MOR Lecture 2.doc

7/27/2019 MOR Lecture 2.doc

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Characteristics of Research

1. Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by theresearcher.

2. Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles.

3. Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process. It starts with a problem and ends with aproblem.

4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytic procedures in gathering the data,

whether historical, descriptive, experimental, or case study.

5. Replicability. The research designs and procedures are replicated to enable the

researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.

6. Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.

Types of Research

1. Pure Research. This is also called basic research or fundamental research. It

aims to discover basic truths or principles.

Examples:Charles Law. Jacques Charles Law states that The volume of a dry gas is directly

proportional to the Kelvin temperature, provided the pressure remains constant.

Boyles Law. Robert Boyles Law states that If the temperature remains constant, thevolume of a confined gas is inversely proportional to the pressure.

Hookes Law. Pure research conducted by Robert Hooke resulted in Hookes Law which

states that Within the limit of perfect elasticity, strain is directly proportional to stress.

2. Applied Research. This type of research involves seeking new application of

scientific knowledge to the solution of a problem, such as the development of anew system or procedure, new device, or new method in order to solve theproblem.

3. Action Research. This is a decision-oriented research involving the applicationof the steps of the scientific method in response to an immediate need top improve

existing practices.

Classification of Research

1. Library Research. This is done in the library where answer to specific questions

or problems of the study are available2. Field Research. Research is conducted in a natural setting. No changes are made

in the environment. Field research is both applicable to descriptive survey and

experimental methods.3. Laboratory Research. The research is conducted in artificial or controlled

conditions by isolating the study in a rigorously specified and operationalized

area. The purposes are (1) to test hypotheses derived from theory, (2) to control

variance under research conditions, and (3) to discover the relations between the


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dependent and independent variables. Laboratory research is applicable to

experimental, descriptive and case study method. Example in experimental

method is Cultivation of Milkfish at the Fishpond Using Fish Meal and BreadMeal as Supplemental Feeds.

VARIABLE

A variable is defined as a quantity or a characteristic that has two or more

mutually exclusive values of properties.Example: Sex : two properties , Male, female

Ages of different persons

Size

WeightIncome

Validation and effectiveness

How developed

Contents

ProfileValidity reliability item analysis

Level of performance post test- profile

Significant difference post testPerformance of students

Significant difference

Level of acceptability


Performance Assessment

ProfileLevel of performance


Problems

Assessment of Agriculture Courses

Respondents 4

Profile of

School

Course

Problems encountered variables


Possible solutions


Types of Variable


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1. Independent variable. This is stimulus variable which is chosen by the researcher

to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon.

2. Dependent variable. This is the response variable which is observed and

measured to determine the effect of the independent variable. The focus ofthe investigation which behavioror status is influencedby the independent variable.

3. Moderate variable. This is a secondary or special type of independent variable

chosen by the researcher to ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationships

between the independent and dependent variables.4. Control variable. This is a variable controlled by the researcher in which the

effects can be neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable.

5. Intervening variable. This is a variable which interferes with the independent and

dependent variables, but its effects can either strengthen or weaken theindependent and dependent variable.

ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPERVISORY PRACTICES OF SCHOOL HEADS

Effects of educational attainment of parents on the academic performance of their

children

STRESS COPING TECHNIQUES OF OFW SPOUSE IN SELECTED SUCS IN

CALABARZON

Independent Variable

Sex age monthly income religion highest educational attainment number of years as ofw,

present country assigned as ofw

Dependent Variable

Stress coping techniques

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPERVISORY

PERFORMANCE OF SCHOOL HEADS

Illustration 1

Independent Variable Intervening Variables Dependent Variables

Age, Sex, Civil status,

Experiences,

Socioeconomic status,Values, Attitudes toward

work, etc.

PerformanceEducational

Qualifications


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Senior Students Performance in terms of Percentile Rank

Factors affecting the NCEE percentile rank

Performance Level of senior students in NCEEAssessment of Performance Level of senior students in NCEE

Factors affecting students achievement

Illustration 1

Intervening

NCEE Percentile Rank of the 4th Year High School Students for the School Year 2007-

2008: Implications to DepEds Achievements and Performance

The higher the socio economic status of the students , the higher the percentile

rank, the greater are the achievements

Figure 1. Illustration of Independent, Intervening and Dependent variables.

Other Examples:

The Effect ofMass Media Exposure on Political Knowledge of the Third Year

High School Students of St Martin Montessori School

The Level of Mass Media Exposure and the Effect on Political Knowledge of the Third

year High School Students

The Level of Political knowledge achieved through mass mediaexposure of the Third Year High School Students of St Martin Montessori School

What is the presumed cause? (Independent) Mass Media Exposure

What is presumed effect? (dependent: focus of investigation) Political Knowledge

NCEE Percentile

Rank

Age, Sex, Socio-economic

background, Values,

Attitude toward study, etc.

Achievements


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The more mature the student is, the more he is exposed to

media, therefore he is expected to have higher political

knowledge

Independent Intervening Dependent

Mass Media Exposure sex Political Knowledge

Socio economic status

Residence

age

Examples of Variables:

1. To establish profile of student

2. to establish profile of respondents: teachers, supervisors, superintendents,

parents

Type of Dwelling : Housing type depending on materialsHome lot ownership: owned, not owned

Road Condition: dirt, asphalt, cemented

Education: Highest level completed

Sources of Income: Employment categories

Sex: Female, Male

Civil Status: Single, married,

Age: Specified age bracket

These variables are being presented through a schematic diagram :

Such pictorial illustration or representation makes the relations under study more

vivid, providing the researcher direction as well as the basis for data analysis

Research Problem

1. Is the problem a current and timely one?

2. Is it pervasive or wide spread?

3. Does it affect a special group of people such as mothers or children?

4. Does it relate to on going programs such as land reform, family planning,?

5. Does it relate to broad social, economic and health issues such as

unemployment, income misdistributions?

