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CHAPTER - III
M¢m¡ms¡ Tradition - Philosophical, Ritualistic and Linguistic Aspects
Philosophical Aspects- Epistemology- Categories- Qualities- Concept of Ap£rva- Concepts of God, Self, Mind, Heaven,
Liberation and Dharma
Ritualistic Aspects- Types of sacrifices- Eligibility to perform sacrifices- Sacrificial Tradition in Kerala
Linguistic Aspects- P£rvam¢m¡ms¡ Technique of
Programme organisation- Theories of Sentence meaning
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Philosophical Aspects
The word ‘M¢m¡ms¡’ literally means ‘revered thought’ and
was originally applied to the interpretation of the vedic rituals which
commanded highest reverance. The word is now used in the sense
of any critical investigation. The school of M¢m¡ms¡ justifies both
the meanings by giving rules according to which the commandments
of the Veda are to be interpreted and by giving a philosophical
justification for the Vedic ritualism. M¢m¡ms¡ and Ved¡nta are
treated with allied systems of thought. Both are based on and both
try to interpret Veda. The earlier portions of Veda ie, the ‘Mantra’
and ‘Br¡hma a’ portion is called ‘Karmak¡ da’, while the later
portion ie, the UpaniÀads is called ‘Jµ¡nak¡da’ because the former
deals action with the rituals and the sacrifices. While the later deals
with knowledge of reality. M¢m¡ms¡ deals with the earlier
portion of Veda is there fore called ‘P£rva M¢m¡ms¡’ and also
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‘Karmam¢m¡ms¡.’ While Vedanta deals with the later portion of Veda
and is therefore called ‘Uttara M¢m¡ms¡’ or ‘Jµ¡nam¢m¡ms¡.’ The
P£rva M¢m¡ms¡ deals with dharma and therefore it called as
‘Dharma M¢m¡ms¡.’
There has been a long line of pre-Sankarite teachers of Vedanta
of whome Mandanami¿ra seems to be the last, who have regarded
M¢m¡ms¡ and Vedanta as forming a single system and who have
advocated the combination of action and knowledge - Known as -
‘Karma - jµ¡na Samucchaya V¡da.’ According to them the s£tr¡s
beginning with the first s£tr¡ of Jaimini and ending with the last
s£tr¡ of B¡dar¡yana, form one compact á¡stra. These teachers hold
that Karma (Action) and Up¡sana (Meditation) were absolutely
essential to hasten the dawn of true knowledge. Even the great
Sankaracharya who treated action and knowledge as being
absolutely opposed like darkness and light and who relegated karma
to the sphere of Avidya, had to admit that Karma and Up¡sana to
purify the soul, though they are not the direct causes of liberation
and that therefore the study of P£rva m¢m¡ms¡ though not essential
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for the study of Ved¡nta was a good mean for the purification of
the soul. In this connection it is also important to remember that it
is the great Kumarila Bhatta himself who may be rightly regarded
as the link between the P£rva M¢m¡msa and Uttara M¢m¡ms¡.
The word ‘Dar¿ana’ is derived from the root ‘·¤À’ (to see). It
ordinarilly means seeing. In its technical sense it means an act of
seeing which is not tained with any falsehood, or a correct
assertainment of something perceptible or imperceptible. To make
it more explicit, it may difine ‘Dar¿ana’ as an argumentative
deleberation upon a thing of which some knowledge has been
already obtained by perception or some other means, ending in the
discovery of its actual form. So there must be some previous
conceptions derived either by perception or by some other means
to make a Dar¿ana possible. Without such conceptions mere
argumentation will stand without a basis, and will fail to obtain the
desired discovery. The inference arrived after arguementation must
again correspond to reality for “There can be no formal correctness
as opposed to real representation of truth........”1
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A doubt might arise as to whether the treatment of the
sacrificial injuctions of the Veda which has been made in the P£rva
M¢m¡ms¡ at great length, really form the subject matter of a
Dar¿ana. But this doubt will disappear if it consider the traditional
defenition of Dar¿ana. Sacrifices are regarded as the means of
(s¡dhana) the attainment of bliss (s¡dhya) and discussions about
sacrificial injuctions form clearly the subject matter of this dar¿ana.
The main purpose of M¢m¡ms¡ philosophy was a methodical
interpretation of Dharma, or duty embodied in the ritualistic portion
of Vedas. Its philosophical position aims to provide epistemological,
metaphysical and ethical justification to the ritualistic doctrines. In
view of the above purpose, the Mimamsakas has stressed vedic
testimony as a highest source of valid knowledge, requiring no
external test for its validity. They believe in the reality of the world,
pluralism of souls, heaven, hell, impressions of acts lasting till the
attainment of fruits, potency and acts as the regulating force of the
world.
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Epistemology
The best developed aspect of M¢m¡ms¡ philosophy is its
epistemology and the key to the understanding and proper evaluation
of M¢m¡ms¡ theories in this field is the dogma, which however the
M¢m¡msak¡s have put in their best efforts to establish on a rational
basis, that the Veda is the supreme authority. To justify this dogma
they had to make a detailed and critical enquiry in to the nature
and criteria of valid knowledge and other related problems.
M¢m¡msak¡s recognised six pramanas, viz, PratyakÀa,
Anum¡na, áabda, Upam¡na, Arth¡patti and Anupalabdhi. But
Prabhakara and his followers refused to recognise the last one.
Perception (PratyakÀa)
Perception is the immediate knowledge of an object arising
through sense - object condact. A sense organ comes in condact
with its object and gets its impression. This knowledge is the
indeterminate knowledge (‘¡locana’ or ‘nirvikalpa’). Then the mind
interprets it by assimilating it to the past experience which
determinates the class, quality, activity and name of the object. It is
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called determinate (Savikalpa) knowledge. In the first stage it is
like a perception of a child, a bare awareness, free from the
subjective contributions of the perceiver. That is, the object in it is
not determined as belonging to a class, possessing a name and so
on. In savikalpa stage, the consciousness of the object becomes
more definite and its generic and specific features are apprehended
clearly because of the analytic and synthetic activities of the mind.
It should be noted that such features are not imaginated but
discovered by the assimilative operations of the mind.
But perception is not always valid. Sometimes it misleads us,
as when what we see as a ‘snake’ turns out to be a mere ‘peice of
rope.’ This is a case of illusion. The cause in such cases is some
defect in the sense organ or in the condition under which the
perception occurs.
There are two M¢m¡ms¡ theories offered to explain such
phenomena without giving up realism and yeilding to idealism,
Kumarila’s theory is called ‘Vipar¢takhy¡ti’ according to which
in illusion real thing existing elsewhere (Snake) is due to some
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defects identified with another real thing (rope). Another theory
which is offered by Prabhakara is called ‘Akhy¡ti’ or
‘Vivekakhy¡ti.’ It says an illusion consists of two cognitions; one
presentative and the other representative, and since the perceiver
forgets the representative charecter of later he cant apprehend their
difference. On the first theory illusion is a misapperehension, while
on the second it is a non-apprehension or incomplete apprehension,
the former being an error of commission and the later that of
omission only.
Inference (Anum¡na) :-
Inference is the knowledge of one of the relata after perceiving
the other when the invariable association between the two is already
known. It is of two types : - for ones own self and for conceiving
others. The former is informal and does not require all the methodical
steps, while the later consists of three statements - ‘Pratijµ¡’
(Statement of the probandum), ‘hetu’ (Probans) and ‘d¤Àt¡nta’
(example).
áabara defines ‘anum¡na’ as the knowledge from the perception
of one term of a well-known relationship of the other term which is
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not at the time of the contact with the senses. The first term is
called ‘Liµga’, ‘Hetu’ etc. The second one is called ‘Liµgin’,
‘S¡dhya’ etc. Their relationship is called ‘Vy¡pti’ or ‘Niyama’.
The usual division of anum¡na into ‘Sv¡rtha’ and ‘Par¡rtha’
is not unanimously accepted in M¢m¡ms¡. á¡bara and Kumarila do
not mention these kinds nor do Kumarila’s commentators.
á¡bara recognises only two kinds of anum¡na,
‘PratyakÀatod¤Àtasambandha’ and ‘S¡m¡nyatodrÀ¶asambandha.’
The former is exemplified in the inference of fire from smoke and
the latter in that of the sun’s movement from its change of position.
Kumarilabhatta recognize two kinds of anumamas viz.
‘S¡m¡nyatodrÀta’ and ‘Vi¿eÀatod¤Àta.’ The latter is excemplified
in the inference by a father of his son’s presence from hearing his
voice and the former is that of the hill having fire on the basis of
the general relation of the smoke being accompanied by fire.
Prabhakara recognised the two kinds of anum¡nas,
‘AdrÀ¶asvalakÀana- viÀaya’ and ‘DrÀtasvalakÀa aviÀaya.’ The
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examples are being the same as given by á¡bara. In the latter, the
sun’s movement from its change of position. The former is the
inference of fire from the smoke.
Verbal Testimany (áruti) :-
Verbal testimany is the most important source of knowledge,
because it justifies the supreme authority of Vedas as the most
authentic source of knowledge of dharma, which is eternal, absolute
and supreme. It is defined as the statement made by a reliable
authority. Prabhakara restricts it to the scriptural statements only
while Kumarila believes in the authority of worldly persons also.
The Vedas are not composed by any person - human or divine. The
vedic statements give directions for sacrificial ritual or pursuade
persons for the performance of them. The Vedas are eternal and
impersonal in origin and hence are free from all possible mistakes
due to human weakness and are unchallengable and infallible in
authority.
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It is knowledge derived from an authoritative statement which
is either factual or imperetive and again secular or Vedic. Kumarila
recognizes both these types of pramanas while Prabhakara thinks
statements of authoritative persons to be reducible to anum¡na. The
import of Vedic statements is ultimately action and the apparently
factual statements, as of the UpaniÀads are to be constructed as
arthav¡da ie, indirectly commending or condemning some action.
Comparison (Upam¡na) :-
‘Upam¡na’ is the means of knowing the similarity of the object
remembered at the sight of some resembling object. For example a
person having seen a cow in his house happens to come across a
‘gavaya’ in the forest and then he comes to know that his cow is
similar to the ‘gavaya’. Actually upam¡na is postulated by the
M¢m¡msak¡s to get the knowledge of the sacrificial details of a
rite from some other similar rite. Here Prabhakara unlike the Bhatta,
considers similarity to be an independent entity.
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Non-Perception (Anupalabdhi) :-
The Bhatta school believes in non-perception (anupalabdhi) as
a means of cognition of absence of something. For example ‘a jar
on the ground.’ The Bhattas argues that absence cannot be perceived
through senses because it cannot come in condact with the sense
organs. It cannot be an object of inference bacause there is not valid
probans to lead to such a conclusion. Nor can it be a case of verbal
testimony or presumption, because the conditions necessary for them
viz. Words and two seemingly contraditory facts are not present in
this case. Prabhakara on the contrary holds that knowledge of
absence arises through perception of the mere location devoid of
the object to the negated.
Prabhakara says that non-perception of a jar on the ground is
perception of the ground alone, but he is unable to explain what
‘alone’ means.
Postulation (Arth¡patti) :-
Postulation is the supposition of some unperceived fact to
explain some otherwise unexplicable facts. For example when a
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man Devadatta is observed to be fasting in the day time but still
grawing fat, can be presume his eating at night to explain the
contradictory facts of fasting at day time and grawing fat.
According to Kumarila apparent inconsistency is the peculiar
feature in it which makes it different from anum¡na. The
Pr¡bh¡karas thinks that such feature is the element of doubt in it,
which is obviously wrong.
The Categories
The Bhatta M¢m¡ms¡ accept five categories. Viz., substance,
quality, action, Universal and Negation, ie., dravya, gua, karma,
s¡m¡nya and abh¡va. The Pr¡bh¡karas accept eight categories ie.,
dravya, gu a, karma, s¡m¡nya, ¿akti, s¡d¤¿ya, samav¡ya and
samkhy¡.
I. Dravya (Substance)
Dravya is the locus of qualities, action, attributes, etc. The
Bhattas define substance as parim¡a gu¡¿raya ie. that which has
dimension the quality. According to them, the substance and
qualities are produced simultaneously.
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The B¡ttas also admit the nine substances admitted by the
Ny¡ya-Vy¿eÀikas, viz., earth, water, light, air, eather, space, time,
¡tman and manas. They add two more substances, viz., tamas ie.,
darkness and áabda ie., Vara syllable.
The Pr¡bh¡karas do not accept tamas as a seperate category.
They consider ¿abda as a quality of ¡k¡¿a.
Time and Space
Time and space are not to be inferred. These are perceived.
The cognitions, this is earlier, that is later etc. are stated to be the
grounds for the inference of time. However, the expressions earlier,
later etc, are not distinct from the time.
These refer to time itself but not to the ground of time. Unless
one cognizes time, one cannot talk of earlier and later. These very
expressions reveal that time is perceived. The time is perceived by
all senses. All experiences have necessarily a reference to time.
Space is also perceived according to Bh¡ttas. The statements
this is here, that is after it and the other is before it. Clearly indicate
that space is also cognized along with the objects. If the perception
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of space could be denied, then the perception of the very objects in
those places may also be denied. On these grounds the Bh¡ttas
consider other, time and space as perceptible. According to
Pr¡bh¡karas these are to be inferred.
Tamas
Bhattas have a peculiar view that tamas or darkness as a
substance. They argue that darkness have two attributes. Viz., quality
is blue colour and motion which are required for an entity to be a
substance. As it cannot be brought under any other substance it has
to be considered as a seperate substance.2 Bh¡ttas says air has no
colour, it has only touch and even it is considered as a substance.
Similarly, darkness that has colour but no touch, may also be
considered as a substance. It is not necessary that a substance must
have both colour and touch. The presence of one of them is sufficient.
The Pr¡bh¡karas do not consider darkness as a separate
substance. They cannot also consider it as the absence of light, since,
they do not accept the category of Abh¡va, ie., absence.
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áabda or Var a
The Bh¡ttas consider ¿abda or vara as a substance because it
is not located in anything else and it is directly cognized by the
sense ie ear. áabda is all pervasive, for example, one and the same
‘ga’ is found anywhere. It is not correct to say that there are different
‘ga’ syllables pronounced by different persons at different times,
since it is recognized as the same ‘ga’ syllable even when
pronounced by different persons at different times. It is not produced
by the vocal organs. It is only manifested by these. Though the
¿abda is all pervasive, it is heard only in such places where it is
manifested. The variation in the manifestion of ¿abda as strong,
soft etc, is due to the variation in the process of manifestation. A
group of ¿abdas that convey a meaning, is a word. A group of words,
that conveys a unitary meaning, is a sentence. M¢m¡msakas do not
accept the concept of ¿abda for this purpose.
