told him to come home before dark. A D C
8. Although he was an actor, he could sing well, too. A D C
9. She yelled his name loudly. A D C
10. Fortunately, no one was hurt. A D C
Ex.2 Identify conjuncts connecting the following sentences:
1. He opened his umbrella. However, the wind blew it away.
2. It was windy and cold. Moreover, it was raining.
3. His umbrella blew away in the wind. Otherwise, he would have used it.
4. He has a severe heart condition; consequently, he needs surgery urgently.
5. John was working hard; meanwhile, David was doing nothing except watching television.
6. You can't teach navigation in the middle of a storm. Likewise, you can't build a system of values in the
current educational climate.
7. The demand has increased sharply. Accordingly, the prices are higher now.
8. To prepare his homework, Jack went through various history books. Furthermore, he took notes from
several encyclopedias.
9. The brochure dealt with travelling in Morocco. Namely, it discussed transportation, currency, and
language.
10. This is our most disastrous and embarrassing defeat ever; in short, it is a fiasco.
11. This system must be improved. Rather, it must be thoroughly changed.
Ex.3 Decide if the adverbial in bold is an adjunct or disjunct. Afterwards, specify its type.
1. Honestly, I didn't do it. …………………………………….
2. I did not do it honestly. …………………………………….
3. In my opinion, the green one is better. …………………………………….
4. Interestingly, the comment made for a great topic of its own. …………………………………….
5. Clearly, the mail did not come today due to it being a national holiday. ………………………………
6. Unfortunately, by the time she reached the bus stop, the bus had already left. ………………………
7. They seriously worked in an underground diamond mine run by Barbara. ………………………………
8. Seriously, they worked in an underground diamond mine run by Barbara. ………………………………
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Adverbials: formal realization
An adverbial is one of the five major elements of sentence structure, along with subject, verb, object
and complement. An adverbial is often a simple adverb: everywhere, very, just. But adverbials can also
take other forms:
Noun phrase: (We go) every day.
Prepositional phrase: (Come) into the garden.
Verbless clause: If possible, …
Nonfinite clause: Thinking about it, …………
Finite clause: When I realized, ……………
Ex.1 Pick out the adverbials in the following passage. There are twenty- two altogether. Group
them as shown.
There were piles of papers on the stairs and piles everywhere in the room. He kicked a tidy heap with
his toe. 'That pile, 'he said, 'has been there for ten years. The trouble is I work all the time. There isn't
time to sort things. I would get around to buying cupboards if I could be bothered. Somehow life is
gull of objects that suddenly take over. One week the place is tidy, and the next week it is too late.
Now I can't throw things out. Hearing his explanation, I just smiled. I have always thought that it is
best, whenever possible, not to criticize other people. And there was something very impressive about
all that chaos.
single adverbs (12) everywhere ……….…..…….. …………..……….
………………….. …………………. ………..………….
………………….. ……………….… ………….………..
…………………. …………………. ……………...……
noun phrases (3) ……………….…. one week ……………..………..
prepositional phrases (4) on the stairs …………..…………
……………………… ………………………
verbless clause (1) ………….……… possible
nonfinite clause (1) ………………….
finite clause (1) …………..………
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DISJUNCTS
Disjuncts are a special type of adverb that has a sort of superior role to the rest of the sentence. There
are two main kinds: either they indicate how the speaker is speaking – frankly, personally – or they
comment on the content – perhaps, certainly, foolishly, quite rightly. Again, many of these words
can also function as other sorts of adverbs, so position is important to indicate meaning.
Ex.1 Add the adverbs shown, in the best places to give the meanings indicated.
1. understandably: She was very upset. (I can understand that).
She was understandably very upset. …….. adjunct of process/manner
or Understandably, she was very upset. …. content disjunct
2. frankly: It isn't easy for some people to talk to their friends and families about their problems. (They
find it difficult to discuss their feelings.)
…………………………………………………………………………………… _________________
3. frankly: I don't know why I sit here drinking with you. (If I say what I think, that's how I feel.)
…………………………………………………………………………………… _________________
4. truthfully: He had tried to write a letter that described what it was like her. (He wanted the
description to be fair and accurate.)
…………………………………………………………………………………… _________________
5. truthfully: It was fairly obvious that he didn't want me any more: and I didn't want him any more
either. (I am telling the truth when I say I didn't want him.)
…………………………………………………………………………………… _________________
6. honestly: I'll go if you like, I don't mind. (It is really true that I don't mind.)
…………………………………………………………………………………… _________________
7. honestly: Dealing with feelings, on the other hand, can help bring the family closer together.
(The discussions need to be honest.)
………………………………………………………………………………….. _________________
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CONJUNCTS
Conjuncts are a special kind of adverb that connects two parts of a sentence, or even two sentences, by
expressing a meaning relationship between them. They are sometimes also called connectors. Examples:
however, moreover, nevertheless.
Ex.1 Complete the following passage, with these conjuncts and linking words:
anyhow but first further hence however secondly so
then though thus (2x) as a result by contrast for example
in fact in other words on the contrary on the other hand similarly
For years we have taken the health of the earth for granted. (1) …BUT…….. today it is under threat. It is
fashionable to blame the industrialized nations, and they certainly are responsible for many environmental
problems. Factories, (2) ………………., may not only pollute the air we breathe, they often pour poisonous
waste into our seas and rivers. (3) …………………. fish and other marine life may die. (4) …………………….,
the general public in developed 'consumer societies' also cause pollution with their cars, central heating,
refrigerators, air travel and vast amounts of household waste.
If we do nothing, we are told, (5) ……………….. the planet will, die. (6) ………………. the rise of the
environmental movement, and the 'green' message that if we will only return to the simple life all will be well.
(7) …………………, many observers point out that, (8) ……………….. , really simple lifestyles can cause
appalling environmental damage. Cutting down trees for firewood, a common practice in much of the Third
World, usually loosens the soil, (9)……………… causing son erosion and ultimately famine. It might be better
if they had nuclear power! (10) ………………. many people in the developing world want more
industrialization and consumerism, which are not going to go away. (11) ………………… how can we minimize
their bad effects? Enter 'green economics'. Economists are generally viewed as people concerned only with
money and industrial growth. Environmentalists, (12) ……………….. , are pictured as rejecting materialistic
values. (13) ………………., economists are baddies and environmentalists are goodies. The truth,
(14) ……………….. , is not so simple. (15) …………….. , one important part of economics is concerned with
the balancing of costs and benefits. Building an airport near a city gives users the benefit of quick travel. (16)
……………… the noise nuisance for the city's inhabitants may be too high a cost. 'Green economists' try to
weigh up the conflicting arguments. Over the past few years, two ideas have met with some measure of
agreement. (17) ……………… that decentralizing solutions are often better than direct controls. (18)
……………... it is usually more efficient to control industrial pollution by taxing offending industries rather than
insisting on particular equipment, (19) …………………. Economists have come up with alternative assets for
future generations to enjoy. (20) ……………….. it is not sustainable to allow species of animals or plants to
become extinct. Green economists are not starry-eyed but realistic. It is to be hoped that their views will be
heard.