6. Who else is concerned about the problem?

7. What are its direct and indirect, short and long ranged distributions, to the

welfare of a group or to the whole society?

The researcher should review his answers to these questions and arrange them

into paragraphs that justify the importance of the research problem.

Components of the Research Process

Problem/ Objectives

AssumptionsHypothesesReview of Related LiteratureSummary, Conclusions and RecommendationsResearch Design

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

Data CollectionData Processing and Statistical TreatmentAnalysis and Interpretation


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The Research Problem

An investigator knows that a problem is really researchable when (1) there is no

known solution to the problem (2) the solution can be answered by using statistical

methods and techniques; (3) there are probable solutions but they are not yet tested; or (4)the occurrence of phenomena requires scientific investigation to arrive at precise solution.

The research problem should be stated vividly and explicitly expressed in

interrogative form for questions have the virtue of posing a problem directly.

Characteristics of a Research Problem

The characteristics of a good problem possesses the acronym SMART. This

means that a research should be:

Specific. The problem should be specifically stated;


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Measurable. It is easy to measure by using research instruments (i.e..,

questionnaire, tests. etc.) in collecting data;

Achievable. Thedata are achievable using correct statistical techniques to arrive

at precise results.

Realistic. Real results are not manipulated; and

Time-bound. Time frame is required in every activity because the shorter

completion of the activity the better.

Criteria of a Good Research Problem

1. Interesting. An interesting research problem attracts the attention of the

investigator to study the problem further. It also makes him determined to

work on it until its completion.2. Relevant to the needs of the people. Researcher must keep in mind that they

work not for themselves but for the people.3. Innovative. A good research problem may not be necessarily new. It may be a

restatement and a restructuring of an old problem to make it new. In this

manner, results will be more relevant and useful to a greater number ofpeople.

4. Cost effective. The 4Ms Man, Money, Materials, and Machinery are

needed in conducting research. A research problem should be economical and

effective in solving the problems of the society; it should also augment social,economical and health conditions of the people and many others.

5. Measurable and time-bound. A good research problem is measurable by

using research instruments, like tests, questionnaire, rating scales,observations schedules or interviews, and statistical treatment to arrive at

scientific and meaningful result. A good research can be completed within a

time frame stated. The shorter completion of the project, the better.

The Research Objectives

The researcher should bear in mind that research objectives are different frominstructional objectives. While the characteristic (SMART) of the former is similar in

stating instructional objectives, the latter requires objectives expressed in three domains

of behavior, namely, cognitive (knowledge), psychomotor (skills), and affective (values).A research objective is defined as statement of purpose for which the

investigation is to be conducted.

Similarly, the research objectives are stated specifically in simple language inorder that the researcher finds them easy to measure by using research instruments in

collecting data and these data are achievedwhen correct statistical techniques are used to

arrive at realresults (not manufactured), but for every activity to be done, time frame is

required because the shorter completion of the activity, the better.


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Statement of Research Problem/Objectives

Research problem and research objectives have the same characteristics

(SMART) but they differ in form because the former is stated in interrogative or question

form and the latter, in declarative form.

EXAMPLE

Let us have a study entitled PROBLEMS MET BY SCIENCE AND

MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTORS AND PROFESORS IN STATE

UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES (SUC) IN REGION 6

(WESTERN VISAYAS) IN SCHOOL YEAR 1994-1995.Based on this major

problem, the specific problems are stated as follows:

1.JULIET BELANDRES

THE USE OF TAGALOG IN TEACHING SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY

LEVEL IN DISTRICT I (PASIG I) IN SCHOOL YEAR 2007-2008.

THE USE OF FILIPINO LANGUAGE IN TEACHING

- FACTORS AFFECTING THE LEVEL OF COMPREHENSION OFELEMENTARY LEVEL IN DISTRICT I (PASIG) IN SCHOOL

YEAR 2007-2008.

- THE LEVEL OF SCIENCE COMPETENCIES OF INTERMEDIATE

PUPILS IN DISTRICT I (PASIG), SCHOOL YEAR 2007-2008.

2. SHARON CONTRERAS

ASSESMENT OF SCIENCE STATUS OF GRADES I AND II PUPILS IN THREE CENTRAL

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN BINANGONAN RIZAL IN SCHOOL YEAR 2007-2008.

THE STATUS OF SCIENCE TEACHING IN SELECTED ELEMENTARY

SCHOOLS IN THE MUNICIPALITY OF BINANGONAN

LEVEL OF SCIENCE CONSCIOUSNESS OF GRADES I AND II PUPILS IN

SELECTED ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN THE MUNICIPALITY OF

BINANGONAN

3. MA.CORAZON A. BUADO


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THE IMPACT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM ON COLLEGE STUDENTS

DEVEVELOPMENT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF RIZAL SYSTEM IN THE SCHOOL

YEAR 2007-2008: INPUT TO CURRICULUM ENHANCEMENT

THE STATUS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAM AT THEUNIVERSITY OF RIZAL SYTEM: INPUT TO CURRICULUM

ENHANCEMENT4. GENALIN V. CASALE

EFFECTIVENESS OF SIMPLIFIED MODULE IN SELECTED TOPICS IN SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY OF PILLILA DISTRICT IN THE SCHOOL YEAR 2007-

2008.

DOES THE MODULE ALREADY EXIST?

IF IT IS EXISITING IS IT ALREADY VALIDATED?

ARE YOU REALLY INTERESTED ON ITS EFFECTIVITY?

OR WILL YOU DEVELOP A MODULE UNDER A SIMPLIED CONTEXT?

DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF MODULES IN SELECTED TOPICSIN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY____

5. 5. MAR G. OCAMPO

THE DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF COMPUTER AIDED INSTRUCTIONS

IN SELECTED TOPICS IN PHYSICS

DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF COMPUTER AIDED INSTRUCTIONS

IN SELECTED TOPICS IN PHYSICS

[email protected]

PROBLEMS MET BY SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTORS AND

PROFESORS IN STATE UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES (SUC) IN

REGION 6 (WESTERN VISAYAS) IN SCHOOL YEAR 1994-1995.

The study aims to _________________

Problem. The main problem of this study is to determine the problem met byScience and Mathematics instructors and professors at the SUC in Region 6

(western Visayas) in school year 1994-1995. Specifically, it Attempts to answer

the following question:

1. What are problems met by Science and Mathematics instructors and

professors at the SUC in Region 6 (Western Visayas) in school year 1994-1995 in relation to (a) administration and supervision, (b) instructional

materials, (c) teacher factor, and (d) student factor?

2. What is the most pressing problem met by Science and Mathematics

instructors and professors at the SUC in Region 6 (Western Visayas) inschool year 1994-1995 in relation to administration and supervision,

instructional materials, teacher factor, and student factor?
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]


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3. Is there a significant difference in the mean rank levels of the problems met by

Science and Mathematics instructors and professors at the SUC in Region 6

(Western V isayas) in school year 1994-1995 in relation to (a)administration and supervision, (b) instructional materials, (c) teacher factor,

and (d) student factor?

Objectives. The main purpose of this study is to determine the problem met by

Science and Mathematics instructor and professors t the SUC in Region 6

(Western Visayas) in school year 1994-1995. Specifically, it attempts to answerthe following objectives:

1. To identify the problem met by Science and Mathematics instructor and

professors at the SUC region 6 (Westen Visayas) in school year 1994-1995 inrelation to (a) administration and supervision, (b) instructional materials, (c)

teacher factor, and (d) student factor.

2. To find out the most pressing problem met by Science and Mathematics

instructors and professors at the SUC in Region 6 (Western Visayas) in schoolyear 1994-1995 in relation to (a) administration and supervision, (b)

instructional materials, (c) teacher factor, and (d) student factor.3. To determine the significant difference in the mean rank levels of the

problems met by Science and Mathematics instructors and professors at the

SUC in Region 6 (Western Visayas) in school year 1994-1995 in relation to(a) administration and supervision, (b) instructional materials, (c) teacher

factor, and (d) student factor.

DEVELOPMENT, VALIDATION AND EFFECTIVENESS OF TECHNOLOGY

INTERVENTION INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL (TIIM)IN SELECTED TOPICS IN BIOLOGY

A Thesis Presented to

the Faculty of the Institute of Graduate Studies

University of Rizal System

Antipolo City


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In Partial Fulfillment of

The Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts in Teaching Science

Corina Arias Sumang

March 2010

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Imperative to economic development is quality education. With the belief

that science and technology is a twin vehicle towards the attainment of a

countrys economic development, science education has always been the object

of reform.

Article XIV, Section 10 of the Philippine Constitution states:

Science and Technology are essential for national

development and progress. The state shall give priority to research

and development, invention, innovation and their utilization, and to

science and technology education, training and services. It shall

support indigenous, appropriate and self-reliant, scientific and


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technological capabilities and their application to the countrys

productive system and national life

The Philippines in its quest to alleviate the quality of life of its people, has

done much effort to improve Science instruction and learning in the country. The

significant role which science education plays in the progress and development

of a nation is stressed out in the Philippine Constitution Article XIV Section 3

entitled: Education, Science and Technology, which states that:

All educational institutions shall encourage critical

and creative thinking; broaden scientific and technological knowledge

and promote vocational efficiency.

Science aims to help every Filipino learner to gain a functional

understanding of scientific concepts and principles linked with real-life situations,

and acquire scientific skills, attitudes, and values necessary to analyze and solve

day-to-day problems.

Present day education is feeling tremendous pressures from different

quarters brought about by the rapid changes in the educational trends, and the

advancement of knowledge and technology. Traditional methods and techniques

can no longer suffice the need for quality education, and technology can facilitate

a more effective and experiential learning.

The above mentioned idea was supported by the experts in the field of

education who have given their opinion in one of the trends of change in school

curricula, which is the great reliance on technology n the leaning process,

computer-aided libraries and multimedia systems (Student News Journal, 1998).


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Quality education starts with quality teaching aids like slide projectors,

overhead projectors, TV and VHS player, EZ-pro and LCD project or for

computers and other audio-visual materials (FELTA Newsletter, 1999).

The schools audio-visual program should serve not merely to supply

materials and resources for instruction, but should form as an integral part of the

teaching-learning process. There should be direct involvement of media

professionals with the teachers and students in carrying out such programs.

Technology as a mode of instruction increases the students learning

efficiency through computer-aided instructional materials combine visual and

motor activities with audio/visual inputs to develop his skills and concepts.

Materials that teachers utilize to teach and materials that students use to

learn are designed to reflect the goals of the Philippine educational system. The

success of the curriculum depends to a great extend on the teaching, learning

materials and training methods.

Today, the teachers are challenged to upgrade the educational standard

of transmitting the knowledge of their students to the best they can because of

the rapid changes brought by media and technology since it produced a great

influence on education. Through multimedia a constant flow of facts make

learners well informed, socially aware of events and skilled in receiving and

interpreting visual messages.

Background of the Study


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The National Achievement Test (NAT) results for SY 2005-2006 reflected

a declining education performance of the students in the country. Scores in all

subject areas in both elementary and secondary level went down by about one to

six percentage points, an alarming situation that should be seriously addressed

by the educators of the country. Science was the least of the competencies of

both elementary and secondary students at 46.7% and 38.0%, respectively.

