Yo Mama's GOPThe Truth

PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information. PDF generated at: Wed, 12 Oct 2011 15:12:36 UTC

ContentsDemocratic-Republican Party Federalist Party Republicanism in the United States James Madison Alexander Hamilton John Adams George Washington United States Constitution Electoral College (United States) Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution John Jay Federalist Papers Reconstruction Era of the United States Jim Crow laws Black Codes (United States) Anti-miscegenation laws Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States Corporative federalism Political system Associated state Athenian democracy Benevolent dictatorship Broad bottom government Carceral archipelago Church and state in medieval Europe Confederation Confessionalism (politics) Constitutionally limited government Cooperative federalism Corporatism Counterintelligence state Deliberative opinion poll Demarchy Despotism Dual monarchy Electocracy 1 12 24 34 55 80 105 132 172 195 201 214 221 255 266 270 277 286 287 289 293 304 305 305 308 310 315 316 317 319 328 330 332 338 340 341

European Union Fascism Federacy Federalism Gerontocracy List of hereditary monarchies History of Parliamentarism Illiberal democracy Imperialism Integralism Intergovernmentalism Inverted totalitarianism Khanate Liberal democracy Model state constitution Monarchy Multi-party system New Federalism Night watchman state Ochlocracy Opposition to democracy Panchayat (Nepal) Personal union Political division Presidential system Proprietary community Real union Representative assembly Reserved political positions Semi-presidential system Single-party state Superstate System of Government under the Holy Prophet Titular ruler Totalitarianism Two-party system Unitary authority Western European parliamentary model

342 375 404 409 422 425 427 430 432 438 440 440 443 445 460 460 467 468 469 471 473 474 474 483 484 493 495 495 497 501 503 507 508 508 509 515 520 522

Westminster system World-system World-systems theory Form of government American Civil War Slave Power Slavery in the United States Slavery Reparations for slavery

523 530 532 545 547 580 582 613 637

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 646 667

Article LicensesLicense 676

Democratic-Republican Party

1

Democratic-Republican PartyDemocratic-Republican Party or Republican Party

Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson founded the party together with James Madison and was later elected president as its nominee. Founded Dissolved Preceded by Succeeded by Ideology 1792 1825 Anti-Administration Party Jackson Men (later Democratic Party), Anti-Jackson (later National Republican Party) Republicanism, Jeffersonian democracy, states' rights Quid faction: Agrarianism, pro-French Madisonian faction: Nationalism, isolationism

Official colors Red, white and blue (worn in cockades to counter Federalist black cockades)

The Democratic-Republican Party or Republican Party was an American political party founded in the early 1790s by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. Political scientists use the former name, while historians prefer the latter one; contemporaries generally called the party the "Republicans", along with many other names. In a broader sense the party was the concrete realization of Jeffersonian democracy. It was formed first in Congress and then in every state to contest elections and oppose the programs of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton. Jefferson needed to have a nationwide party to counteract the Federalists, a nationwide party recently formed by Hamilton. Foreign affairs took a leading role in 1795 as the Republicans opposed the Jay Treaty with Britain (then at war with France) and supported good relations with revolutionary France (until Napoleon became a dictator after 1799). The party insisted on a stringent standard for derivation of any proposed powers for the United States Government, and denounced many of Hamilton's measures (especially the national bank) as unconstitutional. The party was strongest in the South and weakest in the Northeast; it favored states' rights and the primacy of the yeoman farmers and the planters over bankers, industrialists, merchants, and investors. The Jeffersonians were deeply committed to the principles of republicanism, which they feared were threatened by the supposed monarchical tendencies of the Federalists. The party came to power with the election of Jefferson in 1800. The Federaliststoo elitist to appeal to most peoplefaded away, and the Republicans, despite

Democratic-Republican Party internal divisions, dominated the First Party System until partisanship itself withered away after 1816. The presidents selected by the party were Thomas Jefferson (18011809), James Madison (18091817), and James Monroe (18171825). After 1800, the party dominated Congress and most state governments outside New England. It selected presidential candidates through its caucus in Congress, but in 1824, that system broke down. The dominant faction of the party supported Andrew Jackson and evolved into the Democratic Party, a continuation of the original party with a truncated name. The other main faction, led by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay, formed a new party initially known as the National Republicans; it evolved into the Whig Party, the northern wing of which eventually became the civil-war-era Republican Party.

2

FoundingMadison started the party among Congressmen in Philadelphia (the national capital) as the Republican party;[1] then he, Jefferson, and others reached out to include state and local leaders around the country, especially New York and the South.[2] The precise date of founding is disputed, but 1792 is a reasonable estimate; some time in the early 1790s is certain. The new party set up newspapers that made withering critiques of Hamiltonianism, extolled the yeomen farmer, argued for strict construction of the Constitution, favored the French Revolution, strongly opposed Great Britain, and called for stronger state governments than the Federalist Party was proposing.[3]

Presidential elections of 1792 and 1796The elections of 1792 were the first ones to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis. In most states the congressional elections were recognized, as Jefferson strategist John Beckley put it, as a "struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest." In New York, the candidates for governor were John Jay, a Federalist, and incumbent George Clinton, who was allied with Jefferson and the Republicans.[4] Four states' electors voted for Clinton and one (Kentucky) for Jefferson for Vice President in opposition to incumbent John Adams as well as casting their votes for President Washington. (Before 1804 electors cast two votes together without differentiation as to which office was to be filled by which candidate.) In 1796, the party made its first bid for the presidency with Jefferson as its presidential candidate and Aaron Burr as its vice presidential candidate. Jefferson came in second in the electoral college and became vice president. He was a consistent and strong opponent of the policies of the John Adams administration. Jefferson and Madison were deeply upset by the unconstitutionality of the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798; they secretly wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, which called on state legislatures to nullify unconstitutional laws. The other states, however, did not follow suit and several rejected the notion that states could nullify federal law. The Republican critique of Federalism became wrapped in the slogan of Principles of 1798, which became the hallmark of the party. The most important of these principles were states' rights, opposition to a strong national government, distrust of the federal courts, and opposition to the navy and the national Bank. The party saw itself as a champion of republicanism and denounced the Federalists as supporters of monarchy and aristocracy.[5] The party itself originally coalesced around Jefferson, who diligently maintained extensive correspondence with like-minded republican leaders throughout the country. Washington frequently decried the growing sense of "party" emerging from the internal battles among Jefferson, Madison, Hamilton, Adams and others in his administration. As warfare in Europe increased, the two factions increasingly made foreign policy the central political issue of the day. The Republicans wanted to maintain the 1777 alliance with France, which had overthrown the monarchy and aristocracy and become a republic. Even though Britain was by far America's leading trading partner, Republicans feared that increased trade would undermine republicanism. The Jeffersonians distrusted Hamilton's national bank and rejected his premise that a national debt was good for the country; Republicans said they were both forms of corruption. They strongly distrusted the elitism of Hamilton's circle, denouncing it as "aristocratic"; and they called for state's rights lest the Federalists centralize ever more power in the national governments.[6]

Democratic-Republican Party The intense debate over the Jay Treaty in 179495, transformed those opposed to Hamilton's policies from a loose movement into a true political party. To fight the treaty the Jeffersonians "established coordination in activity between leaders at the capital, and leaders, actives and popular followings in the states, counties and towns."[7] However they were defeated when Washington mobilized public opinion in favor of the treaty.

3

Party strength in CongressHistorians have used statistical techniques to estimate the party breakdown in Congress. Many Congressmen were hard to classify in the first few years, but after 1796 there was less uncertainty.Election Year House Federalist Republican 1788 1790 1792 1794 1796 1798 1800 1802 1804 1806 37 28 39 30 43 51 54 51 47 59 56 57 49 46 60 46 43 38 65 63 39 103 73 25 116 82 24 118 83

Percentage Republican 43 Senate Federalist Republican

1788 1790 1792 1794 1796 1798 1800 1802 1804 1806 18 8 16 13 45 16 14 47 21 11 34 22 10 31 22 10 31 15 17 53 9 25 74 7 17 71 6 28 82

Percentage Republican 31

Source: Kenneth C. Martis, The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, 1789-1989 (1989). The numbers are estimates. The affiliation of many Congressmen in the earliest years is an assignment by later historians; these were slowly coalescing groups with initially considerable independent thinking and voting; Cunningham noted that only about a quarter of the House of Representatives, up till 1794, voted with Madison as much as two-thirds of the time, and another quarter against him two-thirds of the time, leaving almost half as fairly independent. Albert Gallatin recalled only two caucuses on legislative policy between 1795 and 1801, one over appropriations for Jay's Treaty, the other over the Quasi-War, and in neither case did the party decide to vote unanimously.[8]