1. Enumerative conjuncts: ............................................................................................................................
2. Resultative conjuncts: ...............................................................................................................................
3. Concessive conjuncts: ...............................................................................................................................
4. Antithetic conjuncts: ..................................................................................................................................
5. Equative conjuncts: ....................................................................................................................................
6. Appositive conjuncts:..................................................................................................................................
18 | P a g e
A. Subject and object questions
Ex.1 Write a question about the underlined section of each answer below:
1 The doctor told the nurse to draw blood. ..............................................................................................................
2 The repairman worked on the computer yesterday. ..............................................................................................
3 The repairman worked on the computer yesterday. ........................................................................................... ...
4 The woman wrote a long letter. .............................................................................................................................
5 The teacher gave the student some advice. ...........................................................................................................
6 The teacher gave the student some advice. ..........................................................................................................
7 The robber demanded all the money in the cash register..................................................................................
Ex.2 Put in the right questions and verb forms:
PLAY IT AGAIN, WINSTON!
(Who/compose) 1....................................... some of the most famous songs of the 20th century? The answer is
Irving Berlin. (What songs/compose) 2.....................................? Famous ones, like Elexander′s Rag Time Band
and White Christmas. There is a well-known story about the famous British Prime Minister. Winston Churchill,
read in a paper that Mr Berlin was in London, so he asked his aide to invite the great man to lunch. Over lunch,
Mr Churchill asked question after question. (Which party/win) 3..................................... the next American
election? (Who/be) 4......................................... the next president of the USA? (What/papers say)
5..................................? (Which papers/be) 6................................... the most influential? (Which country/have)
7.................................. the better political system, Britain or America? (Whose system/Mr Berlin prefer)
8......................................? (What/Mr Berlin/think) 9................................ of party politics in Berlin? Mr Churchill
was very disappointed with Mr Berlin′s answers. Mr Berlin didn′t have strong political opinions and Mr
Churchill decided he was rather dull. The fact is that Mr Churchill′s aide had invited the wrong Mr Berlin to
lunch. Mr Churchill thought he was speaking to Isaiah Berlin, the famous philosopher, but his aide had invited
Irving Berlin, the song-writer instead!
B. Indirect questions
Ex.1 Complete the sentences:
Example: What did she do? - I can't remember what she did.
1. Why did she cry? - I don't really know .......................................................................
2. Where is Joe? - I have no idea ....................................................................................
3. What did he want? - I'm afraid I can't tell you .............................................................
4. Do you know who ...................................................? - Yes, Jim Harrison is a writer.
5. Whose car was it? - I'm not quite sure .........................................................................
6. How long has she known him? - Well, I'd like to know myself .....................................
7. How much is this scarf? - Why do you want to know...................................................?
8. Can you tell me what ...............................................................? - Her name is Maggie.
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C. Emphatic questions with ′ever′.
We ask emphatic questions with ever to express admiration, anger, concern, etc.
We write ever as a separate word from question-words. Compare:
Where ever did you buy that tie? Wherever you go, take your passport.
How ever did you manage it? However, I managed to persuade him.
What ever does she see in him? Whatever she sees in him, she′ll marry him.
We use ever after all question-words except Which? and Whose? and we often put heavy stress on it in spoken
questions: Where′ever did you pick that up?
We can ask questions with ever.
- to get a subject or an object: What ever made you late? What ever did he say?
- in short responses: What ever for? Why ever not?
or we use a phrase like on earth for extra emphasis: How on earth did you know?
Exercise 1: Make these questions more emphatic to express admiration, surprise, concern, etc.
1. Who gave you permission to do that? ..................................................................................
2. Why didn′t you ask an expert to look at it? ..........................................................................
3. When did they go to Iceland? ...............................................................................................
4. What will she say next? ........................................................................................................
5. Where shall I put this wet umbrella? ....................................................................................
6. How do you expect me to carry all this? ..............................................................................
7. How did you get into this mess? .............................................................. .............................
Exercise 2: Use forms with ever, etc. and ask questions about alternatives.
THE MAN I′VE BEEN WAITING FOR!
Colonel Blimp is a short-tempered man. He pays good money to his motoring organization and he expects
instant service. He broke down on a lonely road recently and was ready to explode when he had to wait for two
hours before help arrived. Even before the driver got out of his car, the Colonel was muttering, ′ (What)
…................................... took you so long? (What) ........................................ do we pay good money for? I don′t
break down often, but (when) …….................................. I do, I expect real service. ′The driver leaned out of the
window. (′Have you broken down? Have you run out of petrol?)′ ...................................................′Can′t start the
engine! ′ the Colonel said sharply. ′Let′s have a look at it, ′ the man said. (′Have you tried to start it? Haven′t you
tried to start it?)........................................................... The Colonel, now red in the face, didn ′t reply. ′Well, (have
you? haven′t you?) .......................................... the man asked. ′Oh, I see, you′ve flooded the engine. Got a cloth? ′
′Haven′t you even brought a cloth? ′ the Colonel yelled. The man smiled. ′Oh, this isn′t my job, you know. I′m
just a passing motorist. I stopped because you looked as if you needed help.′
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Emphasizing negation
We sometimes emphasize a negative meaning by putting a negative adverbial at the front of the
sentence. This usually requires inversion of the subject and operator if the negative negates the whole
clause.
Ex.1: Rewrite the following sentences with the negative or near -negative word or phrase at the front:
Example: I never imagined that anything like that would happen to me.
Answer: NEVER DID I IMAGINE that anything like that would happen to me. (inversion)
Example: I found that, not for the first time. I was wrong.
Answer: NOT FOR THE FIRST TIME. I found that I was wrong. (no inversion)
1. I flew to Egypt not long ago.
.........................................................................................................................
2. Nowadays people no longer go by sea.
.........................................................................................................................
3. You won´t find a more amazing building than that pyramid anywhere.
.........................................................................................................................
4. Unfortunately I lost my wallet- not for the first time.
.........................................................................................................................
5. You little realize sometimes the trouble you can cause other people.
.........................................................................................................................
6. I have seldom heard such an extraordinary explanation.
.........................................................................................................................
7. You rarely discover the whole truth in these matters.
.........................................................................................................................
8. The guide didn´t once complain.
.........................................................................................................................
9. You hardly ever find such honesty.
.........................................................................................................................
10. I realized what had happened only later.
.........................................................................................................................
11. There has never been such a display.
.........................................................................................................................
12. You shouldn´t answer the door when I am out in any circumstances.
........................................................................................................................
