Morals Digitalized: Reviews on Information and Computer Ethics

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Running Head: Morals Digitalized

Morals Digitalized:

Reviews on Information and Computer Ethics

Eduardo Miguel H. Cueto

De La Salle – College of Saint Benilde

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2


Table of Contents

Page no.

Title Page ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1

Table of

Contents

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2

Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3

Preface ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4

Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5

Morals Digitalized: Essays ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 6

Formation of Information Ethics ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7

Milestones in the History of Information and Computer Ethics …………………………………………………… 9

Moral Methodology and Information Technology ………………………………………………………………………. 11

Value Sensitive Design and Information Technology ………………………………………………………………….. 13

Personality‐Based, Rule‐Utilitarian, and Lockean Justifications of Intellectual Property …………….. 14

Informational Privacy

Concepts,

Theories,

and

Controversies

…………………………………………………….

16

Online Anonymity ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17

Ethical Issues Invoking Computer Security: Hacking, Hacktivism, and Counterhacking ………………. 19

Information Ethics and the Library Profession ……………………………………………………………………………. 21

Ethical Interest in Free and Open Source Software …………………………………………………………………….. 23

Internet Research Ethics: The Field and Its Critical Issues …………………………………………………………… 25

Health Information Technology: Challenges in Ethics, Science, and Uncertainty ………………………… 27

Ethical Issues in Information and Business …………………………………………………………………………………. 29

Responsibilities for Information on the Internet ………………………………………………………………………… 31

Virtual Reality and Computer Simulation ……………………………………………………………………………………. 33

Genetic Information: Epistemological and Ethical Issues ……………………………………………………………. 35

The Ethics of Cyber Conflict ………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 37

A Practical Mechanism for Ethical Risk Assessment: A SoDIS Inspection …………………………………….. 39

Regulation and Governance on the Internet ………………………………………………………………………………. 41

Information Overload ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 43

Email Spam ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 45

The Matter of Plagiarism: The What, Why, and If ………………………………………………………………………. 47

Intellectual Property: Legal and Moral Challenges of Online File Sharing …………………………………… 49

Censorship and Access to Expression …………………………………………………………………………………………. 51

The Gender Agenda in Computer Ethics …………………………………………………………………………………….. 53

The Digital Divide: A Perspective for the Future …………..…………………………………………………………….. 55

Intercultural Information Ethics …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 57



3


Dedication

This book is dedicated to all those who have helped in its formation, knowingly or otherwise.

Special thanks to:

Mr. Paul Pajo, who was the driving force behind this book

To my ITETHIC classmates who made every class good enough to attend

And to God, who makes the study of ethics actually worth something



4


Preface

We all know about the study of ethics and how they can provide structure and rules for what we

do, but what makes this publication stand out from any book on ethics? For all we know, ethics has been

around ever

since

people

started

to

live

together

as

communities.

Codes

of

ethics

as

old

as

time

have

been written, and most have probably already been forgotten. So what’s so special about this one?

Ethics may have been around since the creation of societies but information technology is a

fairly recent development as compared to the mankind’s long history. Studies on information

technology has been limited to the past few decades; such a small fraction as compared to the

millennia‐worth of humanity’s history. This book focuses on information technology‐ and computer‐

related issues that warrant ethical notice. Many of the issues discussed here still haven’t been resolved

at the time of this writing which is why attention should be given to them so as to provide solutions

before things get out of hand, that is, if they haven’t already had.

The issues and topics contained in this book have been obtained from the publication, “The Handbook of Information and Computer Ethics” by Kenneth Einar Himma and Herman T. Tavani.



5


Abstract

This book is a consolidation of essays and reflections on how the author has understood the meaning

and application of the ethical issues mentioned in the book, “The Handbook of Information and Computer

Ethics”

by

Kenneth

Einar

Himma

and

Herman

T.

Tavani.

Each

of

the

essays

explores

its

corresponding ethical issue in terms of the implications that they may have and whether each can be

classified as morally good or not or is still a gray area form an ethical standpoint.



6


Morals Digitalized: Essays



7


Chapter 1: Foundations of Information Ethics

Amazon Reference:

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook‐Information‐Computer‐Ethics/dp/0471799599

Quote: “Moral life is a highly information‐intensive activity, and ICTs not only add interesting new

dimensions to old problems, but may lead us to rethink, methodologically, the very grounds on which

our ethical positions are based.”

What I expect to learn:

I expect to learn about the factors that forced information and computer ethics to arise and

why.

Review:

The rise of information and communications technology brought with it not only new

developments for

the

benefit

of

our

communities,

but

also

problems

regarding

morality

on

their

application. Rapid advancements and acceptance of society in general to information technology (in the

years after the 1980s, up to the present day) widened its reach to other people who otherwise would

have only had access to computers in universities and research organizations. This led a lot of people to

be exposed to information technology and its effects, which consequently posed a dilemma: what was

right or wrong when it came to this new technology?

Information ethics is part of macroethics, which basically defines ethical principles based on a

large group of similar people or even a society. Information ethics came to be developed around the

1990s when developments in information and communications technology were being widely accepted

in mainstream society. The problem with initial information ethics principles was that they were

borrowed from

other

professional

fields,

like

corporate

ethics

and

common

professional

ethics,

which

didn’t give absolute definitions on right and wrong when it came to the new technology. What was

introduced were new technologies and processes that nobody had experienced before. Not everything

about IT was answered by these old ethical principles. Another problem that besieged early forms of

Information ethics was that it didn’t really conform to earlier ethical theories. For example, privacy

restrictions and copyright rules could be violated more easily and perpetrators could do so without

being caught. Hence, the advent of Information technology in the recent decades not only spawned the

great benefits that we see now, but also ethical problems that we must confront on a daily basis.

What I learned:

• The positive and negative effects brought about by IT.

• The

conundrums

faced

by

early

developers

of

information

ethics

principles.

• The semi‐incompatibility of early Information ethics with the real ethical problems during

that time

.



8


Integrative Questions:

1. What were some of the positive effects brought about by developments in IT?

2. What were some of the negative effects brought about by developments in IT?

3. Why was early information ethics not that effective?

4. What were some of the semi‐incompatibilities of early information ethics with common ethical

theories?

5. How could this be remedied?



9


Chapter 2: Milestones in the History of Information and Computer Ethics

Amazon Reference:


Quote: “He predicted that, after the war, the new information technology would dramatically change

the world just as much as the Industrial Revolution had done in the nineteenth and early twentieth

centuries.”


I expect to learn about the big developments in the field of information and computer ethics

and the situations surrounding them.

Review:

Information ethics, like any other ethical principle, has been shaped by people and events either

intentionally or by accident. As is with most other things, information ethics is not immune to change.

The changes that have been enforced were born out of necessity; people saw that the current

information ethics principles were inadequate so they added new principles or changed old ones

altogether. Whether intentional or not, change can never be avoided especially when concerning

something that is as ever‐changing as developments in information technology.

The very first proponent of information ethics was mathematician and scientist Norbert Wiener.

He was working with other scientists and engineers during World War II to a new kind of anti‐aircraft

cannon that could detect and take out an enemy airplane virtually instantaneously. He predicted that

they were pioneering a new age that would produce never before seen technologies that would impact

all of society, much like how the Industrial Revolution impacted societies in the nineteenth and

twentieth centuries.

He

had

also

perceived

that

such

a technology

could

be

put

to

great

use

not

only

for

good purposes, but also for evil. In a few years after World War II, Wiener published two books that

talked of the new technology that he and his colleagues had developed (cybernetics) and the moral and

societal issues that could be raised from the new science. These two books paved the way for

information and computer ethics by laying down foundations that future ethicists and professionals

would follow and mold.