Organizational strategyThe new party invented some of the campaign and organizational techniques that were later adopted by the Federalists and became standard American practice. It was especially effective in building a network of newspapers in major cities to broadcast its statements and editorialize its policies.[9] Fisher Ames, a leading Federalist, used the term "Jacobin" to link members of Jefferson's party to the radicals of the French Revolution. He blamed the newspapers for electing Jefferson; they were, he wrote, "an overmatch for any Government. The Jacobins owe their triumph to the unceasing use of this engine; not so much to skill in use of it as by repetition."[10] As one historian explained, "It was the good fortune of the Republicans to have within their ranks a number of highly gifted political manipulators and propagandists. Some of them had the ability to not only see and analyze the problem at hand but to present it in a succinct fashion; in short, to fabricate the apt phrase, to coin the compelling slogan and appeal to the electorate on any given issue in language it could understand." Outstanding propagandists included editor William Duane and party leaders Albert Gallatin, Thomas Cooper and Jefferson himself.[11] Just as important was effective party organization of the sort that John J. Beckley pioneered. In 1796, he managed the Jefferson campaign in Pennsylvania, blanketing the state with agents who passed out 30,000 hand-written tickets, naming all 15 electors (printed tickets were not allowed). He told one agent, "In a few days a select republican friend from the City will call upon you with a parcel of tickets to be distributed in your County. Any assistance and advice you can furnish him with, as to suitable districts & characters, will I am sure be rendered." Beckley was the first

Democratic-Republican Party American professional campaign manager, and his techniques were quickly adopted in other states.[12] The emergence of the new organizational strategies can be seen in the politics of Connecticut around 1806, which have been well documented by Cunningham. The Federalists dominated Connecticut, so the Republicans had to work harder to win. In 1806, the state leadership sent town leaders instructions for the forthcoming elections. Every town manager was told by state leaders "to appoint a district manager in each district or section of his town, obtaining from each an assurance that he will faithfully do his duty." Then the town manager was instructed to compile lists and total the number of taxpayers and the number of eligible voters, find out how many favored the Republicans and how many the Federalists, and to count the number of supporters of each party who were not eligible to vote but who might qualify (by age or taxes) at the next election. These highly detailed returns were to be sent to the county manager and in turn were compiled and sent to the state manager. Using these lists of potential voters, the managers were told to get all eligible people to town meetings and help the young men qualify to vote. The state manager was responsible for supplying party newspapers to each town for distribution by town and district managers.[13] This highly coordinated "get-out-the-vote" drive would be familiar to modern political campaigners, but was the first of its kind in world history.

4

Revolution of 1800The party's electors secured a majority in the 1800 election, but an equal number of electors cast votes for Jefferson and Aaron Burr. The tie sent the election to the House, and Federalists there blocked any choice. Finally Hamilton, believing that Burr would be a poor choice for president, intervened, letting Jefferson win (a move that would result in the collapse of the Federalist Party and Hamilton's death, four years later, at the hands of Burr in a pistol duel). Starting in 1800 in what Jefferson called the Revolution of 1800, the party took control of the presidency and both houses of Congress, beginning a quarter century of control of those institutions. A faction called Old Republicans opposed the nationalism that grew popular after 1815; they were stunned when party leaders started a Second Bank of the United States in 1816. In 1804, the party's Congressional caucus for the first time created a sort of national committee, with members from 13 states charged with "promoting the success of the republican nominations."[14] That committee later was disbanded and did not become permanent. Unlike the Federalists, the party never held a national convention, but relied instead on its Congressional caucus to select the national ticket. That caucus, however, did not deal with legislative issues, which were handled by the elected Speaker and informal floor leaders. The state legislatures often instructed members of Congress how to vote on specific issues. More exactly, they "instructed" the senators (who were elected by the legislatures), and "requested" the Representatives (who were elected by the people.) On rare occasions a senator resigned rather than follow instructions.[15] The opposition Federalist Party, suffering from a lack of leadership after the death of Hamilton and the retirement of John Adams, quickly declined; it revived briefly in opposition to the War of 1812, but the extremism of its Hartford Convention of 1815 utterly destroyed it as a political force.

Monroe and Adams, 18161828In rapidly expanding western states, the Federalists had few supporters. Every state had a distinct political geography that shaped party membership. In Pennsylvania, the Republicans were weakest around Philadelphia and strongest in Scots-Irish settlements in the west. Members came from all social classes, but came predominantly from the poor, subsistence farmers, mechanics and tradesmen.[16] After the War of 1812, partisanship subsided across the young republicpeople called it the Era of Good Feelings. James Monroe narrowly won the party's nomination for President in Congress over William Crawford in 1816 and defeated Federalist Rufus King in the general election. In the early years of the party, the key central organization grew out of caucuses of Congressional leaders in Washington. However, the key battles to choose electors occurred in the states, not in the caucus. In many cases,

Democratic-Republican Party legislatures still chose electors; in others, the election of electors was heavily influenced by local parties that were heavily controlled by relatively small groups of officials. Without a significant Federalist opposition, the need for party unity was greatly diminished and the party's organization faded away. James Monroe ran under the party's banner in the 1820 election and built support by consensus. Monroe faced no serious rival and was nearly unanimously elected by the electoral college. The party's historic domination by the Virginian delegation faded as New York and Pennsylvania became more important. In the 1824 election, most of the party in Congress boycotted the caucus; only a small rump group backed William Crawford. The Crawford faction included most "Old Republicans", who remained committed to states' rights and the Principles of 1798, and distrustful of the nationalizing program promoted by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Thomas Jefferson wrote on the state of party politics in the early 1820s:

5

An opinion prevails that there is no longer any distinction, that the republicans & Federalists are completely amalgamated but it is not so. The amalgamation is of name only, not of principle. All indeed call themselves by the name of Republicans, because that of Federalists was extinguished in the battle of New Orleans. But the truth is that finding that monarchy is a desperate wish in this country, they rally to the point which they think next best, a consolidated government. Their aim is now therefore to break down the rights reserved by the constitution to the states as a bulwark against that consolidation, the fear of which produced the whole of the opposition to the constitution at its birth. Hence new Republicans in Congress, preaching the doctrines of the old Federalists, and the new nick-names of Ultras and Radicals. But I trust they will fail under the new, as the old name, and that the friends of the real constitution and union will prevail against consolidation, as they have done against monarchism. I scarcely know myself which is most to be deprecated, a consolidation, or dissolution of the states. The horrors of both are beyond the reach of human foresight. [17]

In the aftermath of the disputed 1824 election, the separate factions took on many characteristics of parties in their own right. Adams' supporters, in league with Clay, favored modernization, banks, industrial development, and federal spending for roads and other internal improvements, which the Old Republicans and the Jackson men usually opposed. Writing in his personal journal on December 13, 1826, President Adams noted the difficulty he faced in attempting to be nonpartisan in appointing men to office:

And it is upon the occasion of appointments to office that all the wormwood and the gall of the old party hatred ooze out. Not a vacancy to any office occurs but there is a distinguished federalist started and pushed home as a candidate to fill italways well qualified, sometimes in an eminent degree, and yet so obnoxious to the Republican party, that he cannot be appointed without exciting a vehement clamor against him and the Administration. It becomes thus impossible to fill any appointment without offending one half of the communitythe federalists, if [18] their associate is overlooked; the Republicans, if he is preferred.

Presidential electors were now all chosen by direct election, except in South Carolina, where the state legislatures chose them. White manhood suffrage was the norm throughout the West and in most of the East as well. The voters thus were much more powerful, and to win their votes required complex party organization. Under the leadership of Martin Van Buren, a firm believer in political organization, the Jacksonians built strong state and local organizations throughout the country. The Old Republicans, or "Radicals," mostly supported Jackson and joined with supporters of incumbent Vice President Calhoun in an alliance. President Adams was defeated by Andrew Jackson in the election of 1828.

Party namePolitical parties were new in the United States, and people were not accustomed to having formal names for them. There was no single, official name for the party. Party members generally called themselves "Republicans" and voted for what they called the "Republican Party," "republican ticket," or the "republican interest".[19] Jefferson and Madison often used the terms "republican" and "Republican party" in their letters.[20] The 1804 congressional caucus that renominated Jefferson described itself as a, "regular republican caucus."[21] "Democratic" was also common, the two terms often used interchangeably.[22] The term "Democratic Republican" was adopted by historians mainly to

Democratic-Republican Party avoid confusion with the modern Republican Party, which was founded in 1854 and named in honor of Jefferson's party.[23] This name was used by contemporaries only occasionally.[24] The term "republican" was in widespread usage from the 1770s to describe the political values of the nation, especially the emphasis on civic duty and the opposition to corruption, elitism, aristocracy and monarchy.[25] The word is used in the U.S. Constitution.[26] "Democratic" derives from the Greek (demokratia) meaning "rule of the people." The word originally applied to the government of ancient Athens. Since this term was associated with the French Revolution, it suggested pro-French sentiment. The Democratic-Republican Societies were formed to support French diplomat Citizen Gent in 1793-1794.[27] Although these societies were distinct from the party, membership overlapped.[28] Federalists often called their opponents "Democrats" or "Jacobins" to associate them with mob rule and the excesses of the French Revolution.[29] President George Washington wrote, "You could as soon scrub the blackamore white, as to change the principles of a profest Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the Government of this Country."[30]