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Pro-forms and ellipsis
There are two grammatical devices to help us avoid boring and unnecessary repetition:
pro-forms: pronouns and other words (e.g.: there, then, do so) that refer back
ellipsis: leaving out words that appear elsewhere (usually earlier) in the same context
1. Pro-forms
Ex.1 Complete the following using one, ones, that and those.
Examples:
The house has been preserved as ONE of architectural value. (i.e. a house)
The Minister stressed the need to consider Britain´s performance against THAT of the country´s competitors.
(i.e. the performance)
1. We´ve got a new pedestrian crossing, it´s ………….. where you press a button.
2. The cities of Europe are much older than ……………… of America and Australia.
3. The problems are ………………… of considerable difficulty.
4. We are grateful, but the life of a refugee is …………….. of misery.
5. The position of refugees is far worse than ………………….. of immigrants.
6. Is your new job ……………….. with prospects.
7. I prefer the sound of a guitar to ………………….. of a violin.
8. People who write gossip and ………………. who read it are equally to blame.
9. Many problems are ………………. of style rather than meaning.
10. Our lives then were easier than ………………………. of young people today.
11. The message of the book and ……………………… of the broadcast was depressing.
12. The public is fascinated by famous people´s doings, particularly …………………. of the Prince and
Princess.
2. Ellipsis
Ex.1 Rewrite the following, leaving out everything you can.
Example: Could you, if you wanted to manage with less sleep, manage with less sleep?
Answer: Could you, if you wanted to, manage with less sleep?
Of course a baby's need for sleep is greater than an adult's need for sleep. That's different. But the
effects for an adult of too much sleep are not dissimilar to the effects of too little sleep – tiredness,
irritability and so on. Most healthy adults sleep between six and a half hours a night and eight and a
half hours a night. Less than 5 per cent of healthy adults sleep more than nine and a half hours or less
than five and a half hours. But some celebrated short sleepers can manage with a mere five hours'
sleep. How do they manage with a mere five hours? Studies indicate that most of us could cut down on
our sleep, though we cannot perhaps cut down to five hours, if we practiced cutting down on our sleep.
A team of experimental 'sleep slimmers' gradually reduced their sleep by two hours, and research
suggests that short sleepers improve the quality of their sleep. Short sleep, it is claimed, is the best
sleep you can have, and of course if you are not in bed when other people are in bed, think of all the
things you could do.
22 | P a g e
Ex.2 Rewrite the following, filling in all the words that have been ellipted.
Example: 'What sort of job is it? ‘‘I don't know. '
Answer: I don't know WHAT SORT OF JOB IT IS.
1. I meant to bring the letter and of course I forgot to.
…………………………………………………………………………………….
2. How's John's job going?
Oh, perfectly well, I gather.
……………………………………………………………………………………
3. Oh, by the way, Mary, we finally spent your book token today.
Oh, have you?
……………………………………………………………………………………
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Passive Voice
Ex.1 Turn the following sentences into the passive voice if the result is acceptable in English:
1. Nobody has paid for the tickets, have they?
........................................................................................................................................
2. BBC stands for British Broadcasting Corporation.
........................................................................................................................................
3. Modern art frequently resembles children’s art.
........................................................................................................................................
4. Well, I think they will cost at least 1,000 pounds.
........................................................................................................................................
5. Do you feel you lack access to further information?
........................................................................................................................................
6. Did Navratilova’s record equal Billie-Jean King’s?
........................................................................................................................................
7. We’ve disposed of the problem now.
............................................................................................................................... .........
8. Why are people always laughing at me?
........................................................................................................................................
9. A dreadful thought has just occurred to me.
........................................................................................................................................
10. People argue over some things for ages – with no result.
........................................................................................................................................
Passive+to-infinitive
Ex.1 Rewrite the following using a passive verb+a to-infinitive. Omit the agents.
Example: We expect that the report will be published shortly.
Answer: The report is expected to be published shortly.
1. Everyone supposes some progress has been made.
........................................................................................................................
2. Everyone considers that the chairman is an expert.
........................................................................................................................
3. The rumour is that some members are unhappy.
............................................................................. .........................................
4. We understand the findings are fair. ............................................................................ ..........................................
5. People presume the recommendations are radical.
.............................................................................. ........................................
6. We believe that the tempers ran high. ....................................................................................... ...............................
7. People reported that the discussions had been tough.
............................................................................... ......................................
8. People say the results are far-reaching. ........................................................................................ .............................
9. People think some proposals have been dropped.
.....................................................................................................................
10. We know that some members disagree. ..................................................................................... ..............................
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THE GET-PASSIVE AND BE-PASSIVE
We use also "get" in a passive sentence when we talk about something that happened or something that
changed, so it is not used for stative verbs (verbs of the mind and thinking; of emotion; of possession and state;
of the senses/perception)
Examples:
That tree was/got blown over in the storm last night.
This criminal is known to police in five different countries. (gets known isn't possible here.)
Exercise 1: For each sentence, use the passive with "get" whenever possible.
1.The murder suspect told the police a complicated alibi but it ..................................(believe) by them and he was
charged with the murder.
2. When foreign films are dubbed into English, usually a lot of the original meaning ....................................(lose)
in the translation.
3. Humans .....................................(think) to have originated in the east of Africa.
4. If my car ...................................... (damage) by you, you will pay for the repairs.
5. Glenn Miller ...................................(kill) in an aircrash in England in the 1940s.
6. When I am older, I............................... (know) as a famous scientist.
7. The films of Charlie Chaplin ................................... (love) all over the world.
8. The new factory will open next July and the company says that over 250 employees
...................................(need) initially.
9. Did you hear that Jane .......................................(promote) to a management position at work? What great
news!
PSEUDO-PASSIVES WITH HAVE/GET
CAUSATIVE AND NON-CAUSATIVE
Ex.1: Decide if the underlined form is pseudo-passive causative or pseudo-passive non-causative form.
1. Clara had her essay checked by another student in her class before handing it in to the teacher.
................................................................
2. My teacher had her briefcase stolen yesterday, with all our essays inside. ...................................
3. I just had my hair cut today. .............................................
4. A sixty-eight year old dealer had his warehouse raided this week and the police confiscated nearly a
million and a quarter bangers, rockets and firecrackers. ..............................................
5. He got his leg broken. .............................................
6. I got my car washed and the oil checked. ...................................
7. After being late for work every day for two weeks, Billy had his pay reduced.
...................................................
8. I stood so close to the fire that I got my legs burnt. .........................................................
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VERB CATEGORIES
Ex.1 Identify the aspect (vid) of English verbs in the following sentences (progressive, non-
progressive, perfective, non-perfective):
a. I am getting up early this month.
b. Alice will have done the dishes by 7.
c. He sleeps through every lecture.
d. He wrote a letter yesterday.
e. He has been repairing my car all the afternoon.
f. They have just written a test.
g. Jane had visited her friends in Spain.
h. Next December, I'll have been working for exactly five years.
i. They had been forming the pact, which.....