The Pr¡bh¡karas consider ¿abda as a quality of ¡k¡¿¡.
II. Gu a
According to Bhattas quality is that which is not
Up¡d¡nak¡raa ie., the mateiral cause and which is distinct from
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motion. The first cause is intended to distinguish it from substance.
The colour, taste etc., are twenty four qualities.
Twentyone qualities are same as Ny¡ya Vai¿eÀika. Among
these ¿abda, dharma and adharma are dropped and ¿akti, pr¡katya
and dhvani are added by M¢m¡msak¡s.
The concept of pr¡katya is a special concept of Bhatta
M¢m¡msakas. It is a quality invested on objects when the objects
are cognized. It reveals the object. Though it is a quality of
substances it also reveals the qualities, universal etc., present in the
object. It reveals the past and the future objects, and abh¡va also.
Pr¡katya is also called as d¤Àtat¡ and jµ¡tat¡. In the instance where
the objects are perceived it is called d¤Àtat¡; where the objects are
revealed by inference etc., is called jµ¡tat¡. The Pr¡bh¡karas do not
accept this concept.
áakti (Potency)
áakti is a quality present in substances, qualities and action.
Bhattas do not accept the contention that a quality is present in
substance only áakti is of two types: Laukika and Vaidika. Laukika
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is established by arth¡patti.áakti of sacrifice that leads to heaven
is second type. This is to be known through Vedic injunctions. áakti
is also classified as sahaj¡ and ¡dhey¡. The potency of the fire is
sahaja ie., natural. The potency found in the sacrificial context is
¡dhey¡. ie., brought about by the implimentation of the Vedic
injunction. The Pr¡bh¡karas consider ¿akti as a separate category.
They establish it by inference.
III. Karma (action)
Karma is of the nature of movement. It causes conjuction and
disjunction. It operates in the case of non-all-pervasive entities only
and it is perceptible. The Pr¡bh¡karas consider it as inferred.
IV. S¡m¡nya
S¡m¡nya’s nature is universal. It is an important concept and
it is utilized to reject the Buddhist view of KÀa ikatva or
momentariness.
V. S¡·¤¿ya (Similarity)
This is a seperate category accepted by Prabhakaras. It is
comprehended by upam¡na pram¡ a. Pr¡bh¡kara consider it as
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seperate because (1) it cannot be considered as a substance since it
is found in qualities and actions also. (2) It cannot consider as a
quality or action for the same reason. (3) It cannot be included
under S¡m¡nya, as it has no continuity. (4) It cannot be included
under Samav¡ya as it is not a relation.
Bh¡ttas do not consider it as a seperate category. The
P£rvam¢m¡ms¡ utilizes the concept of S¡d¤¿ya in the context of
sacrifices. For instance, ¿aurya and ¡gneya have same deity and
dravya. Therefore these lead to the same result. A section of
Navyanayy¡yikas also accept Sad¤¿ya as seperate category.
VI. Samkhy¡ (Number)
According to Pr¡bh¡karas number is also a seperate category
as it is found in all objects. It canot be considered as a substance,
since it is found in qualities, action. etc. It cannot considered as a
quality because it is found in many. It cannot be taken as an action
because it is observed to be quite different from that. It cannot also
be taken as a universal as it is not eternal. Hence it has to be
considered as a seperate category.
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VI. Samav¡ya (Inherence)
The Pr¡bh¡kara considered samav¡ya as infered. Bhattas do
not accept samav¡ya. They replace it by t¡d¡tmya. According to
Pr¡bh¡karas, if the two relate are eternal then samav¡ya is eternal.
If one of the relate or both are not eternal then, samav¡ya also is not
eternal.
VII. Abh¡va (Absence)
Bhattas accept abh¡va as a seperate category. The cognition
asti is bh¡va, a positive entity. The cognition n¡sti is abh¡va, the
absence of an entity. This absence itself is considered a seperate
category. The absence is of four types, viz., (1) Pr¡gabh¡va (previous
absence) ie. the absence before the object is produced. eg : - absence
of curd in the milk before it is produced from the milk. (2)
Pradhvams¡bh¡va absence after the destruction. eg. absence of milk
when it is made into curd. (3) Atyanth¡bh¡va ie. the absence all
along. eg. the absence of colour in the air. (4) Anyony¡bh¡va
(reciprocal absence) eg :- the jar is not the cloth. This is also called
t¡d¡tmy¡bh¡va.
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According to Bh¡ttas absence is cognized by anupalabdhi
pram¡na. ie., absence of cognition.
The Pr¡bh¡karas do not accept the abh¡va category. According
to them the cognitions are of two types : (1) Sams¤Àta ViÀayabudhi
or cognition of two objects together (2) tadeka viÀayabudhi or
cognition of one only.
The Concept of Ap£rva :-
It does not appear quite reasonable that momentarily
disappearing actions should bring about any such future effects as
the attainment of heaven and the like. But the fact is that, from
certain vedic passages we come to know of the capability of the
enjoyed and prohibitted actions to bring about certain result, and
inorder to render reasonable the production of future effects by
means of momentarily disappearing actions, it can be assume certain
interveining transcendental agencies in the form of Punya (virtue)
and P¡pa (vice). Thus, then the causing of the attainment of heaven
by sacrifices is not immediate, but indirect through the unseen
agency of virtue. This is what is called the unseen force (ad¤Àta)
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leading to a particular effect, and the cause of this unseen effect is
the primary action, filled up with all its various subsidiaries
preceeding and following it, and not the primary action along by
itself. In that case, the effects (the attainment of heaven etc.) too
might be said to be brought about by the primary alone and such a
theory would lead to the inevitable conclusion - the uselessness of
the subsidiaries.
There can be an objection that, is it right to assert the production
of the unseen agency by the primary action together with all its
subsidiaries. For the primary action is no sooner performed than
destroyed, and as such cannot profit by the aid of its subsidiaries.
To this, the M¢m¡msakas replies that though no help of the
subsidiaries is possible to the primary by itself, yet such aid would
be quite possible through an (intermediate) unseen force, brought
about by mere origination of the primary action (such force having
the convensional name of ‘utpattyap£rva’). Because of the
fulfilment to the production by the primary alone of such an Ap£rva
interveining between the primary and the final Ap£rva directly
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leading to the final result. In the same manner, the subsidiaries too,
being only conjointly capable of helping the primary, cannot help
one another direclty by themselves, and as such as the fulfilment of
this mutual aid among the subsidiaries also, it can be assume the
production of intermediate unseen forces - Utpattyap£rvas - at each
steps. (ie, together with every subsidiary the one subsidiary helping
the one following through the Utpattyap£rva produced by itself).
The help of the subsidiary towards the primary as a rule, consists
in turning the primary towards the production of the great Ap£rva
leading to the final result.
Sacrifices are enjoined by vedic injuctions. And all
performances releases some effects. For example
“dar¿ap£r am¡s¡bhy¡m svarga k¡mo yejeta” - the performance of
‘dar¿apurnam¡sa’s result is ‘svarga.’ The act of sacrifice come to
an end as soon as all the items of its are completed. But the result
‘svarga’ does not immediately emerge. The cause should
immediately proceeded the effect. When it does not happen, to
maintain the continuity some intermediary has to be envisaged.
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Hence Ap£rva is envisaged as an intermediary between the sacrifice
and the result.
The concept is envisaged by Arth¡patti pram¡ a. Whenever
there is a conflict between two facts both of which are supported
by appropriate pram¡as, a third fact has to be emerged to resolve
the conflict. Here, performing sacrifice is enjoined by áruti. A result
for it is also stated in that áruti. These statements imply the
relationship of cause and effect between the two. This cannot be
worked out unless the two are interconnected. This difficulty is
resolved by envisaging Ap£rva by arth¡patti.
Ap£rva is a kind of trans - emperical power. It remains with
the performer of the sacrifice. As a trans - emperical power, its
way of functioning is quite different from that of emperical power.
The sacrificial act is emperical. Its continuity, untill the result arises,
cannot be envisaged. However as dharma, it can generate a trans
emperical power and can lead to the result. In Indian philosophical
and religious tradition, the concept of non-emperical power, ad¤Àta
is accepted by all in some or other form at some or other stage. It
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remains with the persons concerned. However, it is not cognized
by him like his cognition, joy or sorrow.
Knowledge According to M¢m¡msak¡s
According to M¢m¡msak¡s, knowledge is the activity of a
cognizer (jµ¡t¤vy¡p¡ra) which is inferred through the effect. viz,
cognizedness characterizing the object cognised. It is of two types,
valid and invalid. The later involves some defect in the totality of
causal conditions and is erroneous in nature. The former is according
to Kumarila, the knowledge which is in agreement with the real
nature of an object, novel and not contradicted by a sublating
knowledge, or according to Prabhakara, the direct experience of an
object as distinguished from remembrance.
M¢m¡msakas theory of knowledge is realistic. They accept the
view of self validity of knowledge. All knowledge is valid by itself.
It is not validated by any other knowledge. Its validity arise from
those very causes from which knowledge itself arises. Prabhakara
and Kumarila both uphold the intrinsic validity of knowledge.
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Concept of God
It is true that Jaimini has not discussed the concept of God in
his s£tras, but he has nowhere denied the existence of God. Though
Jaimini has taken great pains for establishing that the fruits of
actions are produced through ‘ap£rva’ still he has recognised God
as the creator or the maker of these fruits.
There are two leading schools belonging to this system; the
school of Kumarila and the school of Prabhakara. Of these two the
school of Kumarila is by far the more prominent. This school does
not admit that one derive the fruits of his action through the favour
of God, but it regards God as the ordainer of fruit in as much God
helps him in obtaining them by creating so many objects of this
world.
Dr. Ganganath Jha has observed in his famous article on the
Prabhakara Mi¿ra3 that Kumarila has denied the creation or the
dissolution of the world as a whole. He has referred in the four
verses of the álokav¡rtika as his authority quoting.4
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It is true that Kumarila has said that, God, corporal or spiritual,
does neither superintend nor is the couse of this creation and that
the creation or the dissolution of the world at any one time is
impossible. But it can be say that Kumarila does not at all intend to
deny creation by God, but he intend to bringout the logical absurdity
involved in the idea of the creation of the world by a God, who
himself is a product of human imagination.
It is also a mistake to suppose that the system of Kumarila is
not a purely theistic one, because it denied the existence of the
physical forms of the Gods. But Kumarila has not actually denied
the existence of such an object. The truth is that he has not been
very keen about this matter. All that he had wanted to make out is
that one do not desire the fruits of his action through the favour of
Gods, and that Gods need not have bodies for that purpose. He has
put forward the view that a cause and its consequence cling to the
same basis. When a man was performed sacrifice, the result will,
as a matter of course come over him. Now the result do not always
come out at once, they may came out long afterwards, and in order
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to show a connection between an act and its result two theories are
generally propounded. According to one theory ‘the result comes
through the favours of the Gods who have been propitiated in the
sacrifice,” while according to the other “an unseen merit (Ap£rva)
arises immediately on the performance of the sacrifice which serves
as a connecting link between the performance and its fruits.”
Kumarila adopt the latter theory. He says that if we admit this
Ap£rva, the cause, the medium, and the ultimate consequence - all
three will take place in ones own self, where as the favour of a God
is not in the sacrificer himself, but is an extraneous thing.
Besides in the text of áruti there is no mention of the favour of
any goal. If any sacrificial injuction be properly constructed, it can
be say that it asks a man to produce a desirable result by means of
performing a sacrifice. Thus it is the performance that is the only
means of producing the fruit, and as the performance does not
continue upto the time of the production of the fruit. An Ap£rva is
imagined as a link, and, so, the interference of any external God is
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not necessary. Moreover the necessity of the favour of a God is not
only not indicated in the ¿ruti, but is opposed to its spirit. The ¿ruti
tells that the performance of a sacrifice is the cause or means of
producing a particular fruit. Of now introduce the favour of Gods
as the cause of the production of the fruit, the importance of the
performance as the cause will be ignored and this can by no means
be the intention of the ¿ruti. So there is neither necessity for nor
any advantage in introducing the favour of Gods and Kumarila has
not therefore, introduced it. Kumarila would have no objection to a
God having a body provided that he does not interfere in the
dispensation of the fruit. Thus all the necessary elements of an Ëstika
dar¿ana is the system of Kumarila, and hence, it should be treated
as much.
Concept of Self of Ëtma
In the system of P£rva M¢m¡ms¡ very little was discussed
about the real nature of the self of Man. Man is entitled to perform
the ordained acts such as sacrifices (Yajµ¡), offering of oblation in
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the consecrated fire (homa), and charity (d¡na).
Like other dualistic schools of philosophers, M¡m¡ms¡kas
believe in the seperateness of the self (j¢v¡tman) from the body,
sense and mind, and look upon special properties of like,
intelligence, will and effort as the natural attributes of the self.
According to m¢m¡msakas, at the time of sacriice, it is not the
body of the sacrificer that goes to heaven, it is his self ie., ¡tman. In
this context they establish a distinct ¡tman seperate from the body.
According to them; (1) Activities like breathing, winking etc.,
do not belong to body. These are not found after the death even
though the body is found. Therefore these are the attributes of some
other entity that is distinct from the body ie. ¡tman.
(2) Joy, sorrow, etc., are cognized by oneself not by others. The
bodily attributes are perceived by others. Hence These belong to
¡tman.
(3) Ëtman can be inferred by the desire also. A person desire
something that is already known to him. Therefore the knower and
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desirer should be one and same. This means that there is a permanent
¡tman.
(4) The experience as aham establishes the ¡tman. The ¡tman is
capable of knowing itself. ie. svasamvedya.
Kumarila discuss the nature and functions of atman under
¡tmav¡da in álokav¡rttika and in ap£rv¡dhikaraa in Tantrav¡rttika.
He describes ¡tman as eternal, all-pervasive, that which take
different bodies in different births and serves as the agent and
enjoyer.5
The Pr¡bh¡kara view of ¡tman is briefly explained by
S¡lik¡natha as : 1) it is distinct from body, manas and senses (2) it
is permanent and all pervasive (3) The ¡tmas are many. (4) It is
cognized as the agent along with the object of cognition.
Prabhakara and Kumarila both admit the plurality of the
individual souls. The m¢m¡msak¡ thinkers regard the self as distinct
from the body, the senses and the understanding. They adopt the
theory of plurality of selves, to account for the varieties of
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138
experiences.6
Kumarila says the soul is different from the body, which is
eternal and omnipresent. The ¡tman is consciousness itself though
the souls are many.7
Concept of Manas or Mind
Bhattas consider manas as the tenth substance. It is an
instrument to provide joy, sorrow etc., to ¡tman. Bhattas consider
it as all - pervasive. It need not move to be in contact with ¡tman or
senses. It functions within the body as is the case with ¡tman. It is
all pervasive because it has no touch so it has no limit. It is not
produced by anyother. So it is eternal. Manas cannot be equated
with other pervasive objects since it is an instrument for the cognition
of these.