6

Claims to the party's heritageThe Democratic Party is often called "the party of Jefferson," while the modern Republican Party is often called "the party of Lincoln." The Jeffersonian Republican party split into various factions during the 1824 election, based more on personality than on ideology. When the election was thrown to the House of Representatives, House Speaker Henry Clay backed Secretary of State John Quincy Adams to deny the presidency to Senator Andrew Jackson, a longtime personal rival and a hero of the War of 1812. The Jacksonians held their first national convention as the "Republican Party" in 1832.[31] By the mid-1830s, they referred to themselves as the "Democratic Party," but also as "Democratic Republicans."[32] The name "Democratic Party" has been official since 1844. Leaders of the Democratic Party have traced their party's lineage to Jefferson and his Republican Party. Martin Van Buren wrote that the party's name had changed from Republican to Democratic and that Jefferson was the founder of the party.[33] Thomas Jefferson Randolph, grandson of Jefferson, told the 1872 Democratic National Convention of his "life of eighty years spent in the Democratic-Republican party".[34] In 1991 the Democratic Party-controlled United States Senate passed "A bill to establish a commission to commemorate the bicentennial of the establishment of the Democratic Party of the United States," thus endorsing the view the party was founded by Jefferson (as opposed to Jackson).[35] The Adams/Clay alliance became the basis of the National Republican Party, a rival to the Jacksonian party. This party favored a higher tariff in order to protect U.S. manufacturers, as well as public works, especially roads. Many former members of the defunct Federalist Party, including Daniel Webster, joined the party. After Clay's defeat by Jackson in the 1832 presidential election, the National Republicans were absorbed into the Whig Party, a diverse group of Jackson opponents. Taking a leaf from the Jacksonians, the Whigs tended to nominate non-ideological war heroes as their presidential candidates. The modern Republican Party was founded in 1854 to oppose the expansion of slavery into new states. Most northern Whigs defected to the new party. The name was chosen to harken back to Jefferson's party. Abraham Lincoln and other members sought to combine Jefferson's ideals of liberty and equality with Clay's program of using an active government to modernize the economy.[36] The modern ideological party division, with Republicans as the pro-business party and Democrats as the party of economic populism, originated at the time of the 1896 presidential election in which Republican William McKinley defeated Democrat William Jennings Bryan.

Democratic-Republican Party

7

Party PresidentsThree United States Presidents were elected following a process that selected them as a national nominee of the Republican party: Thomas Jefferson (18011809) James Madison (18091817) James Monroe (18171825)

CandidatesElection year Result Nominees President 1792 1796 1800 1804 1808 1812 1816 1820 1824 (a) lost lost(a) won(b) won won won won won N/A(c) None None James Monroe James Madison Elbridge Gerry Daniel Tompkins George Clinton None Thomas Jefferson Vice President George Clinton Aaron Burr

Jefferson did not win the presidency, and Burr did not win the vice presidency. However, under the pre-12th Amendment election rules, Jefferson won the vice presidency due to dissension among Federalist electors. (b) Jefferson and Burr received the same number of electoral votes. Jefferson was subsequently chosen as president by the House of Representatives. (c) Crawford and Gallatin were nominated by a group of 66 Congressmen that called itself the "Democratic members of Congress".[37] Gallatin later withdrew from the contest. Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and Henry Clay ran as Republicans, although they were not nominated by any national body. While Jackson won a plurality in the electoral college and popular vote, he did not win the constitutionally required majority of electoral votes to be elected president. The contest was thrown to the House of Representatives, where Adams won with Clay's support. The electoral college chose John C. Calhoun for vice president.

Notes[1] James Madison to Thomas Jeffersonian andMarch 2 1794. (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mjm& fileName=05/ mjm05. db& recNum=591)) "I see by a paper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, at the instance of the Republican Party, and that a committee is appointed for the like purpose." * Thomas Jefferson to President Washington, May 23 1792 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ mtj:@field(DOCID+ @lit(tj060237))) "The republican party, who wish to preserve the government in its present form, are fewer in number. They are fewer even when joined by the two, three, or half dozen anti-federalists,..." [2] Chambers, 8191. [3] Cornell. [4] Elkins and McKitrick, 288. [5] James Roger Sharp, American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis (1993) [6] Lance Banning, The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology (1980) [7] Chambers, 80. [8] Cunningham (1957), 82.

Democratic-Republican Party[9] Jeffrey L. Pasley. "The Tyranny of Printers": Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (2003) [10] Cunningham (1957), 167. [11] Tinkcom, 271. [12] Noble E. Cunningham, Jr., "John Beckley: An Early American Party Manager," William and Mary Quarterly, 13 (Jan. 1956), 40-52, in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 1923388) [13] Cunningham (1963), 129. [14] Cunningham (1978). The Process of Government Under Jefferson, 278279. [15] Cunningham (1978). The Process of Government Under Jefferson, 288. [16] Klein, 44. [17] "Thomas Jefferson to William Johnson, October 27, 1822" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mtj1& fileName=mtj1page053. db& recNum=457). . Retrieved 2006-10-02. See also: "Thomas Jefferson to William Johnson, June 12, 1823" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mtj1& fileName=mtj1page053. db& recNum=997). . Transcript (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=0Fz_zz_wSWAiVg9LI1& id=vvVVhCadyK4C& pg=PA290). "Thomas Jefferson to Edward Livingston, April 4, 1824" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mtj1& fileName=mtj1page054. db& recNum=440). . Transcript (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=0Fz_zz_wSWAiVg9LI1& id=vvVVhCadyK4C& pg=PA342). "Thomas Jefferson to William Short, January 8, 1825" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ mtj:@field(DOCID+ @lit(ws03131))). . "Thomas Jefferson to William B. Giles, December 26, 1825" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mtj1& fileName=mtj1page055. db& recNum=767). . Transcript (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=0Fz_zz_wSWAiVg9LI1& id=vvVVhCadyK4C& pg=PA426). [18] Adams, 207208. [19] For examples of original quotes and documents from various states, see Cunningham, Noble E., Jeffersonian Republicans: The Formation of Party Organization: 17891801 (1957), pp. 48, 63-66, 97, 99, 103, 110, 111, 112, 144, 151, 153, 156, 157, 161, 163, 188, 196, 201, 204, 213, 218 and 234. See also " Address of the Republican committee of the County of Gloucester, New-Jersey (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=rbpe& fileName=rbpe09/ rbpe099/ 09901000/ rbpe09901000. db& recNum=1& itemLink=r?ammem/ rbpebib:@field(NUMBER+ @band(rbpe+ 09901000)):& linkText=0), Gloucester County, December 15, 1800 Jefferson used the term "republican party", meaning those in Congress who were his allies and who supported the existing republican constitution, in a letter to Washington in May 1792. "Thomas Jefferson to George Washington, May 23, 1792" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ mtj:@field(DOCID+ @lit(tj060237))). . Retrieved 2006-10-04. At a conference with Washington a year later, Jefferson referred to "what is called the republican party here." Bergh, ed. Writings of Thomas Jefferson (1907) 1:385, 8:345 [20] "James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, March 2, 1794" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mjm& fileName=05/ mjm05. db& recNum=591). . Retrieved 2006-10-14. "I see by a paper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, at the instance of the Republican party, and that a committee is appointed for the like purpose." See also: Smith, 832. "James Madison to William Hayward, March 21, 1809. Address to the Republicans of Talbot Co. Maryland" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mjm& fileName=11/ mjm11. db& recNum=94). . Retrieved 2006-10-27. "Thomas Jefferson to John Melish, January 13, 1813" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ mtj:@field(DOCID+ @lit(tj060237))). . Retrieved 2006-10-27. "The party called republican is steadily for the support of the present constitution" "James Madison to Baltimore Republican Committee, April 22, 1815" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mjm& fileName=17/ mjm17. db& recNum=308). . Retrieved 2006-10-27. "James Madison to William Eustis, May 22, 1823" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mjm& fileName=20/ mjm20. db& recNum=428). . Retrieved 2006-10-27. Transcript (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=OCLC04075562& id=I6tLmjLqRfAC& pg=PA317). "The people are now able every where to compare the principles and policy of those who have borne the name of Republicans or Democrats with the career of the adverse party. and to see and feel that the former are as much in harmony with the Spirit of the Nation as the latter was at variance with both." [21] Niles, William Ogden, Niles' weekly register, Volume 25. p. 258. Baltimore, Dec. 27, 1823. [22] For example, Niles, William Ogden, Niles' weekly register, Volume 25. p. 308. Baltimore, Jan. 17, 1824. [23] Hans Sperber and Travis Trittschuh, Dictionary of American Political Terms (1962) pp 117-122 [24] See The Aurora General Advertiser (Philadelphia), April. 30, 1795, page 3; New Hampshire Gazette (Portsmouth), October 15, 1796, page 3; Claypoole's American Daily Advertiser (Philadelphia), October 10, 1797, page 3; Columbian Centinel (Boston), September 15, 1798, page 2; Alexandria (VA) Times, October 8, 1798, page 2; Daily Advertiser (New York), Sept 22, 1800, page 2 & November 25, 1800, page 2; The Oracle of Dauphin (Harrisburg), October 6, 1800, page 3; Federal Gazette (Baltimore), October 23, 1800, page 3; The Spectator (New York), October 25, 1800, page 3; Poulson's American Daily Advertiser (Philadelphia), November 19, 1800, page 3; Windham (CT) Herald, November 20, 1800, page 2; City Gazette (Charleston), November 22, 1800, page 2; The American Mercury (Hartford), November 27, 1800, page 3; and Constitutional Telegraphe (Boston), November 29, 1800, page 3. After 1802, some local organizations slowly began merging "Democratic" into their own name and became known as the "Democratic Republicans." Examples include 1802 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mtj1& fileName=mtj1page025. db& recNum=1138), 1803 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ rbpebib:@OR(@field(AUTHOR+ @3(Independent+ Republican+ Citizens,+ Philadelphia+ County+ + ))+ @field(OTHER+ @3(Independent+ Republican+ Citizens,+ Philadelphia+ County+ + )))), 1804 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ S?ammem/ rbpebib:@OR(@field(TITLE+ @od1(To+ the+ Democratic+ Republican+ electors,+ of+ the+ State+ of+ Pennsylvania+ + Fellow+ Citizens+ + The+ choice+ of+ electors+ of+ the+ President+ and+ Vice-President,+ is+ to+ be+