Ex.2 Identify the mood (slovesný spôsob) of English verbs in the following sentences (indicative,
imperative, subjunctive (present, past), infinitive):
a. I wish they had not done it.
b. It is time the date were fixed.
c. Be very careful, Mary.
d. My father ages rapidly.
e. Somebody shut the door in my face.
f. May you live long and prosper.
g. Let him answer all the questions.
h. He is an antique to be visited.
i. I was in your position two years ago.
j. If I were in your position, I would do the same.
k. If I had been in your position, I would have done the same.
l. Eat the fish, you lazy cat.
m. To forgive is to set a prisoner free and discover that the prisoner was you.
Ex.3 Identify the verb categories: person, number, tense, mood, voice, and aspect.
a. Dan cooks dinner for us 3 times a week.
b. Yesterday we were cooking for hours on end.
c. She would have cooked,// if you had asked her to.
d. Turn right at the courthouse.
e. Let the door be opened.
26 | P a g e
Classification of English sentences from the syntactic point of view
Ex.1 Identify each sentence as simple, compound, complex or compound-complex:
1. After the ceremony, the adults discussed some municipal issues and their children played in the playground.
_____
2. After the party, all the guests thanked the landlady and left. _____
3. Mary went to the market, but Alison stayed at home since she had a headache. _____
4. Some carried signs; others passed out leaflets. _____
5. In spite of his handicap, he is a happy man. _____
6. Whenever some guests visited our parents, we would sit and listen to what they were talking about. _____
7. You don’t have to call me, nor do you have to send me a message; I’ll come anyway. _____
8. I’ve got everything I need. _____
9. The book which I have recently read didn’t interest me a lot, so I returned it to the library. _____
10. You shouldn’t eat heavy meal and then go to bed immediately afterwards. _____
11. I feel guilty because I forgot my brother’s birthday, and he never forgets mine. _____
12. Because he was sharp, he noticed that the figures didn’t add up to the total shown. _____
13. He graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree; however, he decided to return for an advanced degree when he
had reviewed career opportunities. _____
14. In tomorrow’s seminar, Dr Brown will demonstrate and discuss new burn treatment. _____
15. Mr. Parker, our neighbour, is going to visit his son and his wife before the birth of his second grandchild. _____
16. I came home and had my lunch before I rushed back to my office. _____
17. Gold, platinum and diamonds have appreciated in value; sapphires and silver have appreciated too, but at a lesser
rate. _____
18. I‘ll lend you some money if you don’t have any money on you. _____
19. It is claimed that the new signals overcome these problems and that they can contribute to road safety. _____
20. The new signals will look similar at a distance; but close up the driver will notice a pattern of holes. _____
21. When the new light is off, it will look a lot blacker. _____
22. The main change is in the lens, which in the new lights consists of small “lenslets” that channel the reflector’s
light through 2,000 holes in a mask. _____
23. Why you insist on seeing that monument remains a mystery to me. _____
24. What is done is done. _____
25. Ask me no questions; tell me no lies, unless I would enjoy hearing them. _____
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Syntactic and semantic functions of subordinate clauses
Subordinate clauses can be finite and nonfinite, and can have various functions:
nominal like a noun or noun phrase (as subject, object, complement or in
apposition)
adverbial like an adverb
relative relating to a noun or noun phrase
comparative after a comparative phrase (e.g.: more, -er, as)
Functions of subordinate clauses
Ex.1 Study the subordinate clauses in the following (underlined for you) and decide whether
their function is nominal, adverbial, relative or comparative. With a nominal clause, decide
whether it is functioning as subject, object, in apposition or complement.
1. Where I go is my business.
Answer: nominal (subject)
2. I don't want to tell anyone where I go. ………………………………
3. Otherwise everyone will go where I go. ………………………………
4. The place where I go is quiet and unfashionable. ………………………………
5. Some people say that I hide from the world. ………………………………
6. Why shouldn't I have some secrets that I hide from the world? ………………………………
7. Actually the idea, that I hide from the world, is absurd. ………………………………
8. I don't mind admitting a desire for solitude. ………………………………
9. A hotel offering peace and quiet is my idea of bliss. ………………………………
10. I usually go away when there's not much work to do. ………………………………
11. I don't really know when would be the best time. ………………………………
12. I am wondering if you'll be in town. ………………………………
13. If you're in town, do ring me. ……………………………….
14. I go away as often as possible. ………………………………
15. But I don't go away as often as my sister. ………………………………
16. You never seem to relax enough to enjoy yourself. ………………………………
17. The main thing is to enjoy yourself. ………………………………
18. Don't you ever go away just to enjoy yourself. ………………………………
28 | P a g e
COMPLEX SENTENCES
Exercise 1: Isolate the dependent clause and decide if it is finite, nonfinite or verbless. How is it acting in
the superordinate clause? (subject, object, complement, adjunct)
1. My greatest pleasure is to listen to chamber music.
2. That you could do it I always knew.
3. That you can do it is still uncertain.
4. You can do it if you try.
5. Standing here all day, I see many strange faces.
6. Standing here all day is extremely tiring.
7. The long journey over, we relaxed in the warm sunshine.
Exercise 2: Classify the syntactic function of the dependent clauses in the sentences below (subject, direct
object, subject complement, object complement, appositive, adjunct, disjunct, conjunct).
1. I was terrified, to tell you the truth.
2. You find the wall heightens suddenly.
3. We found the wall overgrown with ivy.
4. The truth is that I really liked him.
5. The truth, that I really wanted to learn, suddenly dawned on my poor father.
6. What is more important, I suddenly felt ashamed of my childishness.
7. Whenever I encounter one of them, I feel an outsider.
8. However, seeing George again has left me much more confident.
Exercise 3: Say which of the wh-clauses are wh-interrogative clauses and which are nominal relative
clauses.
1. What caused the fire remains a mystery.
2. What caused the fire was a cigarette end.
3. Home is where your friends and family are.
4. Who first reported the fire is still uncertain.
5. Do you remember when Columbus discovered America?
6. What we all need is a spell of warm sunshine.
Exercise 4: What function does the nominal infinitive clause fulfil in the superordinate clause?
1. I expect to be there this evening.
2. The plan is for us all to meet outside at eight.
3. The plan for us all to meet outside was absurd.
4. For Osbert to appear in public at such a time was rather courageous.
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Exercise 5: Which of the dependent clauses in the sentences below are adjuncts and which are disjuncts?