What I learned:

• The foundations of information and computer ethics.

• The situations surrounding the start of information and computer ethics.

• The possible implications brought about by the new technology developed by Wiener and

his colleagues.

.



10



1. Who laid down the foundations of information and computer ethics?

2. What was the first application of information‐cybernetics technology developed by Wiener and

his colleagues?

3. What were the circumstances surrounding that development?

4. What were the implications of such a technological advancement?

5. Why was it important for Wiener to have laid down the foundations of information and

computer ethics?



11


Chapter 3: Moral Methodology and Information Technology

Amazon Reference:


Quote: “I think the way we ought to proceed in the ethics of IT is not very different from the way we

ought to proceed in other departments of ethics of technology and engineering...”


I expect to learn about how ethical principles are made to co‐exist with each other in IT.

Review:

Information and computer ethics implies something that should be applied and does not remain

as just a set of theories on ethical principles. Practical ethics, like information and computer ethics,

implies that the set of principles should be made applicable in real life situations. With the very fast pace

of development

of

new

technologies,

the

possibilities

of

encountering

new

ethical

issues

rises

with

each

new advancement. Sound ethical principles in IT should also be developed as quickly as the technologies

that they are based on. The use of computers and related technology, produces new ethical issues that

have never been faced before. For the best part of the last 2,000 or so years, ancient Greek philosophy

and ethics have been the basis for many ethical principles. Ethical principles relatively remained

unchanged until the time of the French and Industrial Revolutions when many philosophers and ethicists

provided new theories for the changing times. But even those changes were relatively gradual, the

Industrial Revolution even stretched for more than a century. This new age of information technology

however, represents a change that is unprecedented in human history.

Information and computer ethics, as an ethical theory, is similar as to the ethics concerning

other sciences

or

engineering

principles.

These

fields

also

represent

fields

of

knowledge

that

concern

quick changes and the need for answering the issues that arise from these changes. Although IT is

unique from the other fields, they are relatively the same in essence, they only differ in the type of

developments they are advancing and how they develop them.

What I learned:

• The need for philosophical coherence of ethical principles in information ethics.

• The similarities and differences between the ethical principles involved in IT and other fields

of science and engineering.

• That the use of computers and related technology increases the possibility of having new

ethical issues

arising.



12



1. Why is there a need for philosophical coherence in ethical principles when it comes to

information ethics?

2. What is the classification of information and computer ethics as an ethical theory?

3. What are the similarities between the ethical study of IT with that of other sciences?

4. What are the differences between the ethical study of IT with that of other sciences?

5. Why does IT need its own branch of ethics?



13


Chapter 4: Value Sensitive Design and Information Systems

Amazon Reference:


Quote: “There is a longstanding interest in designing information and computational systems that

support enduring human values.”


I expect to learn about how developments in IT are used in a way that accounts for human

values.

Review:

Value sensitive design calls for technology that is designed in a way that accounts for human

values in a principled and comprehensive manner. This means that technology should not only be

designed to

carry

out

the

purpose

for

which

it

was

built

but

also

take

into

account

human

values,

i.e.

what a person or groups of persons consider important in life. Seeing as there is a human element in

value sensitive design, there are very significant differences in what people consider as valuable and

those that they can live without. The variety in what people consider as valuable could produce new

ethical issues that could be completely different from the one that was originally considered.

I believe that the development of value sensitive design is a very innovative idea that caters not

only to the technological needs of society but also its ethical needs. The rise of information technology

have provided us with technology that have made doing tasks easier, faster, and at more accessible

areas. But aside from these, Information technology has also brought about issues concerning piracy,

privacy, copyright infringement, and many more. What value sensitive design takes into account is not

only the

output

of

technology

but

also

by

achieving

such

outputs

in

a way

that

is

acceptable

to

people,

i.e. it doesn’t go against things that they value. But seeing as the human factor in value sensitive design

creates varying things that people consider as important, it still has a long way to go, which is why the

writer in this chapter chose to describe it in so much detail so as to have other people build on the idea.

What I learned:

• The principle of Value sensitive design.

• Its effect to IT when it comes to ethical issues.

• The implications of technology without value sensitive design to end‐users


1. What is

value

sensitive

design?

2. How is value defined in this context?

3. Why is value sensitive design important?

4. What are the implications of the application of technology that wasn’t developed using value

sensitive design?

5. Why is there no definite set of values in IT?



14


Chapter 5: Personality‐Based, Rule‐Utilitarian, and Lockean Justifications of

Intellectual Property

Amazon Reference:


Quote:

“Care is needed so that we do not confuse moral claims with legal ones.”


I expect to learn about how moral claims on intellectual property are defined using personality

ethics, utilitarianism, and Lockean principles.

Review:

Intellectual property is generally defined as any non‐physical property that is produced by the

application of cognitive processes and whose value is based on an idea or in a collection of similar ideas.

But our common notion of intellectual property ownership is governed by legal principles, i.e. those laws

formulated by our governments, instead of those that are based on moral and ethical principles. This

chapter seeks to find ethical and moral justifications on intellectual property ownership rights and any

supporting ethical theories, most notably: personality ethics, utilitarianism, and Lockean ethics.

Personality‐based definitions of ethics defines intellectual property as an extension of the

maker’s individual personality. Thus, there is a natural affinity of the maker and the product, so there is

no need for legal intellectual ownership statutes. The problem with this theory is that it is not very

definite on what constitutes intellectual property. For example, feelings and thoughts are part of our

intellectual property due to the very loose definition. Rule‐utilitarianism entails the production of many

intellectual work which means that there is an optimal amount of good works produced. The problem

with rule

‐utilitarianism

in

information

ethics

is

that

it

can

produce

contradictions.

Lockean

principles,

on

the other hand, basically say that the maker of the intellectual property should control the fruits of his

labor, thus justifying intellectual property ownership. The problem with Lockean principles is that it

doesn’t take into account unscrupulous work, such as pirated software. Thus, the Lockean ethical

principles also justify those intellectual property that is regarded as unethical.

What I learned:

• The definition of intellectual property.

• The justification of intellectual property ownership through three kinds of ethics.

• The problems affecting the three kinds of principles when it comes to intellectual property

ownership justification



15



1. What is intellectual property?

2. Why should moral claims on intellectual property be considered higher than legal claims?

3. What are three ethical principles that can be used to justify intellectual property ownership?

4. How do the three principles justify intellectual property ownership? 5. What are the problems encountered by the three ethical principles in justifying intellectual

property ownership?



16


Chapter 6: Informational Privacy: Concepts, Theories, and Controversies

Amazon Reference:


Quote: “… Privacy is an evolving concept and that its content is often influenced by the political and

technological features of the society’s environment.”


I expect to learn about the concept of privacy and some controversies surrounding it.

Review:

Privacy is a very common term in the English language. We are very quick to use the term

regarding many things; it is not just limited to our use of the Internet or any other technology that

requires access to our personal information. But the problem with this is that we do cannot easily give a

definition for

privacy,

especially

in

its

use

in

information

technology.

Privacy

is

too

broad

a term

that

we

apply in a specific field.

The reason why we talk of privacy very often is that we attach some value to it. As was

discussed to a small extent in the previous chapter, people attach value to something which they

consider important. With a wide range of people however, there is also a varying degree of value that

these people attach to their privacy. Thus, this in itself can present a controversy. People value their

privacy differently, thus IT solution providers have a dilemma on what kind of privacy protection feature

that they should offer. What is acceptable for some people may not be for others. This begs the

question: why do people value privacy in the first place? Many people believe that privacy is needed in

order to have freedom. Predominantly, people who value their privacy very highly come from Western

or Westernized

countries

or

are

citizens

of

a Democratic

state.