Concept of Svarga
The nature of Svarga is discussed in Svargak¡m¡dhikaraam.
Jaimini and áabara do not seem to be particular in identifying Svarga
with another world. They use the word pr¢ti to express the meaning
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svarga.
For instance, ‘candanam svargaÅ,’ sandle wood paste is heaven,
“Kau¿ey¡ni svargah” means the silk garment is heaven, and so on.
However áabara cautions that these are not always delightful, nor
are there delightful to all. Therefore the word svarga should be
taken in sence of the dight that is not mized with even a iota of
sorrow.
The concept of Svarga is introduced to induse the undertaking
of sacrifices. The concept of Svarga has psychological, ethical and
spiritual dimensions. It is a complex concept. Such complex
concepts when put into concrete situations take a concrete form in
the context of a particular cultural tradition. In the context of Indian
cultural tradition it has acquired the form of another word. ie., heaven
However Jaimini and á¡bara have not given much importance to
this concrete form.
This is clear from their remakrs in Svargak¡m¡dhikara a.
á¡bara remarks since the svarga in the sence of other world is not
observable it has to be envisaged by arth¡patti. Since the delight
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unmixed with sorrow is stated to be the result of the sacrifice, and
since, such delight cannot be realized in this world, the other world,
ie svarga has to be envisaged. However even then, it will only be a
means of svarga. But not svarga in its primary sense, viz, delight
The vedic texts such as “This is he, the performer of sacrifices,
who attains heaven thereby”, M¢m¡msak¡ concludes that heaven is
the summum bonum of human life. There is no indication in the
works of Jaimini, Kumarila and á¡bara as to whether this heaven
(Svarga) is idential with bliss or it is a place, where happiness
unalloyed with pain or grief can be enjoyed. Latter M¢m¡msakas
understood the term in the latter sense. But most of the M¢m¡msakas
maintain that heaven does not mean anything, but bliss.
Concept of MokÀa
According to Pr¡bh¡kara, liberation consists in the total
disappearance of dharma and adharma, whose operation is the cause
of rebirth. It is the absolute cessation of the body, caused by the
disappearance of all dharma and adharma.
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+ÉiªÉÎxiÉEòºiÉÖ näù½þÉäSUäônùÉä Êxɶ¶Éä¹ÉvÉÉÉÇvÉÉÇ{ÉÊ®úIÉªÉ ÊxɤÉxvÉxÉÉä ÉÉäIÉ <ÊiÉ ÊºÉrùÉÂ* vÉÉÉÇvÉÉÇ
ÉʶÉEÞòiÉÉä VÉÒɺiÉɺÉÖ iÉɺÉÖ ªÉÉäÊxɹÉÖ ºÉƺÉÉ®úÊiÉ*8
According to Kumarila, mokÀa is the state of ¡tman in itself,
free from all pain ({É®úÉÉiÉ|ÉÉ{ÉiªÉɺlÉÉÉÉjÉÉÂ).
There is no clear indication in the M¢m¡ms¡s£tra or the
commentary of á¡bara about the possibility of emancipation (MokÀa)
of the self. According to Kumarila, ‘MokÀa’ is the supreme end of
the self.
M¢m¡msak¡s do not believe in the absolute dissolution
(mah¡pra½aya) of this world. They say that the universe has existed
as it is from eternity.
According to M¢m¡ms¡ philosophy, work recommended by
the scriptures has been declared to be the source of all blessings. It
is through such work man can fulfils his desire and at last attain to
emanicipation, which is equivalent to the extinction of all misery
and sorrow.
M¢m¡ms¡ believes in the existence of souls as eternal spiritual
substances. According to the material world evolves out of atoms
in accordance with the law of Karman, the world comprises :
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142
a) Living bodies - in which the souls are subject to the
consequences of their past deeds (bhog¡yatana).
b) The sensory and motor organs - which are the means of
enjoying or suffering from the above consequences (bhoga
- s¡dhana).
c) The objects, Which are the fruits to be enjoyed or referred
from (bhogyaviÀaya)
M¢m¡ms¡ is a combination of pluralism and realism but not
empiricism. It believes in the non-empirical vedic source of
knowledge which is regarded as even more authoritative than the
testimony of the senses.9 It is non empirical also because it believes
as real potential energy, unseen moral principle heaven, hell etc.
which the senses cannot comprehend.
According to M¢m¡ms¡ of the early phase, the highest good to
be aimed at was the attainment of heaven where the soul can enjoy
perfect bliss absolutely free from the touch of pain. When M¢m¡ms¡
pronounces the direction “¿vargak¡mo yejeta” (one should perfom
the sacrifices with the desire of getting acers to heaven) it clearly
indicates that heaven is the ultimate end of rituals.
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Gradually like the followers of other systems M¢m¡msakas
also come to consider the liberation from the bondage of flesh.
(ni¿reyasa). When a person realises the hollowness of the wordly
pleasure, mixed with pain he ceases from action with desire tries to
controll his passions, and takes to the knowledge of the self. After
leading a life of disinterested action, coupled with the knowledge
of the self, he dies never to be born again. Thus he is liberated from
the suffering that rebirths ential, the letters of his soul, caused by
the body, including the senses, are snapped. The liberated soul is
unconcious. It is in its own pristine state (sv¡rtha) in which there is
absolute cessation of all painful experience.10
Concept of Dharma
M¢m¡ms¡ is primarily concerned with Dharma, the super
structure of the philosophical theories. It is not the ordinary morality.
The ordinary moral values are included in ‘Artha’ and ‘K¡ma.’
Which are distinguished from dharma.
Dharma is something transcendental and is concerned with
the individual’s good in the life beyond. It’s aim is the attainment
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of Heaven and hence it can’t be known through ordinary empirical
means, not even by mystic intution. The Veda alone can tell what is
‘dharma’ and what is ‘adharma,’ ie, what action leads to heaven
and what to hell. Thus dharma comprises religious duties, viz,
‘Nityakarmas which are to be performed daily and
‘Naimittikakarm¡s which are to be performed on special occation.
There are also ‘K¡myakarmas or optional duties which are to be
performed by those desirers of particular results. ‘PratiÀidhakarm¡s
are those actions which are prohibited by the Veda, for example
injury to animals though killing an animal in a sacrifice is enjoined,
which may create the impression that M¢m¡ms¡ prescribed a dual
system of morality, one set of rules for ordinary condact and
different set for religious purpose.
The central theme of M¢m¡ms¡ is stated in the opening verse :
Now is the eunquiry of duty (dharma).11 This is the basis for the
interpretation of entire Veda. dharma is defined in the text as:
“Duty is an object distinguished by a command.”12 The term
dharma is derived from the root ‘dhar’, ‘to hold,’ ‘maintain,’
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145
‘preserve.’ It has reference therefore, to anything that holds,
supports or preserve. When used in the metaphysical sense, it means
those universal laws of nature that sustain the operation of the
universe and the manifestation of all things, that without which
nothing could be. When applied to the individual, it has reference
to that code of conduct that sustains the soul, and enables man to
fulfill his devine destiny. Here it has reference to the actions,
practices and duties that will benefit man in the world to come;
therefore it is that which produces virtue, morality or religious merit
leading towards the development of man.
All rituals and ceremonies enjoined in the Veda are said to
lead to the enlightment of the mind and the spiritual evolution of
the soul. Therefore it is necessary to understand their importance.
On the surface they appear to be fruitless injuctions, therefore,
M¢m¡ms¡ endeavours to show how they are all based on dharma
and lead to the spiritual welfare of man. M¢m¡ms¡ interpret the
Veda on the basis of eternal happiness is attained by the correct
performance of rituals founded on dharma, thereby storing up seeds
of virtue to fructify in the next life.
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Knowledge of Dharma according to Jaimini can be obtained
only by Verbal testimony (áabda). The six means of knowledge
employed by the other systems are not infallible when dealing with
the invisible effects of ritual, therefore Jaimini accepts only áabda
or the word. To support his position he lays down five prepositions :
1. The word ‘¿abda’ has an inherent power to convey its meanings
which is eternal.
2. The knowledge derived from the word (áabda) is called
Upade¿a (teachings).
3. In the invisible realm, the word (áabda) is authoritative.
5. The word is self-sufficient and does not depend upon any other
for its meaning; otherwise it would become involved in the
fallicy of regressus and infinitum.
Jaimini refutes several objections raised against the eternal
character of the word (áabda).
1. The objector contends that the word (áabda) is a product of
verbal utterance, therefore it cannot be eternal. Jaimini asserts
that only the pronounciation is the product of effrot, the word
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(áabda) must have existed previously, otherwise it could not
have been pronounced.
2. The word (áabda) vanishes after it pronounced, therefore it is
not eternal. Jaimini points out that only the sound disappears;
the word (áabda) still remains as does the drum after the sound
is produced.
3. The verb ‘make’ is used in connection with the word (áabda),
therefore it cannot be eternal. Jaimini explains that the verb
‘make’ has reference only to sound which manifests the word
(áabda), the word existed previously and the pronounciation
only made it audible.
4. Since the word áabda is heard simultaneously by several people
standing at an equal distance, there must be many sound and
not one; thereofre it is not eternal. Jaimini contends there is
only one sound as there is only one sun, even though seen by
many people, therefore it is eternal.
5. The word (áabda) undergoes modifications, therefore it cannot
be eternal. Jaimini answers that changes of letters are not
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modifications of the word (áabda) they are new words and the
original word still exists.
6. When several people utter a sound, there is an increase in
volume, therefore it is not eternal. Jaimini argues that the word
never increases, only the sound which manifests the word
increases. Therefore the word is eternal.
After establishing the eternal character of the word (áabda)
Jaimini proceeds to show that the use of words in the sentence of
the Vedas have a meaning just as they have in the oridnary language.
then he defends the devine origin of the Veda.
The method of interpretation of Vedic texts used by Jaimini is
best shown by an outline of the terms used at random throughout
the text. For this the contents of Vedas are classified under five
heads:
1. Vidhi (injunctions)
2. Mantra (hymns)
3. N¡madheya (names)
4. NiÀedha (Prohibitions)
5. Arthav¡da (explanatory passages)
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I. Vidhi - Vidhi is divivded as,
(a). Utpattividhi :- lays down a command with certain object,
thereby creating a desire.
(b). Viniyogavidhi : - lays down the details of a sacrifice. Six
accompaniments for the interpretation of the procedure enjoyed by
the texts.
A. áruti - Primary sense of a word or a collection of words, not
depending upon any other word for its meaning.
1. Vidh¡tri - Indicated by the verb from-lin
2. Viniyotri - On hearing which one immediately sees the
connection of the subsidiary and the principal.
a. Vibh¡trir£pa :- indicated by an affix of a declension.
b. Ek¡bhidh¡nar£pa :- denoted by one word.
c. Ekap¡dar£pa :- indicated by one p¡da or sentence.
3. Abhid¡tri :- indicates the material used in the sacrifice.
B. Liga - The secondary sense of a word inferred from another
word or collection of words.
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C. V¡kya : - When the meaning of a word or collection of words
is indicated by the sentence in which it is used.
D. Prakaraa :- when the meaning of a sentence or a clause depends
upon the centre in which it is used.
1. Mah¡prakaraa - when the context relates to the rewards of
the principal part of the sacrifice
2. Av¡ntharaprakara a : When the contexts relates to the
rewards of the subordinate parts of the sacrifice.
(E) Sth¡na : when the meaning depends upon the location or word
order.
1. Pad¡r¶has¡de¿ya - equality of place in the text.
a) Yadh¡samkhyap¡¶ha : relative enumeration, arranging verbs
with verbs and subjects with subjects.
b) Sannidhip¡tÅa : regulated by the text which is near it.
2. AnuÀ¶h¡na s¡de¿ya : The quality of place according to the
performance.
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(F) Sam¡khya : When it is necessary to break compound words up
into their component parts inorder to assertain their meaning.
Two kinds of actions enjoyed by viniyogavidhi
(a) Principal - That which produces the transcendental fruit
(Ap£rva), the invisible result to mature in another life.
(b) Subordinate : that which leads up to the completion of the
principal action. These are called Aga and are of two kinds.
1. Sidhar£pa : an accomplished thing which consists of class,
material number, and the like and has a visible effect.
2. Kriy¡r£pa : This is action.
(A). Pradh¡nakarma : The primary action.
1. Sannipatyopak¡raka : Actions enjoyed with respect to the
substance. They produce visible and invisible results.
2. Ër¡dupak¡raka : actions which are enjoyed without any
reference to any substance or divinity. It deals directlty to the
ultimate result. It is the essence of the sacrifice.
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(B). Gu akarma - The secondary action
1. Sannipatyopak¡raka
2. Ër¡dupak¡raka.
(C). Prayogavidhi : The injuction that lays down the order of
performance of the subsidiary or minor parts. The successon or
order (Karma) is of six kinds.
1. árutikrama - the order determined by a direct text.
a) Kevalakramapara - a text indicating an order or sequence
only.
b) Tadvi¿iÀ¶a pad¡rthapara - indicating the order or sequence
in the course of lying down certain other things.
2. Arthakrama - the order dertermined by the object.
3. P¡¶hakrama - when the order of the execution of things is governed
by their order in the text. It is of two kinds :
a. Mantra text.
b. Br¡hmaa text.
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4. Sth¡nakrama - the transportation of a thing from its proper place
by reson of being proceded by another thing which is followed by
another.
5. Mukhyakrama - the sequence of the subsidiaries or the
subordinate parts according to the order in the principal.
6. Prav¤ttikrama - the order of a procedure, which once begun,
will apply to others as well .
D. Adhik¡ravidhi - an injuction which creates a right in a person.
II. Mantra - A text which helps one to remember the procedure of a
sacrifice.
A. Ap£rva : When a text lays down a new injuction for the attainment
of an object which cannot know by any other means.
B. Niyama - the restrictive rule - when the text lays dawn one mode
of doing a thing that could be done in several ways.
C. Parisamkhya : an implied prohibition.
1. áruti - directly stated by some texts.
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2. L¡kÀaik¢ - inferred prohibition.
III. N¡madheya - a proper noun used in defining the matter enjoyed
by it.
A. MatvarthalakÀanabhay¡t - a figure of speech in which the Mat£p
afix is used.
B. V¡kyabhedabhay¡t - the spliting up of a sentence.
C. Tatprakhya - a convensional name given to a particular sacrifice,
the description of which is given elsewhere in a seperate threatise.
D. Tadvyapade¿a - the name given to a sacrifice by reason of its
resemblance to another from which it derives its name.
IV. NiÀedha - The opposite of Vidhi. A negative precept which
prevents a man from doing a thing which is injurious or
disadvantages to him.
