Module 9: Module 9: Learning Learning

Three Kinds of LearningThree Kinds of Learning

1. Classical conditioning: learning in which 1. Classical conditioning: learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response that was originally produce a response that was originally produced by a different stimulus. produced by a different stimulus.

Discovered by Ivan PavlovDiscovered by Ivan Pavlov Pavlov had previously won a Nobel Prize Pavlov had previously won a Nobel Prize

for his studies on the reflexes involved in for his studies on the reflexes involved in digestion. digestion.

2. Operant conditioning 2. Operant conditioning

3. Cognitive learning 3. Cognitive learning

Procedure: Classical Procedure: Classical ConditioningConditioning

Carla’s exampleCarla’s example

Had several hours of dental work done; process Had several hours of dental work done; process was painful & uncomfortablewas painful & uncomfortable

While getting dental work, smelled the dentist’s While getting dental work, smelled the dentist’s aftershave, the same aftershave her boyfriend aftershave, the same aftershave her boyfriend wearswears

Smell of boyfriend’s aftershave made her Smell of boyfriend’s aftershave made her anxious anxious

Procedure: Classical Procedure: Classical conditioning cont. conditioning cont.

● ● Step 1: choose stimulus & responseStep 1: choose stimulus & response Choose neutral stimulus: stimulus that Choose neutral stimulus: stimulus that

causes a sensory response, but does not causes a sensory response, but does not produce the reflex tested produce the reflex tested

For Carla, the neutral stimulus is: For Carla, the neutral stimulus is: aftershave scent; sensory response is aftershave scent; sensory response is smelling aftershave, but doesn’t affect smelling aftershave, but doesn’t affect her her

Choose unconditioned stimulus: Choose unconditioned stimulus: stimulus that naturally triggers a stimulus that naturally triggers a response, such as physiological reflexresponse, such as physiological reflex

For Carla, US is dental proceduresFor Carla, US is dental procedures

Procedure: Classical Procedure: Classical conditioning cont.conditioning cont.

Step 1 continuedStep 1 continued Select & measure the unconditioned Select & measure the unconditioned

response: unlearned, natural response response: unlearned, natural response to the unconditioned stimulusto the unconditioned stimulus

For Carla, the UR is anxiety For Carla, the UR is anxiety

Procedure: Classical Procedure: Classical conditioning cont.conditioning cont.

Step 2: Establishing classical conditioning Step 2: Establishing classical conditioning Conduct a trial: present the neutral stimulus & Conduct a trial: present the neutral stimulus &

short time later, present the unconditioned short time later, present the unconditioned stimulus stimulus

Neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulusNeutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned response Unconditioned response

--For Carla, smell of aftershave (NS) + dental --For Carla, smell of aftershave (NS) + dental procedures (US) feelings of anxiety procedures (US) feelings of anxiety (UCR) (UCR)

Procedure: Classical Procedure: Classical conditioning cont.conditioning cont.

Step 3:Testing for conditioning Step 3:Testing for conditioning Present conditioned stimulus without the Present conditioned stimulus without the

unconditioned stimulusunconditioned stimulus conditioned stimulus: previously neutral conditioned stimulus: previously neutral

stimulus triggers a response stimulus triggers a response Ask: does a conditioned response occur?Ask: does a conditioned response occur? Conditioned response (CR): learned Conditioned response (CR): learned

response to a neutral stimulus response to a neutral stimulus For Carla, aftershave smell (CS) elicited For Carla, aftershave smell (CS) elicited

anxiety (CR)anxiety (CR)

Famous Study: Pavlov’s Famous Study: Pavlov’s DogsDogs

Process:Process:1.1. Neutral stimulus: bell; unconditioned Neutral stimulus: bell; unconditioned

stimulus: food; unconditioned stimulus: food; unconditioned response: salivationresponse: salivation

2.2. Trials: Bell (NS) + food (UCS) Trials: Bell (NS) + food (UCS) salivation (UCR)salivation (UCR)

3. Test: Does the bell (CS) trigger 3. Test: Does the bell (CS) trigger salivation (CR)? Pavlov found that it salivation (CR)? Pavlov found that it did did

Pavlov: Salivary Pavlov: Salivary Conditioning ApparatusConditioning Apparatus

Another Famous Study: Another Famous Study: Little AlbertLittle Albert

John Watson & Rosalie Rayner John Watson & Rosalie Rayner published in 1920; classic experiment published in 1920; classic experiment on conditioning emotions on conditioning emotions