These

people

value

their

freedom

very

highly and they believe that protecting their privacy is needed to preserve this freedom. In contrast,

people from communist societies, whose privacy is very limited thanks to an authoritative government,

are not as volatile as their democratic counterparts when it comes to privacy protection. This, again,

creates another controversy as to the extent of privacy protection measures.

What I learned:

• The concept of privacy.

• The value that people attach to privacy.

• Some controversies surrounding issues on privacy.


1. What is privacy?

2. Why do people attach value to privacy?

3. Why do people have varying degrees of value to their privacy?

4. What are some controversies surrounding privacy?

5. Why is privacy considered to be an evolving concept?



17


Chapter 7: Online Anonymity

Amazon Reference:


Quote: “Anonymity can also be brought about in a variety of ways and there are many purposes, both

positive and negative....”


I expect to learn about the concept of online anonymity and the ethical issues surrounding it.

Review:

Anonymity is one of the main reasons why the certain technologies, most notably the Internet,

boomed. Being able to do virtually anything without being explicitly identified gives us a sense of

freedom that we may not be able exercise if we were limited to the physical world. For example, say we

have a certain

college

student

who

has

his

own

views

on

a certain

topic.

For

the

sake

of

this

example,

we shall say that that certain topic is politics, specifically he has managed to get evidence concerning the

corrupt practices of a high‐profile government official. Seeing as he is only your average college student,

he doesn’t have the means to be able to voice out his views through readily available media, e.g.

newspapers, TV, radio, etc. He could join his school newspaper, but that doesn’t assure him that he can

write about his preferred topic immediately, that would depend on his editor. Also, if he did join the

school paper, then that would limit his audience to his peers and mentors at school. What if he wanted

a wider audience to hear him out? And couldn’t all of these methods require him to give out personal

information, e.g. meet personally with TV/radio producers, if his story were to be treated seriously?

This is where the Internet comes in. The said student could publish his own blog under a

reputable blog

site,

i.e.

one

where

he

is

sure

that

personal

information

will

not

be

divulged.

But

even

if

he were required to give out personal information (e.g. name and location), he could put in false data

and he would truly be untraceable. This is the presumed beauty of the Internet, where one can do

almost anything (legal and illegal acts) and not be identified. But in reality, many websites actually make

use of audit logs which track a person’s actions while on their website. This gives information on the

type of activities this person does, which can be interpreted to the type of preferences they have, their

interests, and even their age group. Google actually employs such a tactic where it gathers information

about a user’s preferences so that it can provide search results that it thinks is what the user prefers.

Many other technologies make use of similar tactics where activities of people are monitored and

analyzed to produce a desired result. This is an issue because anonymity doesn’t only entail that one’s

personal information remains unknown; one can be identified not only by name but also through what

one

does.

This

practice

can

have

both

positive

and

negative

manifestations.

As

with

Google,

it

helps

their users find what they want based on their preferences, while on the extreme side, identity theft and

spying could be result of such a practice. There are many sides to anonymity, and there should be

answers to each instead of having just one general though inadequate policy.



18


What I learned:

• The concept of anonymity.

• The ethical issues surrounding it.

• The positive and negative effects brought about by the inadequate anonymity that is

provided

by

the

Internet.


1. What is anonymity?

2. Why do some people value it very highly?

3. Is there absolute anonymity on the Internet?

4. What are some positive effects brought about the tracking of users’ activities?

5. What are some negative effects brought about the tracking of users’ activities?



19


Chapter 8: Ethical Issues Involving Computer Security:

Hacking, Hacktivism, and Counterhacking

Amazon Reference:


Quote:

“…all [hacking] are wrong because they constitute a digital trespass onto the property of

another person.”


I expect to learn about the concept of hacking and the ethical issues surrounding it and its

countermeasures.

Review:

The

concept

of

hacking

is

closely

linked

to

that

of

the

right

to

property

and

privacy.

If

we

were

to think of a file or a set of information as property, which is in fact true, then any person gaining

unauthorized access to such is violating our right of maintaining ownership. Also, if that piece of

information is supposed to be kept for the owner only, then any unauthorized access is not only an

infringement on property rights but also on privacy. Although hacking is fundamentally seen as

“unauthorized access”, it can also be an infringement on other rights depending on the situation.

Although hacking generally connotes a negative meaning, many actually defend the practice

depending on the scenario. Hacktivism, for example, is defined as the commission of an unauthorized

digital intrusion for the purpose of expressing a political or moral position. It is bent upon stimulating

discussion in a nonviolent way. Hacktivism generally involves changing the target organization’s website

in a sometimes comical way so as to incite attention and then discussion. It is generally used to express

dissatisfaction of

the

target’s

actions,

be

it

social

injustice,

over

‐commercialism,

and

others.

Some organizations sometimes answer back when they themselves are hacked. This is called

active response or “counterhacking”. Counterhacking can have two forms: benign and aggressive.

Benign counterhacking generally involves non‐damaging action in confronting the hackers, an example

of which is tracing back the digital route of the hacking agent for the purpose of identifying the hacker

involved. The aggressive form on the other hand an intended action wherein the original hacker might

view the action as harmful or damaging. An example of this would be to redirect the packets of a Denial‐

of ‐Service (DoS) attack to the original sender.

Hacking is generally thought of as something wrong. It violates certain people’s rights and allows

the hackers

to

access

something

that

they

are

not

supposed

to.

But

can

there

be

instances

where

hacking can be justifiable? This puts us in a moral tight spot. But also, when it comes to measures

against hacking, we are again faced with another moral dilemma. Doesn’t counterhacking involve the

violation of the hacker’s privacy and other rights? Doesn’t counterhacking generally entail the same

meaning as the “an eye for an eye” system which is generally deemed to be ineffective? Hacking, it

seems, is not as black and white as we originally thought.



20


What I learned:

• The concept of hacking.

• Possible justifications of hacking.

• The

counter

measures

against

hacking.


1. What is hacking?

2. What is hacktivism?

3. Why do people do it?

4. What are some counter measures that some organizations take when they have been hacked?

5. What moral dilemmas are presented by counter measures on hacking?



21


Chapter 9: Ethical Interest in Free and Open Source Software

Amazon Reference:


Quote:

“…more and

more

software

was

not

free

–

not

free

in

a financial

sense,

but

free

in

a way

that

allowed for its inspection, running, and modification.”


I expect to learn about the ethical issues concerning the free and open source software

movement.

Review:

Software, since it was first used on a massive scale, has always been proprietary, i.e. it has been

sold to serve the needs of others. Software development therefore does not only occupy an important

niche in today’s information technology world but it has become a business as well. One of the reasons

why software

originally

became

proprietary

was

so

that

the

developer

or

team

of

developers

could

make money out of what they made; which in another sense can be described as their “property.”

Seeing as software is considered as someone’s property, that original developer would like to keep the

knowledge of how the software works to himself, but that is the exact opposite of the free and open

source software movement.

The free and open source software movement seeks to combine the best aspects of two

separate groups: free software and open source software. Free software is exactly what it name

suggests while open source software allows other developers to make improvements on the original

developer’s code to better suit it for the needs of other people. Bring both together and a big group of

heads definitely is better than just one in producing effective software.