A. Paryud¡sa - a negative precept that applies to a person who is
undertaking to perform a sacrifice.
B. PratiÀedha - a negative precept of general applicability.
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V. Arthav¡da - passages in praise or blame of a vidhi or NiÀedha.
A. Guav¡da - a statement made by the text that contradictory to
the existing state of the affair and means of proof.
B. Anuv¡da - A statement made by the text which is in keeping
with the existing state of facts.
C. Bh£t¡rthav¡da - A statement made which is neither against the
existing state of fact nor is it in conformity with it.
Jaimini’s defence of the utility of the Vedas will illustrate the
way he interprets the Veda. Nine objections are raised against Vedic
Mantras. The objections are ;
1. Vedic Mantras do not convey any meaning because they stand in
need of other passages to explain and support them.
Jaimini contends that all vedic words have a significance jsut
as they do in ordinary language.
2. Vedic Mantras are held useless because they depend upon a
complicated system of orthoepy and grammar inorder to understand
them.
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Jaimini says that vedic sentences have a subject, predicate and
object which are governed by the same rules of grammar as ordinary
language.
3. Vedic Mantras are held useless bacause they teach what is
already known.
Jaimini says that the repitition of things already known is far
the purpose of Gunav¡da (new qualities), parisamkhy¡ (implied
prohibition), or arthav¡da (explanation). It is also to produce an
invisible effect (Ap£rva).
4. Vedic mantras are held useless because they describe what does
not exist. For example it has four horns, it has three feats, two
heads, it has seven hands, the bull being tied three fold, cries ; the
great had entered amongst the mortals. etc.
Jaimini explains that such descriptions are figurative speech,
technically called ‘catv¡ri s¤nga’. For example the sacrifice is
compared with a bull by reason of its producing the desired effects,
it has four horns in the form of four kinds of priests. Its three feet
are the three libations (Savana) (performed three times a day) the
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sacrificer and his wife are the two heads, the chandas (desires) are
the seven hands. Beings tied up by the three Vedas, viz, Îg, Yaju,
S¡ma. It resounds with the roaring sound uttered by the priests.
This great god in the form of the sacrifice is amidst the mortals.
5. Vedic mantras are held to be useless because they are addressed
to inanimate objects as if they pocessed life.
Jaimini says that it is to extol the sacrifice and induce the
adherent to practice it. The principal use is technically called
‘Kaibhutikany¡ya.’
6. Vedic Mantras are held to be useless because they have many
self contradictory passages.
Jaimini explains that these passages are descriptive of
subordinate qualities.
7. Vedic Mantras are held to be useless because they are learned
without understanding their meaning.
Jaimini explains that this is no fault of the Veda which delas
only with the performance of sacrifices. It is assumed that the
meaning will be learned.
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8. Vedic Mantras are held to be useless because there are many
mantras the meaning of which cannot be known.
Jaimini says that every mantra has a meaning. Our ignorance
is due to carelessness and indolence.
9. Vedic Mantras are held to be useless because they mension
transitory things.
Jaimini explains that the common nouns used in the Vedas
were subsequently used by men for proper noun. For the
interpretation of substantives, Jamini mensions three principles.
1. R£·hi - a word, not compounded with any other word and with a
convensional meaning which must be learned from past authorities,
such as Paini, the most eminent of all Sanskrit grammarians. It
has the inherent power to convey a sense.
2. Yaugika - the derivative word, made up of two or three words. It
is a compound word and is used in the sense conveyed by the
component parts of which it is made.
3. Yogar£·hi - A compound word which has non convensional
sense.
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Jaimini explains that substantives never convey the intention
of the speaker. This requires the use of a verb, which always denoted
action. He classifies action into two kinds.
1. Pradh¡na or principal - It is that action which produces an invisible
effect called Ap£rva, such as the attainment of heaven. The
recitation of mantras in prose and poetry at the performance of a
sacrifice is said to produce Ap£rva, an invisible effect, therefore
they are the principal actions.
2. Gua or subordinate - It is that action which produces visible
effects, such as the use of materials in the sacrifice, eg. kindling of
fire, preparing of cakes or the prounding and thrushing of rice.
For the application of these rules, the Veda is devided into two
broad divisions, Mantra and Br¡hmaa, which are further subdivided
I. Mantra or Samhit¡ : This is the mandatory portion of the Veda. It
is a collection of hymns that regulate, define and create a right,
impelling men to action. It has three parts.
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1. Îgveda - a collection of verses which have a metrical arrangement
to convey meaning.
2. S¡ma Veda - a collection of verses which can be sung at the end
of a sacrifice.
3. Yajur Veda - is in prose and has no metre it is of two kinds :
a. Nigada - those which are pronounced alound.
b. Up¡m¿u - those which are pronounced silently.
II. Br¡hma¡s
1. Hetu - reason
2. Nirvacanam - explanation
3. Ninda - Censure
4. Pra¿ansa - Praise
5. Sam¿aya - doubt
6. Vidhi - Command
7. Parakriya - the action of one individual
8. Pur¡kalpa - the action of many individuals or a nation. These are
the historical discriptions of one individual or many individuals
and are indicated by the particles ‘iti,’‘¡ha’ or, ‘ha.’
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9. Vyavadh¡raakalpana - interpretation of a sentence according to
its context.
10. Upam¡na - Comparison
The principles which are merely anttined here are used
throughout the M¢m¡ms¡s£tra in the interpretation of the many
sacrifices that are enjoined for the benefit of man.
As a system of philosophy M¢m¡ms¡ school made a great
contribution to the branch of epistemology. Its theories of self
validity of knowledge, theories of error and cognisedness or
manifestedness of objects shows great philosophical insight.
Epistemology in general provides a method of metaphysical enquiry
in M¢m¡ms¡, the truth dealt with the Vedas are determined through
these epistemological notions. In view of the fact that the soul
purpose of M¢m¡ms¡ is to asertain dharma. M¢m¡ms¡ school also
deals with nature of self and God. As a philosophical system
M¢m¢ms¡ is a combination of pluralism and realism.
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Ritualistic Aspects
Vedas consists of Samhit¡, Br¡hmaa, Ërayaka and UpaniÀad.
Among these, Br¡hma as describe a large number of y¡g¡s. The
details required for the performance of these y¡g¡s are also given.
The Br¡hmaas of Yaj£rveda, particularly that of Taittir¢ya á¡kh¡
describe the major sacrifices. However, these are not described in
an organised way. It is difficult to distinguish in different sacrifices
the main and subordinate positions, procedures etc. Here and there
conflicting statements also seen. There are difference among
different á¡kh¡s in respect of same items and procedure. Probably
the priests reconciled these at the time of actual performance by
discussion. At the time of Br¡hmaas, the performance of sacrifices
was a living programme and priests were quite conversant with it.
In due course, árautas£tras were formulated to describe the
procedure of the performance of sacrifices. The largest number of
árautas£tras belong to the Yajurveda, which is primarily concerned
with sacrifices. Bauddh¡yana and Ëpasthambha árautas£tras of the
Yaj£rveda give a fairly good account of major sacrifices.
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The árautas£tras approach is discriptive. These describe the
details of the sacrifice step by step, following the procedure of the
performance. However, these do not discuss the rational underlying
the introduction of certain items or procedures. These are just a
diary of peformances. In the section called Paribh¡À¡s£tras some
technical points are explained. However a full discussion and the
interpretation of the statements in the Br¡hmaas connected with
sacrifice is not found. M¢m¡ms¡ is formulated to play this role.
vÉÉæ |ÉÉÒªÉÉÉxÉä ʽþ ÉänäùxÉ EòÉ®úhÉÉiÉxÉÉ
<ÊiÉEòiÉǪÉiÉÉ ¦ÉÉMÉÆ ÉÒÉÉƺÉÉ {ÉÚ®úʪɹªÉÊiÉ**13
Vedas are the means to comprehend Dharma. M¢m¡ms¡ is an
aid to interpret Vedas.
Giving authoritative rulings on sacrificial matters such as
adhik¡ra, aga, atide¿a, £ha, b¡dha, tantra etc. and fixing the correct
procedure and nature of sacrifices, (Karmabbheda and Karma)
P£rvam¢m¡ms¡ is also called Karmam¢m¡ms¡.
P£rvam¢m¡ms¡ regarded Veda as eternal and authorless and
of infallible authority. It is essentially a book of ritual, dealing with
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commandments prescribing injuctions or prohibitions. Greatest
impotance is attached to the Br¡hmaa portion of the Veda to which
both the ‘Mantr¡s’ and ‘UpaniÀads’ are subordinated. The aim of
the M¢m¡ms¡ is to supply the principles according to which the
vedic texts are to be interpreted and to provide philosophical
justification for the views contained therein. The work of finding
the principles for the right interpretation of the vedic texts was
undertaken by the Brahmaas themselves and mainly by the árauta
s£tr¡s. M¢m¡ms¡ continues this work, But it would have been best,
only a commentary on Vedic rituals. The main thing which entitle
it to the rank of a philosophical system is its keen desire to provide
philosophical justification for the Vedic views and to replace the
earlier ideal of the attaintment of heaven (svarga) by the ideal of
obtaining liberation (apavarga). It undertakes a detailed investigation
on the nature and validity of knowledge and into the various means
which produce valid knowledge and also into other metaphysical
problems.
Dharma is the subject of inquiry in M¢m¡ms¡. Jaimini defines
dharma as a command or injunction which implies men to action.14
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It is the supreme duty, ‘the ought’, the ‘categorical imperative’.
‘Artha’ and ‘K¡ma’ which deal with ordinary common morality
are learnt by wordly intercourse. But Dharma and MokÀa which
deal with true spirituality are revealed only by the Veda. Dharma is
supra sensible and consists in the commands of Veda. Action is the
final import of the Veda which commands us to do certain acts and
refrain from doing certain other. The authoritativeness of the Veda
is supported by social consciousness as well as by individual
conscience. ‘dharma’ and ‘adharma’ deal with happiness and pain
to be enjoyed or suffered in the life beyond. Actions perfomed here
produced an unseen potency (ap£rva) in the soul of the agent which
yeilds fruits when obstructions are removed and time becomes ripe
for its frutification. The Ap£rva is the link between the act and its
fruit. It is the causal potency (áakti) in the act which leads to its
fruitification. Actions are first devided in to three kinds :- Obligatory
- which must be performed for their violation results in sin, though
their performance leads to no merit, Optional - which may or
maynot be performed. Their performance leads to merit, though
their nonperformace does not leads to sin, Prohibited - which must
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not be perfrmed. Their performace leads to sin though their non
performance does not leads to merit.
According to m¢m¡msakas dharma is identical with yajµa or
sacrifices.15 Types of sacrifices can be classified into five groups.
Viz; Nitya (compulsory) Naimittika (occassional), K¡mya
(performed for fulfilling certain material desires or personal
advantages), praya¿citta (expiatory) and NiÀidha (prohibitted).
Nitya Sacrifices
As the term indicates, Nitya are to be performed regularly.
They are compulsory and not optional. They do not depend upon
any desire of the sacrificer for any personal gain. On the other
hand, if one does not perform the Nitya sacrifices, he incurs sin.
K¡mya Sacrifices
K¡mya Sacrifices are performed to fulfil some personal desires
of man. The sacrificer should proceed to offer K¡mya sacrifices
only if he is able to perform it with all its auxilary rites, because
Kamya sacrifices are not obligatory ie, compulsory. The performance
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of sacrifices referring to their fruits, depend on the desire of the
sacrifices.16 á¡bara says ºÉRÂóMÉÉiÉ ʽþ ¡ò±ÉÆ ÉÚªÉiÉä, xÉ EäòɱÉÉiÉ ie, the fruit has
been delcared to follow from the principal rite performed with all
its auxilaries and not from the principal rite only.
P¡rthasarathi Mi¿ra in his Ny¡yaratnam¡la having first refuted
the Gurumata and establishes his own siddanta with respect to Nitya
and K¡mya sacrifices.
ÊxÉÊÉkÉÉÉhÉÉxÉ ÊxÉiªÉÆ ªÉlÉɶÉÊHò |ɪÉÖVªÉiÉä*
EòɪÉÆ SÉ iÉnù +¦ÉÉÉäxÉ ÊxÉÊJɱÉÉRÂóMɺÉÉÎxÉiÉÉÂ**17
Naimittika - Occassional Sacrifices
Naimittika sacrifices are held at par with Nitya sacrifices, in
the sense that they are not performed with reference to fulfilling
any personal desire but when occasions occur they are to be
performed compulsory. For example : Taittir¢ya samhit¡ 2.2.2.
enjoins. ªÉºªÉ MÉÞ½þÉxÉ nù½þÊiÉ - +MxɪÉä IÉÉÉiÉä {ÉÖ®úÉäb÷ɶÉÆ +¹]õÉEò{ÉɱÉÆ ÊxÉÉÇ{ÉäiÉÂ*18 ie. if the
sacrificers house catches fire, he should offer a cake baked on eight
potsherds to ‘kÀ¡mavat agni.’
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Pr¡ya¿citta sacrifices
According to Jaimini and á¡bara the expiations are of two
kinds. Some are enjoined for mending the lapses and others are
prescribed as a part of the sacrificial performances to be performed
under certain contigencies. (|ÉɪÉζSÉkÉÉÊxÉ Êuù-|ÉEòÉ®úÉÊhÉ** EòÉÊxÉÊSÉiÉ ÉèMÉÖhɺªÉ
|ÉÉÉnùÉnÂù +É{ÉÊiÉiɺªÉ ºÉÉÉvÉÉxÉÉlÉÉÇÊxÉ* EòÉÊxÉÊSÉiÉ ÊxÉÊÉkÉä EòÉÉÈMÉÉÊxÉ -)19
There are several expiations laid down to correct the same
discrepancy One should optionally undergo one of the several
expiations.20
Another kind of expiation is not meant to mend the lapses.
Such are not laid dawn for omission of what is enjoined or for
commission of what is forbidden. For example if the sun rises before
the sacrificer has performed the Agnihotra, he should offer the
cooked rise to Mitra, also a cake backed on potshred to Surya. The
sacrificer and his wife should add fuel to fire and restrain their
speech and observe fast during the day. In this case the sacrificer
has not omitted what is enjoined or committed what is forbidden.
There is nothing to be mended here. The vedic texts here describes
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some rites when the contigency of the sunrise occures before
Agnihotra. EäòɱÉÆ +¦ªÉÖnùªÉä ÊxÉÊÉkÉä EòÉÇ ÊÉvÉÒªÉiÉä*21 In such cases all the
expiations should be undergone by the sacrificer together.22
NiÀiddha Sacrifices
The Vedas have pointed out such sacrifices, which if performed,
lead to hell. The vedic sentence ¶ªÉäxÉäxÉ +ʦÉSÉ®úxÉ ªÉVÉäiÉ describes the
áyena sacrifice is for him who desires to destroy the enemies by
means of ¡bhic¡ra, the black magic. The distruction leads the
sacrificer to hell. Therefore it is prohibitted. Himsa is a cause for
leading the sacrificer to hell.