(National Statistical Coordination Board, 2007).

With this, the need for better science instruction is important to the

students in the attainment of higher competencies, which calls for quality and

excellence, relevance and responsiveness, efficiency and effectiveness, and

access equity. In this connection, the task of teaching these subjects are really

difficult and that calls for different approaches, strategies and methodologies so

as the right message is imparted to the students.

Teachers must be qualified to motivate students to facilitate learning

competence, and to provide effective teaching as well as affective training. There

will always be a teacher who will break all rules and yet be profoundly successful.

In other words, it is the good teacher that counts.

Content is delivered using a variety of media and resources. From a

textbook driven coverage of content, schools are encouraged to use Information

and Communication Technology (ICT) and community resources to widen

access to knowledge and to enrich learning.


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The teaching- learning process is interactive where learners, the teachers,

instructional materials and information technology interact with one another.

Learning is assessed using a variety of measures. The purpose is to gather

information about the learners progress in holistic terms. The restructured

curriculum involves innovative, interdisciplinary and integrative modes of

institutional delivery.

It is stated in Article XIV, Section 12 of the Philippine Constitution that the

state shall regulate and transfer and promote the adoption of technology in all

sources for the national benefit.

In addition, Presidential Decree No.6A, Section 5 states:

One of the educational objectives is to design utilize

and improve instructional technology and develop or produce

textbooks and other instructional materials leading to quality

education

Technology is an increasingly influential factor in education. Computers

and mobile phones are being widely used in developed countries both to

complement established education practices. Technology is being used more not

only in administrative duties in education but also in the instruction of students.

The use of technologies such as PowerPoint and interactive whiteboard is

capturing the attention of students in the classroom. Technology is also being

used in the assessment of students ( en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education )

Technologies such as the Internet and the World Wide Web are the

revolutionizing ones attitude toward education information systems. The

education sector was not exempted from these communication changes. The
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_PowerPointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactive_whiteboardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_PowerPointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactive_whiteboardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education


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open-ended system is conceived to act as a tool for information technology

continues to expand in a variety of levels. Access to it and creation of information

is not an activity available to anyone, any place and anytime. Bringing this

information system to the classroom is a major accomplishment, for it can open

the door for new ways of thinking and learning.

Teaching and learning through the traditional lecture method is now

considered not very effective. What is more recent is the utilization of interactive

learning materials and techniques. This is to create a breakthrough that leads to

a mental excitement by actively discovering relationship for oneself, rather than

passive waiting specific information to be transmitted

Thus, the use of technology intervention instructional material is very

important to help students cope with their difficulties and enrich their

understanding of the different concepts in Biology. It can also give enough

opportunity for the teachers to impart the lesson in a comprehensive manner

wherein lessons are now translated into computer to facilitate the teaching-

learning process and would increase his effectiveness.

It is therefore the purpose of this study to assess the effectiveness of

technology intervention instructional material in teaching Biology. Whatever the

results of the study will be the basis for producing an innovative instructional

materials in the different fields of Science and Technology.

The study will help Biology teachers in their daily classroom discussion. It

is not a tool to lecture the students but to enhance teacher-student interaction.

This material can help improve further quality of instruction at Manggahan High


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School . A student who was absent for whatever reasons can borrow the cd and

study the lessons he missed. It can also be utilized by a substitute teacher during

Biology period.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

The study primarily aims to assess the effectiveness of technology

intervention instructional material in teaching Biology. This will be conducted on

the first grading period, school year 2009-2010 at Manggahan High School in

Pasig City .

The researcher employs the descriptive method of research for the

assessment of the effectiveness of technology intervention instructional material

in teaching Biology. The result of the first departmental examination in Biology

administered the previous school year was used as the basis of the learning

tasks for the two groups of respondents students and Biology teachers. This

material focuses on three chapters during the first grading period of the school

year 2009 2010 that have least mastered skills.

Statement of the Problem .

This study attempts to assess the effectiveness of technology intervention

Instructional material in Biology during the first grading period of the school year

2009 2010.


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Specifically, the study seeks to answer the following sub-problems:

1. How did the students, Biology teacher and Computer teacher-respondents

assess the Effectiveness of Technology Intervention Instructional Material

in Biology in terms of the following variables?

1.1 Instructional adequacy

1.2 Cosmetic adequacy

1..3 Curriculum adequacy

2. How significant was the difference in the assessment of the student,

Biology teacher and Computer teacher-respondent as to the above

mentioned variables

Null Hypothesis:

There is no significant difference between the assessments of the student,

Biology teacher and Computer teacher-respondents in the effectiveness of

technology intervention instructional material in teaching Biology as regards to

instructional, cosmetic, and curriculum adequacies.

3. How significant is the difference between the pretest and posttest

scores of the sample student respondents?

Null Hypothesis:

There is no significant difference in the pretest and posttest scores of the

sample student respondent.


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The Hypothesis

A hypothesis is defined as a wise guess that is formulated and temporarily

adopted to explain the observed facts covered by the study. A hypothesis guides theinvestigator in that it describes the procedure to follow in conducting the study.

Hypothesis is important for it tells the investigator what to do and how to go about

solving a research problem. The researcher is in a much better position if there arehypotheses to guide him on the kind of data to collect.

Types of Hypothesis

The null hypothesis (Ho) is a denial of an existence of attribute, a relationship or

a difference of an effect. It is always stated in a negative form. In contrast, the

alternative hypothesis (H1) is the opposite extreme of the null hypothesis because this is

always stated in a positive form. Alternative hypothesis is an affirmation of the existenceof an observed phenomenon.

EXAMPLE

Problem: Is there a significant difference in the mean rank levels of the problem

met by Science and Mathematics instructors and professors at the SUC Region 6(Western Visayas) in school year 2007-2008 in relation to (a) administration and

supervision, (b) instructional materials, (c) teacher factor, and (d) student factor?