1. They have lit a fire, because they are so cold.
2. They have lit a fire, because I can smell a smoke.
3. Since you ask me, I think you are being unwise.
4. We had better start the meeting, as we have a quorum.
5. There being no quorum, the meeting was postponed.
Exercise 6: Classify the type of adverbial clause:
1. Because there was no quorum, the meeting had to be reconvened.
2. Once your book is published, it will sell rapidly.
3. Although we strained our eyes, we couldn’t see anything.
4. We planted hundreds of roses, so that the garden should look beautiful during the wedding.
5. We watered the garden thoroughly so that it smelt fresh when the quests arrived.
6. The sooner we start, the sooner we will get there.
7. Rather than leave this paradise, they decided to settle there forever.
8. I can’t play the guitar the way you do.
9. You won’t see anything unless you stand up.
10. John was an eloquent speaker, I told you.
11. I would have arrived earlier, except I lost my way.
12. Chimpanzees play with sticks as though they are dolls.
Exercise 7: Classify the type of nominal clause:
1. They don’t know whether to laugh at this theory or whether to get angry.
2. I realized that she couldn’t support me.
3. Alice enjoys working in the garden.
4. I don’t know whether to see my doctor.
5. He doesn’t like to be neutral in the conflict.
Exercise 8: Combine the sentences with relative clauses. Decide whether to use commas or not.
1. A monk is a man. The man has devoted his life to God.
A monk...........................................................................
2. I have one black cat. His name is Blacky.
I have ...........................................................................
3. A herbivore is an animal. The animal feeds upon vegetation.
A herbivore .......................................................................
4. Carol plays the piano brilliantly. She is only 9 years old.
Carol....................................................................................
5. Sydney is the largest Australian city. It is not the capital of Australia.
Sydney..................................................................................
30 | P a g e
Exercise 9: Combine the sentences with contact clauses.
1. We ordered a book. It was very expensive.
2. You are sitting on a bench. The paint on the bench is still wet.
3. The photographer could not develop the pictures. I had taken them in Australia.
Exercise 10: Combine the sentences using a relative clause. Use relative pronouns only where necessary.
Note that you have to use commas in some of the sentences.
1. People live in Scotland. They are called Scots.
The people ............................................................................................
2. Arthur Conan Doyle was born in Edinburgh. He wrote the Sherlock Holmes stories.
Arthur Conan Doyle ...................................................................................................
3. Loch Ness is 37 km long. People know it for its friendly monster.
Loch Ness....................................................................................................................
4. We then travelled to a mountain. The mountain is near the town of Fort William.
We then....................................................................................................................
Exercise 11: Relative clauses - defining or non-defining? Study the situations and then decide whether the
following relative clauses are defining or non-defining.
1. I have three brothers.
a. My brother who lives in Sydney came to see me last month.
b. My brother, who lives in Sydney, came to see me last month.
2. I have one sister. a. My sister who is 25 years old spent her holiday in France.
b. My sister, who is 25 years old, spent her holiday in France.
3. Bob's mum has lost her keys. a. Bob's mum who is a musician has lost her car keys.
b. Bob's mum, who is a musician, has lost her car keys.
4. My friend Jane moved to Canada. a. My friend Jane whose husband is Canadian moved to Canada last week.
b. My friend Jane, whose husband is Canadian, moved to Canada last week.
5. I am a shoe fanatic.
a. The shoes which I bought yesterday are very comfortable.
b. The shoes, which I bought yesterday, are very comfortable.
Exercise 12: Comparative sentences. Indicate by S, Cs, Od, Oi or A, the comparative element in the
following sentences:
1. Man has greater power over his environment than he has ever had before.
2. More has been discovered about the universe in the last fifty years than all the previous centuries.
3. Technology has given more people than ever the means of leading comfortable and easy life.
4. Science has progressed more rapidly in the last few decades than hundreds of years before.
5. Yet are we really happier than our ancestors were?
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Adverbial clauses of time
Exercise 1: Join the sentences together, using the subordinators shown.
1. I was on my way to Edinburg by train recently. I had an odd experience. (while)
.....................................................................................................................................................
2. I reached Paddington station. My train was leaving. (just as)
.....................................................................................................................................................
3. I had to wait half an hour. The next train left. (before)
.....................................................................................................................................................
4. I walked all along the train. I found a seat at the front. (until)
.....................................................................................................................................................
5. I put my case on the rack. I settled down to read my book. (once)
.....................................................................................................................................................
6. The train stopped at Peterborough. A young man got in. (when)
.....................................................................................................................................................
7. He sat down next to me. He began a conversation. (as soon as)
.....................................................................................................................................................
8. I couldn′t go on reading. This young man had decided to talk. (after)
.....................................................................................................................................................
9. It was all right! I had given up trying to read. (once)
.....................................................................................................................................................
10. He too had caught the ′wrong′ train. He had missed the earlier one like me. (after)
.....................................................................................................................................................
11. He had spent two years as an engineering student in York. Then he had decided to change courses.
(before)
.....................................................................................................................................................
12. I told him I only knew one person in York. It turned out that he knew her. (when)
.....................................................................................................................................................
13. We reached York. We were deep in conversation. (while)
.....................................................................................................................................................
14. The train stopped. He jumped out. (the moment)
.....................................................................................................................................................
15. Alas, he left the train. He had not told me his name. (before-careful!)
.....................................................................................................................................................
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Conditional clauses
Exercise 1: Identify the conditional clauses and decide whether they are open (zero, first), hypothetical
(second, third) or rhetorical. Also mark any that are indirect.
Example: I'd keep quiet if I were you. (hypothetical, second conditional)
1. If this is justice, I am a banana. ................................................................................................................... .......
2. If Aristotle were alive today, he'd have a chat show. ..........................................................................................
3. You can lose a lot of work if people think you're dead. .................................................................................... ...
4. If anything can go wrong, it will. ..........................................................................................................................
5. If you don't like the heat, keep out of the kitchen. ..................................................................... ...........................
6. If you ask me, that's absurd. ............................................................................................ .....................................
7. I wouldn't have asked if I didn't want to know. ....................................................................................................
8. If there is one thing a successful man should know, it is when to stop. ...............................................................
9. Clearly money has something to do with life. In fact, they've a lot in common if you enquire. ………..............
10. I wouldn't have asked if I hadn't wanted to know. ....................................................................... .......................
Conditionals with inversion
Exercise 1: Rewrite the following with inversion of subject and auxiliary verb. Your answers will begin
with: had, should or were.
Example: If you study hard, you will be successful. (Zero, First Conditional)
Answer: Should you study hard, you will be successful.
Example: If you studied hard, you would be successful. (Second Conditional)
Answer: Were you to study hard, you would be successful.
Example: If you had studied hard, you would have been successful. (Third Conditional)
Answer: Had you studied hard, you would have been successful.
1. If you see an unidentified flying object, let me know. ...................................................................... ..........
2. If I were to see one, I should certainly inform you. ……............................................................................
3. If you were not so sceptical you might learn. .............................................................................................