8

Democratic-Republican Partymade+ on+ Friday,+ the+ 2d+ of+ November+ + + + + Benjamin+ Franklin+ Bache+ + [1804+ + + ))+ @field(ALTTITLE+ @od1(To+ the+ Democratic+ Republican+ electors,+ of+ the+ State+ of+ Pennsylvania+ + Fellow+ Citizens+ + The+ choice+ of+ electors+ of+ the+ President+ and+ Vice-President,+ is+ to+ be+ made+ on+ Friday,+ the+ 2d+ of+ November+ + + + + Benjamin+ Franklin+ Bache+ + [1804+ + + )))), 1804 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ hlaw:@field(DOCID+ @lit(sj003543))), 1805 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ rbpebib:@OR(@field(AUTHOR+ @3(Democratic+ Republican+ corresponding+ committee+ + Newcastle+ County+ + Delaware+ + ))+ @field(OTHER+ @3(Democratic+ Republican+ corresponding+ committee+ + Newcastle+ County+ + Delaware+ + )))), 1806 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mtj1& fileName=mtj1page036. db& recNum=1114), 1807 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mtj1& fileName=mtj1page037. db& recNum=643), 1808 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mtj1& fileName=mtj1page041. db& recNum=667), 1809 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mtj1& fileName=mtj1page043. db& recNum=1023). [25] Banning, 7990. [26] "The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government" (Constitution of the United States, Art. 4. Sect. 4.) [27] "the new Democratic Republican societies, who saw Genet as a besieged apostle of revolutionary defiance." Gent recommended the groups use the name "Democratic Society." (Wilentz, Sean, The Rise of American Democracy (2005), p. 54.) [28] Cunningham (1957) 62-64. [29] Dahl, Robert A.. "James Madison: Republican or Democrat?" (http:/ / journals. cambridge. org/ download. php?file=/ PPS/ PPS3_03/ S1537592705050280a. pdf& code=1223f744d68e4fd16dc05fe2f918880a). Perspectives on Politics (Volume 3, Issue 03, Sep 2005): 439448. . and Dumas Malone, Jefferson, 3:162 [30] "George Washington to James McHenry, September 30, 1798" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mgw4& fileName=gwpage113. db& recNum=107). . Retrieved 2006-10-12. Transcript (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ georgewashington/ collection/ post_pres_1798sep30. html). [31] Summary Of The Proceedings Of A Convention Of Republican Delegates, From The Several States In The Union, For The Purpose of Nominating A Candidate For The Office Of Vice-President Of The United States; Held At Baltimore, In The State Of Maryland, May, 1832 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=LCCN09032457& id=8WC055De2fkC& printsec=titlepage). Albany: Packard and Van Benthuysen. 1832. . [32] For example, see Madison's letter of August 18, 1834, endorsing John Mercer Patton. Madison: Letters and Other Writings (1865) IV, 348-349; see also examples: 1834 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ hlaw:@field(DOCID+ @lit(hj02756))), 1834 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=mjm& fileName=24/ mjm24. db& recNum=562), 1840 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=OCLC13127365& id=jhsFyUO2OzQC& printsec=titlepage), 1841 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ rbpe:@field(DOCID+ @lit(rbpe17500200))). [33] Van Buren, Inquiry Into the Origin and Course of Political Parties in the United States, 5, 242, 270, 383, 424. [34] Official Proceedings of the National Democratic Convention, Held at Baltimore, July 9, 1872 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=0ZLk0_BwqJCv3oLczXPOI6K& id=BxGK8fgilvMC& printsec=titlepage). Boston: Rockwell & Churchill, Printers. 1872. pp.56. . [35] "S. 2047, 102nd Cong., 1st Sess." (http:/ / thomas. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ z?c102:S. 2047. CPS:). . Retrieved 2006-08-10. See also: Senate Floor Remarks of May 13, 1992. "The Birth of the Democratic Party," essay by Wayne Goodwin in the Congressional Record of June 4, 1992. [36] Gould, 14. [37] "Anti-Caucus/Caucus" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=rbpe& fileName=rbpe19/ rbpe192/ 1920070a/ rbpe1920070a. db& recNum=0). Washington Republican. February 6, 1824. .

9

References Henry Brooks Adams, History of the United States during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson (1889; Library of America ed. 1986) Henry Brooks Adams, 'History of the United States during the Administrations of James Madison (1891; Library of America ed. 1986) Banning, Lance. The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology (1980) Beard, Charles A. Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy (1915) Brown, Stuart Gerry. The First Republicans: Political Philosophy and Public Policy in the Party of Jefferson and Madison 1954. Chambers, Wiliam Nisbet. Political Parties in a New Nation: The American Experience, 1776-1809 (1963) Cornell, Saul. The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America, 1788-1828 (1999) (ISBN 0-8078-2503-4) Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. Jeffersonian Republicans: The formation of Party Organization: 1789-1801 (1957) Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. The Jeffersonian Republicans in Power: Party Operations 1801-1809 (1963)

Democratic-Republican Party Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. The Process of Government Under Jefferson (1978) Dawson, Matthew Q. Partisanship and the Birth of America's Second Party, 1796-1800: Stop the Wheels of Government. Greenwood, 2000. Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick. The Age of Federalism (1995), detailed political history of 1790s Ferling, John. Adams Vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800 (2004)(ISBN 0-19-516771-6) Gammon, Samuel Rhea. The Presidential Campaign of 1832 (http://www.archive.org/download/ prescampaign00gammrich/prescampaign00gammrich.pdf) (1922) Gould, Lewis. Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans (2003) (ISBN 0-375-50741-8) concerns the party founded in 1854 Onuf, Peter S., ed. Jeffersonian Legacies. (1993) (ISBN 0-8139-1462-0) Pasley, Jeffrey L. et al. eds. Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early American Republic (2004) Risjord, Norman K.; The Old Republicans: Southern Conservatism in the Age of Jefferson (1965) on the Randolph faction. Sharp, James Roger. American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis (1993) detailed narrative of 1790s Smelser, Marshall. The Democratic Republic 1801-1815 (1968), survey of political history Van Buren, Martin. Van Buren, Abraham, Van Buren, John, ed. Inquiry Into the Origin and Course of Political Parties in the United States (http://books.google.com/books?vid=LCCN12023638&id=Y5GUyUj4XY4C& printsec=titlepage) (1867) (ISBN 1-4181-2924-0) Wiltse, Charles Maurice. The Jeffersonian Tradition in American Democracy (1935) Wilentz, Sean. The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (2005), detailed narrative history, 18001860 Wills, Garry. Henry Adams and the Making of America (2005), a close reading of Henry Adams (188991)

10

Biographies Cunningham, Noble E. In Pursuit of Reason The Life of Thomas Jefferson (ISBN 0-345-35380-3) (1987) Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. "John Beckley: An Early American Party Manager," William and Mary Quarterly, 13 (Jan. 1956), 40-52, in JSTOR Miller, John C. Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox (1959), full-scale biography Peterson; Merrill D. Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (1975), full-scale biography Remini, Robert. Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (1991), a standard biography Rutland, Robert A., ed. James Madison and the American Nation, 1751-1836: An Encyclopedia. (1994) Schachner, Nathan. Aaron Burr: A Biography (1961),full-scale biography Wiltse, Charles Maurice. John C. Calhoun, Nationalist, 1782-1828 (1944)

State studies Beeman, Richard R. The Old Dominion and the New Nation, 1788-1801 (1972), on Virginia politics Formisano, Ronald P. The Transformation of Political Culture. Massachusetts Parties, 1790s-1840s (1984) (ISBN 0-19-503509-7) Gilpatrick, Delbert Harold. Jeffersonian Democracy in North Carolina, 1789-1816 (1931) Goodman, Paul. The Democratic-Republicans of Massachusetts (1964) Klein, Philip Shriver. Pennsylvania Politics, 1817-1832: A Game without Rules 1940. Prince, Carl E. New Jerseys Jeffersonian Republicans: The Genesis of an Early Party Machine, 1789-1817 (1967) Risjord; Norman K. Chesapeake Politics, 1781-1800 (1978) on Virginia and Maryland Tinkcom, Harry M. The Republicans and Federalists in Pennsylvania, 17901801 (1950)

Democratic-Republican Party Young, Alfred F. The Democratic Republicans of New York: The Origins, 1763-1797 (1967)

11

Newspapers Humphrey, Carol Sue The Press of the Young Republic, 1783-1833 (1996) Knudson, Jerry W. Jefferson And the Press: Crucible of Liberty (2006) how 4 Republican and 4 Federalist papers covered election of 1800; Thomas Paine; Louisiana Purchase; Hamilton-Burr duel; impeachment of Chase; and the embargo Jeffrey L. Pasley. "The Tyranny of Printers": Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic (2003) (ISBN 0-8139-2177-5) Stewart, Donald H. The Opposition Press of the Federalist Era (1968), highly detailed study of Republican newspapers National Intell & Washington Advertister. Jan 16, 1801. Issue XXXIII COl. B The complete text, searchable, of all early American newspapers are online (http://www.newsbank.com/ readex/?content=96) at Readex Americas Historical Newspapers, available at research libraries.