Although I have nothing totally against free and open source software, I believe that certain

lines need to be drawn. First off is accountability which is present in most proprietary software but only

to some in free and open source. Also, one of the problems that many free and open source software

face is that they aren’t always as easy to use than their proprietary counterparts. Another point is that

software can be considered as the property of the original developer, thus he reserves the right to make

his own modifications unless he chooses otherwise. All in all, I see nothing wrong with free and open

source software; I think that it actually gives us more choices on what we can use.

What I learned:

• The concept of free and open source software.

• Software as

a piece

of

property.

• The ethical issues surrounding free and open source software.



22



1. What is free and open source software?

2. How is software considered to be a piece of property?

3. What rights can be exercised by a developer on his software?

4. Is the free and open source movement wrong?

5. What positive effects does the free and open source movement bring about?



23


Chapter 10: Ethical Interest in Free and Open Source Software

Amazon Reference:


Quote:

“…more and

more

software

was

not

free

–

not

free

in

a financial

sense,

but

free

in

a way

that

allowed for its inspection, running, and modification.”


I expect to learn about the ethical issues concerning the free and open source software

movement.

Review:

Software, since it was first used on a massive scale, has always been proprietary, i.e. it has been

sold to serve the needs of others. Software development therefore does not only occupy an important

niche in today’s information technology world but it has become a business as well. One of the reasons

why software

originally

became

proprietary

was

so

that

the

developer

or

team

of

developers

could

make money out of what they made; which in another sense can be described as their “property.”

Seeing as software is considered as someone’s property, that original developer would like to keep the

knowledge of how the software works to himself, but that is the exact opposite of the free and open

source software movement.

The free and open source software movement seeks to combine the best aspects of two

separate groups: free software and open source software. Free software is exactly what it name

suggests while open source software allows other developers to make improvements on the original

developer’s code to better suit it for the needs of other people. Bring both together and a big group of

heads definitely is better than just one in producing effective software.

Although I have nothing totally against free and open source software, I believe that certain

lines need to be drawn. First off is accountability which is present in most proprietary software but only

to some in free and open source. Also, one of the problems that many free and open source software

face is that they aren’t always as easy to use than their proprietary counterparts. Another point is that

software can be considered as the property of the original developer, thus he reserves the right to make

his own modifications unless he chooses otherwise. All in all, I see nothing wrong with free and open

source software; I think that it actually gives us more choices on what we can use.

What I learned:

• The concept of free and open source software.

• Software as

a piece

of

property.

• The ethical issues surrounding free and open source software.



24



1. What is free and open source software?

2. How is software considered to be a piece of property?

3. What rights can be exercised by a developer on his software?

4. Is the free and open source movement wrong?

5. What positive effects does the free and open source movement bring about?



25


Chapter 11: Internet Research Ethics: The Field and Its Critical Issues

Amazon Reference:


Quote:

“Internet research

ethics

(IRE)

is

an

emerging

multi

‐and

interdisciplinary

field

that

systematically studies the ethical implications that arise from the use of the Internet as a space or locale

of, and/or tool for, research.”


I expect to learn about Internet Research ethics and the ethical issues that it addresses.

Review:

The Internet as a medium and method of research has been a god‐send to many. Imagine the

countless high school and college students whose academic lives have been saved thanks to information

that they

got

from

the

Internet.

Let’s

face

it,

not

everyone

has

the

time

or

even

the

resources

(for

extremely poor or hostile societies) to get information from a library. But there are certain issues

surrounding the use of the Internet as a research tool and medium. Some of these are accountability or

integrity of the material, copyright, and availability of information.

In many libraries, certain informational materials are banned from access to a select group of

people. For example, children cannot gain access to material that is considered to be unsuitable to their

age group, or certain materials that encourage freedom in society is banned in communist countries like

China. But on the internet, almost nothing is banned. As long as you can read and understand English,

which is the language used by most of the websites today, you can access and learn about almost

anything. But seeing as almost anyone can make use of the Internet, the material that you are reading

may

or

may

not

come

from

a

legitimate

source.

Also,

many

people

on

the

internet

just

directly

copy

the

material on the internet as it is and present it as their own. This is plagiarism and violates the right of the

original writer as the owner of the work. And what is probably the biggest issue when it comes to

information on the internet is censorship. Just recently, Google dropped its website in China because

the Chinese government was forcing it to censor a lot of information that it deemed was inappropriate

for their society. This goes against what Google wants which is a free and open internet where anyone

can access what they want. These are only some of the issues that Internet researchers face and will

probably remain amidst efforts to answer them.

What I learned:

• The internet as a research medium and tool.

• The ethical issues surrounding the internet as a medium and tool for research.

• Internet Research

Ethics

as

an

ethical

principle



26



1. What is Internet Research Ethics?

2. How is it different from other ethical principles?

3. Why should there be a distinction of the internet as a research tool and medium from other

similar methods and tools?

4. What are some issues facing the use of the internet as a research tool?

5. Can the ethical issues be addressed? Why or why not?



27


Chapter 12: Health Information Technology:

Challenges in Ethics, Science, and Uncertainty

Amazon Reference:


Quote:

“It is sadly and too often the case that many professionals regard ethics as a source of codes for

the edification of the not‐yet‐virtuous.”


I expect to learn about the ethical issues surrounding the use of IT in the health professions.

Review:

The application of information technology in the health professions has had an overall positive

effect ever since it was first used as such. But it is not without its share of issues. Ethics in the health

professions is

more

complex

seeing

as

they

are

directly

involved

in

the

preservation

of

human

life;

couple that with the not‐so‐clear field of information ethics and problems arise. The chapter basically

focuses on three main problems arising from the use of IT in health: privacy and confidentiality, use of

decision support systems, and development of personal health records.

The use of medical health records in hospitals and other health care institutions poses a very

serious problem: privacy and confidentiality. Many patients need to disclose information that can be

both life‐threatening if not disclosed and potentially damaging if made known to many people. The

medical profession entails that any patient information should be held in the strictest confidence, i.e.

between the doctor and the patient only. But not everyone is thrilled to have their health records be

transferred to a digital format. Electronic health records increases the risk of having other people gain

access

to

sensitive

information

and

not

many

patients

are

to

keen

to

readily

embrace

the

development.

The use of decision support systems is another issue in health. To what extent should doctors depend on

information systems to make potential life‐and‐death decisions instead of their own experience and

expertise? Many such systems take the place of doctors in making diagnoses and other important tasks,

which may not be acceptable to many. I, myself, find it quite weird and unconventional. Lastly, the

concern on electronic personal health records is that they are not readily available to the patients

themselves. Many believe that patients should control their doctor’s access to personal information and

the electronization and organization of such places their control on such matters to almost zero.

What I learned:

• The positive and negative effects brought about by IT to the health professions.

• The ethical issues surrounding IT in its use in the health professions.

• The importance of trust and confidence in the doctor‐patient relationship.



28



1. What are the positive effects brought about by the use of IT in the health professions?

2. What are the negative effects brought about by the use of IT in the health professions?

3. What are the three main issues surrounding the use of IT in the health professions?

4. Are any of the concerns justifiable?

5. What can be done to answer such concerns?



29


Chapter 13: Ethical Issues of Information and Business

Amazon Link:


Quote:

“Information is becoming increasingly important in most aspects of our lives, and this is

particularly true for our economic activities.”


I expect to learn about how developments in information technology have influenced business

ethics.