4. If you had been with me last night, you would have seen the UFOs.
..........................................................................................................................
5. If you hadn′t told me. I would never have believed it.
.........................................................................................................................
6. Many sightings would prove to be hoaxes, if we investigated them.
.........................................................................................................................
7. If I hadn′t examined the photograph myself, I would have thought it was a fake.
.............................................................................................................................
Adverbial clauses of concession
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Ex 1: Rewrite the following, using the subordinators given and making any necessary changes.
Example: I don’t approve of telling lies, telling the truth can be painful. (while)
Answer: While I don’t approve of telling lies, telling the truth can be painful.
1. Employers naturally want to recruit the right people, but some of their methods do seem doubtful.
(although) ...........................................................................................................................................
2. They need to find out about us, yet do they have to ask such personal questions? (though)
............................................................................................................................................................
3. I don‘t mind filling in a questionnaire, but I object to some types of question. (while)
..............................................................................................................................................................
4. Some personal information may be necessary. Even so, I don‘t want to give it. (even if)
..............................................................................................................................................................
5. I very much wanted the last job I applied for. However, I refused to complete the questionnaire.
(much as)
.............................................................................................................................................................
6. The questions may have been relevant. But they struck me as unpleasant. (although)
...............................................................................................................................................................
7. The consequences could have been anything for me. I still wasn’t going to reveal my private life.
(whatever)
..............................................................................................................................................................
8. I really disliked the questionnaire. Nevertheless, I enjoyed the interview. (even though)
..............................................................................................................................................................
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Clauses of reason, purpose and result
Exercise 1: Rewrite the following, using the words given and making all other necessary
changes. Afterwards write down the type of the adverbial clause.
Example: Some people make themselves run because they want to live to a ripe old age. REASON
……………………………………………..so that ……………………………………..
Answer: Some people make themselves run so that they will want to live to a ripe old age. RESULT
1. Many people eat too much fat and damage their hearts.
…………………………………because………………………………………………..…..
2. Some doctors set such a bad example that people do not listen to them.
…………………………so that……………………………………………………………..
3. We are always being told to change our habits, with the result that some people don´t listen.
Since ………………………………………………………………………………………...
4. Some marathon runners experience real pain because they train very hard.
………………………………..so ……….that……………………………………………...
5. Some runners are obsessive, and consequently they injure themselves.
……………………………….so ………..that ……………………………………………..
6. Other people take no exercise and become really unfit.
As …………………………………………………………………………………………...
7. Since such people often also overeat, they put on weight.
…………………………………………..so………………………………………………...
8. Some people really dislike exercise, and therefore make excuses.
Because ……………………………………………………………………………………...
9. Some people say they lead very busy lives, and so don´t have time.
………………………………………………………….that they ……………………….....
10. Some older people take up running because they want to strengthen their bones.
…………………………………………………………..in order to………………………...
11. Violent exercise can damage muscles, so serious runners plan their diet carefully.
…………………………………………..for………………………………………………...
12. You might have a ´heart condition´, so have check-up with your doctor.
……………………………………………..in case………………………………………….
13. Choose your running shoes carefully; otherwise you may damage your feet.
……………………………………………so as …………………………………………….
14. You don´t have to run if you want to keep fit – cycling or swimming will do.
………………………………..in order to …………………………………………………..
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WISHES
Expressing wishes: 'I wish, ‘if only' 'it's (high) time'
Exercise 1: Tick the sentences that refer to 'present' or 'past'.
present past
1 I wish I had a better watch! ……… …….
2 If only I knew the answer to the problem! ……… …….
3 It's high time/about time he learnt more manners! ……… …….
4 I wish you hadn't done that! ……… …….
5 If only you had phoned me yesterday! ……... …….
Exercise 2: Express wishes and regrets about these situations. Refer to yourself where possible.
1. You're no very fit. ….I wish/If only I was/were fit/fitter!
2. It's very hot today. ………………………………………………………………………….
3. It's raining. …………….…………………………………………………………………...
4. You were too impatient. ……………………………………………………………………
5. You wasted a lot of time watching TV. …………………………………………………….
6. They don't have a lot of friends. ……………………………………………………………
7. We didn't lock the back door! ………………………………………………………………
8. He is abroad. ………………………………………………………………………………..
9. Jane has read your letter. ……………………………………………………………………
10. John didn't take your advice. ………………………………………………………………
'Would' and 'could' after 'I wish' and 'if only'
We must use could, not would, after I and we. Compare:
I can't swim. → I wish I could swim.
We weren't together! → I wish we could have been together.
We sometimes use I wish you (he, she, etc.) would(n't) like an imperative:
(I am making a lot of noise!) → I wish you wouldn't make so much noise!
(He is making a lot of noise!) → I wish he would be quiet!
Exercise 3: Supply would, wouldn't or could.
1. I wish they …….would………. be quiet.
2. We wish you ……………………… drive so fast.
3. We wish we …………………………..come to London with you.
4. I wish I ………………………….. have seen the film with them.
5. We really wish she ………………………. Change her mind and come on holiday with us.
6. If only we ……………………………. Have good weather like this the whole year.
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It's (high) time' and 'It's (about) time'
We use It's time, It's high time and It's about time to express present or future wishes, or to
express our impatience about things that haven't happened yet:
Kim can't even boil an egg. – I know. It's time/high time/about time she learnt to cook!
Exercise 4: Respond to these sentences with: It's high time or It's about time.
1 John and Julie have been engaged now for over ten years.
…………It's high time they got married!.....................
2 We haven't been out for an evening together for ages, have we?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3 It's very late. You should both really go now.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4 The boys' room is terribly untidy.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
Expressing preferences: 'would rather' and ‘would sooner'
We use would rather and would sooner in exactly the same way to express preference.
We can refer to the present or the future:
I'd rather/I'd sooner be a builder than an architect.
Or we can refer to the past:
If I could choose again, I'd rather/sooner have been a builder than an architect.
Exercise 5: Supply the correct forms of the verbs in brackets.
1. Which would you sooner ….be…? A pilot or a passenger? (be)
2. My career is nearly over, but I'd much rather …………….………. in the navy than in the army. (be)
3. If I had lived in the past, I'd sooner ………………………….. a peasant than a king. (be)
4. I'd rather ……………..…..……. in the eighteenth century than in the nineteenth century. (live)
5. I like my job. I'd rather ……..…………….…..…. my living as a teacher than anything else. (make)
6. I wish my job were secure. I'd sooner ………………...…..….. worry about it. (not have to)
7. Jim had to break the bad news to her. I know he'd rather ………….……..…….. do it. (not have to)
Exercise 6: Supply negative short answers with I'd rather/ I'd sooner to these questions.