It may be argued that a goat killing in soma or pa¿u sacrifices.
If killing leads to hell, these sacrifices are also lead him to hell and
consequently they be regarded as prohibitted. The answer is, killing
of pa¿u in Soma or nirudhapa¿ubandha is the aga of that sacrifice.
Therefore killing does not have the fruit seperate from the soma or
pa¿u sacrifices. Which is Svarga. (ªÉtÊ{É ¶ªÉäxɺªÉ ¶ÉjÉÖÉvÉ& ¡ò±ÉÆ xÉ xÉ®úEò& iÉlÉÉÊ{É
iɺªÉ ÉvɺªÉ xÉ®úEò½äþiÉÖiÉÉiÉ ÉvÉuùÉ®úÉ ¶ªÉäxÉ& +xÉlÉÇÇ&* xÉ SÉ BÉÆ +ÎMxɹÉÉäÉÒªÉ {ɶÉÖ˽þºÉɪÉÉ& +Ê{É
ÉvÉiÉäxÉ xÉ®úEò½äþiÉÖiÉÆ ºªÉÉiÉ <ÊiÉ ¶ÉRÂóEòxÉÒªÉÉÂ* iɺªÉÉ& EÞòiÉÉRÂóMÉiÉäxÉ GòiÉÖ¡ò±ÉªÉÊiÉ®äúEäòxÉ
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170
¡ò±ÉÉxiÉ®úɦÉÉiÉÂ**23 So sacrifices come under ¡bhic¡ra are niÀidha
according to M¢m¡msakas.
Obligatory actions are of two kinds; those which must be
performed daily -‘nitya’- like daily prayers (sandhy¡vandana) and
which must be performed on specific occassions (naimittika).
Optional actions are called K¡myakarmas and their performance
lead to merit. For example he who wants to go heaven should
perform centain sacrifices (‘Svargak¡mo yajeta’). Prohibitted actions
are called ‘pratiÀidham’ their performance incurs sin and leads to
hell. Then, there are expiatery acts (Pr¡ya¿citta) which are
performed inorder to ward off or atleast mitigate the evil effect of
the performed prohibitted actions.
The earlier M¢m¡msak¡ believed only in ‘Dharma’ not in
‘MokÀa’ and their ideal was the attainment of heaven (Svarga),
But later M¢m¡msak¡s believe in ‘MokÀa’ and substitute the ideal
of heaven by that of liberation (apavarga). Prabhakara and Kumarila
both believe that the good of human life is liberation, though both
conceive it in a negative manner like the Ny¡ya - Vai¿eÀika. The
soul is chained to ‘sams¡ra’ on account of its association with the
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body, the senses, the mind and the understanding. Through this
association the soul becomes a knower, an enjoyer and an agent.
This association is due to karma which is the couse of the bondage.
When the cause is removed, the effect also ceases to exist. So the
obstention from karma automatically leads to the dissolution of the
bondage of the soul with the body, senses, the mind.etc. and
consequently the return of the soul to its pure nature as a substance
rid of all qualities and modes including consciousness and bliss
also. It is a state of feedom from all sorts of pain, desire and
consciousness, though Kumarila adds that the soul is here
characterized by potential consciousness. Prabhakara and Kumarila
both admit that obstention from Karma does not mean obstention
from all karmas, but obsention from the optional (EòɪÉ) and the
prohibited (|ÉÊiÉʹÉvÉ) kinds of karma, only which leads to demerit and
to hell. The seeker of the liberation has to rise above both merit and
demerit, above both heaven and hell. But even he should perform
the obligatory (nitya and Naimitika) actions enjoyed by the Veda.
Pr¡bh¡kara believes in ‘duty for duty sake’. These actions must be
performed in an absolutely detached manner without any
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consideration of reward simply becasuse they are the commands of
the Vedas. Kumarila believes in psychological hedonism and makes
the performance of these actions, a means to realise the ultimate
end, ie liberation by overcoming past sins and by avoiding future
sins which would otherwise surely result from their neglect.
Pr¡bh¡kara believes in the utter supremacy of an action, though he
admites knowledge also as a means of liberation. Kumarila believes
in “Jµ¡na-karma - samucchayav¡da”, or in a harmonious
combination of knowledge and action as a means to liberation.
In ‘M¢m¡ms¡dar¿ana’, a discussion occurs on the relative
importance of the diety, the material offered to the diety and the
actual action of offering. It is from the ritual action that ap£rva
originates, that causes the required result. So it is ap£rva that
stimulates ritual action.24 In the view of M¢m¡msak¡s the ritual
action assumed utmost importance while all the ideas regarding
the dieties came to be considered unimportant or of no use from the
point of view of the result that is to be obtained.
In the view of M¢m¡msak¡s, the importance of vedic deities
got diminished to such a level, that they were considered having
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only a verbal existence. They have the words or names as their
form (áabdar£pa). A passage of Taittir¢ya Ërayaka seems to imply
such an idea according to which all vedic deities live in a Br¡hmaa
who is well-versed in Vedas.25 In refuting the verbal form of Vedic
deities, Sankaracharya says that such a view cannot be accepted
because the word is different from its sense in all cases.26 It is to be
noted that one of the M¢m¡msak¡’s objections to maintaining
physical bodies of the deities is that if they had physical bodies
they would not to be able to present in the sacrifices performed at
different places at the same time.27 If they had verbal form they
would be able to be present at the time of invocation at different
places. Here, M¢m¡msak¡s seem to conceive the deities as abstract
concepts. The concept of point in geometry cannot be understood
without the term point or some other such term. If a point is denoted
by a letter P, it can be imagined anywhere in the space. In the same
way if the deities are conceived as abstract concepts they can be
made present anywhere at any time. Thus m¢m¡msak¡s maintained
such a view regarding deities to keep the sacrificial tradition alive,
at a time when the vedic deities lost their popularity. Later, however,
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the sacrificer came to be viewed as a form of worship of the supreme
God. S¡yaa begins his commentary on Îgveda saying that it is the
supreme God who is worshipped with all the sacrifices.
Vedas and vedic rituals embodied in them are viewed
divergently from very ancient times. M¢m¡msak¡s held that Vedas
are eternal. According to them the relation between the word and
its sense is ‘autpattikam’. ‘Utpatti’ is interpreted to mean Bh¡va.
The relation between the word and sense was not establised, after
the word and sense originated.28 The sense is the form of the object
denoted by the word. The sense of the word cow is the form of the
cow.29
This can be explained thus : after seeing several cows the
generalised idea of cow comes to the mind. As soon as such an idea
develops the word ‘GauÅ’ also comes to the mind and hence their
relationship orginates with the idea and the word denoting it. The
cowness or the form of cow is an absract one, just like a three
dimensional geometric form. The form of cow is connected only
with the space and as such it can be said eternal. Hearing the word
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‘cow’, the idea of all the cows in general comes to the mind and
hence the sense of the word is the form. So, the word also should be
eternal in the sense, otherwise the connection between the word
and the sense would not be eternal. Therefore m¢m¡msakas hold
that ¿abda revealed by sound is also eternal.30
According to K.T. Pandurangi sacrifice is a socio-religious
institution in Vedic culture. It represents the world view envisaged
by P£rva M¢m¡ms¡.31 According to P£rva M¢m¡ms¡; (i)The world
is neither created not will it be destroyed. It is ever present. (ii) the
language, particularly the Vedic language, has no beginning nor
end. (iii) For sacrificial activity also no beginnig can be traced in
historical terms. In the first hymn of Îgveda, Agni is described as
Rtvic and Hota. Prayers were offered to him by sages in the past
and will be offered by the sages in future.
“+ÎMxÉ& {ÉÚÉæ̦É& @ñʹÉʦÉ& <Çt& xÉÚiÉxÉè& =iÉ*”32
In PuruÀas£kta it is stated that, “ªÉYÉäxÉ ªÉYÉÆ +ªÉVÉxiÉ näùÉ& iÉÉÊxÉ vÉÉÉÇÊxÉ
|ÉlÉÉÉÊxÉ +ɺÉxÉÂ*”33
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The deities performed the sacrifices, these were the earliest
sacrifices. The G¢ta also informs us,
“ ºÉ½þ& ªÉYÉ& |ÉVÉÉ& ºÉÞ¹]ÂõÉÉ*
{ÉÖ®úÉäÉÉSÉ |ÉVÉÉ{ÉÊiÉ&**”34
From this it is clear that sacrificial acitivity was ever present.
These were not ever present in an isolated way. Rather they made
an impact on one another.
In the context of P£rva M¢m¡ms¡, dharma is primarily a
sacrificial activity. This is elevated on two grounds. (i) these are
enjoined by vedic injuction (2) these lead to trans-emperical results.
Jaimini says, sacrificial activities lead to welfare.35 It leads to
the welfare of men and also the welfare of all others, including the
deities.
In G¢ta,
näùÉÉxÉ ¦ÉÉɪÉiÉxÉäxÉ iÉä näùÉÉ ¦ÉɪÉxiÉÖ É&
{É®úº{É®Æú ¦ÉÉɪÉxiÉ& ÉäªÉ& {É®úÉÉÉ{ºªÉxiÉ*36 explains the role of sacrifice in
the form of Yajµ¡cakra.
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“ +zÉÉnÂù¦ÉÉÎxiÉ ¦ÉÚiÉÉÊxÉ {ÉVÉÇxªÉÉnùzÉ& ºÉlÉÉ&
ªÉYÉÉiÉ ¦ÉÉÊiÉ {ÉVÉÇxªÉÉä ªÉYÉ& EòÉǺÉÉÖnÂù¦ÉÉ&*” 37 (3-15)
Since the sacrifical activity leads to the welfare of all it has to
be carried on forever, generation after generation.
I¿¡v¡syopaniÀad advices to undertake the activities all along
the life.
“EÖòÉÇzÉäÉä& EòÉÉÇÊhÉ ÊVÉVÉÒÊɶÉäiÉ ¶ÉiÉÆ ºÉÉ&*”
Eligibility to perform Sacrifices
The eligibility for performing the sacrifice is briefly stated as,
+ÉlÉÔ ºÉÉlÉÉæ ÊÉuùÉxÉ +ÊvÉÊGòªÉiÉä*
ie, a person who desires to obtain the result of the sacrifice,
who has the necessary resources, and the knowledge is eligible to
perform the sacrifice. Whether the person have defective senses
such as blind, deaf or dum are not eligible to perform sacrifices
because there are certain items in the sacrifices that have to be
performed utilizing these senses.
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Eligibility of Women
Aiti¿¡yana, an early M¢m¡msak¡, argues that the expression
Svargak¡maÅ is in masculine gender. Therefore it seems the
intention is to convey that only men are eligible to perform
sacrifices.
Another argument deny the eligibility of women is the lack of
resources with them. The sacrifices requires various kinds of grain,
ghee etc. The woman does not own these. Infact she herself purchase
at the time of her marriage by offering to her father the cows, chariot
etc.
These arguments are not sufficient to deny eligibility of women
for sacrifice. At the time of marriage bride and groom enter into a
kind of partnership in respect of persuing all ideals of life. The
desire is common to both male and female, hence both are eligible.
If the sacrifice is performed seperately according the singular word
‘yajeta’, certain other items which have to be alone by both will be
wrong. So if a sacrifice is performed, seperately the result will be
incomplete.38
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Eligibility of á£dra
Jaimin¢yas£tras and á¡bara bh¡Àya strongly argued the right
of á£dras for performing the sacrifices, though it is ultimately not
granted. (i) Mere interest in obtaining the result of the sacrifice
will not entittle and to undertake it, and the knowledge of Veda is
not found in á£dras. (2) Studying Veda without Upanayana is a
wrong procedure. Such study and recetition of hymns at the sacrifice
without proper study will not obtain the result of the sacrifice.39
The institution of sacrifice is a programme of achieving welfare
not only for the individual but for the whole society. It is for the
welfare of entire world consisting of all living beings and the nature
around. It is also a sacred programme. Therefore it has to be executed
with competent persons with necessary descriptive. The persons
are means for the programme. The programmes are not meant for
them. In view of this, if any individual or group of persons are
denied participation in the programme, the intention is to accomplish
but not to deny the opportunity to participate to that of person or
group of persons. The programme is more important than the
persons.40
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The concept of perfection of socio-religious programmes and
procedure go on changing, suitable social changes also go on. It can
be understand their validity in the context in which they are practised
and preached. In due course the change take place. Whether one
like it or not.
Sacrificial Tradition in Kerala
Vedic tradition became poluar in South India with the advent
of Aryans. This had begin in the first centuary of Christian Era. By
the 6th and 7th century many institutions were established to impart
Vedic education. Centres of learning called ‘sal¡s’ were started
connected with temples. The ‘sal¡s’ were institutions where the
Brahmin youth were taught a variety of subjects including the
Vedas. In course of time the teaching of Veda got localized in the
Brahmaswam Madhams at Trissur and Tirunavaya.
According to legend, Mezhathol Agnihotri is believed to have
conducted exactly nintynine y¡g¡s, but the jelous of Indra prevented
him from doing the 100th one becasue, then he would have displaced
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Indra. It is also believed that expensive yagas like ‘A¿vamedham’
had been performed in Kerala.41 Friz Stall provided a list of about
80 Nambuthiri families who had conducted such yagas during the
last century. Of the various types of such affairs, AgniÀtomam,
Agny¡dh¡nam, Athir¡tram, were most frequently done in Kerala.
The word ‘yaga’ among the Namboothiri usually cannotes the
‘AgniÀtomam’. The person who had conducted it was known as
‘Somayaji’, colloquially named ‘Chomathiri’, ‘Chemathiri’,
‘Chemari’ etc. The seond was known as Ëdh¡nam and the one who
had conducted it was known as ‘Atithiri’ / ‘at¢ri’. The third was
known as ‘Agni’ and the one who conducted it was ‘Agnihotr¢’ /
‘Akkithiri’. As a mark of respect the suffix ‘p¡du’ would be added
to their titles.
Significantly it was laid down that such performances should
be done only between the Korapuzha in the North and the Periyar
in the South within Kerala. It is reported that the then Travancore
Raja, inorder to aquire the merit of having been RakÀ¡puruÀa
(patron) of the ‘yaga’ had to have it conducted in Aluva, on the
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Northern banks of Periyar, when the area became part of his
territories. He induced the Nambutiries to also by gifting to them
extensive landed properties.
The elaborate ritual performances of the Vedic period and the
supreme importance attached to them in Vedic civilization demand
an explanation or at least an interpretaion. In the earliest Vedic
literature itself rituals along with meters and chants are depicted as
instrumets used by gods and demons to fight and conqure each other,
and sametimes to create even when the aims are not explicit Gods
and demons are frequently described as engaged in rituals.