Review:

Business as a very diverse field requires a code of ethics as diverse, if not more diverse, in order

to facilitate operations that conform to moral standards. Business ethics is considered by some to be an

oxymoron, seeing as “business” and “ethics” are simply too different, much like how water and oil don’t

mix. But this view is erroneous, seeing as business activities are dictated upon by certain moral norms,

like honoring contracts and providing accurate product information. Certain moral norms like these are

what sustain economic transactions.

Information and computer ethics is also a very diverse field seeing as information technology

can be applied in a wide range of other fields. But when information technology is applied in business,

then a more diverse code of ethics is required in order for the union to conform to moral standards. The

main

concern

with

the

IT‐

business

union

is

that

information

is

of

great

importance

to

the

management

of the business. Businesses seek to maximize profits by either minimizing costs or maximizing revenue.

Seeing as information is needed to implement policies and practices that can achieve both, the business

value of information is equated to the financial gains that it can achieve.

Based on my previous statement alone, business ethics that cater to information issues is very

much needed. We need to have underlying rules that tell us what we should or should not do when it

comes to information in business applications. For example, what steps are acceptable when it comes to

maximizing employee productivity and which are not? Are measures like increasing working hours to 50

hours a week acceptable or aren’t they? Business and information technology mix but can ethics be a

part of

the

union

too?



30


What I’ve learned:

• The need for a code of ethics for business applications of information technology.

• The value of information in business.

• Why ethics is integrally part of most if not all business activities.


1. Why is ethics an integral part in most business activities?

2. Why is there a need for a code of ethics for business that includes information technology?

3. Why is information valued very highly by businesses?

4. How can ethics help resolve information‐related business issues?

5. Would it be possible to have an ethical code that could suit the information problems of

businesses?



31


Chapter 14: Responsibilities for Information on the Internet

Amazon Link:


Quote:

“This is all the more astonishing as the global phenomenon of the Internet lacks a unique

governance core, hierarchy, and central control mechanisms.”


I expect to learn about the ethical issues that could arise from the use of the Internet as an

information provider.

Review:

The Internet is such a unique information provider because it doesn’t have set organizational

and control mechanisms but it is still able to be so and in such an effective way. But seeing as no one

controls the Internet, what can stop individuals from posting information that is morally sensitive to

some people? Also, what can stop a person who is deemed to be unsuited to access certain sensitive

information from doing so? The answer to both questions is most probably: absolutely nothing. So, can

anyone be blamed for any wrong access to information?

There is only one group of people who can really control a normal person’s access to the

Internet: Internet Service Providers. They are the ones who allow regular people access to the Internet,

which of course includes children. The Internet is filled with information, sometimes graphic in nature,

which

can

be

racist,

sexual,

or

offensive

to

some

people.

This

information

is

readily

available

to

many

of

the ISPs clients, including children. Should ISPs be blamed for any wrong access to information?

The Internet is supposed to be free and ISPs are delivering their service as such. But when is this

freedom too much? Should ISPs be held responsible for any wrong access to information on the

Internet, especially those made by children? The problem here is that there are two conflicting sides to

the issue and both offer perfectly sound arguments when it comes to making their case. I personally

believe that ISPs should not be held responsible, rather I believe that parents should be the ones who

should discipline their children on what to do or not to do while on the Internet. This is because what is

considered unacceptable to some people may be the opposite for others. ISPs aren’t responsible to

know that,

rather

it

is

the

individual

families

that

are.



32



• The ethical issues concerning the use of the Internet as an information provider.

• The role of ISPs in providing information through the Internet.

• The problem of information access that can’t probably be solved.


1. What is peculiar about the Internet as an information provider?

2. What is the role of ISPs in providing information?

3. What is the main problem about information access that involves the Internet?

4. Can this issue be solved?

5. How can this issue be acted upon?



33


Chapter 15: Virtual Reality and Computer Simulation

Amazon Link:


Quote:

“Virtual reality and computer simulation have not received much attention from ethicists.”


I expect to learn about the ethical issues that could arise from virtual reality and computer

simulation.

Review:

The rise of new technologies usually involves the need for ethical principles that specifically

target the new developments and how they are applied. This is especially true when it comes to

technology that has never been seen before. Although virtual reality and computer simulations are

specifically designed to help individuals in specific activities, like flight simulators to help aviation

students learn how to operate an airplane, certain ethical issues can arise. These issues include

misrepresentations, biased representations, and indecent representations.

The problem with virtual reality and computer simulation is when they substitute false images of

what is seemingly real. The problem is oftentimes completely missed by the ones who create the

substitute reality but is quickly picked up by those who find it offensive or inappropriate.

Misrepresentation occurs when the simulation inaccurately depicts the features of a real world scenario.

This

is

because

a

simulation

must

adhere

to

standards

of

accuracy.

Biased

representations

on

the

other

hand occur when a simulation represents a scenario wherein certain individuals or groups are put in a

disadvantageous position or some interests are prioritized over others. This is probably a more obvious

problem when it comes to virtual reality and computer simulation as opposed to the previous one.

Lastly, indecent representations occur when a simulation portrays something that is offensive and does

not conform to moral sensibilities.

When it comes to virtual reality and computer simulation, ethical problems arise at almost every

opportunity. Especially when it comes to gaming, ethical issues arise with almost every game that comes

out. Issues like “this game is too violent” or “this game is too graphic”, are too commonplace. The

problem here

is

that

the

line

between

what

should

be

portrayed

accurately

and

what

should

be

portrayed to conform to moral sensibilities is blurred in too many areas.



34



• The ethical issues concerning virtual reality and computer simulation.

• The three main problems when it comes to representation in virtual reality and computer

simulation.

• The conundrum

faced

when

it

comes

to

accurate

representation

and

toning

them

down.


1. What is virtual reality?

2. What is computer simulation?

3. What general purposes do they serve?

4. What are the three main problems that concern virtual reality and computer simulation?

5. What is the problem concerning accurate representation and toning them down?



35


Chapter 16: Genetic Information: Epistemological and Ethical Issues

Amazon Link:


Quote:

“At a higher level, molecular biologists claim that cells and molecules are machinery similar to

computers...”


I expect to learn about the ethical issues concerning genetics and its connection with

information ethics.

Review:

Information in the context of genetics pertains to a sequence of data that is contained in a piece

of DNA or amino acid in a protein. The “Central Dogma of Genetics” generally pertains to the replication,

transcription, and translation of this information. This usually allows for the information to be replicated

in a piece of DNA, transcripted in a piece of RNA, and is translated into proteins. This central dogma tells

of a cell’s ability to store, express, replicate, and change information.

The main theme of this essay is about the ethics concerning genetics and information, which can

be loosely related to the central dogma of genetics that was mentioned in the preceding paragraph.

Seeing as genetic information among family members is generally similar, especially among siblings,

then an issue arises. If a person were to be diagnosed with a certain genetic disease or abnormality, he

or

she

might

want

to

keep

the

diagnosis

private

so

as

to

not

jeopardize

the

reputation

of

his

family.

This

is perfectly reasonable but if the genetic disease or abnormality was detrimental to the welfare of

others, then the family concerned may need to take measures to avoid such things to happen which

would result in the loss of privacy regarding the matter.

Genetics on its own is such a touchy matter to many people. But seeing as it is inherently linked

to information, more ethical issues arise. Ethical codes to facilitate conduct when it comes to genetics

may not be really needed anyway. Even if a code of ethics for genetics did exist, would that stop other

people from criticizing it still?

What I’ve

learned:

• The ethical issues concerning genetics and information.

• The inherent connection of genetics and information.

• The possible needlessness for a code of ethics for genetics.