1. Are you coming with us? No, …I'd rather not/I'd sooner not …
2. Would you rather have been invited to the party? No, ……………………………………….
3. Do you want to catch the next train? No, …………………………………………………….
4. Would you rather have lived in the past than the present? No, ……………………………...
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Expressing preferences about other people's actions
1. We use the past tense form after I'd rather to refer to the present or future.
I'd rather she were/was happy. (=now) I'd rather she didn't sit next to me. (=now)
2. We use the past perfect form after I'd rather to refer to past time.
I'd rather you had been present. (then) I'd rather you hadn't told me about it. (then)
Exercise 7: Supply the correct forms of the verbs in brackets.
1. You might be late for the meeting. I'd rather you …caught… an earlier train. (catch)
2. I won't be home till very late. I'd sooner you ……………….. for me. (not wait up)
3. He took a risk investing money with them. I'd rather he …………………. it. (not do)
4. I don't mind your borrowing my ladder, bud I'd sooner you ……………….. me first. (ask)
5. I know our daughter is enjoying herself, bud I'd rather she ……………….…. here than abroad. (be)
6. I'd rather you ………………… present when we signed the agreement. (be)
Exercise 8: Supply negative short responses or continuations to these sentences.
1. Joan wants to become self-employed. …I'd rather/sooner she didn't…
2. I've told everyone about it. …………………………………………………………………
3. Susan gas moved her account to another bank. …………………………………………….
4. Bill takes sleeping pills. …………………………………………………………………….
5. I often drive fast. …………………………………………………………………………...
6. Frank went to live in Australia last year. …………………………………………………..
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Agreeing and Disagreeing in English
1 Teacher: I'm tired.
Students: ____________.
A But we are
B So are we
C Neither are we
D So we are
2 Maggie: I love rice.
Normy: Yuk ............................._.___________.
A I do
B I don't
C So do I
D Neither do I
3 Elly: I'd like to visit The Greek Islands.
Robby: ..............................____________.
A So had I
B So would I
C Neither would I
D Neither had I
4 Polly: I went to the cinema on Saturday.
Pammy: What a coincidence. ____________.
A So was I
B But I was
C So did I
D So went I
5 Mary: I'm not going out tonight.
Shelly: ____________ .
A So do I
B I'm not
C Neither am I
D So am I
6 Billy: I hate tomatoes.
Lilly: ____________.
A So do I
B I do them to
C I do
D Neither do I
7 Sally: I love chocolate.
Polly: ____________ .
A So love me
B So do I
C I love too
D I do
8 Tommy: I don't like pears.
Sally: But ____________.
A Neither can I
B I don't
C I do
D So do I
9 Polly: My Mum can't stand techno music.
Sally: ____________ mine.
A So are
B Neither can
C Neither do
D So can
10 Johny: I've never been to Granada.
Sally: ___________ .
A So have I
B So I haven't
C Neither have I
D Neither had I
AGREEING:
I love chocolate. So do I.
I don’t love chocolate. Neither/nor do I.
DISAGREEING:
I love chocolate. (But) I don’t.
I don’t love chocolate. (But) I do.
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INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH
Indirect statements with tense changes
Exercise 1: Report these statements with said moving the clauses 'one tense back'.
DIRECT SPEECH STATEMENTS INDIRECT SPEECH STATEMENTS
present becomes past
1 MAC: I need a holiday. Mac said (that) he needed a holiday.
2 SUE: I'm not wasting my time. ………………………..………………………
present perfect becomes past perfect
3 TOM: I've had some good news. ………………………………………….……
4 PAM: I've been sleeping. …………………………………….…………
past becomes past or past perfect (past perfect is often optional)
5 LOU: I went home early. …………………………………………….…
6 JAN: I was waiting for you. …………………………………………….…
past perfect does not change
7 JOE: I had eaten earlier. …………………………………………….…
8 PAT: I had been waiting for you. …………………………………………….…
modal 'present' becomes 'conditional' or 'past'
9 TIM: I will see you later. …………………………………………….…
10 DOT: I can speak French. …………………………………………….…
11 KIM: I may arrive later. …………………………………………….…
'shall' with a future reference becomes 'would'
12 RON: I shall speak to him. …………………………………………….…
'shall' in offers and suggestions becomes 'should'
13 MEG: Shall I speak to him? …………………………………………….…
'past' or 'conditional' modals do not change
14 TED: I could help you. …………………………………………….…
15 ANN: I might see him. ………………………………………….……
16 JIM: I would enjoy that. ……………………………………….………
'perfect' modal forms do not change
17 SAM: I must have fainted. ……………………………………….………
18 DON: I couldn't have said that. …………………………………………….…
19 NED: I needn't have gone there. …………………………………………….…
20 LYN: I ought to have helped her. …………………………………………….…
'should' (='it's advisable') doesn't change
21 LEE: I should go to the dentist's. ……………………………………………..…
'should' used in place of 'would' in conditionals becomes 'would'
22 DAN: If I were you I should get legal advice. ……………………………………….………
'must' (=necessity in the past) does not change, or becomes 'had to'
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23 PAUL: I must catch an early train. …………………………………………….…………
24 JILL: I must speak to you. ……………………………………………….………
'must' (=necessity in the future) does not change, or becomes 'would have to'
25 BILL: I must leave tomorrow. ……………………………………………..…………
26 JANE: I must work till late. …………………………………………..……………
'must' (=deduction or possibility) does not change.
27 PHIL: John must be a fool. ………………………………………………..………
'mustn't' (=prohibition) does not change, or becomes ' couldn't'
28 JEAN: I mustn't eat meat. ……………………………………………..…………
29 JEFF: They mustn't give up. …………………………………………..……………
Exercise 2: Turn each direct-speech statement into indirect speech with tense changes.
'I've conducted a number of tests, 'Dr Grey said.
1 Dr Grey said (that) she had conducted a number of tests.
'I must put you on a very strict diet, ' she told me.
2 ……………………………………………………………………………………………..……….…..
'You're putting on a lot of weight, ' she said.
3………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………
'You have gained 5. 5 kilos in six months, ' she added.
4………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………
'You gained 10 kilos last year, ' she reminded me.
5…………………………………………………………………………………………………..………
'You will get very fat if you go on like this, ' she told me.
6……………………………………………………………………………….…………………….……
'You should eat very little, ' she said.
7………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….…
'So I'll have to live on nuts and water, ' I said nervously.
8…………………………………………………………………………………………………..………
'You can live on nuts and water without the nuts, ' she said.
9………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………
Exercise 3: Report these Yes/No questions moving the clauses 'one tense back'.
1. 'Are you hungry? ‘She asked us ….if/whether we were hungry. …
2. 'Are you enjoying yourself? ‘He wanted to know ………………………………..…………………...
3. 'Do you always go to church on Sunday? ‘He wondered ……………………..………………………
4. 'Have you seen John recently? ‘She asked me …………………………………..……………………
5. 'Has Debbie been working here long? ‘He wanted to know …………………………………………..