The recitations that accompany the rites often express specific
desires: for health, strength, sons, victory, heaven and immortality.
The list of wishes and desires is not so different from that of modern
man. It is not exclusively spiritual.
The árautas£tras of the late Vedic period offer several
definitions of rituals. The one that is often quoted, characterizes it
as comprising three things : ‘Dravya’ - the sustance (used in
oblations); ‘Devat¡’ - the deity (to which oblations are offered and
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‘Ty¡ga’- renunciation (of the fruits of the ritual acts). The ‘Tyaga’
is a formula pronounced by the ‘yajam¡na’ or patron at the
culmination of each act of oblation. When the priest make oblations
into the fire for one of the gods, eg: -Agni the yajam¡na says. “This
is for Agni, not for me” (‘+MxɪÉä <nÆù xÉ ÉÉ’). The reason for performing
a specific ritual is stated to be the disire for particular fruit or
effect.42 But this effect renounced whenever yajam¡na utters his
‘ty¡ga’ formula of renunciation. So the effect is not obtained. But
the m¢m¡ms¡ concluded, quite logically that the effect of ritual
activity is temporarily unseen. It will became apparent only later.
for example after death.
There are three kinds of sacrifices, (i) ‘P¡ka Yajµ¡s’ (ii) ‘Havir
Yajµas’ (iii) ‘Somayaga”. P¡ka yajµas are Grhya rites. Other two
are árauta rites.
Seven Havir Yajµas : - agny¡dheya, Agnihotra, Dar¿apura m¡sau,
Agr¡yana, C¡turm¡sy¡ni, D¡kÀ¡ya a yajµ¡, Kunda -
payin¡mayanam. According to Baudh¡yana s£tra43 seven Yajµas :-
AgniÀtoma, AtyagniÀ¶oma, Ukthya, âo·a¿i, V¡japeya, Ëptary¡ma
and Athir¡tra.
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In Soma sacrifice, ‘soma’ is pressed and its juise is offered to
the deities, during only one day of the sacrifice. Hence, these soma
sacrifices are caled ‘Ek¡has’ ie, having the duration of one day.
Agnihotram : The sacrifice performed in fire (agni). Here the three
Agnis, G¡rhapatyan, Ëhavan¢ya and Anv¡h¡rya (DakÀi agni) are
keeps firing and perform the Ëhuti with milk or curd with chanting
of mantras. There must not have any discontinuation in the
performance, if so from the production of the fire, the sacrifice
have to restart. This y¡ga is performed for the reception of favours
and refusion of dislikes. The one who performed Agnihotra is
known as ‘Agnihotri’. There are eight families of agnihotris -
Poylam, Pukkizhi, Porandaykkadu, Tottupuram, Amayattur, Bhatti,
Cherumukku, N¡r¡ya a mangalam. The most famous Agnihotri is
Mezhathol Agnihotri.
Somayagam :- The offering is somarasa. The aim is eternity
(‘am¤tatvam’). Generally this known as JyotiÀtomam. One who
prepare the Agni for yaga known as ‘Atittiri’, one who performed
Somay¡ga is known as ‘somay¡ji’, One who performed Athir¡tra
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is known as ‘Akkithiri’ - they have to perform Agnihotra daily till
their death.
In 1984, there performed a Somay¡ga at Thiruvananthapuram.
Then the yajam¡na is Amettur Parame¿varan Somay¡ji. With the
past 50 years seven persons perform ¡dh¡na and became atithiri.
Kaimukku Raman Atithiri was one among them. Among the eleven
somay¡jis Kavapram¡rathu Sankaranarayanan Somay¡ji and
Cherumukku Cheriyavallabhan Somayaji are famous. Daily
performer is áankaranaraya a Namboothirippadu.
It take one day for ¡dh¡nam; for somay¡ga, six days and for
Athir¡tra twelve days.
Kerala has a living sacrificial tradition. The ritualists are highly
respected in the society. In Kerala, at present, four Akkittars
(Agnicits) are there.
Nellikk¡¶¶il N¢lakanthan Akkithar : born in 1905. He performed
AgniÀtoma in 1941 and Atiratra with Agnicayana in 1956. He started
his sacrificial performance at the age of seventeeth or eighteenth.
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He was well versed in S¡man Chanting. He has participated four
Atiratras and twenty AgniÀtomas. He performed daily Agnihotra
till 1972.
Cerumukku Vasudevan Akkittar : At the age of fourteen he
completed his vedic study and started studying the ritual procedures.
His father Sri Vallabhan Somayaji also was a great sacrificer. At
the age of twenty nine he acted as Adhvaryu in an Agni˦oma. He
performed AgniÀ¶oma in 1954 and Atir¡tra with Agnicayana in
1955. He participated in Atir¡tra at Nellikk¡¶¶ family in 1956. He
did Hautra in an Agni˦oma till 1976.
Puttillat Ravi Akkittar : He is well-versed in Ja¶a and Ratna. He
was awarded by Olappama aaward for Veda pandita. He has
done Ëdhvaryava and Hautra in several sacrifices. He performed
daily Agnihotra.
Taikk¡¶¶ N¢laka tÅan Namboothiri : He was born in 1927.
After completion of his Îgvedic study he studied different types of
rituals and manuals of the rituals. He did Ëdhvaryava in 1955. He
participated in fourteen Agni˦omas as Vaidika.
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C.P. Kuberan Namboothiri : He was born in a family of vedic
scholars near Talipparamba in Kannur district. He studied Y¡jurveda
recitation, Sanskrit and á¡stra like Tarka and Vy¡karana. He
performed many Ottu¶¶us in Malabar.
The M¢m¡msak¡s have attempted to answer the question how
a remote result, the attainment of heaven, is obtained by an action
such as a sacrifice, which belongs to and ceases in the present.
Sacrifice is the means to the result, heaven. A sacrifice is of the
nature of an action which is very soon lost. Hence the instrumentality
of the sacrifice to the fruit which is to take place at a distant time is
hardly possible. To establish this instrumentality, which is
propounded by áruthi, between sacrifice and heaven, an invisible
potency is admitted. This issues from the sacrifice and endures till
the fruit is generated and resides in the soul of the character. This
invisible potency is called Ap£rva. It ceases on producing the result.
It is a power in the sacrifice. Although a nature of potency inhering
in the sacrifice, it is presumable on account of the result. And is
presumed as existing in the locus of where the result is produced,
ie, in the soul of the sacrificer. If this is not admitted, the sacrifice
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can have no causal connection with their result. In the absense of
such a link, men of prudence would have no disposition to perform
them. In such a situation Vedas, as a whole would have no use or
purpose. And they would be open to objections of fraudulance etc.
To avoid such objections Ap£rva must needs to be admitted.
Linguistic Aspects
P£rva M¢m¡ms¡ is called ‘V¡kya¿¡str¡’ because, it evolves
the rules of interpretation or nay¡s for interpretation of Vedic
passages.
The word in sanskrit that comes closet to this general sense is
‘M¢m¡ms¡’ which literally means ‘investigation’ or ‘inquiry.’ The
word ‘exegesis’ is also be taken as a near equivalent. The
M¢m¡msakas were a school of exegets who were concerned with
the correct determination of the meaning of the Vedic texts and
with the settlement of problematic passages in them. Their method
included not only the fixing of the meaning of particular words,
verbs, names of sacrifices, and so forth but primarily also the larger
task of determining the import of sentences in the light of the overall
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purpose or intent of the Vedic texts. M¢m¡ms¡ is known as the
science of sentences (v¡kya¿¡str¡), as opposed to grammar, which
is the science of words (Pada¿¡stra).
The M¢m¡ms¡ principles of interpretation were derived from
a long tradition of vedic exegesis and were codified for the first
time by Jaimini (Ca.200 BC) in his book of aphorism called
‘M¢m¡ms¡s£tras.’ This exegetical tradition produced what may be
called a science of interpretation with a body of rules that could be
applied to any linguistic text scriptural or non-scriptural.
According to Jaimini the three major axioms of interpretations
were (1) the autonomy of verbal meaning (ii) its impersonality (iii)
unity of meaning. The first axiom relates to the inherent capacity
of the verbal sign to convey meaning and it is independent of any
external authority or of coroboration by another source of
knowledge. The second relates to the impersonal character of verbal
knowledge and its independence of any passional author who could
give words their significative capacity, or intend their meanings.
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The third relates to the univocity of all verbal upset and human
discourse itself would be undermined.
While the principle of unity of meaning was accepted by all
schools, opinion was sharply devided, especially between
M¢m¡msak¡s and the logicians, on the question of semantic
autonomy and impersonality and the problem of intention that they
involve.
Vedic exegetes who developed the science of interpretation
were no doubt, dogmatists who believed in the absolute authority
and infallibility of Vedic word. But their observations about the
nature of language and the procedures they set up for the
interpretation of verbal texts were seen to possess a general validity
for all types of discourse. Although they claimed a special status of
infallibility for the words of the scriptures, they admitted that the
validity ascribed to the Vedic word was in no way different from
that demanded of ordinary discourse. The language of the Vedas
was the same as that of common parlance and subject to the same
convention and canons of logic as the other; otherwise, it would
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not even comprehend the Vedas. Jaimini declares, “but there is no
difference in the signification of vedic sentences.” Not only is the
verbal usage in the Veda the same as the ordinary usage, but the
things spoken of in it are also the same as those of worldly
discourse.44 á¡bara states that vedic usage must derive its sanction
from worldly usage; worldly usage is the only authority as far as
words and meanings are concerned.45
It is comparatively less popular system in the scholastic world,
mostly of its connection with the Vedic rituals, which are more or
less obsolate today. But one feeds that today the system of M¢m¡ms¡
should be focused at from a different angle and should be studied in
a fresh modern percepective. The reason behind this is : that
M¢m¡ms¡ has connection with Vedic rituals is a half-truth. To make
it complete one must remember that this connection is not direct
but is only through the Vedic sentences. In other words, M¢m¡ms¡
concernes itself to the vedic sentences primarily. Though the aim
of interpreting vedic sentences was to help the performance of the
rituals at one point of time, today, when the importance of rituals
has been faded down one should concentrate on the first and foremost
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concern of M¢m¡ms¡ namely interpreting vedic sentences
meaningfully, and should study the principles of interpretation set
forth by the system. Only because these possess a great potential to
interact meaningfully with modern desciplines like discources
analyse philosophy of language etc. In short, if one study M¢m¡ms¡
today as ancient Indian science of sentence interpetation, its
contribution as such and if one try to findout what M¢m¡ms¡ has to
offer to the modern linguistics, semantics etc. On one hand and to
the fold of machine translation etc. and on the other it will certainly
yeild interesting results.
The term ‘M¢m¡ms¡’ has occured in the Taittir¢ya Samhit¡,
Ch¡ndogyopaniÀad etc. and in all these places it means : “coming
to a certain decision after thinking about all the pros and cons about
something doubtful.” Thus ‘M¢m¡ms¡ system set a goal before it.
To show that each and every sentence, each and every word ie.,
each and every syllable of the Veda is meaningful and purposeful
by interpeting the Vedas. ie., each and every vedic sentence,
meaningfully. This is the reason why M¢m¡ms¡ is basically a
science of sentence interpretation and bears the names like,
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193
V¡kya¿¡stra, quite significantly. In short the object of M¢m¡ms¡
is vedic sentences and the main aim of the system is to systematize
all the vedic sentences in a proper manner and to establish the
validity of the Vedas beyond all possible doubts.
Both these tasks are stupendous which Jaimini, the s£trak¡ra
accepted and he made out some principles of interpreting vedic
sentences and wrote them down in a ‘s£tra’ form. He devided the
vedic sentences into five types : Vidhi, Mantra, N¡madheya,
NiÀedha and Arthav¡da on one hand and set forth the main
presupposition of M¢m¡ms¡ that the Veda is meant for including
the man into some action or the other. Action or activity is main
and everything else comes in the context of an activity only as
subordinate to it. These two and all principles of sentence
interpretation aim at systematizing the vedic sentences and
interpreting them.
To establish the authority if the Veda beyond all possible doubt
M¢m¡ms¡ determined and declared its theory of language. It
discussed its philosophy of language in various contexts.
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194
If one wants to put the M¢m¡ms¡ theory of language in just
one sentence, he may say, language is a beginningless phenomenon.
Words, their meanings, the relation between the two all are eternal.
Jaimini wrote an aphorism : “+Éèi{ÉÊkÉEòºiÉÖ ¶É¤nùºªÉÉlÉæxÉ ºÉ¤ÉxvÉ& iɺªÉ
YÉÉxÉÉ ={Énäù¶É& +ªÉÊiÉ®äúEò¶SÉ +lÉÇ +xÉÖ{ɱɤvÉ iÉiÉ |ÉÉÉhÉÉ ¤ÉÉnù®úɪÉhɺªÉ +xÉ{ÉäIÉiÉÉiÉÂ*”
While commenting upon this, the commentator á¡barasv¡min
specified, “+{ÉÉèû¹ÉäªÉ& ¶É¤nùºªÉ +lÉæxÉ ºÉ¤ÉxvÉ&” The relation between word
and meaning is not created by any human being.
For example : “+ÎMxɽþÉäjÉÆ VÉÖ½ÖþªÉÉiÉ ºÉMÉÇEòÉÉ&” means - one who is
desirous of heaven should perform agnihotra ritual. In otherwords,
this sentence states the cause and effect relationship between
agnihotra and heaven. It says that agnihotra is the cause and heaven
is its effect.
According to M¢m¡ms¡k¡s these sentences are beginningless.
Budhists are aruged such sentences that there is no relation between
the word and meaning. According to them, there could not be the
relation of indentity then when one utters the word ‘knife,’ his
mouth should be cut and when he utters the word ‘modaka’ his
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195
mouth should be full of the sweets. But this does not happen and so
there is no identity between them. Other relationship such as cause
and effect relationship or substraction - superstratum relationship
are quite impossible because word is in the mouth and the meaning
is elsewhere.
M¢m¡ms¡ answers this question as; the relationship which
subsists between two namely, and named relationship or revealer
and revealed relationship is not mentioned but the relationship
between the two according to M¢m¡ms¡k¡s is ‘bodhya-bodhaka-
bh¡va.’ The word is ‘bodhaka’ and the meaning is ‘bodhya.’ On
explaining the revealer - revealed relation M¢m¡msak¡ says, in every
case experience is proof. They say áabda is revealer of meaning
because one experience that when a word is uttered a meaning is
revealved. One understand that the word does not reveal its meaning
when it is heard for the first time only because he observe that it so
happens. As many times one requires to know that this is the name
of the particular thing or meaning he understand that after so many
times one understands that meaning from that word only through
such an observation.