36



1. What is genetics?

2. What is the central dogma of genetics?

3. Why can’t genetics and information be treated separately?

4. What are some of the ethical problems concerning genetics and information?

5. Why is

there

a possible

lack

of

need

for

a code

of

ethics

for

genetics?



37


Chapter 17: The Ethics of Cyber Conflict

Amazon Link:


Quote:

“…most cyber attacks appear to be unethical as well as illegal.”


I expect to learn about cyber conflict and the ethical issues concerning it.

Review:

Cyber conflict, as the term implies, is about attacks that are conducted on the Internet. Most

cyber attacks are usually considered unethical although things do get blurry when it comes to what they

seek to achieve. Are cyber attacks acceptable if they seek to achieve good ends? Can cyber conflict be

justifiable in any way?

There are three main areas of cyber conflict where ethical issues are more problematic. These

three areas are: national security, politically or socially motivated attacks, and cyber defense. When it

comes to cyber conflict involving national security, is it justifiable to launch cyber attacks if it meant that

your country would remain secure and safe? If so, are there any ethical rules to facilitate such an attack?

This is very problematic seeing as the attacks seek to achieve good ends through the use of not so good

means. Extreme utilitarianism, which is represented in the previous scenario, has been more or less

proven to be not so effective when it comes to resolving ethical conflicts. But when lives are at stake,

can

we

still

regard

extreme

utilitarianism

as

ineffective?

Similarly,

politically

or

socially

motivated

attacks are geared towards achieving good ends through very questionable means. “Hacktivism” has

been proven to be very good in getting attention but is it good? The third area, however, is entirely

different from the previous two. Cyber defense sometimes involves the attacked party’s retaliation. Is a

retaliatory action justifiable if the attacking party was the aggrieved party in a previous cyber attack? Is

revenge justifiable in this context?

Cyber attacks are usually regarded as unethical and wrong. But can there be cases where cyber

attacks are justifiable? These are questions that we may not possibly answer.



38



• The ethical issues concerning cyber conflict.

• The three main problem areas in cyber conflict.

• The problem of not being able to fully justify nor debunk the arguments in the three main

problem areas.


1. What is cyber conflict?

2. What are the three main problem areas in cyber conflict?

3. What are some ethical problems regarding the three main problem areas?

4. Can these ethical problems be justified or debunked?

5. Why can or why can’t they be justified or debunked?



39


Chapter 18: A Practical Mechanism for Ethical Risk Assessment:

A SoDIS Inspection

Amazon Link:

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook‐

Information‐

Computer‐

Ethics/dp/0471799599

Quote:

“Informaticians have been evolving and refining techniques to mediate risks of developing

software products that meet the needs of their clients.”


I expect to learn about risk assessment and the ethical issues concerning it.

Review:

Risk assessment

as

a part

of

the

software

development

process

is

very

important,

seeing

as

it

enables developers to create systems that cater to the specific needs of their clients without having to

sacrifice functionality. Many of the risks that software development teams seek to address are on‐time

delivery, sticking to budgets, and meeting all customer requirements. Although there are risk

assessment and analysis models in place, many software development projects still do not meet

customer requirements, nor do they stick to budgets, nor are they delivered on time. All these problems

are ethical in nature because the development teams are expected to deliver the software according to

constraints that they have agreed to with their clients.

The risks involved in system development are not limited to seemingly mundane things that

customers want

to

be

implemented.

Rather,

information

systems

are

required

to

be

able

to

deliver

certain things, and the failure to do so would be a very large risk indeed. The SoDIS (Software

Development Impact Statement) is used to identify potential negative impacts of a proposed system and

specify actions that will mediate those impacts. The SoDIS process is still an ongoing project, i.e. it is still

being refined to be a more suitable risk assessment and solution providing analysis method.

Risk assessment is a vital part of the software development process. But seeing as risk

assessment methods in place are still not good enough to consistently identify possible risks and the

efforts needed to answer them, developers are still unable to fully deliver software that is complete on a

consistent basis.


• The ethical issues concerning risk assessment methods.

• Some problems regarding risk assessment methods.

• The impact they have on the developers’ clients.



40



1. What is risk assessment?

2. What role does it play in the software development process?

3. What are some problems regarding current risk assessment methods?

4. How can

inconsistent

risk

assessment

methods

impact

the

customers?

5. How can the problems be resolved?



41


Chapter 19: Regulation and Governance of the Internet

Amazon Link:


Quote:

“The primary concern here is what, if anything, should be governed or regulated.”


I expect to learn about governance and regulation on the Internet and the ethical issues

concerning them.

Review:

What we should consider first is what exactly is the concern of internet governance. As defined

by the Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG), internet governance is the development and

application of governments , the private sector, and civil society, in their respective roles, of shared

principles, norms, rules, decision‐making procedures, and programs that shape the evolution and use of

the Internet (WGIG, 2005). The WGIG is the organization set up by the United Nations to investigate

internet governance. What concerns internet governance, based on the definition, is the incorporation

of political and policy issues, specifically: who, if anybody should be in charge, and what, if anything

should be governed or regulated.

There have been moves by many states, especially the liberally democratic ones such as the

United States of America and Australia, to control the content that is shared on the internet. The

rationale

behind

this

is

that

most

forms

of

media

like

television,

radio,

and

print

materials

have

regulations regarding the content that can be posted and how acceptable should be presented. The

same cannot be said with the Internet, because it is a completely different form media. The same rules

cannot be applied to it.

The problem with censorship and regulation on the internet is that there is a strong case against

the moral one which is to regulate the posting of obscene and harmful content. Such regulations would

not be a very effective deterrent to those who post such materials since it is very difficult to enforce the

political will necessary seeing as the Internet is not bounded by physical national boundaries nor is

under the jurisdiction of any one state or organization.


• Internet governance.

• The ethical issues concerning internet governance.

• The reason why internet governance is hard to implement.

•



42



1. What is internet governance?

2. What organization was formed to investigate internet governance?

3. What are some ethical issues concerning Internet governance?

4. Can internet governance be achieved?

5. Why can’t

internet

governance,

specifically

censorship

and

content

regulation,

be

enforced?



43


Chapter 20: Information Overload

Amazon Link:


Quote:

“Indeed Google… and Wikipedia… are themselves attempts at taming the fire hose of

information by helping to organize it and make it more manageable.”


I expect to learn about information overload and the ethical issues surrounding it.

Review:

Information overload is a condition which an agent[a person] has, is exposed to, or is provided

with, too much information and suffers negative consequences as a result, such as being unable to make

a decision. Information is supposed to be something that is to be utilized in doing tasks, especially the

cognitive ones such as analysis and decision‐making. Too much information, though, seems to yield the

exact opposite of what it is initially supposed to do. Seeing as we live in a multimedia information age

where information can be accessed via a variety of means, such as the internet, television, radio,

cellphones, and print materials, the possibility of having too much information is exponentially higher

than with what past generations would have had.

Information overload has many possible outcomes regarding the state of the person

experiencing it. As was stated in its definition, these outcomes are negative in nature, i.e. it causes harm

to

the

person

or

the

task

that

the

person

trying

to

complete.

One

possible

outcome

is

that

the

person

has too much information that he or she doesn’t go through all of them and doesn’t bother to cross‐

reference data and thus produces a report that is lacking in substance. This could also result in the

person feeling a diminished sense of achievement. When the output of the task is substantially

inadequate, i.e. it falls beneath established standards, then the task can be considered failed and the

person responsible could suffer consequences from other people, especially in the context of a

workplace.

There have been many efforts to combat information overload. These include technological

solutions (e.g. such as email filters), social solutions (e.g. taking “technology‐free” vacations), and legal

solutions (e.g.