Primary sources Adams, John Quincy. Memoirs of John Quincy Adams: Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848 (http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0836950216&id=LsLzXcnfWWwC&printsec=titlepage) Volume VII (1875) edited by Charles Francis Adams; (ISBN 0-8369-5021-6). Adams, son of the president, switched and became a Republican in 1808 Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. The Making of the American Party System 1789 to 1809 (1965) excerpts from primary sources Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. Circular Letters of Congressmen to Their Constituents 1789-1829 (1978), 3 vol; reprints the political newsletters sent out by congressmen Kirk, Russell ed. John Randolph of Roanoke: A study in American politics, with selected speeches and letters, 4th ed., Liberty Fund, 1997, 588 pp.ISBN 0-86597-150-1; Randolph was a leader of the "Old Republican" faction Smith, James Morton, ed. The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, 1776-1826 Volume 2 (1994)

External links A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1825 (http://dca.tufts.edu/features/aas)

Federalist Party

12

Federalist PartyFederalist Party

Founded Dissolved Preceded by Succeeded by Ideology

1794 1820 Pro-Administration Party No official successor. Federalism, nationalism, industrialization

Official colors Black (affiliation usually associated with a black cockade)

The Federalist Party was the first American political party, from the early 1790s to 1816, the era of the First Party System, with remnants lasting into the 1820s. The Federalists controlled the federal government until 1801. The party was formed by Alexander Hamilton, who, during George Washington's first term, built a network of supporters, largely urban bankers and businessmen, to support his fiscal policies. These supporters grew into the Federalist Party committed to a fiscally sound and nationalistic government. The United States' only Federalist president was John Adams; although George Washington was broadly sympathetic to the Federalist program, he remained an independent his entire presidency.[1] The Federalist policies called for a national bank, tariffs, and good relations with Britain as expressed in the Jay Treaty negotiated in 1794. Their political opponents, the Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, denounced most of the Federalist policies, especially the bank, and vehemently attacked the Jay Treaty as a sell-out of republican values to the British monarchy. The Jay Treaty passed, and indeed the Federalists won most of the major legislative battles in the 1790s. They held a strong base in the nation's cities and in New England. The Democratic-Republicans, with their base in the rural South, won the hard-fought election of 1800; the Federalists never returned to power. The Federalists, too wedded to an upper-class style to win the support of ordinary voters, grew weaker year by year. They recovered some strength by intense opposition to the War of 1812; they practically vanished during the Era of Good Feelings that followed the end of the war in 1815.[2] The Federalists left a lasting imprint as they fashioned a strong new government with a sound financial base, and (in the person of Chief Justice John Marshall) decisively shaped Supreme Court policies for another three decades.[3]

The rise of the Federalist PartyOn taking office in 1789 President Washington nominated New York lawyer Alexander Hamilton to the office of Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton wanted a strong national government with financial credibility. Hamilton proposed the ambitious Hamiltonian economic program that involved assumption of the state debts incurred during the American Revolution, creating a national debt and the means to pay it off, and setting up a national bank. James Madison, Hamilton's ally in the fight to ratify the United States Constitution, joined with Thomas Jefferson in opposing Hamilton's program. Political parties had not been expected when the Constitution was drafted in 1787 and ratified in 1788, even though both Hamilton and Madison played major roles. Parties were considered to be divisive and harmful to republicanism. No similar parties existed anywhere in the world.[1]

Federalist Party By 1790 Hamilton started building a nationwide coalition. Realizing the need for vocal political support in the states, he formed connections with like-minded nationalists and used his network of treasury agents to link together friends of the government, especially merchants and bankers, in the new nation's dozen major cities. His attempts to manage politics in the national capital to get his plans through Congress, then, "brought strong responses across the country. In the process, what began as a capital faction soon assumed status as a national faction and then, finally, as the new Federalist party."[4] By 1792-94 newspapers started calling Hamilton supporters "Federalists" and their opponents "Democrats", "Republicans", "Jeffersonians" (people who supported Thomas Jefferson, the 3rd president), or "Democratic-Republicans". Jefferson's supporters usually called themselves "Republicans" and their party the "Republican Party."[5] The Federalist party became popular with businessmen and New Englanders; Republicans were mostly farmers who opposed a strong central government. The Congregationalists and the Episcopalians supported the Federalists; most of the Presbyterians, Baptists, and other minority denominations tended toward the Republican camp. Cities were usually Federalist; frontier regions were heavily Republican. These are generalizations; there are special cases: the Presbyterians of upland North Carolina, who had immigrated just before the Revolution, and often been Tories, became Federalists.[6] Catholics in Maryland were generally Federalist.[7]

13

A portrait of Alexander Hamilton by John Trumbull, 1806.

The state networks of both parties began to operate in 1794 or 1795. Patronage now became a factor. The winner-take-all election system opened a wide gap between winners, who got all the patronage, and losers, who got none. Hamilton had over 2000 Treasury jobs to dispense, while Jefferson had one part-time job in the State Department, which he gave to journalist Philip Freneau to attack the federalists. In New York, however, George Clinton won the election for governor and used the vast state patronage fund to help the Republican cause. Washington tried and failed to moderate the feud between his two top cabinet members. He was re-elected without opposition in 1792. The Democratic-Republicans nominated New York's Governor Clinton to replace Federalist John Adams as vice president, but Adams won. The balance of power in Congress was close, with some members still undecided between the parties. In early 1793, Jefferson secretly prepared resolutions introduced by William Branch Giles, Congressman from Virginia, and designed to repudiate Hamilton and weaken the Washington Administration.[8] Hamilton defended his administration of the nation's complicated financial affairs, which none of his critics could decipher until the arrival in Congress of the Republican Albert Gallatin in 1793. Federalists counterattacked by claiming the Hamiltonian program had restored national prosperity, as shown in one 1792 anonymous newspaper essay:[9] To what physical, moral, or political energy shall this flourishing state of things be ascribed? There is but one answer to these inquiries: Public credit is restored and ESTABLISHED. The general government, by uniting and calling into action the pecuniary resources of the states, has created a new capital stock of several millions of dollars, which, with that before existing, is directed into every branch of business, giving life and vigor to industry in its infinitely diversified operation. The enemies of the general government, the funding act and the National Bank may bellow tyranny, aristocracy, and speculators through the Union and repeat the clamorous din as long as they please; but the actual state of agriculture and commerce, the peace, the contentment and satisfaction of the great mass of people, give the lie to their assertions. Jefferson wrote on Feb. 12, 1798:

Federalist Party Two political Sects have arisen within the U. S. the one believing that the executive is the branch of our government which the most needs support; the other that like the analogous branch in the English Government, it is already too strong for the republican parts of the Constitution; and therefore in equivocal cases they incline to the legislative powers: the former of these are called federalists, sometimes aristocrats or monocrats, and sometimes tories, after the corresponding sect in the English Government of exactly the same definition: the latter are stiled republicans, whigs, jacobins, anarchists, disorganizers, etc. these terms are in familiar use with most persons."[10]

14

Party strength in CongressMany Congressmen were hard to classify in the first few years, but after 1796 there was less uncertainty.Election year House Federalist Democratic-Republican % Democratic-Republican Senate Federalist Democratic-Republican % Democratic-Republican 1788 1790 1792 1794 1796 1798 1800 1802 1804 1806 1808 1810 1812 1814 1816 1818 1820 37 28 39 30 51 54 47 59 57 49 60 46 38 65 39 103 25 116 24 118 50 92 36 107 68 114 64 119 39 146 26 160 32 155

43% 43% 51% 56% 46% 43% 63% 73% 82% 83% 65% 75% 63% 65% 79% 86% 83% 1788 1790 1792 1794 1796 1798 1800 1802 1804 1806 1808 1810 1812 1814 1816 1818 1820 18 8 16 13 16 14 21 11 22 10 22 10 15 17 9 25 7 17 6 28 7 27 6 30 8 28 12 26 12 30 9 37 7 44

31% 45% 47% 34% 31% 31% 53% 74% 71% 82% 79% 83% 78% 68% 71% 80% 92%

Source: Kenneth C. Martis, The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, 17891989 (1989); the numbers are estimates by historians. The affiliation of many Congressmen in the earliest years is an assignment by later historians. The parties were slowly coalescing groups; at first there were many independents. Cunningham noted that only about a quarter of the House of Representatives, up until 1794, voted with Madison as much as two-thirds of the time, and another quarter against him two-thirds of the time, leaving almost half as fairly independent.[11]