Subject: Eleven-month-old infant Subject: Eleven-month-old infant known as Little Albertknown as Little Albert

Developed a conditioned emotional Developed a conditioned emotional response through the following response through the following experiment: experiment:

-White rat (NS) + loud bang (UCS) -White rat (NS) + loud bang (UCS) startle response (CR) startle response (CR)

Another Famous Study: Another Famous Study: Little Albert Picture Little Albert Picture

Other Conditioning Other Conditioning ConceptsConcepts

● ● Generalization: transfer of effects Generalization: transfer of effects of conditioning to similar stimuliof conditioning to similar stimuli

Carla may also feel anxiety with Carla may also feel anxiety with products that smell similar to products that smell similar to aftershaveaftershave

● ● Discrimination: Discrimination: Subject learns to Subject learns to respond to one stimulus, but not to a respond to one stimulus, but not to a similar stimulus; may have adaptive similar stimulus; may have adaptive valuevalue

--Carla doesn’t feel anxious after --Carla doesn’t feel anxious after smelling nail polishsmelling nail polish

Other Conditioning Other Conditioning Concepts cont.Concepts cont.

●●Extinction: conditioned stimulus is repeatedly Extinction: conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus presented without the unconditioned stimulus & the conditioned stimulus no longer elicits & the conditioned stimulus no longer elicits the conditioned responsethe conditioned response

--Carla would no longer react to aftershave --Carla would no longer react to aftershave Application: treatment of phobias Application: treatment of phobias ● ● Spontaneous recovery: conditioned response Spontaneous recovery: conditioned response

reappears after being extinguished; doesn’t reappears after being extinguished; doesn’t persist for long & lesser magnitude persist for long & lesser magnitude

--Carla sees dentist & response to aftershave --Carla sees dentist & response to aftershave reappearsreappears

Adaptive Value of Classical Adaptive Value of Classical ConditioningConditioning

Adaptive value: usefulness of certain Adaptive value: usefulness of certain traits that have evolved in animals & traits that have evolved in animals & humans & tend to increase their humans & tend to increase their chances of survival. chances of survival. Taste-aversion learning: associating a Taste-aversion learning: associating a

particular sensory cue with getting sick particular sensory cue with getting sick & thereafter avoiding that sensory cue & thereafter avoiding that sensory cue in the future; can last weeks, months, or in the future; can last weeks, months, or years. ex: rats & poison bait, avoiding a years. ex: rats & poison bait, avoiding a drink after getting sick drink after getting sick

Adaptive Value of Classical Adaptive Value of Classical Conditioning cont.Conditioning cont.

Taste-aversion learning was inconsistent Taste-aversion learning was inconsistent with belief that classical conditioning with belief that classical conditioning required many trials required many trials

Psychologist John Garcia explained it Psychologist John Garcia explained it with the concept of preparedness with the concept of preparedness

Preparedness: phenomenon that animals Preparedness: phenomenon that animals & humans are biologically prepared to & humans are biologically prepared to associate some combinations of associate some combinations of conditioned & unconditioned stimuli conditioned & unconditioned stimuli more easily than others. more easily than others.

Examples of adaptive value Examples of adaptive value of classical conditioning:of classical conditioning:

Salivating when seeing or thinking about food Salivating when seeing or thinking about food

Conditioned emotional response: feeling positive Conditioned emotional response: feeling positive or negative emotion when experiencing a or negative emotion when experiencing a stimulus that initially accompanied a pleasant stimulus that initially accompanied a pleasant or painful event, such as a shot or painful event, such as a shot

● ● Part of brain responsible for classical Part of brain responsible for classical conditioning:conditioning:

-cerebellum for motor responses -cerebellum for motor responses

-for emotional response, the amygdala is -for emotional response, the amygdala is responsibleresponsible

Does this elicit a Does this elicit a response?response?

Theories of Classical Theories of Classical Conditioning Conditioning

Stimulus substitution: neural association Stimulus substitution: neural association forms in the brain between the neutral forms in the brain between the neutral stimulus & unconditioned stimulus. After stimulus & unconditioned stimulus. After trials, neutral stimulus becomes the trials, neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus and acts like a conditioned stimulus and acts like a substitute for the unconditioned substitute for the unconditioned stimulus. (bell substitutes for food)stimulus. (bell substitutes for food)

Theories of Classical Theories of Classical Conditioning cont.Conditioning cont.