“Don’t

Call

Lists”

in

US

Legislations).

But

none

of

these

will

truly

remove

the

problem

of

information overload, so long as we continue to have the mentality that “too much” is just enough.


• Information overload.

• The negative consequences of information overload.

• The possible solutions to information overload.



44



1. What is information overload?

2. Why is information overload a problem?

3. What are some negative consequences of information overload?

4. What are some proposed solutions to combat information overload?

5. Why are

these

solutions

not

fully

effective?



45


Chapter 21: Email Spam

Amazon Link:


Quote:

“The conceptual muddles about defining spam have immediate philosophical and legislative

consequences.”


I expect to learn about email spam and the ethical and legal problems surrounding it.

Review:

Estimates place spam as constituting 80% of internet traffic, but this estimate is questionable

simply because there has been no consensus as to the exact definition of spam. What exactly is “spam”?

Spam is simply defined as “unsolicited electronic messaging” but this definition is still being contested

by many people. Some groups emphasize that only the lack of consent on the part of the receiving party

must be absent in order for it to be categorized as spam, however, other groups require that messages

be commercial in nature before they are considered as spam. Others still, qualify email as spam only if

other messages identical to it were sent to a large group of people. This lack of a definition, as a

consequence, makes it very hard to draft legislation to regulate it.

These are the usual criteria on determining whether an email is spam or not: the content of the

message, intent of the sender, consequences to the receiver, consent of the receiver, relationship

between

the

sender

and

receiver,

the

accountability

of

the

sender

and

degree

of

deception,

number

of

identical emails sent, illegality, and size of the message. With each criterion, different groups have

provided different definitions on whether a message is spam or not. For example, with regards to the

content of the message, many consider any email that has unwanted content (on the part of the

receiver) as spam. But this is not always the case; for example an email might contain a message from a

person’s boss that he or she was fired from his or her job. This is obviously unwanted but this isn’t

usually categorized as spam.

Definition is not the only thing that is hurting anti‐spam measures. The open nature of the

Internet itself is making it very hard to introduce efforts that would curtail email spam. These two

problems make

it

very

hard

to

introduce

measures,

especially

legislative

ones,

to

limit

email

spam

or

remove it entirely from cyberspace.


• Email spam.

• The difficulties in introducing anti‐spam measures.

• The criteria on how to categorize an email as spam or not.



46



1. What is email spam?

2. What percentage of email traffic is categorized as spam?

3. Why is this estimate questionable?

4. What are the criteria on how to categorize an email as spam?

5. What are

the

two

problems

on

how

to

introduce

anti

‐spam

measures?



47


Chapter 22: The Matter of Plagiarism: What, Why, and If

Amazon Link:


Quote:

“An expression is only plagiarism if it is unacceptable on some established value.”


I expect to learn about plagiarism and its implications.

Review:

Plagiarism is loosely defined as improperly incorporating existing work either without

authorization or without documentation, or both. But there are instances where we can legally copy

other people’s existing work into our own even without authorization or documentation. This is because

not all content exists as someone’s intellectual property. For instance, facts are in the public domain and

can thus be used by anyone in their work. But the line between public domain and someone’s

intellectual property is so blurry in some areas that it becomes very difficult to determine whether it

would be legal to incorporate them into our own work. Plagiarism is a serious offense and many careers

and reputations have been tarnished as a result of its practice.

The concept of plagiarism is founded on the ideas of intellectual property and copyright. When

something is the ownership of someone else, it is only right that we consult them as to our usage of

their possession. But in terms of intellectual property, the concept of ownership is technically different.

For

instance,

the

object

in

question

isn’t

physical

and

couldn’t

be

really

borrowed,

in

a

sense.

So,

the

usual rules of ownership don’t necessarily apply in this scenario. Sometimes it is already acceptable if we

just cite the reference of our work (i.e. acknowledge that we used someone else’s work to finish ours).

But at other times, we can’t use another person’s work unless they have explicitly authorized us to do

so.

With the advent of new technology, the opportunities for plagiarism increase exponentially.

There is no clear cut solution in combating plagiarism on the internet, rather, it has been proposed that

the scope of plagiarism should be made smaller so as to allow some acts that we would normally

consider as plagiarism. Whether we do so or not, plagiarism is and will continue to be a threat to

intellectual ownership,

especially

on

the

internet.


• Plagiarism on the internet.

• The scope of plagiarism.

• The possible solution to lessen the problems of plagiarism.



48



1. What is plagiarism?

2. What constitutes plagiarism?

3. On what ideas is plagiarism based on?

4. What are the possible consequences of plagiarism?

5. How can

the

number

of

plagiarism

cases

be

lessened?



49


Chapter 23: Intellectual Property:

Legal and Moral Challenges of Online File Sharing

Amazon Link:

http://www.amazon.com/Handbook‐

Information‐

Computer‐

Ethics/dp/0471799599

Quote:

“Is the downloading or ‘sharing’ of copyrighted music morally reprehensible?”


I expect to learn about file sharing on the internet and their ethical implications.

Review:

With the onset of new technologies, particularly Peer‐to‐Peer (P2P) networking, file sharing has

been made

not

only

faster

but

it

also

provides

an

avenue

where

it

can

be

done

almost

effortlessly

which

encourages users to utilize them more and more. Many people have used file sharing technologies

seeing as they can get what they want at usually no charge. iTunes usually charges $1.00 for every song

download, others have bundle promos where they can download a large number of songs for a

relatively low fee. But true file sharing entails the free flow of files (usually music and movies) from one

user to another. Technologies that support this include: LimeWire, FrostWire, and bitTorrent. But the

question still remains, is the practice of online file sharing morally acceptable?

Many people do not usually regard music and movies as something that they need to pay for in

order to enjoy them. This is usually because these same people do not regard them as someone else’s

property, at

least

in

a sense.

This

is

because

intellectual

property

is

something

that

is

not

clearly

defined,

and the things attributed to it cannot be justifiably enforced. This is because the very nature of an

intellectual object has unique characteristics that make it hard to define, unlike physical ones.

The individual recipients are not the only ones who draw the ire of the music and movie

industries. The very developers and owners of the file sharing technologies are also drawing heat as

music and movie companies are suing them for “secondary liability”, though without much success.

So, is file sharing unethical? From a legal perspective, we don’t really know. The scope of

intellectual property has yet to be clearly defined, thus the laws that are designed to protect them are

either ineffective

or

haven’t

been

drafted

yet.


• File sharing on the internet.

• The role of intellectual property rights in the discussion of online file sharing.

• The problems faced by music and movie companies due to online file sharing.



50



1. What is file sharing?

2. What is intellectual property?

3. What technology supports online file sharing?

4. Why can’t

file

sharing

be

totally

ruled

out

as

an

illegal

practice?

5. What should be the first step in finding a solution to this problem?



51


Chapter 24: Censorship and Access to Expression

Amazon Link:


Quote:

“Although there are numerous calls to arms to resist censorship and compilations of instances of

censorship around the globe, little work has been done to help us understand the concept itself.”


I expect to learn about censorship and if this is too much of a restriction to one’s freedom of

expression.

Review:

Fundamental to the understanding of censorship is the understanding of access to expression.

Expression is anything that is made by one person and communicated to others. This could include print

materials such as books and articles, and also other forms, such as speeches, personal communications,

data compilations, works of art, photographs, music, and even videos and movies. The reason why we

would want to access these expressions is that we have interests in them. Specifically, these are the

interests of expression, in deliberation, and in information. Without these three, we wouldn’t even

bother to gain access to expressions.