Null Hypothesis (Ho): There is no significant difference in the mean rank levels ofthe problems met by Science and Mathematics instructors and professors

(Ho): X1 = X1 = 0

Where:

Ho = null hypothesis

X1 = mean value of the problems met by Science instructors and

professors

X2s = mean value of the problems met by Mathematics instructors

and professors

Since there is no difference in the mean rank levels of the problems met by

Science () and Mathematics () instructors and professors, hence, the difference is equal

(=) or zero (0).

EXAMPLE


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Alternative hypothesis (H1): There is a significant difference in the mean rank

levels of the problems met by Science and Mathematics instructors and professors

H1: X1 X2 ; either, X1 > X2 or X1 < X2

Since there is a difference in the mean rank levels of the problems met by Science(X1) and Mathematics (X2) instructors and professors, hence, the difference is not equal

(=); either X1 is greater than (>) X1 or X2 is lesser than (


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1. People have certain attitudes toward anything.

2. The subjects under study belong to a certain socio-economic stratification.

3. Administrators or mangers experience job-related tension.4. Rural families have lesser income than their counterparts in urban areas.

Assumptions

Assumptions are presumed to be true statements of facts to the related to the

research problem. They are clearly stated to give readers of research papers, theses and

dissertations a foundation to form conclusions resulting from assumptions.Some researchers may state their assumption outright, but it is advisable that

evidences or arguments in support of these assumptions are presented first.

Not all studies have a section on assumptions in their study because some of these

are included in the background of study.

The following are examples of assumptions:

1. The work-oriented curriculum provides the youth rich and variedopportunities to apply classroom learning in real life-situations and to be

involved in community development, thereby offering experiences for self-realization as well as infusing their lives with greater meaning.

2. The work-oriented curriculum has profound implication for home and school

cooperation in the development of desirable work habits and practical skills-In-school experiences must be followed up and encourage at home.

3. Value-oriented, work oriented, and production-oriented curricula are needed

to develop socially and economically productive individuals.

Scope and Limitations

Scope

The scope defines the coverage or boundaries of the study in terms of the and for the

research issues or concerns to which the investigation is focused area or locality andsubjects or population covered, the duration or period of the study, and the research

issues or concerns to which the investigation is focused.

Limitations are statements which alert the reader of the research report to certainconstraints over which the researcher has no control .

Such factors or constraints have direct bearing on the result of the study such that,without them, the study would be more encompassing, definitive or conclusive

Stating the study limitations not only provides extra credence to the study butprovides the reader caution not to expect beyond what the study can and promises to

deliver, notwithstanding certain constraints.

Examples


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The study covers all of the women of reproductive ages of Pasig City. To last for

seven months, the study is focused on the knowledge of, attitude towards, andpractice of family planning techniques, natural or otherwise. (scope)

The study would be more comprehensive if it covers more areas.This will entail more money, man power which the researcher does not have.

( limitations)

Definition of terms

Serves two essential functions:

1. It establishes the rules and procedures the investigator will use to measure

variables2. It provides unambiguous meaning to terms that otherwise can be interpreted in

different ways

Two types of Definitions:

Conceptual- universal, in that it is the meaning understood by people. It is abstractand more general in nature. The most usual source is dictionary.

Operational definition is the meaning of the concept or the term as used in a particularstudy. Unlike the conceptual definition, it is concrete in that it is subject to

measurement. The usual practice when using both type of definition is to state first

the conceptual before the operational.

Theoretical Framework

Some thesis/ dissertation writers use both the theoretical and the conceptualframework; however, it is advisable to use only one, either the theoretical or the

conceptual framework.

Both theoretical and conceptual frameworks provide clear explanations regardingthe relationships of variables. The fact that variables can be shown to be associated but

does not guarantee that the relationship of variables has significance. Hence, research

study must have theoreticframeworkas legal basis to describe properly the process of the

study.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework shapes the justification of the research

problem/research objectives in order to provide the legal basis for defining its parameters.

It is desirable for an investigator to identify key concepts that are used in the study forbetter understanding of the role of the theory in research.

Theoretical framework is a symbolic construction which uses abstract concepts,

facts or laws, variables and their relations that explains and predicts how an observed

phenomenon exists and operates. An investigator is required to formulate existing


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theories which link his study because theories are useful devise for interpreting,

criticizing, and unifying established scientific laws or facts that guide in discovering new

generalizations.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework presents specific and well defined concepts which are

called constructs. It function is similar with theoretical framework because the constructs

used are derived from abstract concepts of the theoretical framework.

EXAMPLE

Level Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable

Theoretical Educational Qualifications Values Performance

Conceptual B.S. MS/MA, Ph D/Ed. D. Age, Sex, C. Status Social Outstanding

and economic status Very Satisfactory

Attitudes toward work Etc. SatisfactoryFair

Unsatisfactory

Scope and Limitation of the Study

Scope and limitation of the study is an important section of a thesis, dissertation,

and research paper. This includes the coverage of the study area, the subjects, the

research instruments, the research issues or concerns, the duration of the study, and theconstraints that have direct bearing on the result of the study.

This is the last section of a thesis, dissertation, and research paper in chapter 1.Theses and dissertation do not include this section of the study if there are more than

fifteen terms defined because this portion is for the glossary. In this section, the key

terms are clearly defined.

There are two ways to define the key terms used in the study:]

1. Conceptual Definition. The definitions of terms are based on concepts or

hypothetic ones which are usually taken from the dictionary.2. Operational definition. The definitions of terms are based on observable

characteristics and how it is used in the study.

It is advisable that the researcher should use two ways in defining the terms to

make the meaning clear. The operational definition is preferable when defining technicalterms.