Contiguity theory: classical Contiguity theory: classical conditioning occurs because two conditioning occurs because two stimuli (NS & UCS) are paired close stimuli (NS & UCS) are paired close together in time (contiguous). together in time (contiguous). Consequently, neutral stimulus Consequently, neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, becomes the conditioned stimulus, which elicits the conditioned which elicits the conditioned response. (bell & food are paired, response. (bell & food are paired, bell becomes CS & causes salivation)bell becomes CS & causes salivation)

Theories of Classical Theories of Classical Conditioning cont.Conditioning cont.

Cognitive perspective: an organism Cognitive perspective: an organism learns what to expect; one stimulus learns what to expect; one stimulus (NS) predicts the other (UCS). (NS) predicts the other (UCS).

Widespread support for this theoryWidespread support for this theory

Cultural Diversity: Cultural Diversity: Conditioning Dental Fears Conditioning Dental Fears

Rates of dental fears varies by country; Rates of dental fears varies by country; dental fear is greater in the U.S. & Asia dental fear is greater in the U.S. & Asia than in Scandinavian countries than in Scandinavian countries

Rates differ because of availability of Rates differ because of availability of dental care; free & easily available in dental care; free & easily available in Scandinavian countries; receive regular Scandinavian countries; receive regular dental caredental care

Neither America nor Japan have free, Neither America nor Japan have free, universal coverage; many wait until they universal coverage; many wait until they have serious and/or painful dental have serious and/or painful dental problems problems

Cultural Diversity: Cultural Diversity: Conditioning Dental Fears Conditioning Dental Fears

cont.cont. Researchers have found that the majority Researchers have found that the majority

of dental fears are acquired in childhood of dental fears are acquired in childhood or adolescence through classical or adolescence through classical conditioning; may make individuals avoid conditioning; may make individuals avoid checkups or seek treatment only for checkups or seek treatment only for emergency problems emergency problems

To reduce dental fear, must receive To reduce dental fear, must receive nonpainful dental treatment, which will nonpainful dental treatment, which will extinguish some of conditioned extinguish some of conditioned emotional responses emotional responses

Examples of Classical Examples of Classical ConditioningConditioning

Fear of needles injections, or seeing bloodFear of needles injections, or seeing blood Anticipatory nausea: feelings of nausea Anticipatory nausea: feelings of nausea

that are elicited by stimuli associated with that are elicited by stimuli associated with nausea-inducing chemotherapy nausea-inducing chemotherapy treatments; can be in anticipation of treatments; can be in anticipation of treatment; ex: Michelle experienced treatment; ex: Michelle experienced nausea when smelling her dish soap that nausea when smelling her dish soap that smelled like the treatment room smelled like the treatment room Difficult to treat with drugs Difficult to treat with drugs Can be treated with systematic desensitization Can be treated with systematic desensitization

Systematic Systematic DesensitizationDesensitization

Procedure based on classical conditioning Procedure based on classical conditioning in which a person imagines or visualizes in which a person imagines or visualizes fearful or anxiety-provoking stimuli & fearful or anxiety-provoking stimuli & immediately uses deep relaxation to immediately uses deep relaxation to overcome the anxietyovercome the anxiety

Form of counterconditioning; it replaces Form of counterconditioning; it replaces fear & anxiety with relaxation fear & anxiety with relaxation

Developed in 1950s; most frequently used Developed in 1950s; most frequently used nonmedical therapies for relief of anxiety nonmedical therapies for relief of anxiety & fears in children & adults & fears in children & adults

Very effective Very effective

Systematic Systematic Desensitization cont.Desensitization cont.

Step 1: Learning to relax on cue (for Step 1: Learning to relax on cue (for several weeks)several weeks)

Step 2: Make an anxiety hierarchy; a Step 2: Make an anxiety hierarchy; a list of items that elicit anxiety list of items that elicit anxiety

Imagining & relaxing; imagines least Imagining & relaxing; imagines least stressful situation while in relaxed stressful situation while in relaxed state &she continues up the anxiety state &she continues up the anxiety hierarchy hierarchy

Three Kinds of Learning Three Kinds of Learning cont.cont.

Operant conditioning: learning in Operant conditioning: learning in which consequences that follow which consequences that follow some behavior increase or decrease some behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of that behavior’s the likelihood of that behavior’s occurrence in the future.occurrence in the future.