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196
To clear it more, the eyes are seers but unless there is sufficient
light they cannot see. Because of this fact it cannot conclude that
eyes do not see. Eyes require the help of other factors. These are
technically called ‘sahak¡r¢k¡ra¡s.’ In the same manner, a word
is revealer of its meaning only when and if the relationship between
the two is known.
According to M¢m¡msak¡s, the relation between the word and
meaning is natural, inartificial and made by someone. It gives strong
logical basis to say this which is really difficult to refute. This
theory has also been upheld by some of the modern linguists.
By accepting such a theory on one hand, the system has
established the validity and authority of the Vedas beyond all
possible doubt and on the other has done away with the necessity of
postulating God as the speaker of the Vedas. This also contributed
to logical simplicity on one hand and saved the task of answering
many difficult questions which arise if God is accepted on the other.
The Theory of language aquisition accepted to be beginningless
and named as (ÉÞrù ɽþÉ®ú&) V¤dhavyavah¡raÅ is nothing else but todays
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‘direct method of language - aquisition;’ which is considered to be
the best one by sincere language teachers.
Thus, M¢m¡ms¡, theory of language aims at establishing the
entity of language phenomenon, word, meaning, the relation bewteen
the word and its meaning and vedic sentences.
In M¢m¡ms¡ dar¿ana there is one ‘Vy¡karan¡dhikaraa,’ where
discussed issues of grammar. The relation between the word and
its meaning is not created by anyone, it is eternal. This can be
proved on the basis of the process of language aquisition by a child.
The ‘V¤ddhavyavah¡ra’ from which a child learns its language
points to the beginningless of words and their relation with their
meanings.
All words are ‘an¡di’ because it is our experience that even
from the words such as gavi we do understand the animal having
dewlap etc. This is our regular experience and from this it can be
said that the same was the case before one hundred years and even
before so this tradition is beginningless. It has already been stated46
that there was no maker of relation between word and meaning.
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198
Therefore, all words are standard ones and are may use all words
while speaking. All words make understanding the meaning. For
example hastaÅ, karaÅ, p¡niÅi etc.
The main point to be noted is that words are uttered to convey
some meaning and their result is not something invisible like merit
etc. Another point is that there is no ¿¡stra, which can regulate the
usage of words and therefore one should never say that one word is
standard and others are its ‘apabhram¿a’ forms, one word is ‘s¡dhu’
and others are ‘as¡dhu.’
Kumarila Bhatta has raised various fundamental, thought
provoking and interesting points. These help to understand the
function of grammar on one hand and the limitations of the same
on the other. Vedas does not depends upon grammar neither it have
any expectancy towards it.
“+ÉÊnùÉkÉÉSSÉ vÉÉÇiÉÉÂ
xÉèÉ YÉÉxÉ-|ɪÉÉäMɪÉÉä&*
xÉʽþ ªÉÉEò®úhÉÉ{ÉäIÉÉ
ÉiÉÇiÉä ÉèÊnùEòÒ ÉÖÊiÉ&**”47
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á¡barasvamin explains the Jaimin¢yas£tra“¶É¤näù |ɪÉixÉÊxɹ{ÉkÉä&
+{É®úÉvɺªÉ ¦ÉÉÊMÉiÉÉÂ*”48 as a human being utters words with efforts. He
has given the process how an utterance of a word takes place. The
air comes from the navel region, it expands in the chest, then makes
in the throat. Then strikes the cerebrum and reflects and then moving
in mouth manifests various words. In all this process there is every
likelihood that the speaker, or the utterer may commit a mistake.
All sorts of mistakes are possible on the part of a human being.
And so it cannot accept all words are alike.
The Jaimin¢yas£tra“+xªÉɪɶSÉÉxÉäEò¶É¤nùiÉÉ”49 also explained there.
It is not proper to accept that to express one and the same meaning,
there are many similar words and all are beginningless. One
understand the meaning from all words because he have knowledge
of the standard word and because there is a similarity of other
words with the standard one, he understand the meaning even from
other words. So one among these words is‘an¡di’ or beginningless
and all others are its apabhram¿a forms. There are exceptions like
hasta, kara, p¡i etc.
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To know the words which are beginningless or not, “iÉjÉ iÉiÉÆ
+ʦɪÉÉäMÉÊɶÉä¹ÉÉiÉ ºªÉÉiÉ ”50 It is only from the abhiyuktas that it came to
know the distinction between words, whatever they say is a standard
word, is a beginningless and are whatever they say is not, is not.
According to Vy¡kara ¡dhikara a : The function of grammar
is to aquiant a person with the ocean of vocabulary of language
with a pot-ful of rules. The study of these rules gives the capacity
to the student to understand the formation of any word of the
language. It also means without studying grammar one can learn
and master the language in general but the knowledge of grammar
gives the ability to the person to discriminate between
grammatically wellformed words and otherwise.
As a system of interpretation of rules M¢m¡ms¡ is somewhere
similar to that of smritis and later literature.
The Gautamadharmas£tra 1-5 says -
“iÉÖ±ªÉ¤É±ÉÊÉ®úÉävÉä ÊÉEò±{É& ”51
Jaimini says in ‘P£rvam¢m¡ms¡s£tra’ XII-3-10.
“BEòÉlÉÉǺiÉÖ ÊÉEò±{Éä®úxÉ ºÉÉÖSSɪÉä ʽþ +ÉÉÞÊkÉ& ºªÉÉiÉ |ÉvÉÉxɺªÉè*52
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The Ëpasthambhadharmas£tra 1-1-4-8- says - “ ÉÖÊiÉ& ¤É±ÉҪɺÉÒ
+xÉÖÉÉxÉÉnùÉSÉÉ®úÉiÉÂ*”53 Jaimini also says the same in I.3.3: “ÊÉ®úÉävÉä iÉxÉ{ÉäIÉÆ
ºªÉÉnùºÉÊiÉ ÁxÉÖÉÉxÉÉÂ*” Which is independent, is more authoritative than
a smrthi text when there is conflict. Apasthambhadharmasutra I-
4.12.1- says -
“ªÉjÉ iÉÖ |ÉÒiªÉÖ{ɱÉιvÉiÉ& |ÉÉÞÊkÉ& xÉ iÉjÉ ¶ÉɺjÉÉκiÉ*” Jaimin¢ya s£tra IV.1.2.
resembles this - “ªÉκÉxÉ |ÉÒÊiÉ& {ÉÖû¹ÉºªÉ iɺªÉ ʱÉ{ºÉÉlÉDZÉIÉhÉÉ ÊɦÉHòiÉÉiÉÂ*”54
á¡bara’s view of language :- áabda and its characteristics :-
The investigation into d¤À¶a and ad¤Àta as they are presented
by á¡bara, seems to rule out any possibility of any existence which
is beyond the reality which he speeks of. Reality itself is within the
reach of language which cannot be apart from this reality itself.
This is the case because for á¡bara the two dimensions of reality as
‘d¤Àta’ and ‘ad¤Àta’ entail and encompass everything. The validity
of his thesis on Dharma is entirely based on the Veda, when he
supports the sutra: Dharma is the object that is indicated by the
vedic injunctions.55
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According to á¡barabh¡Àya one actually knows Dharma
bacause there is instructions (upade¿as), instructions stands for the
speeking of a particular set of words.56 One also knows acts which
are not known by sense perception and other means of knowledge,
as for example, anum¡n¡ (inference) upam¡n¡ (comparision),
arth¡patti (perception) and abh¡va (negation), non existence
(absence).57 but only through instructions, ie it ultimately implies
vedic injuctions. Hence one could say that the understanding of
reality and especially the knowledge of dharma and whatever is not
visible ultimately falls within the function of language.
M¢m¡ms¡ is also known as V¡kya¿¡stra. It was this school
that started a detailed study of sentences and developed elaborate
canons of interpretation. This was mainly based on individual words
and the word meanings and consequently the relation between the
word meanings and sentence meanings, remained the central
problem of this school. The M¢m¡ms¡ school at first express the
factors of ¡k¡kÀ¡ (mutual expectancy) yogyat¡ (Consistancy) and
samnidhi (contiguity) among the word meaning in a sentece as
constituting the basic for unity of the sentence.
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According to M¢m¡msak¡s, the primary meaning of a word is
the universal (¡krti) which is the essential quality common to the
particular instances of the class. Both Jaimini and á¡barasvami used
the word ‘¡kriti’ to refer to the universal, but Kumarila Bhatta
makes it clear that the term is used in the sense of J¡ti or universal.58
The Great grammarian Patnjali used the term ‘Ëkrti’ in this sense.
But later writers in the field of M¢m¡ms¡ use the term J¡ti itself.
According to M¢m¡msak¡s the relation between a word and
its meaning is ‘autpattika’ or permanent, which means a word is a
word; only when it has a meaning. The unit of language is taken as
vara or phonemes, these phonemes are permanent and a collection
of phonemes in a particular order of sequence is a word. The primary
meaning of a word is something permanent and cannot be the
particular instances of the class. In a sentence, it is the particular
(vyakti) that enters into syntactic relationship.
P£rva m¢m¡ms¡ Technique of programme organisation
P£rva M¢m¡ms¡ has evolved a systematic method of
programme organisation. Though it is developed for the organisation
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204
of sacrificial programme, it can be applied to any other programme
organisation. The rules for this are a kind of metarules designated
in Sanskrit as ‘paribh¡À¡.’ P£rvam¢m¡ms¡ has also developed a
method of debate on philosophical issues and on programme
organisation models.
In Indian Philosophy two methods of philosophical debate are
develped.
Paµc¡vayava - Five stepped argumentation method developed
by Nyaya school. It arranges the arguments in five steps.
(a) Pratijµ¡ - the statement of the preposition (b) Hetu -
the reason (c) Ud¡haraa - example, (d) Upanaya - the application
of reason to the present case. (e) Nigamana - the conclusion.
P£rva M¢m¡ms¡ follows the ‘Adhikara a’ method. It also
arranged in five steps. (1) ViÀaya - the subject under discussion. (2)
Sam¿aya - doubts / the two sides of the discussion. (3) P£rvapakÀa
- the prima - facie position of the issue. (4) Sidh¡nta - the final
position (5) Prayojana - the purpose served by the sidhanta. Within
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205
p£rvapakÀa and sidh¡nta there will be ¡kÀepa - some tentative
objections and sam¡dh¡na - a clearing of tentative objections.
In connection with the organisation of a sacrifice, three
questions are raised. ‘Kim bh¡vayet’? what is to be achieved, ‘Kena
bh¡vayet’? by what means it is to be achieved and ‘Katham
bh¡vayet’? What are the other aids or auxilaries to it. In the cases
‘Dar¿ap£ram¡s¡,’ there, answers are; Svarga is to be achieved by
means of ‘dar¿ap£rnam¡sa y¡ga’ with the performance of the
auxiliaries pray¡ja. For any other programme these questions are
essential to organize it intelligently.
M¢m¡ms¡ and Modern linguistics
The contribution of P£rva M¢m¡ms¡ to linguistics is equally
significant. M¢m¡ms¡ primarily depends upon ‘áabdapram¡na’ and
therefore it goes deep into ‘áabdapram¡ a.’ ‘ApauruÀeyatva’
concept of P£rva M¢m¡ms¡ has made the language autonomous at
three important levels of the linguistic communications, viz, a).
The relation between the word and meaning. b) The formulation of
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206
the sentence (c) Determination of the purport of the passage or
discourse.
P£rva M¢m¡ms¡, also considers the relation between the word
and the meaning as natural and permanent. It is not caused by any
human agencies or artificial device. A meaningful expression is
always associated with its meaning. The relation between the two
is autonomous. A vedic sentence is not formulated by human agency.
The words in a sentence are intended to yeild a syntactically
organised meaning. The action is the centre of semantic
organisation. Such an organised communication is the very nature
and purpose of the words in a sentence. Therefore, no human agency
or any other artificial device is needed for the formulation of a
sentence. Thus at the level of the formulation of the sentence also
language is autonomous.
To ascertain the purport of a passage. M¢m¡ms¡ has formulated
certain guidelines such as. ‘upakrama,’ ‘upasamh¡ra’ etc. that are
internal to the language and has made the determination of purport
of passage autonomous. Thus the concept of apauruÀeyatva has far
reaching linguistic implications.
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207
The two theories of sentence meaning ‘Abhihit¡vayav¡da’and
‘Anvit¡bhidh¡navada’ are the most important contribution of P£rva
M¢m¡ms¡ to the linguistics. All other systems of Indian Philosophy
have adopted one of these two theories with some modifications.
The concept of bh¡vana and its being the centre of semantic
organisation is also an important point.
The primary purpose of P£rva M¢m¡ms¡ is to interpret Vedic
statements that describe the sacrifices. For this, M¢m¡ms¡ has
evolved certain rules of interpretation. These are P£rva M¢m¡ms¡
Ny¡yas. These are used to determine the nature of sacrifices, its
auxilaries and the procedures. P£rva M¢m¡ms¡ rules of interpretation
is used by Vedantins to interpret ¿rutis to develop their doctrines.
Abhihit¡nvayav¡da, Anvit¡bhidh¡nav¡da theories
of sentence meaning:-
A very important contribution of P£rva M¢m¡ms¡ to linguistic
is the two theories of sentence meaning; ‘abhihit¡nvayav¡da’ and
‘anvit¡bhidh¡nav¡da.’
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208
In Abhihit¡nvayav¡da by Bhatta school, words convey their
meaning and these meanings duly associated constitute the sentence
meaning. For example when a person hears the sentence, “the clock
fell on the ground”, there the person go on grasping the meaning of
the words ‘clock’, ‘fell’, ‘down’, ‘on’ ‘ground’ separately and then
semantically organises them into one unit of thought.
According to Anvit¡bhidh¡nav¡da by Prabhakara school, the
words do not merely convey the objects referred to by them but
also their association with the relevent objects conveyed by the
other words in the sentence. These connected word meaning
constitute the sentence meaning. So in the same sentence, ‘the clock
fell on the ground’ is grasped as a whole.
The word ‘abhihita’ refers to the word meaning expressed.
The word ‘anvita’ means the connected word meaning ‘anavya,’
ie, the association of word meaning is necessary for constituting
the sentence meaning in both theories. However they differ on the
point whether the association is included in the scope of the meaning
of the word itself or it is developed by the word meaning by way of
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209
lakÀaa ie, etended meaning. ‘Abhihit¡nvaya’ theory is adopted by
Bhatta M¢m¡ms¡, Ny¡ya and Advaita Vedanta, while the
‘Anvay¡bhidh¡na’ theory is adopted by Pr¡bh¡kara m¢m¡ms¡,
Vi¿iÀtadv¡ita vedanta and Dvaitavedanta. The arguments advanced
for and against these views give deeper insight into the Indian theory
of language.