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SAMPLING

Sampling is the procedure a researcher uses to gather

people, places, or things to study. Research conclusions and

generalizations are only as good as the sample they are based

on. Samples are always subsets or small parts of the total

number that could be studied. If you were to sample everybody

and everything, that would be called a quota sample. Most

research, however, involves non-quota samples. For example, if

you were interested in state prison systems, you might sample

15 or so state prison systems. There are formulas for

determining sample size, but the main thing is to be practical.

For a small population of interest, you would most likely need

to sample about 10-30% of that population; for a largepopulation of interest (over 150,000), you could get by with a

sample as low as 1%.

Before gathering your sample, it's important to find out as

much as possible about your population. Population refers to

the larger group from which the sample is taken. You should at

least know some of the overall demographics; age, sex, class,

etc., about your population. This information will be needed

later after you get to the data analysis part of your research,

but it's also important in helping you decide sample size. The

greater the diversity and differences that exist in your

population, the larger your sample size should be. Capturing

the variability in your population allows for more variation in


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your sample, and since many statistical tests operate on the

principles of variation, you'll be making sure the statistics used

later can do their powerful stuff.

After you've learned all the theoretically important thingsabout your population, you then have to obtain a list or contact

information on those who are accessible or can be contacted.

This procedure for listing all the accessible members of your

population is called the sampling frame. If you were planning

on doing a phone survey, for example, the phone book would

be your sampling frame. Make sure your sampling frame is

appropriate for the population you want to study. In this case,

the Census Dept. says that 93% of us have a phone, so that'snot too bad, but you have to decide if any of the unique

characteristics of people you're interested in studying are lost

by selecting a restrictive sampling frame. The term refers to

the procedure rather than the list. It's important for

researchers to discuss their sampling frame because that's

what ensures that systematic error, or bias, hasn't entered into

your study.

Then, you are ready to draw your sample. There are twobasic approaches to sampling: probabilistic and

nonprobabilistic. If the purpose of your research is to draw

conclusions or make predictions affecting the population as a

whole (as most research usually is), then you must a use

probabilistic sampling approach. On the other hand, if you're

only interested in seeing how a small group, perhaps even a

representative group, is doing for purposes of illustration or

explanation, then you can use a nonprobabilistic samplingapproach.

The key component behind all probabilistic sampling

approaches is randomization, or random selection. Don't

confuse random selection with random assignment. Random


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selection is how you draw the sample. Random assignment is

how you assign people in your sample to different groups for

experimental or control group purposes. People, places, or

things are randomly selected when each unit in the population

has an equal chance of being selected. Various methods havebeen established to accomplish probabilistic sampling:

Simple random sampling -- All you need is a relatively small, self-contained, or clearly defined population to use this method. The population

of the U.S. might be too big, but a city of say 60,000 or so would be

appropriate. You simply obtain a list of all residents, and then using a

sequence of numbers from a random numbers table (or draws of a hat, flips

of a coin), select, say 10%, 20%, or some portion of names on that list,

making sure you aren't drawing from any letter of the alphabet more heavily

than others. Stratified random sampling -- This method is appropriate when you're

interested in correcting for gender, race, or age disparities in your

population. Say you're planning to study the impact of police training on

mid-level career cynicism, and you know that gender is going to be an

important factor because female police officers rarely take this kind of

training and/or quit before making it to their mid-level career stage. You

therefore need to stratify your sample by the gender strata, making sure that

you oversample females (draw more of random number of females) as

opposed to males (which you would undersample). For example, if the

department has 1000 employees consisting of 900 males and 100 females, and

you intend on sampling 10% of the total, then you proceed randomly asusual, drawing 90 males at random and 10 females at random. If you had

used the employee list of names, regardless of gender, you might not have

obtained 10 females at random because there's so few of them.

Systematic random sampling -- Suppose you had a huge list of people,places, or things to select from, like 100,000 people or more. The appropriate

method to use is to select every 10th, 20th, or 30th person from that list. Your

decision to use every 10th, 20th, or 30th person is called your sampling

interval, and as long as you do it systematically and use the entire list, you're

accomplishing the same thing as random sampling.

Cluster (area) random sampling -- Suppose you have a population that isdispersed across a wide geographic region. This method allows you to divide

this population into clusters (usually counties, census tracts, or other

boundaries) and then randomly sample everyone in those clusters. For

example, you could randomly select 5 of North Carolina's 100 counties, but

you would have to make sure that almost every person in those 5 counties

participated in your study. As an alternative, you could systematically


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sample within your clusters, and this is called multi-stage sampling, which

refers generally to any mixing of sampling methods.

Various methods have also been established to accomplish nonprobabilistic

sampling:

Quota sampling -- As discussed earlier, sampling everybody andeverything is quota sampling. The problem with it is that bias intrudes on the

sampling frame. One the researcher identifies the people to be studied, they

have to resort to haphazard or accidental sampling because no effort is

usually made to contact people who are difficult to reach in the quota.

Convenience sampling -- Also called haphazard or accidental, this methodis based on using people who are a captive audience, just happen to be

walking by, or show a special interest in your research. The use of volunteers

is an example of convenience sampling.

Purposive sampling -- This is where the researcher targets a group ofpeople believed to be typical or average, or a group of people specially picked

for some unique purpose. The researcher never knows if the sample is

representative of the population, and this method is largely limited to

exploratory research.

Snowball sampling -- Also called network, chain, or reputational, thismethod begins with a few people or cases and then gradually increases the

sample size as new contacts are mentioned by the people you started out

with.