6. 'Did you study hard for the exam? ‘She wondered ……………………………………………………
7. 'Will Ted and Alice be at the party? ‘She asked us ………………………………………..…….……
8. 'Will you be coming to the concert or not? ‘He wanted to know ………………………..……………
41 | P a g e
9. 'You like Italian food, don't you? ‘She asked me ……………………………………..………………
10. 'You don't like Italian food, do you? ‘She wanted to know ……………………………………..…..
Exercise 4: Report these question-word questions moving the clauses 'one tense back'.
1. 'What's the weather like? ‘She asked me …what the weather was like. …
2. 'What does Frank do for a living? ‘I wanted to know ……………………….……………………….
3. 'Why is Maria crying? ‘She wondered …………………………………………………………..……
4. 'What kind of holiday has Marco had? ‘You wanted to know …………………………….….………
5. 'How long have you both been living here? ‘They inquired …………………………………………..
6. 'Where did they go last week? ‘She wanted to know …………………………………………………
7. 'Who were you looking for? ‘He asked me ……………………………………………………………
8. 'When will lunch be ready? ‘You didn't tell me ……………………………………………...……….
9. 'Which countries will John be visiting? ‘You didn't say ………………………………………………
10. 'How can I solve the problem? I wanted to know …………………………………………...……….
Ex. 5: Report these subject-questions moving the clauses 'one tense back' only where necessary.
1. 'Who's next please? ‘She wanted to know …who was next….
2. 'What makes a noise like that? ‘He wondered ………………………………………………..………
3. 'Which of you is waiting to see me next? ‘The doctor asked ………………………..……………….
4. 'Whose composition haven't we heard yet? ‘The teacher asked us to tell her…………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. 'Who left this bag here? ‘Tell me ……………………………………………………………..………
6. 'What caused the accident? ‘Can you explain …………………………………………………………
Exercise 6: Report the following using the simple past of the verbs in brackets.
1. 'Wait for me, ' I said to him. (tell)
… I told him to wait for me. …
2. 'Go on holiday when the weather gets warmer, ' she told him. (advise)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. 'Keep out of this room at all times, ' she said to them. (warn)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. 'Remember to post those letters, ' he said to me. (remind)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. 'Don't go into my study, ' he said to them. (ask)
………………………………………………………………………………………..………………….
6. 'Don't go on holiday yet, ' she told him. (advise)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. 'Don't ever enter this room, ' she said to them. (warn)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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Exercise 7: Report each question in two ways.
1. 'Shall I fax the information to them? ‘She asked …if/whether she should fax the information to
them. She asked whether to fax the information to them. …
2. 'Should I leave a message for her? ‘He asked ……………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………..……………..
3. 'Shall I heat the food for you? ‘She asked him …………………………….……….……………
…………………………………………………………………………………..………..…….……
4. 'Should I phone him now? ‘He wanted to know ………………………………….………...……
………………………………………………………………………………………………..……..
5. 'Shall I invite them to dinner? ‘She wanted to know …………………………………….……....
……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
Exercise 8: Report each request in two ways, where possible.
1. 'When should I be at the station? ‘She asked …when she should be at the station. …
… She asked when to be at the station. …
2. 'Where shall we have our meeting? ‘They asked ………………………………………..……….
………………………………………………………………………………………………….…....
3. 'Which should I choose? ‘He asked ………………………………………………………..….….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….....
4. ‘Who (m) shall I ask? ‘She wanted to know ……………………………………………………...
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. 'What should I do? ‘He asked me ………………………………………………………..…….…
………………………………………………………………………………………………….…....
6. 'Why should I pay this bill? ‘She wanted to know………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
7. 'Whose car should I borrow? ‘He wanted to know …………………………………………..…...
………………………………………………………………………………………………..……..
8. 'Why should I be punished? ‘She asked …………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
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INVERSIONS IN ENGLISH
Ex.1:The following grammar questions may (or may not) include inversions. See if you can get them right.
1) Thank goodness ______ hurt in the train
accident.
A. didn’t more people get
B. didn’t get more people
C. more didn’t get people
D. more people didn’t get
2) The study showed _____ for maternal and
child health.
A. how is nutrition important
B. how important nutrition is
C. that how important nutrition is
D. that how nutrition is important
3) Only by working three jobs _____ able to
support his large family.
A. he was
B. he is
C. he's being
D. was he
4) The boss didn’t know what to do, _____ the
rest of us.
A. so did
B. either
C. neither
D. nor did
5) It was not until Andrew stopped smoking
____ healthy again.
A. did he feel
B. that he started to feel
C. then he felt
D. that he did feel
6) ___ you see Frank at the conference, give him
my regards.
A. Should
B. Would
C. Might
D. Could
7) Strange ___ , he chose not to undergo surgery.
A. may it seem
B. as may it seem
C. was it that
D. as it may sound
8) Try ___ he could not save the drowning
woman.
A. did he hard
B. as he might
C. as hard as
D. though he did
9) So ___ that she licked the plate clean.
A. being hungry
B. great her hunger
C. hungry was she
D. had she hunger
10) Effie disliked the film, ___.
A. as did Frank
B. and also disliked it Frank
C. nor Frank
D. so Frank did
11) ___ the medicine than she began to feel
better.
A. Not until she swallowed
B. Hardly did she swallow
C. No sooner had she swallowed
D. Having swallowed
12) Only by speaking more ___ improve your
fluency in English.
A. you are able to
B. is it possible to
C. does
D. will it
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Bibliography:
1. Alexander, L. G. Longman English Grammar Practice. Harlow: Longman, 1990. 296p. ISBN 0 582
04500 2.
2. Chalker, S. A Student´s English Grammar Workbook. Harlow: Longman, 2004. 186 p. ISBN 0582
08819 4.
3. Close, R.A. University Grammar of English Workbook. Harlow: Longman, 1997. 174 P. ISBN 0 582
52280 3.
4. Greenbaum; S., Quirk, R. A Student’s Grammar of the English Language. Harlow: Longman, 1974.
490 p. ISBN 0582 05971 2.
5. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.
Harlow: Longman, 1985. 1779 p. ISBN 0 582 96502 0.
6. Rafajlovičová, R. English Syntax. A Student’s Grammar Book and Workbook. Prešov: Prešovská
tlačiareň, 2012. 340 p. ISBN 978-80-970862-0-6.
7. Wilson , R. Agreeing and Disagreeing Exercise. [online]. 2003. [quot. 2013-07-17]. Available on:
http://perso.wanadoo.es/autoenglish/gr.sodo.p.htm
8. Advanced grammar: Inversions. [online]. [quot. 2013-07-17]. Available on:
http://www.fullspate.net/efl-advanced-grammar/
9. Gerunds, Participles and Infinitives. [online]. [quot. 2013-07-17]. Available on:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/owlprint/627/
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