Effects of foreign affairsInternational affairs the French Revolution and the subsequent war between royalist Britain and republican France decisively shaped American politics in 17931800, and threatened to entangle the nation in wars that "mortally threatened its very existence."[12] The French revolutionaries guillotined King Louis XVI in January 1793, leading the British to declare war to restore the monarchy. The King had been decisive in helping America achieve independence. Now he was dead and many of the pro-American aristocrats in France were exiled or executed. Federalists warned that American republicans threatened to replicate the horrors of the French Revolution, and successfully mobilized most conservatives and many clergymen. The Republicans, some of whom had been strong Francophiles, responded with support, even through the Reign of Terror, when thousands were guillotined.[13] Many of those executed had been friends of the United States, such as the Comte D'Estaing, whose fleet defeated the British at Yorktown. (Lafayette had already fled into exile, and Thomas Paine went to prison in France.) The Republicans denounced Hamilton, Adams, and even Washington as friends of Britain, as secret monarchists, and as enemies of the republican values. The level of rhetoric reached a fever pitch.[14] [15] Paris in 1793 sent a new minister, Edmond-Charles Gent (known as Citizen Gent), who systematically mobilized pro-French sentiment and encouraged Americans to support France's war against Britain and Spain. Gent funded local Democratic-Republican Societies that attacked Federalists.[16] He hoped for a favorable new treaty and for repayment of the debts owed to France. Acting aggressively, Gent outfitted privateers that sailed with American

Federalist Party crews under a French flag and attacked British shipping. He tried to organize expeditions of Americans to invade Spanish Louisiana and Spanish Florida. When Secretary of State Jefferson told Gent he was pushing American friendship past the limit, Gent threatened to go over the government's head and rouse public opinion on behalf of France. Even Jefferson agreed this was blatant foreign interference in domestic politics. Gent's extremism seriously embarrassed the Jeffersonians and cooled popular support for promoting the French Revolution and getting involved in its wars. Recalled to Paris for execution, Gent kept his head and instead went to New York, where he became a citizen and married the daughter of Governor Clinton. Jefferson left office, ending the coalition cabinet and allowing the Federalists to dominate.[17] The Jay Treaty in 179495 was the effort by Washington and Hamilton to resolve numerous difficulties with Britain. Some of these issues dated to the Revolution; such as boundaries, debts owed in each direction, and the continued presence of British forts in the Northwest Territory. In addition America hoped to open markets in the British Caribbean and end disputes stemming from the naval war between Britain and France. Most of all the goal was to avert a war with Britain a war opposed by the Federalists, that some historians claim the Jeffersonians wanted.[18] As a neutral party, the United States argued, it had the right to carry goods anywhere it wanted. The British nevertheless seized American ships carrying goods from the French West Indies. The Federalists favored Britain in the war, and by far most of America's foreign trade was with Britain; hence a new treaty was called for. The British agreed to evacuate the western forts, open their West Indies ports to American ships, allow small vessels to trade with the French West Indies, and set up a commission that would adjudicate American claims against Britain for seized ships, and British claims against Americans for debts incurred before 1775. One possible alternative was war with Britain, a war that America was ill-prepared to fight.[19] The Republicans wanted to pressure Britain to the brink of war (and assumed that America could defeat a weak Britain).[20] Therefore they denounced the Jay Treaty as an insult to American prestige, a repudiation of the French alliance of 1777, and a severe shock to Southern planters who owed those old debts, and who were never to collect for the lost slaves the British captured. Republicans protested against the treaty, but the Federalists controlled the Senate and they ratified it by exactly the necessary vote, 2010, in 1795. The pendulum of public opinion swung toward the Republicans after the Treaty fight, and in the South the Federalists lost most of the support they had among planters.[21]

15

Whiskey rebellionThe excise tax of 1791 caused grumbling from the frontier including threats of tax resistance. Corn, the chief crop on the frontier, was too bulky to ship over the mountains to market, unless it was first distilled into whiskey. This was profitable, as the United States population consumed, per capita, relatively large quantities of liquor. After the excise tax, the backwoodsmen complained the tax fell on them rather than on the consumers. Cash poor, they were outraged that they had been singled out to pay off the "financiers and speculators" back East, and to salary the federal revenue officers who began to swarm the hills looking for illegal stills.[22] Insurgents in western Pennsylvania shut the courts and hounded federal officials, but Jeffersonian leader Albert Gallatin mobilized the western moderates, and thus forestalled a serious outbreak. Washington, seeing the need to assert federal supremacy, called out 13,000 state militia, and marched toward Pittsburgh to suppress this Whiskey Rebellion. The rebellion evaporated in late 1794 as Washington approached, personally leading the army (only two sitting Presidents have directly led American military forces, Washington during the Whiskey Rebellion and Madison in an attempt to save the White House during the War of 1812). The rebels dispersed and there was no fighting. Federalists were relieved that the new government proved capable of overcoming rebellion, while Republicans, with Gallatin their new hero, argued there never was a real rebellion and the whole episode was manipulated in order to accustom Americans to a standing army. Angry petitions flowed in from three dozen Democratic-Republican Societies created by Citizen Gent. Washington attacked the societies as illegitimate; many disbanded. Federalists now ridiculed Republicans as "democrats"

Federalist Party (meaning in favor of mob rule) or "Jacobins" (a reference to The Terror in France). Washington refused to run for a third term, establishing a two-term precedent that was to stand until 1940 and eventually to be enshrined in the Constitution as the 22nd Amendment. Washington warned in his Farewell Address against involvement in European wars, and lamented the rising North-South sectionalism and party spirit in politics that threatened national unity. The party spirit, he lamented: serves always to distract the Public Councils, and enfeeble the Public Administration. It agitates the Community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms; kindles the animosity of one part against another, foments occasionally riot and insurrection. It opens the door to foreign influence and corruption, which find a facilitated access to the government itself through the channels of party passions. Thus the policy and the will of one country are subjected to the policy and will of another. Washington refused to consider himself a member of any party, although in retrospect he is usually regarded as a Federalist because of greater tendency to side with Hamilton than with Jefferson.

16

Newspaper editors at warTo strengthen their coalitions and hammer away constantly at the opposition, both parties sponsored newspapers in the capital (Philadelphia) and other major cities. On the Republican side, Philip Freneau and Benjamin Franklin Bache blasted the administration with all the scurrility at their command. Bache in particular targeted Washington himself as the front man for monarchy who must be exposed. To Bache, Washington was a cowardly general and a money-hungry baron who saw the Revolution as a means to advance his fortune and fame, Adams was a failed diplomat who never forgave the French their love of Benjamin Franklin and who craved a crown for himself and his descendants, and Alexander Hamilton was the most inveterate monarchist of them all. The Federalists, with twice as many newspapers at their command, slashed back with equal vituperation; John Fenno and "Peter Porcupine" (William Cobbett) were their nastiest pensmen, and Noah Webster their most learned; Hamilton subsidized the Federalist editors, wrote for their papers, and in 1801 established his own paper, the New York Evening Post. Though his reputation waned considerably following his death, Joseph Dennie ran three of the most popular and influential newspapers of the period, The Farmer's Weekly Museum, the Gazette of the United States and Port Folio.[23]

Adams administration, 17971801Hamilton distrusted Vice President Adams who felt the same way about Hamilton but was unable to block his claims to the succession. The election of 1796 was the first partisan affair in the nation's history, and one of the more scurrilous in terms of newspaper attacks. Adams swept New England and Jefferson the South, with the middle states leaning to Adams. Thus Adams was the winner by a margin of three electoral votes, and Jefferson, as the runner-up, became Vice President under the system set out in the Constitution prior to the ratification of the 12th Amendment. Foreign affairs continued to be the central concern of American politics, for the war raging in Europe threatened to drag in the United States. The new President was a loner, who made decisions without consulting Hamilton or other High Federalists. Benjamin Franklin once quipped that Adams was a man always honest, often brilliant, and John Adams sometimes mad. Adams was popular among the Federalist rank and file, but had neglected to build state or local political bases of his own, and neglected to take control of his own cabinet. As a result his cabinet answered more to Hamilton than to himself.

Federalist Party

17

Alien and Sedition ActsAfter an American delegation was insulted in Paris in the XYZ affair (1797), public opinion ran strongly against the French. An undeclared "Quasi-War" with France from 1798 to 1800, saw each side attacking and capturing the other's shipping. It was called "quasi" because there was no declaration of war, but escalation was a serious threat. The Federalists, at the peak of their popularity, took advantage by preparing for an invasion by the French Army.[24] To silence Administration critics, the Federalists passed the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. The Alien Act empowered the President to deport such aliens as he declared to be dangerous. The Sedition Act made it a crime to print false, scandalous, and malicious criticisms of the federal government, but it conspicuously failed to criminalize criticism of Vice President Thomas Jefferson. Several Democratic-Republican newspaper editors were convicted under the Act and fined or jailed, and three Democratic-Republican newspapers were shut down.[25] During this period, Jefferson and Madison secretly wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions passed by the two states' legislatures, that declared the Alien and Sedition Acts unconstitutional, and insisted the states had the power to nullify federal laws. Undaunted, the Federalists created a navy, with new frigates, and a large new army, with Washington in nominal command and Hamilton in actual command. To pay for it all they raised taxes on land, houses and slaves, leading to serious unrest. In one part of Pennsylvania the Fries' Rebellion broke out, with people refusing to pay the new taxes. John Fries was sentenced to death for treason, but received a pardon from Adams. In the elections of 1798 the Federalists did very well, but this issue started hurting the Federalists in 1799. Early in 1799, Adams decided to free himself from Hamilton's overbearing influence, stunning the country and throwing his party into disarray by announcing a new peace mission to France. The mission eventually succeeded, the "Quasi-War" ended, and the new army was largely disbanded. Hamiltonians called Adams a failure, and in turn Adams fired Hamilton's supporters still in the cabinet. Hamilton and Adams intensely disliked one another, and the Federalists split between supporters of Hamilton ("High Federalists") and supporters of Adams. Hamilton became embittered over his loss of political influence and wrote a scathing criticism of Adams' performance as President of the United States in an effort to throw Federalist support to Charles Cotesworth Pinckney; inadvertently this split the Federalists and helped give the victory to Jefferson.