With this in hand, we can now proceed in trying to understand what censorship is. Censorship is

defined as a restriction or limitation of access to an expression, portion of an expression, or category of

expression,

which

has

been

made

public

by

its

author,

based

on

the

belief

that

it

will

be

a

bad

thing

if

people access the content of that expression. But then again, who is to say whether the content of the

expression is bad for the person accessing it? Negative consequences are relatively different for every

person. For example, one’s tolerance for violence may be low, thus an expression which contains

expressively graphic scenes of violence may be bad for you, but to another person with a high tolerance

for such scenes, they would be relatively tame and would not be troubling or upsetting to him or her.

Based on this, can we safely conclude that censorship is morally right or not? The need for the

freedom of expression and the protection of people clash in this debate. One cannot favor one without

diminishing the other. Generally, harmful content is viewed in similar terms by everyone else. But other

content may

not

be

so,

and

thus

censorship

may

not

be

appropriate.

Censorship,

in

my

opinion,

must

be

justifiable in the harm that it can befall those who access it before it is undertaken.


• Censorship.

• Access to expression.

• The problem of classifying censorship as unethical or not.



52



1. What is censorship?

2. What is access to expression?

3. What is an expression?

4. Why is censorship undertaken?

5. Why is

one’s

freedom

of

expression

compromised

when

censorship

is

practiced?



53


Chapter 25: The Gender Agenda in Computer Ethics

Amazon Link:


Quote:

“The idea that gender is a major (possibly even the major) way of classifying and ordering our

world has been propounded by a number of authors, mainly, although not exclusively, writing from a

feminist position.”


I expect to learn about the gender issues that affect the study of computer ethics.

Review:

Gender is probably one of the easiest ways of classifying things in our world. Even in language.

Spanish is a unique language in that assigns a gender to a noun. For example, the common phrase to call

a bull fighter is “el matador ”, which is masculine. You hardly get to hear the feminine form “la matador”.

Similarly, we used to classify job positions with gender, where many professions were supposedly only

for men while many other professions were only for women. We still practice that to some extent today

but job opportunities are more or less equal when it comes to both genders. But how does the issue of

gender affect ethics and its study?

Over the last few decades, feminist movements and women empowerment have gained a hold

in most societies. Feminism in ethical studies has a twofold job. Firstly, it forms a substantial critique of

traditional

ethical

theories,

which,

it

argues,

can

be

seen

as

masculine

in

conception.

Feminism,

it

seems, would like to debunk many traditional ethical theories since they mostly cater only to masculine

ideologies instead of giving women equal opportunity. Secondly, it seeks to develop new feminist forms

of ethics, derived, at least in part, from the challenge to mainstream ethics but focusing on women’s

moral experiences in order to make normative judgments on a wider range of issues. In particular,

feminism focuses on those areas where women have traditionally assumed a subordinate role or where

they have had negative experiences because of their gender.


• The role of gender in the development of ethical theories.

• The two

jobs

of

feminism

in

ethical

study.

• The specific focus area of feminism when it comes to ethical study.



54



1. How does gender affect the study of ethics?

2. What are the two jobs of feminism in the study of ethics?

3. Why did feminism come to exist?

4. What is the goal of feminism?

5. Why does

feminism

seek

to

debunk

masculine

ideologies?



55


Chapter 26: The Digital Divide: A Perspective for the Future

Amazon Link:


Quote:

“There is, of course, a comparative lack of meaningful access to information communications

technologies.”


I expect to learn about the gap between the “informationally rich” and “informationally poor”.

Review:

We are all familiar with the economic divide between the rich and the poor. On one hand, we

have the rich who not only get to have the necessities of life but also get to enjoy certain luxuries. On

the other hand, the poor of the world are hardly able to survive day by day. Two billion people out of

the six billion of the more than 200 countries of the world only live by on less than $3.00 a day. Contrast

this with the “poor” of the more affluent nations of the world. The “affluent poor” are those who still

get to enjoy certain luxuries but not as much and not as often as the real rich. The lines between the

economically rich and poor can be blurry at times but can the line between the informationally rich and

poor be even more blurry?

Informational or digital gaps include the lack of access to information technology resources, lack

of skills to use these IT resources, inability to use IT resources to compete in a global economy, and a

lack

of

abilities

to

process

and

absorb

information.

What

does

this

digital

divide

have

to

do

with

ethics?

Well, seeing as some nations are more well‐developed and have citizens who can not only exist with

their basic needs but can also enjoy some luxuries of life, thus they have the moral obligation to

redistribute some of their wealth to other nations who have much, much less. The problem with this

statement is that it is not clear whether rich nations truly have an obligation to help the impoverished

ones instead of just labeling the said act of helping as supererogatory, wherein non‐compliance of which

is not against moral standards.

The problem of poverty is one of the most prioritized problem areas of many nations. Yet, it still

exists not only in its economic form but in its informational form as well. The task now is to not only

empower the

poor

to

seek

lofty

economic

goals

but

informational

ones

as

well.


• The gap between the informationally rich and poor.

• The role of economic poverty in this gap.

• The problem of whether helping impoverished nations or people is obligatory or not.



56



1. How many of today’s population live at a very impoverished level?

2. How do the rich nations’ “poor” live?

3. What are informational gaps that are present today?

4. How does poverty affect the informational gaps?

5. Is helping

impoverished

people

a moral

obligation?

Why

or

why

not?



57


Chapter 27: Intercultural Information Ethics

Amazon Link:


Quote:

“The present IIE debate follows the international debate on information ethics that… were

aimed at reaching a consensus on ethical principles to be implemented through practical policy…”


I expect to learn about the information ethics and the intercultural issues that it faces.

Review:

Intercultural information ethics (IIE), like most areas of ethical study, is not that very well‐

defined as many would like. There are two ways of approaching this area of study, one which is through

a narrow definition and another which is more broad. The narrow perspective is focused on the impact

of information and communication technology on different cultures as well as on how specific issues are

understood from different cultural traditions. This narrow perspective is the most common one seeing

as it is the most obvious idea that comes to mind when hearing the phrase “intercultural information

ethics.” The narrow definition of IIE results in its being a reactive ethical principle, i.e. it only defines acts

or practices as ethical or otherwise once they have been carefully scrutinized but not before they

happen. However, the broad perspective provides a more proactive approach to intercultural

information ethics. The broad perspective deals with intercultural issues raised by ICT and other media,

which allows a largely historical view. It is proactive in the sense that while the acts or practices are

ongoing

or

still

haven’t

been

done

yet,

e.g.

the

technology

is

still

being

developed,

discussion

can

already begin so as to determine whether they are ethical or not.

Many issues are discussed in the IIE debate including, privacy, censorship, and the right to

expression, among others. Many different cultures have many different ways of approaching these

issues and are usually very good in handling their own experiences with them. But when cultures meet

each other, and they do seeing as the Internet is a global network, which side is right and which is wrong

when their views don’t see eye to eye? This is very similar to the moral isolationism theory which is also

strongly related to differences in culture. The solution might also be similar, which is to set aside

differences and try to understand the others in mutual discourse. Of course, some things are easier said

than done.


• Intercultural Information ethics (IIE).

• IIE’s two perspectives.

• IIE’s similarity with moral isolationism.



58



1. What is Intercultural information ethics?

2. What are its two branches?

3. How are they different?

4. Which ethical theory is strikingly similar to IIE?

5. What is

the

possible

solution

to

intercultural

issues

raised

by

ICT?

Documents

Morals Digitalized: Reviews on Information and Computer Ethics