Discovered by E.L. ThorndikeDiscovered by E.L. Thorndike B.F.Skinner further developed & B.F.Skinner further developed &

expanded the study of operant expanded the study of operant learning learning

History of Operant History of Operant ConditioningConditioning

E.L Thorndike conducted an experiment E.L Thorndike conducted an experiment with a series of puzzle boxes from which with a series of puzzle boxes from which a cat could escape & receive a reward a cat could escape & receive a reward by learning a specific responseby learning a specific response

He formulated the He formulated the law of effectlaw of effect: : behaviors followed by positive behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened, while consequences are strengthened, while behaviors followed by negative behaviors followed by negative consequences are weakenedconsequences are weakened

History of Operant History of Operant Conditioning cont.Conditioning cont.

Skinner devised the concept of Skinner devised the concept of operant operant responseresponse: response that can be modified by : response that can be modified by its consequences & is a meaningful unit of its consequences & is a meaningful unit of ongoing behavior that can be easily ongoing behavior that can be easily monitored.monitored.

Used Skinner box; box with a bar that when Used Skinner box; box with a bar that when pressed, releases food; used with ratspressed, releases food; used with rats

Shaping is also part of process. It is a Shaping is also part of process. It is a procedure in which an experimenter procedure in which an experimenter successively reinforces behaviors that lead successively reinforces behaviors that lead up to or approximate to the desired behavior. up to or approximate to the desired behavior.

Skinner stresses that the reinforcement Skinner stresses that the reinforcement should be immediateshould be immediate

Examples of Operant Examples of Operant Conditioning Conditioning

Superstitious behavior: behavior that Superstitious behavior: behavior that increases in frequency because its increases in frequency because its occurrence is accidentally paired with occurrence is accidentally paired with the delivery of the reinforcerthe delivery of the reinforcer

Toilet training Toilet training Food refusal Food refusal Process:Process:

1.1. Determine target behavior Determine target behavior 2.2. Preparation Preparation 3.3. Use reinforcers Use reinforcers 4.4. Shaping Shaping

Consequences Consequences Reinforcement: a consequence that Reinforcement: a consequence that

occurs after a behavior & increases the occurs after a behavior & increases the chance that the behavior will occur chance that the behavior will occur againagain

Punishment: consequence that occurs Punishment: consequence that occurs after a behavior & decreases the chance after a behavior & decreases the chance that the behavior will occur again that the behavior will occur again

Pica example. Pica: behavioral disorder Pica example. Pica: behavioral disorder that involves eating inedible objects or that involves eating inedible objects or unhealthy substances. unhealthy substances.

ReinforcementReinforcement

Positive reinforcement: the presentation Positive reinforcement: the presentation of a stimulus (positive reinforcer) that of a stimulus (positive reinforcer) that increases the probability that a behavior increases the probability that a behavior will occur again will occur again

Negative reinforcement: an aversive Negative reinforcement: an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus whose removal (unpleasant) stimulus whose removal increases the likelihood that the increases the likelihood that the preceding response will occur again; preceding response will occur again; example: taking an aspirin to get rid of a example: taking an aspirin to get rid of a headacheheadache

Negative ReinforcersNegative Reinforcers Taking aspirin to relieve a headacheTaking aspirin to relieve a headache Hurrying home in winter to get out of coldHurrying home in winter to get out of cold Fanning oneself to escape the heatFanning oneself to escape the heat Leaving a movie theater if the movie is Leaving a movie theater if the movie is

badbad Faking a stomach ache to avoid schoolFaking a stomach ache to avoid school Putting on a seatbelt to avoid the buzzPutting on a seatbelt to avoid the buzz Saying “uncle” to stop being beaten Saying “uncle” to stop being beaten Putting up an umbrella to escape the rain Putting up an umbrella to escape the rain

ReinforcersReinforcers Primary reinforcer: stimulus that is Primary reinforcer: stimulus that is

immediately satisfying & requires no immediately satisfying & requires no learning on the part of the subject to learning on the part of the subject to become pleasurable, such as food, become pleasurable, such as food, water, sexwater, sex

Secondary reinforcer: stimulus that has Secondary reinforcer: stimulus that has acquired its reinforcing power through acquired its reinforcing power through experience; learned, sometimes through experience; learned, sometimes through pairing with primary reinforcer or other pairing with primary reinforcer or other secondary reinforcers, such as grades & secondary reinforcers, such as grades & moneymoney

PunishmentPunishment Positive punishment: presenting an Positive punishment: presenting an

unpleasant stimulus after a response, such as unpleasant stimulus after a response, such as spanking; decreases chances that response spanking; decreases chances that response will recur. will recur.