THE SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION

The sampling distribution is a hypothetical device that figuratively represents the

distribution of a statistic (some number you've obtained from your sample) across

an infinite number of samples. You have to remember than your sample is just one

of a potentially infinite number of samples that could have been drawn. While it's

very likely that any statistics you generate from your sample would be near the

center of the sampling distribution, just by luck of the draw, the researcher

normally wants to find out exactly where the center of this sampling distribution is.

That's because the center of the sampling distribution represents the best estimate

of the population average, and the population is what you want to make inferences

to. The average of the sampling distribution is the population parameter, and

inference is all about making generalizations from statistics (sample) to parameters

(population).

You can use some of the information you've collected thus far to calculate the

sampling distribution, or more accurately, the sampling error. In statistics, any

standard deviation of a sampling distribution is referred to as the standard error


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(to keep it separate in our minds from standard deviation). In sampling, the

standard error is referred to as sampling error. Definitions are as follows:

Standard deviation -- the spread of scores around the average in a singlesample

Standard error -- the spread of averages around the average of averages ina hypothetical sampling distribution

You never actually see the sampling distribution. All you have to work with is the

standard deviation of your sample. The greater your standard deviation, the greater

the standard error (and your sampling error). Standard error is also related to

sample size. The larger your sample, the smaller the standard error. You're not

reducing bias or anything by increasing sample size, only coming closer to the total

number in the population. Validity and sampling error are somewhat similar.

However, you can estimate population parameters from even small samples.

The best way to estimate population parameters is to use a confidence intervalapproach. Take the mean score on some variable in your sample and calculate the

standard deviation for it. Then, assuming a bell-shaped curve (or normal

distribution which is OK to assume), add your standard deviation to the mean

(going one direction on the x-axis under the curve), and then subtract your standard

deviation from the mean (going the other direction). The standard rule is that 65%

of cases in real life (the population) will be between these extremes. If you add and

subtract two standard deviations from the mean, another rule states that

approximately 95% of scores in real life will fall between these two extremes. If you

go out three standard deviations, you include 99% of the cases. With the 65, 95, and

99 percent rules, you are actually predicting population characteristics, and all this

from just your sample. You've made the first application of your research study tothe wider population of interest. All you need to know is how to calculate a

standard deviation, and the formula appears below:


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SOURCE: Trochim, William M. The Research Methods Knowledge Base, 2nd Edition. Internet WWW page, at URL:

(version current as of 06/29/00).

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. How do researchers decide how large a sample to use?

2. What is a sampling frame and why is it important?

3. When should a researcher use nonprobabilistic sampling?

4. How is the logic of validity and sampling error related?

PRACTICUM:

For each of the following, determine whether the sampling method used is SR (Simple

random), ST (Stratified random), SY (Systematic random), or NP (nonprobabilistic):A. Drawing names out of a hat

B. Picking out typical criminals from a prison lineup

C. Going into a room and asking for volunteers

D. Randomly selecting within variable subgroups

E. Selecting every name on the first page of a phone book

F. Putting a survey on the Internet for people to respond by computer

G. Dialing random telephone numbers

H. Flipping a coin while going down a list one-by-one

Significance of the Study

The significance of the study in a thesis/dissertation or in a research paper is a

must. For research projects seeking for financial assistance by other agencies,significance of the study should be presented comprehensively in order to convince the

screening committee of the importance of the study.
http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/index.htmhttp://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/index.htm


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It is in this section where the researcher expresses his persuasions about the value

of the study so as to get the approval of the screening and approving committee and the

support of the funding institution.

The discussion of the significance of the study is presented either in the inductive

or deductive perspective. In an inductive perspective, the researcher moves from theparticular to the general, and presents the importance of the study from the target

beneficiaries, to the researcher himself, to the people in the community, to the people in

the province, region and nation. Likewise in a deductive perspective, general toparticular, discussion of the importance of the study starts first from the national level

to the researcher himself and to the target beneficiaries.

The investigator should prove that the study has important contributions inrelation to (a) solving the problem and need, (b) bridging a knowledge gap, (c) improving

social, economic and health conditions, (d) enriching research instruments and methods,

and (e) supporting government thrusts.

The significance of the study may be presented from different perspectives. For

example if the study is on social concerns, its contributions may be viewed from the pointof view of the planners and decision makers, the implementers, the funding institution,

and the target beneficiaries.

Activity:

Submit the first part of your research.

Review of Related Literature:

Literature: all the writings of a particular time, countryvalued for excellence

Any written materialpoetry, a novel, a book or an article.. which meets the required

character, form and expression

Reports on studies or investigations is one form of literature

Why the Review

1. Provide researchers knowledge and background on the subject under study

2. Enable the researcher to avoid duplicating or doing the same study that wasalready done before. Unless the researchers aim is to find out the change over

time on the same issue.

3. The review provides the researcher information about the aspects of theproblem which have not been investigated or explored before.

4. By reviewing related literature, the researcher will be helped in developing

various parts of his study such as definition of problems and terms, research


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design, data gathering techniques and instrument, level and statistical tools for

analysis and form of report and style presentation.

5. The review provides the researcher insight on the weakness and problems ofprevious studies. It will give him ideas on how to handle or avoid the same

problems which he may encounter in his own study.

6. It also provides the researcher ideas how to proceed with his investigation. Itwill give him guidance on how and where to start.

7. In relational study, review provides the researcher basis in determining what

variables are related with each other, the types of their relationship, and howto analyze and measure these relationships.

8. The review provides findings and conclusions of the past studies which the

researcher may relate to his own findings and conclusions.

9. Studies reviewed will provide the researcher motivation and impetus that willensure a good progress toward the goal of completing his study.

Some requirements for the review:

1. Involves systematic identification, location and critical analysis of

documents which contain information related to the research topic.2. Requires good knowledge of techniques and tools as well as the skill in

knowing library resources.