Election of 1800Adams' peace moves proved popular with the Federalist rank and file, and he seemed to stand a good chance of re-election in 1800. If the Three-Fifths Compromise had not been enacted, he most likely would have won reelection since many Federalist legislatures removed the right to select electors from their constituents in fear of a Democratic victory. Jefferson was again the opponent and Federalists pulled out all stops in warning that he was a dangerous revolutionary, hostile to religion, who would weaken the government, damage the economy, and get into war with Britain. The Republicans crusaded against the Alien and Sedition laws, and the new taxes, and proved highly effective in mobilizing popular discontent. The election hinged on New York: its electors were selected by the legislature, and given the balance of north and south, they would decide the presidential election. Aaron Burr brilliantly organized his forces in New York City in the spring elections for the state legislature. By a few hundred votes he carried the cityand thus the state legislatureand guaranteed the election of a Democratic-Republican President. As a reward he was selected by the Republican caucus in Congress as their vice presidential candidate. Hamilton, knowing the election was lost anyway, went public with a sharp attack on Adams that further divided and weakened the Federalists. Because the Republicans failed to plan by instructing at least one of their electors to vote for Jefferson but not Burr in the electoral college, Burr and Jefferson received the same vote, 73 each, so it was up to the House of Representatives to break the tie. There the Federalists were strong enough to deadlock the election, with some talk of their throwing their support to elect Burr. Hamilton considered Burr to be a scoundrel and threw his weight into the contest, allowing Jefferson to take office. (This unintended complication led directly to the proposal and ratification

Federalist Party of the 12th Amendment.) "We are all republicanswe are all federalists," proclaimed Jefferson in his inaugural address. His patronage policy was to let the Federalists disappear through attrition. Those Federalists such as John Quincy Adams (John Adams' own son) and Rufus King willing to work with him were rewarded with senior diplomatic posts, but there was no punishment of the opposition. Jefferson had a very successful first term, typified by the Louisiana Purchase, which was ironically supported by Hamilton but opposed by most Federalists at the time as un-constitutional. Shortly before Hamilton's death, some Federalist leaders (see Essex Junto) began courting Jefferson's Vice-President and Hamilton's arch-nemesis Aaron Burr in an attempt to swing New York into an independent confederation with the New England states, which along with New York were supposed to secede from the United States after Burr's election to Governor. However, Hamilton's influence cost Burr the governorship of New York, a key in the Essex Junto's plan, just as Hamilton's influence had cost Burr the Presidency nearly 4 years before. Hamilton's thwarting of Aaron Burr's ambitions for the second time was too much for Burr to bear. Hamilton had known of the Essex Junto (whom Hamilton now regarded as apostate Federalists), and Burr's plans and opposed them vehemently. This opposition by Hamilton would lead to his fatal duel with Burr in July, 1804. The thoroughly disorganized Federalists hardly offered any opposition to Jefferson's reelection in 1804, after his successful first term (by this point, the Federalists were now largely without a strong leader after the untimely death of Alexander Hamilton and with Aaron Burr now a fugitive of the law). In New England and in some districts in the middle states the Federalists clung to power, but the tendency from 1800 to 1812 was steady slippage almost everywhere, as the Republicans perfected their organization and the Federalists tried to play catch-up. Some younger leaders tried to emulate the Democratic-Republican tactics, but their overall disdain of democracy along with the upper class bias of the party leadership eroded public support. In the South, the Federalists steadily lost ground everywhere.

18

Federalists in oppositionJefferson administrationThe Federalists continued for several years to be a major political party in New England and the Northeast, but never regained control of the Presidency or the Congress. With the death of Washington and Hamilton (the latter killed by Burr in a duel), and the retirement of Adams, the Federalists were left without a strong leader, beyond John Marshall, whose appointment to the Supreme Court made him incapable of running for further office. A few younger leaders did appear, notably Daniel Webster. Federalist policies favored factories, banking, and trade over agriculture, and thus became unpopular in the growing Western states. They were increasingly seen as aristocratic and unsympathetic to democracy. In the South the party had lingering support in Maryland, but elsewhere was crippled by 1800 and faded away by 1808.[26] Massachusetts and Connecticut were the party strongholds. One historian explains how well organized the party was in Connecticut: It was only necessary to perfect the working methods of the organized body of office-holders who made up the nucleus of the party. There were the state officers, the assistants, and a large majority of the Assembly. In every county there was a sheriff with his deputies. All of the state, county, and town judges were potential and generally active workers. Every town had several justices of the peace, school directors and, in Federalist towns, all the town officers who were ready to carry on the party's work. Every parish had a "standing agent," whose anathemas were said to convince at least ten voting deacons. Militia officers, state's attorneys, lawyers, professors and schoolteachers were in the van of this "conscript army." In all, about a thousand or eleven hundred dependent officer-holders were described as the inner ring which could always be depended upon for their own and enough more votes within their control to decide an election. This was the Federalist machine.[27]

Federalist Party After 1800 the major Federalist role came in the judiciary. Although Jefferson managed to repeal the Judiciary Act of 1801 and thus dismiss many Federalist judges, their effort to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase in 1804 failed. Led by the last great Federalist, John Marshall as Chief Justice from 1801 to 1835, the Supreme Court carved out a unique and powerful role as the protector of the Constitution and promoter of nationalism. President Jefferson imposed an embargo on Britain in 1807; the Embargo Act of 1807 prevented all American ships from sailing to a foreign port. The idea was that the British were so dependent on American supplies that they would come to terms. For 15 months the Embargo wrecked American export businesses, largely based in the Boston-New York region, causing a sharp depression in the Northeast. Evasion was common and Jefferson and Treasury Secretary Gallatin responded with tightened police controls more severe than anything the Federalists had ever proposed. Public opinion was highly negative, and a surge of support breathed fresh life into the Federalist party. The Republicans (slowly assuming the name "Democratic-Republicans") nominated Madison for the presidency in 1808. Federalists, meeting in the first-ever national convention, considered the option of nominating Vice President George Clinton as their own candidate, but balked at working with him and again chose Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, their 1804 candidate. Madison lost New England but swept the rest of the country and carried a Republican Congress. Madison dropped the Embargo, opened up trade again, and offered a carrot and stick approach. If either France or Britain agreed to stop their violations of American neutrality, the U.S. would cut off trade with the other country. Tricked by Napoleon into believing France had acceded to his demands, Madison turned his wrath on Britain, and the War of 1812 began.

19

Madison administrationThus the nation was at war during the 1812 presidential election, and war was the burning issue. In their second national convention, the Federalists, now the peace party, nominated DeWitt Clinton, the dissident Democratic-Republican mayor of New York City, and an articulate opponent of the war. Madison ran for reelection promising a relentless war against Britain and an honorable peace. Clinton, denouncing Madison's weak leadership and incompetent preparations for war, could count on New England and New York. To win he needed the middle states and there the campaign was fought out. Those states were competitive and had the best-developed local parties and most elaborate campaign techniques, including nominating conventions and formal party platforms. The Tammany Society in New York City highly favored Madison; the Federalists finally adopted the club idea in 1808.[28] Their Washington Benevolent Societies were semi-secret membership organizations which played a critical role in every northern state in holding meetings and rallies and mobilizing Federalist votes. New Jersey went for Clinton, but Madison carried Pennsylvania and thus was reelected with 59% of the Electoral votes.