Negative punishment: removing a reinforcing Negative punishment: removing a reinforcing stimulus after a response, such as taking the stimulus after a response, such as taking the allowance away; decreases chances that allowance away; decreases chances that response will recur. response will recur.

BOTH stop or decrease the occurrence of a BOTH stop or decrease the occurrence of a behaviorbehavior

Self-injurious behavior: serious & sometimes Self-injurious behavior: serious & sometimes life-threatening physical damage a person life-threatening physical damage a person inflicts on his or her own body. Can use inflicts on his or her own body. Can use positive punishment to treat this. positive punishment to treat this.

ClarificationClarification

Positive & negative punishment Positive & negative punishment decreasedecrease the likelihood of a behavior the likelihood of a behavior occurring againoccurring again

Positive & negative reinforcement Positive & negative reinforcement increaseincrease the likelihood of a behavior the likelihood of a behavior occurring again occurring again

Schedules of Schedules of Reinforcement Reinforcement

Schedule of reinforcement: program Schedule of reinforcement: program or rule that determines how & when or rule that determines how & when the occurrence of a response will be the occurrence of a response will be followed by a reinforcer. followed by a reinforcer.

Continuous reinforcement: every Continuous reinforcement: every occurrence of the operant response occurrence of the operant response results in delivery of the reinforcer. results in delivery of the reinforcer.

Partial reinforcement: situation in Partial reinforcement: situation in which responding is only reinforced which responding is only reinforced only some of the time. only some of the time.

Partial Reinforcement Partial Reinforcement SchedulesSchedules

Fixed-ratio: reinforcer occurs only after a Fixed-ratio: reinforcer occurs only after a fixed number of responses are made by the fixed number of responses are made by the subject; predetermined set of responses; subject; predetermined set of responses; ratio (number or amount is fixed)ratio (number or amount is fixed)

Ex: Car wash employee receives $10 for Ex: Car wash employee receives $10 for every 3 cars washed every 3 cars washed

Fixed-interval: reinforcer occurs following Fixed-interval: reinforcer occurs following the first response that occurs after a fixed the first response that occurs after a fixed interval of time; the interval (time) is fixed interval of time; the interval (time) is fixed

Ex: Monthly paycheck Ex: Monthly paycheck

Partial Reinforcement Partial Reinforcement Schedules cont.Schedules cont.

Variable-ratio: reinforcer is delivered after Variable-ratio: reinforcer is delivered after an average number of correct responses an average number of correct responses has occurred; occurs unpredictably; ratio has occurred; occurs unpredictably; ratio (number or amount) varies(number or amount) varies

Ex: Slot machinesEx: Slot machines Variable-interval: reinforcer occurs Variable-interval: reinforcer occurs

following the first correct response after following the first correct response after an average amount of time passed; an average amount of time passed; unpredictable; interval (time) varies unpredictable; interval (time) varies

Ex: Study steadily because pop quiz is Ex: Study steadily because pop quiz is possiblepossible

Other Conditioning Other Conditioning ConceptsConcepts

Generalization: an animal or person emits Generalization: an animal or person emits the same response to similar stimulithe same response to similar stimuli

Discrimination: a response is emitted in Discrimination: a response is emitted in the presence of a stimulus that is the presence of a stimulus that is reinforced & not in presence of reinforced & not in presence of unreinforced stimuli. unreinforced stimuli.

Discriminative stimulus: cue that a Discriminative stimulus: cue that a behavior will be reinforcedbehavior will be reinforced

Other Conditioning Other Conditioning Concepts cont.Concepts cont.

Extinction: reduction in an operant Extinction: reduction in an operant response when it is no longer response when it is no longer followed by a reinforcer. followed by a reinforcer.

Spontaneous recovery: temporary Spontaneous recovery: temporary recovery in the rate of responding. recovery in the rate of responding.

All four of these phenomena occur in All four of these phenomena occur in both operant & classical both operant & classical conditioning. conditioning.

Three Kinds of Learning Three Kinds of Learning cont.cont.