3. There is a need for the researcher to carry 3x5-inch index cards and a pen

Guides in Doing the Review

1. Examine what is already on hand2. List all the titles of relevant resources- working bibliography

Bibliography: refers to the editions, dates, authorship, publisher, etc. of booksand other writings

3. With his working bibliography as a guide, he proceeds to examine eachmaterial.

a. His first reading maybe done superficially without paying attention

to details since the goal here is identify paragraphs which are

related to his research.b. Examine carefully those parts of the article which have bearing or

connection to his particular study.

4. In note taking, the researcher must start with bibliographical informationwhich he will write on the top most left hand corner of the index card.

5. Enclose with quotation marks direct quotations

Example:

Kendall, M.G. Rank Correlation Methods .Fourth Edition. London: Charles

Griffin and Company, Ltd., 1970.


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Parel, Crisitina P. et al.Introduction to Statistical Methods. Manila: Macaraig

Publishing Company, Inc., 1966.

Presidential Decree No. 146. National College Entrance Examination March

9, 1973.

Ferguson, George A. Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education. Fourth

Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1976.

Sims, Verner M. The Objectivity, Reliability and Validity of an Essay

Examination Graded by Rating Journal of Educational Research.24:216-

223.

De Guzman, Anita G. Educational Tests and Measurements

Mimeographed.1974.

Darley, John G. and Theda Hagenah. Vocational Interest Measurement.Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press, 1984.

Youde, Sheryl R. Sociological Analysis of the Acceptance and Rejection of

Modern Medical Practice in the Philippine Barrio, Masters Thesis,

University of the Philippines, 1960.

Paz de Leon, Reneecilia B. Graduate Education in CABARZON,

Dissertation, University of Rizal System, 2001.

Activity:

Submit a review of literature related to the topic of your research.

Exploration of Descriptive Design:

Descriptive:

Descriptive research is a design which aims to describe the nature of the

situation as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the causes of

particular phenomena. (Travers, 1978)

Most common means of obtaining information

Descriptive research Forms:

1. survey2. case study

3. content analyses

4. trend analyses

5. feasibility study


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6. correlational study

DATA COLLECTION

This can be determined with:

Objectives of the study

Research design

Operational feasibilityAvailability of resources that includes money, time and personnel

Types of research Data

Data refers to research results from which inferences are drawn.(Kerlinger,

1986)

They can be classified according to source and form

By source data can be classified as primary and secondary

Primary data are those which are directly gathered from

informants of the study.

Secondary data are those which have been previously gathered, compiledand are made available for the researcher for examination and analysis.

By form, data can be quantitative or qualitative.

Quantitative when data are numerical in nature and have the property ormeasurability

Qualitative when data are descriptions of the basic nature of characteristics of

the object under investigation.

Data Collection Methods

Observation is one of the earliest methods for collecting data.(Ardales,1987).

The observer watches closely the overt behaviors of the subjects underinvestigation in various natural settings

Participant Observation when the researcher actually participates to a certain

extent in the activities of the group.

Non participant Observation is when the group is not aware they are being

observed.


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Observation may be classified into two other categories:

1. Structured and

2. Unstructured

Structured- the researcher knows what aspects of the group activity are

relevant to his or her purposes and is therefore in the position to develop aspecific plan for the making and recording of observations before the

collection of data. The researcher uses an observation guide.

Unstructured observation is open and flexible. The researcher is notrestricted to his observation guide. The researcher is even free to change

the objectives of the study.

In doing a study of a social institution, the researchers observation shouldbe focused on these common elements:

1. Participants- who are they, how many, how they are related with one

another

2. The setting- location, appearance, kinds of behavior it encourages,permits or discourages or prevents

3. The purpose-what purpose brought the participants together, how the

participants react to it, rejection

4. The social behavior- what participants do, how they do it and withwhom and with what do they do it

5. Frequency and duration- when the situation occurred, how long it

lasted, how frequently it occurred and what occasions gave rise to it.

Interviews

Mans oldest device for obtaining observation

Two types of Interview:

Structured

Unstructured

Questionnaire

Set of carefully prepared AND LOGICALLY ORDERED QUESTIONS

Guide:

1. On Content


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Is the question necessary? Are the several questions needed

on the subject matter of the questions?

Do respondents have the information necessary to answerthe questions?

Does the question need to be specific, concrete and closely

related to the respondents personal experience? Is the question so specific such that it elicits inaccurate or

misleading responses?

Do the replies express general attitudes and only seem to beas specific as they sound?

Is the question content biased or loaded in one direction,

without accompanying questions to balance the emphasis?

Will the respondents give information that is asked for?

2. On Question Wording

Can the question be misunderstood? Does it contain

difficult or unclear phraseology? Does the question adequately express the alternatives with

respect to the points? Is the question misleading because of unstated assumptions

or unseen implications? Is the frame of reference clear and

uniform for all respondents?

Is the question wording biased? Is it emotionally loaded or

slanted toward a particular kind of answer?

Is the question wording likely to be objectionable to the

respondent in any way? Would a more personalized or less personalized wording of

the question produce better results?

Can the question be better asked in a more direct or a moreindirect form?

3. On the Form of response

Can the question be best asked in a form calling for checkanswer (or, short answer of a word or two, or a number), free

answer, or check answer with follow-up free answer?

If a check list is used, which is the best type for this question dichotomous, multiple choice or scale?

Is a check list is used, does it cover adequately all the

significant alternatives without overlapping and in a defensible

order? Is the form of response easy, definite, uniform, and adequate

for the purpose?

4. On the Place of the Question in the sequence

Is the answer to the question likely to be influenced by the

content of preceding question?


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Is the question led up to in a natural way? Is it in correct

psychological order?

Does the question come too early or too late from the point ofview of arousing interest and receiving sufficient attention,

avoiding resistance, etc?

Documents

MOR Lecture 2.doc