Opposition to the War of 1812The War of 1812 went poorly for the Americans for two years. Even though Britain was concentrating its military efforts on its war with Napoleon, the United States still failed to make any headway on land, and was effectively blockaded at sea by the Royal Navy. The British raided and burned Washington, D.C. in 1814 and sent a force to capture New Orleans. The war was especially unpopular in New England: the New England economy was highly dependent on trade, and the British blockade threatened to destroy it entirely. In 1814, the British finally managed to enforce their blockade on the New England coast, so the Federalists of New England sent delegates to the Hartford Convention in December 1814. During the proceedings of the Hartford Convention, secession from the Union was discussed, though the resulting report listed a set of grievances against the Democratic-Republican federal government and proposed a set of Constitutional amendments to address these grievances. They demanded financial assistance from Washington to compensate for lost trade and proposed constitutional amendments requiring a two-thirds vote in Congress before an embargo could be imposed, new states admitted, or war declared. It also indicated that if these proposals were

Federalist Party ignored, then another convention should be called and given "such powers and instructions as the exigency of a crisis may require". The Federalist Massachusetts Governor had already secretly sent word to England to broker a separate peace accord. Three Massachusetts "ambassadors" were sent to Washington to negotiate on the basis of this report. By the time the Federalist "ambassadors" got to Washington, the war was over and news of Andrew Jackson's stunning victory in the Battle of New Orleans had raised American morale immensely. The "ambassadors" slunk back to Massachusetts, but not before they had done fatal damage to the Federalist Party. The Federalists were thereafter associated with the disloyalty and parochialism of the Hartford Convention, and destroyed as a political force. They fielded their last presidential candidate (Rufus King) in 1816, and their last serious vice-presidential candidate (Richard Stockton) in 1820. With its passing partisan hatreds and newspaper feuds on the decline, the nation entered the "Era of Good Feelings", marked by the absence of all but one political party. After the dissolution of the final Federalist congressional caucus in 1825, the last traces of Federalist activity came in Delaware state politics in the late 1820s, where in 1826 Governor Charles Polk, Jr. was elected, the last significant Federalist office holder in the United States, and as late as 1828 the party won control of the legislature.

20

InterpretationsIntellectually, Federalists, while devoted to liberty held profoundly conservative views atuned to the American character. As Samuel Eliot Morison explained, They believed that liberty is inseparable from union, that men are essentially unequal, that vox populi [voice of the people] is seldom if ever vox Dei [the voice of God], and that sinister outside influences are busy undermining American integrity.[29] Historian Patrick Allitt concludes that Federalists promoted many positions that would form the baseline for later American conservatism, including the rule of law under the Constitution, republican government, peaceful change through elections, judicial supremacy, stable national finances, credible and active diplomacy, and protection of wealth.[30] The Federalists were dominated by businessmen and merchants in the major cities who supported a strong national government. The party was closely linked to the modernizing, urbanizing, financial policies of Alexander Hamilton. These policies included the funding of the national debt and also assumption of state debts incurred during the Revolutionary War, the incorporation of a national Bank of the United States, the support of manufactures and industrial development, and the use of a tariff to fund the Treasury. In foreign affairs the Federalists opposed the French Revolution, engaged in the "Quasi War" (an undeclared naval war) with France in 179899, sought good relations with Britain and sought a strong army and navy. Ideologically the controversy between Republicans and Federalists stemmed from a difference of principle and style. In terms of style the Federalists distrusted the public, thought the elite should be in charge, and favored national power over state power. Republicans distrusted Britain, bankers, merchants and did not want a powerful national government. The Federalists, notably Hamilton, were distrustful of "the people," the French, and the Republicans.[31] In the end, the nation synthesized the two positions, adopting representative democracy and a strong nation state. Just as importantly, American politics by the 1820s accepted the two-party system whereby rival parties stake their claims before the electorate, and the winner takes control of the government. As time went on, the Federalists lost appeal with the average voter and were generally not equal to the tasks of party organization; hence, they grew steadily weaker as the political triumphs of the Republican Party grew. For economic and philosophical reasons, the Federalists tended to be pro-British the United States engaged in more trade with Great Britain than with any other country and vociferously opposed Jefferson's Embargo Act of 1807 and the seemingly deliberate provocation of war with Britain by the Madison Administration. During "Mr. Madison's War", as they called it, the Federalists attempted a comeback but the patriotic euphoria that followed the war undercut their pessimistic appeals. After 1816 the Federalists had no national influence apart from John Marshall's Supreme Court. They had some local support in New England, New York, eastern Pennsylvania, Maryland and Delaware. After the collapse of the Democratic-Republican Party in the course of the 1824 presidential election, most surviving Federalists (including

Federalist Party Daniel Webster) joined former Democratic-Republicans like Henry Clay to form the National Republican Party, which was soon combined with other anti-Jackson groups to form the Whig Party in 1833. Some former Federalists like James Buchanan and Roger B. Taney became Jacksonian Democrats. The "Old Republicans," led by John Randolph of Roanoke, refused to form a coalition with the Federalists and instead set up a separate opposition since Jefferson, Madison, Gallatin, Monroe, John C. Calhoun and Clay had in effect adopted Federalist principles by purchasing the Louisiana Territory, chartering the Second national bank, promoting internal improvements (like roads), raising tariffs to protect factories, and promoting a strong army and navy after the failures of the War of 1812. The name "Federalist" came increasingly to be used in political rhetoric as a term of abuse, and was denied by the Whigs, who pointed out that their leader Henry Clay was the Democratic-Republican party leader in Congress during the 1810s. Most Northern Whig party members after its dissolution in 1856 would start and join the Republican Party created in 1856 that survives to this day while some former southern Whigs would join the Democratic Party.Election year Result President 1796 1800 1804 1808 1812 1816 1820 split lost lost lost lost lost lost DeWitt Clinton Rufus King None Jared Ingersoll John Eager Howard Richard Stockton Charles Pinckney John Adams Nominees Vice President Thomas Pinckney Charles Pinckney Rufus King

21

Bibliography Ben-Atar, Doron S., and Liz B. MacMillan, eds. Federalists Reconsidered (1999) Banner, James M. (1970). To the Hartford Convention: The Federalists and the Origins of Party Politics in Massachusetts, 17891815. Beeman, Richard R. (1972). The Old Dominion and the New Nation, 17881801. Broussard, James H. (1978). The Southern Federalists: 18001816. Buel, Richard, Jr. (1972). Securing the Revolution: Ideology in American Politics, 17891815. Cornell University Press. ISBN0-8014-0705-2. Chambers, William Nisbet. Political Parties in a New Nation: The American Experience, 17761809 (1963) William Chambers, ed., ed (1972). The First Party System: Federalists and Republicans. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN0-471-14340-5. Chernow, Ron (2004). Alexander Hamilton. Penguin Books. ISBN1-59420-009-2. Chernow, Ron. Washington: A Life (2010) Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. (1965). The Making of the American Party System 1789 to 1809. Elkins, Stanley; Eric McKitrick (1993). The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 17881800. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-506890-4., the most detailed history of 1790s Ferling, John. John Adams: A Life (1992) Fischer, David Hackett (1965). The Revolution of American Conservatism: The Federalist Party in the Era of Jeffersonian Democracy. Formisano, Ronald (1983). The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s1840s. Formisano, Ronald P. "State Development in the Early Republic," in Boyd Shafer and Anthony Badger, eds. Contesting Democracy: Substance and Structure in American Political History, 17752000, (2001) pp.735.

Federalist Party Fox, Dixon Ryan (1919). The Decline of Aristocracy in the Politics of New York, 18011840. Longmans, Green & Co., agents. ASIN B000863CHY. vol 4 of Richard Hildreth, History of the United States (1851) covering 1790s [32] Humphrey, Carol Sue (1996). The Press of the Young Republic, 17831833. Jensen, Richard. "Federalist Party," in Encyclopedia of Third Parties (M E Sharpe, 2000) Knudson, Jerry W. Jefferson And the Press: Crucible of Liberty (2006) how 4 Republican and 4 Federalist papers covered election of 1800; Thomas Paine; Louisiana Purchase; Hamilton-Burr duel; impeachment of Chase; and the embargo McCormick, Richard P. (1966). The Second Party System: Party Formation in the Jacksonian Era. details the collapse state by state McCullough, David (2002). John Adams. Simon and Schuster. ISBN0-7432-2313-6. McDonald, Forrest (1974). The Presidency of George Washington. University Press of Kansas. ISBN0-7006-0110-4. Mason, Matthew, Federalists, Abolitionists, and the Problem of Influence, American Nineteenth Century History 10 (March 2009), 127. Miller, John C. (1960). The Federalist Era: 17891801. Harper. ISBN1-57766-031-5. general survey Mitchell, Broadus (1962). Alexander Hamilton: The National Adventure, 17881804. McMillan. Morison, Samuel Eliot. Harrison Gray Otis, 1765-1848: The Urbane Federalist (1969) Jeffrey L. Pasley, et al. eds., ed (2004). Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early American Republic. Norman Risjord, ed., ed (1969). The Early American Party System. Harper & Row. Risjord, Norman K. "The Virginia Federalists," Journal of Southern History Vol. 33, No. 4 (Nov., 1967), pp.486517 in JSTOR [33] Sharp, James Rogers (1993). American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis. Yale University Press., detailed political history of 1790s Sheehan, Colleen. Madison v. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism and the Role of Public Opinion American Political Science Review 2004 98(3): 40524. in JSTOR [34] Siemers, David J. ''Ratifying the Republic: Antifederalists and Federalists in Constitutional Time(2002) Smelser, Marshall (1968). The Democratic Republic 18011815. general survey Theriault, Sean M. "Party Politics during the Louisiana Purchase," Social Science History 2006 30(2):293-324; DOI:10.1215/01455532-30-2-293 Tinkcom, Harry M. (1950). The Republicans and Federalists in Pennsylvania, 17901801. Waldstreicher, David. "The Nationalization and Racialization of American Politics: 17901840," in Boyd Shafer and Anthony Badger, eds. Contesting Democracy: Substance and Structure in American Political History, 17752000, (2001) pp.3783. Wood, Gordon S. Empire of Liberty: A history of the Early Republic, 1789-1815 (2009)

22

Re