3. Cognitive learning: learning that involves mental 3. Cognitive learning: learning that involves mental processes (attention & memory), may be learned through processes (attention & memory), may be learned through observation or imitation & may not involve external observation or imitation & may not involve external rewards or require the person to perform any observable rewards or require the person to perform any observable behaviors.behaviors.

Major figure is Albert Bandura Major figure is Albert Bandura Roots date back to work of Wundt in late 1800sRoots date back to work of Wundt in late 1800s Theory died in 1950s, reborn in 1960s, became popular in Theory died in 1950s, reborn in 1960s, became popular in

1990s1990s Extremely useful in explaining animal & human behavior; Extremely useful in explaining animal & human behavior;

vital to development of cognitive neuroscience vital to development of cognitive neuroscience

Three Viewpoints of Three Viewpoints of Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning

Against: B.F. Skinner: said psychology’s goal Against: B.F. Skinner: said psychology’s goal should be to study primarily observable should be to study primarily observable behaviors rather than cognitive processes behaviors rather than cognitive processes

In favor:In favor: Edward Tolman: developed concept of the Edward Tolman: developed concept of the

cognitive map: mental representation in the cognitive map: mental representation in the brain of the layout of an environment & its brain of the layout of an environment & its features; can complete tasks without features; can complete tasks without reinforcementreinforcement

Albert Bandura: social cognitive learning: Albert Bandura: social cognitive learning: learning from watching, imitating & modeling learning from watching, imitating & modeling & does not require the observer to perform & does not require the observer to perform any observable behavior or receive any any observable behavior or receive any observable reward. observable reward.

Observational LearningObservational Learning Famous study: Bobo Doll ExperimentFamous study: Bobo Doll Experiment Preschool children involved in an art project Preschool children involved in an art project

witnessed an adult kicking, hitting, and yelling at a witnessed an adult kicking, hitting, and yelling at a large Bobo doll (in the same room). Another group of large Bobo doll (in the same room). Another group of children was not exposed to this. Children were then children was not exposed to this. Children were then put in room with toys including Bobo doll & put put in room with toys including Bobo doll & put through a mildly frustrating situation. through a mildly frustrating situation.

Results: Results: children who witnessed the attack on Bobo also kicked, hit children who witnessed the attack on Bobo also kicked, hit

& yelled at Bobo. & yelled at Bobo. The children who had not observed the attack did not hit or The children who had not observed the attack did not hit or

kick Bobo.kick Bobo. The point: these children learned to perform specific The point: these children learned to perform specific

aggressive behavior by simply watching a model perform aggressive behavior by simply watching a model perform these behaviors (no practice or reinforcement needed). Also, these behaviors (no practice or reinforcement needed). Also, some children did not exhibit aggressive behavior after some children did not exhibit aggressive behavior after observing. observing.

Learning Vs. Learning Vs. PerformancePerformance

Learning-performance distinction: Learning-performance distinction: learning may occur but may not always learning may occur but may not always be measured by, or immediately be measured by, or immediately evident in, performance. evident in, performance.

Shown through another Bobo Shown through another Bobo experiment. Children watched movie in experiment. Children watched movie in which an individual hit & kicked Bobo; which an individual hit & kicked Bobo; some did not imitate the behavior until some did not imitate the behavior until promised a reward for doing so. promised a reward for doing so.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Bandura’s Social Cognitive TheoryTheory

Social cognitive theory: emphasizes Social cognitive theory: emphasizes observation, imitation & self-reward in the observation, imitation & self-reward in the development and learning of social skills, development and learning of social skills, personal interactions & other behaviors; it is personal interactions & other behaviors; it is not necessary to perform observable not necessary to perform observable behaviors or receive external rewards to behaviors or receive external rewards to learn. learn.

Four processes involved:Four processes involved: 1. attention-observer pays attention1. attention-observer pays attention 2. memory-observer stores the information 2. memory-observer stores the information 3. imitation-use remembered information to model 3. imitation-use remembered information to model

the behaviorthe behavior 4. motivation-needs reason or incentive to imitate 4. motivation-needs reason or incentive to imitate Application: reduce fears Application: reduce fears

Insight LearningInsight Learning Insight: mental process marked by the Insight: mental process marked by the

sudden & expected solution to a problem, sudden & expected solution to a problem, called “ah-ha” experiencecalled “ah-ha” experience

Wolfgang Kohler coined the term after Wolfgang Kohler coined the term after doing research with a chimp; chimp had to doing research with a chimp; chimp had to figure out a strategy to obtain a hanging figure out a strategy to obtain a hanging banana banana

Example: A man walks into a bar & asks for Example: A man walks into a bar & asks for a glass of water. The bartender points a gun a glass of water. The bartender points a gun at the man. The man says “Thank you,” & at the man. The man says “Thank you,” & walks out. Use insight to help you solve the walks out. Use insight to help you solve the problem. problem.

Biological Factors in Biological Factors in LearningLearning

Biological factors: innate tendencies or Biological factors: innate tendencies or predispositions that may either facilitate or predispositions that may either facilitate or inhibit certain kinds of learning; may serve inhibit certain kinds of learning; may serve adaptive functions. adaptive functions.

Example: play behaviors may help animals or Example: play behaviors may help animals or humans learn to develop social relationships humans learn to develop social relationships among peersamong peers

Imprinting: inherited tendencies or responses Imprinting: inherited tendencies or responses that are displayed by newborn animals when that are displayed by newborn animals when they encounter certain stimuli in their they encounter certain stimuli in their environment; are irreversible, such as baby environment; are irreversible, such as baby chicks who follow the first moving object they chicks who follow the first moving object they see see

Biological Factors in Biological Factors in Learning cont.Learning cont.

Critical, or sensitive period: Critical, or sensitive period: relatively brief time during which relatively brief time during which learning is most likely to occur. learning is most likely to occur.

Preparedness also contributes to Preparedness also contributes to learning learning

Human infants’ brains are Human infants’ brains are biologically prepared to recognize & biologically prepared to recognize & discriminate among sounds that are discriminate among sounds that are essential for learning speech essential for learning speech

Research Focus: Research Focus: NoncomplianceNoncompliance

Noncompliance: child refusing to follow Noncompliance: child refusing to follow directions, carry out a request, or obey directions, carry out a request, or obey a command given by a parent or a command given by a parent or caregiver. caregiver.

Time-out: negative punishment in which Time-out: negative punishment in which reinforcing stimuli are removed after an reinforcing stimuli are removed after an undesirable response; decreases undesirable response; decreases chances that undesired response will chances that undesired response will recur; considered effectiverecur; considered effective

Application: Behavior Application: Behavior ModificationModification

Behavior modification: treatment or therapy Behavior modification: treatment or therapy that changes or modifies problems or that changes or modifies problems or undesirable behaviors by using principles of undesirable behaviors by using principles of learning based on operant conditioning & learning based on operant conditioning & social cognitive learning.social cognitive learning.

Used to treat autismUsed to treat autism Biofeedback: training procedure through Biofeedback: training procedure through

which a person is made aware of his or her which a person is made aware of his or her physiological responses; they later try to physiological responses; they later try to control them to decrease psychosomatic control them to decrease psychosomatic problems. problems.

Pros & Cons of Pros & Cons of PunishmentPunishment

Spanking: positive punishment; presentation Spanking: positive punishment; presentation of an aversive stimulus (pain)of an aversive stimulus (pain)-May cause the child to imitate aggressive behavior-May cause the child to imitate aggressive behavior-only points out what a child should not do-only points out what a child should not doShould be given immediately after behavior, only Should be given immediately after behavior, only

be severe enough to be effective, delivered be severe enough to be effective, delivered consistently, reason for it should be explainedconsistently, reason for it should be explained

■■Time-Out: negative punishment: removal of a Time-Out: negative punishment: removal of a reinforcing stimulusreinforcing stimulus

Should be used consistently & combined with Should be used consistently & combined with teaching the child alternative behaviors using teaching the child alternative behaviors using positive reinforcerspositive reinforcers

Theories of Classical Theories of Classical ConditioningConditioning

Stimulus Substitution: association forms Stimulus Substitution: association forms between the neutral stimulus & between the neutral stimulus & unconditioned stimulus unconditioned stimulus

Contiguity theory: two stimuli (NS & UCS) Contiguity theory: two stimuli (NS & UCS) are paired together in time. (bell & food are paired together in time. (bell & food paired, bell becomes CS & causes salivation)paired, bell becomes CS & causes salivation)

Theories of Classical Theories of Classical Conditioning Cont.Conditioning Cont.

Cognitive perspective: one stimulus Cognitive perspective: one stimulus (NS) predicts the other (UCS)(NS) predicts the other (UCS)

Widespread support for this theoryWidespread support for this theory