The idea of these two theories summarised in M¡nameyodaya
by Narayana Bhatta as:
“iÉäxÉjÉ {ÉnùÉMÉiÉÉ&
{ÉÖxÉ& {ÉnùÉlÉÇ& ÊÉlÉÉäxɪÉÆ ªÉÉÎxiÉ*
<iªÉäÉÉʦÉʽþiÉÉxɪÉ
ʺÉrùÉxiÉÉä nù̶ÉiÉÉä%ºÉnùÉÊnùxÉÉÉÂ**
ºÉEò±É{ÉnùÉxiÉ®ú{ÉÚiÉÉÇ-
ÊÉiÉ®ú{ÉnùÉlÉê& ºÉÉÎxÉiÉÆ ºÉÉlÉÇÉÂ*
ºÉÉÇ{ÉnùÉÊxÉ ÉnùxiÉÒiªÉxªÉä¹ÉÉÉÂ
+ÎxÉiÉÉʦÉvÉÉxÉÉiÉÉÂ**”59
“Therefore, here the meaning of the words, which are
understood, from the words, after words, enter into mutual relation:
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210
in this way is shown the doctrine, according to those of my way of
thinking, of the relation of what are expressed. When all the other
words expresses its own meaning as related to the meaning of the
other words: this is the doctrine accordance to others, of the
expression of what are related.”
Dharma¿¡stra texts are also utilize the rules of interpretation
of P£rva M¢m¡ms¡, to determine the exact nature of the religious
programmes. To resolve some conflicts in the statement in
connection with religious programmes, P£rva M¢m¡ms¡ rules of
interpretation are used.
Max well’s rules of interpretations closely resemble the P£rva
M¢m¡ms¡ rules of interpretation. In view of this, the study of P£rva
M¢m¡ms¡ is very relevent even today. M¢m¡ms¡ and Dharma á¡stra
have not been static. Rather these have been highly dynamic.
eg :- 1. The golden rule is that the words of st¡tute must prima
faice be given their ordinary meanings - (Maxwell)
“±ÉÉäEäò B¹ÉÖ +lÉæ¹ÉÖ {ÉnùÉÊxÉ ºÉÊiÉ ºÉ¦ÉÉä iÉnùlÉÉxªÉäÉ” (M¢m¡ms¡)
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211
2. Exposition of one act in the language of another in the same
matter - (Maxwell).
- The criterian of Samkhya of P£rva M¢m¡ms¡.
3. The usage may determine the meaning of language - Maxwell.
“ªÉÉäMÉÉiÉ °üÊfø& ¤É±ÉҪɺÉÒ” (P£rva M¢m¡ms¡)
4. The title is no part of law - Max.
‘N¡madheya’ is not ‘KarmavidhiÅ’ (P£rva M¢m¡ms¡).
5. Construction has to be made of all parts together (Max)
“ÉÉCªÉ¦ÉänùÉä nùÉä¹É&” (P£rva M¢m¡ms¡).
Kumarila’s school of M¢m¡ms¡ generally accept the
metaphoric usage of language everywhere. According to them literal
sense is followed by the purport or ‘t¡tparya’ or ‘v¡ky¡rtha,’ which
is different from ‘v¡cy¡rtha.’60 According to modern linguistics
also, language is the most metaphoric in nature. There are three
ways to convey ideas through the sign system, of which use of
language for conveying is the most complicated one. In it there is
no direct or indirect relation between sound and sense. The relation
between sound and sense is merely attributed and hence metaphoric.
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212
The conditions for a metaphorical transfer of meaning are discussed
mainly from a synchronix point of view.
The meaning of a word in a sentence is determined by the
context only. This modern view is some what similar of the idea
presented by Prabhakara and others in Indian through. Bhart¤hari
in his ‘V¡kyapad¢ya,’ list a number of causes that determine the
contextual elements, as:
“ºÉƪÉÉäMÉÉä ÊÉ|ɪÉÉäMɶSÉ ºÉɽþSɪÉÈ ÊÉ®úÉäÊvÉiÉ&*
+lÉÇ& |ÉEò®úhÉÆ Ë±ÉMÉÆ ¶É¤nùºªÉÉxªÉºªÉ ºÉÊzÉÊvÉ&**
ºÉÉÉlªÉÇÉÉèÊSÉiÉÒnäù¶É& EòɱÉÉä ªÉÊHò& ºÉ®úÉnùªÉ&*
¶É¤nùÉlÉǺªÉÉxɤÉSUäônäù ÊɶÉä¹ÉºÉÞÊiɽäþiÉÉ&**”61
Association, dissociation, mutual association, hostility or
opposition, purpose, context, or situation indicatory sing, proximity
with other word, capacity, propriety, place, time, gender and the
like are the determining factors in fixing up the meaning in a
particular context.
According to P£rva m¢m¡ms¡’s method every arguement has
five parts : Presentation of subjects under discussion (ViÀaya),
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213
expression of the existing doubt (Sam¿aya), the prima facie view
of the opponent (P£rvapakÀa), the reply to it and the final view
(Sidh¡nta) and consistency in all related sentecnces (Samgati). This
method is followed by all other schools.
In India the M¢m¡msakas were interested in interpreting the
utterance to get the intended meaning or t¡tparya, objectively using
the rules of interpretation and considering the utterance in their
situational contexts. The M¢m¡ms¡ rules are accepted in legal
interpretations, whether a rule of law is obligatory, semi-obligatory
or optional is to be decided through interpretation. The following
rules of interpretations are accepted by Hindu Law :
(1) When a sentence is complete and explicit in sense and grammar,
no attempt should be made to twist its meaning.
(2) When an expression has more than one meaning, and the normal
meaning does not agree with the context, its meaning is to be
determined by the context.
(3) When words or sentences are not explicitly or clearly
connected, they should be connected in accordance with
grammatical rules so as to form a meaningful sentence.
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214
(4) When a sentence or a clause by itself does not make any
complete sense it should be considered elliptical and necessary
words must be added to make a complete sense, suitable to
the context.
According to M¢m¡msak¡, in language or communication,
sentences are uttered to suggest a possible course of actions. The
ultimate aim is to influence the mind of the listener to do some
action, not merely to convey an idea or a matter of fact. If sentences
are devided into propositional statements and imperative commands,
the latter type is obviously to influence the listner to do some action.
But according to M¢m¡msak¡s even the former type of declaratory
statements are ultimately intended to influence the mind of the
listener to do some action and are meaningful only if interpreted
that way. The M¢m¡msak¡s refuse to accept that there can be
communication and understanding even without any intention on
the part of the speaker to influence the practical behaviour of the
hearer and without any such actual influence.
Vedas are discussing the nature of ‘dharma.’Dharma is defined
as the process of activating.62 Like dharma; ‘sabda’ or sound is also
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215
of the nature of provocation. Language make some urge in us to do
as directed. There will be no communication and understanding
without an intention on the part of the speaker to influence the
practical behaviour of the hearer. M¢m¡msaka know this power of
language from the early times and they accepted ‘sabda’ as the
only valid means in understanding dharma. The theory of bh¡vana
presented by M¢m¡ms¡ with its two fold nature as ‘¿¡bdi’ and
‘¡rth¢’ is really noteworthy as it projects the power of language in
human activities in a psychic way.
According to Prabhakara school of M¢m¡ms¡ any sentence is
of the nature of potentiality (K¡ry¡nvita). Thus a mere statement
like ‘this is a good book’, may be a potential sentence as it invokes
an urge in us to read or to own that book. Similarly all Vedic
sentences create an urge to do the sacrifices to attain the beneficiary
result of it. And this power resides in the sound itself as far as the
Vedic passages are concerned which are not related to any human
touch.
M¢m¡msak¡s admit the functioning (Vy¡p¡ra) as the most
improtant factor in the meaning of a sentence. In a sentence like
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216
‘R¡ma reads book’ is interpreted by M¢m¡msakas as there is a
process of reading book, which is done by the agent, Rama.
According to grammarians, the functioning is centralized on the
agent (karta) and to the logicians, on the capability (k¤ti) of the
agent.63
Prabhakara and his followers accepted only ‘abhidh¡’ as the
only power of language. For them, it is an extrensive one like the
functioning of an arrow.64 Accroding to them the acceptance of
‘lakÀa a’ and ‘vyaµjana’ are useless since they are generated
through the readers contemplation only which is noted as
‘Santar¡rthaniÀtha’64 or connected with some other meaning in the
way.
M¢m¡ms¡ evolves the rules for interpretation of vedic passages.
Which are common and now a days generally used for any such
context. So the name ‘V¡kya¿¡stra’ is apt to M¢m¡ms¡ school. It
contributed a lot to the studies of linguistics and especially to the
modern aspects of language studies. The relevence of the system of
M¢m¡ms¡ in the field of language studies is yet to be accessed in
the fullest sense.
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217References
1. Keith A.B. - Indian Logic - 1.25.
2. Melputh£r N¡r¡ya a Bhatta - Manameyodaya P.161. AdayarLibrary Series.
3. Indian Thought. Vol.IV. P.262.
4. “ºÉÉÇYÉÉÊzɹÉävªÉÉ SÉ »É¹]Öõ& ºÉnÂù¦ÉÉÉEò±{ÉxÉÉ*xÉ SÉ vÉÉÉÇoùiÉä iɺªÉ ¦ÉÉä±±ÉÉäEòÉnÂù ÊÉʶɹ]õiÉÉ**xÉ SÉÉxÉÖιöiÉÉä vÉÉÉæ xÉÉxÉÖ¹öÉxÉÉÞiÉä ÉiÉä&*xÉ SÉ ÉänùÉoùiÉä ºÉÉ ºªÉÉnÂù ÉänùÉä xÉ SÉ {ÉnùÉÊnùʦÉ&**iɺÉÉiÉ |ÉÉMÉÊ{É ºÉÉæ%Ê{É »É¹]Öõ®úɺÉxÉ {ÉnùÉnùªÉ&*ºªÉÉiÉ iÉi{ÉÚÉÇEòiÉÉ SÉɺªÉ SÉèiÉxªÉÉnùºÉnùÉÊnùÉiÉÂ**BÉÆ SÉ ªÉÖÊHòʦÉ& |ÉɽÖþºiÉä¹ÉÉÆ nÖù{iÉǦÉÉÖkÉ®úÉÂ*”- álokav¡rttika - ºÉ¤ÉxvÉÉIÉä{É{ÉÊ®ú½þÉ®ú& Verses 114-17.
5. álokav¡rttika - P.75.
6. Sarvasidh¡ntasamgraha. VI. 206 and álokav¡rttika,¡tmav¡da. P.5-7.
7. álokav¡rttika, Ëtmav¡da. P.75.
8. Prakaraapaµcika, Tattv¡loka. P.156.
9. álokav¡rttika I.1.2, Verse. 72.
10. á¡strad¢pika. P.125.31.
11. The M¢m¡ms¡s£tra of Jaimini. I.1.1.
12. Ibid., I.1.2.
13. á¡barabh¡Àya.I.1.1.
14. “SÉÉänùxÉɱÉIÉhÉÉä%lÉÉæ vÉÉÇ&*”
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21815. “ªÉÉMÉÉÊnù BÉ vÉÉÇ&*”Arthasamgraha of Laug¡kÀi Bh¡skara.
16. á¡barabh¡Àya on Jaimin¢yas£tra. 6.3.9.
17. Ny¡yaratnam¡la P.146. Varanasi ed.1982.
18. Taittir¢ya Samhita, 2.2.2.
19. áabarabh¡Àya on Jaimin¢yas£tra. 12.3.6.
20. Ibid.
21. áabarabh¡Àya on Jaimin¢yas£tra. 12.3.17.
22. Ibid.
23. Jaimin¢yany¡yam¡lavist¡ra on Jaimin¢ s£tra I.1.2.
24. áabarabh¡Àya on Jaimin¢yas£tra.9.1.1. Edited by Ratna GopalBhatta, Vidyavilas Press, Banaras 1910. P.87.
25. Taittir¢ya ¡ranyaka.2.15, p.246.
26. Brahmas£tra with áankarabh¡Àya. I.38-33. edited by J.L.á¡stri M.L.B.D. 1980. P.273.
27. Ibid. 13.8. 22 & 24.
28. M¢m¡ms¡ dar¿ana.1.5, p.5.
29. “ºÉɺxÉÉÊnùÊÉʶɹ]õEÞòÊiÉ&” Ibid.P.11.
30. “MÉÉä¶É¤näù =SSÉÊ®úiÉä ºÉÉÇMÉÊɹÉÖ ªÉÖMÉ{ÉiÉ |ÉiªÉªÉÉä ¦ÉÉÊiÉ* +iÉ +ÉEÞòÊiÉÉSÉxÉÉä%ªÉÉÂ* xÉSÉÉEÞòiªÉÉ ¶É¤nùºªÉ ºÉƤÉxvÉ& ¶ÉCªÉiÉä EòiÉÖÇÉÂ* ÊxÉiªÉä iÉÖ ºÉÊiÉ MÉÉä¶É¤näù ¤É½ÖþEÞòiÉÉ =SSÉÊ®úiÉÉÖiÉ{ÉÚÉǶSÉ +xªÉɺÉÖ MÉÉäªÉÊHò{ÉÖ +xɪɪÉÊiÉ®äúEòɦªÉÉÆ +ÉEÞòÊiÉÉSÉxÉÉ +ÉMÉÉʪɹªÉiÉÒÊiÉiɺÉÉnùÊ{É ÊxÉiªÉ&**”
- M¢m¡ms¡ dar¿ana with á¡barabh¡Àya I.1.19, P.21-22.
31. K.T. Pandurang, The percepective and scope ofP£rvam¢m¡ms¡, History of Science, Philosophy and Culturein Indian civilization, Vol.II, Part 6 page.3.
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21932. Îgveda. I.1-1, I.1.2.
33. Îgveda. X.90.
34. Bhagavad G¢ta.III.10.
35. “vÉÉÇ SÉÉänÂùÉ ±ÉIÉhÉ& +lÉÇ& vÉÉÇ&”
36. Bhagavad G¢ta.3.11.
37. Ibid. 3-14.
38. á¡barabh¡Àya.Vii.20.
39. á¡barabh¡Àya VI.1.7.
40. K.T. Pandurangi - The perceptive and scope ofP£rvam¢m¡ms¡, History of Science, Philosophy and Culturein Indian Civilization. Gen. Editer D.P. Chadopadhyaya. Lifethought and Culture in Indian (600 BC - 330 AD). Vol.I.Part.II. 2001 centre of studies on civilization.
41. A Handbook of Kerala edited by T. Madhava Menon.International School of Dravidian Linguistics. TVM. June2000, Vol.I. P.234.
42. “+ÎMxɹ]õÉäÉäxÉ ºÉMÉÇEòÉÉÉä ªÉVÉäiÉ” - One who desires heaven shallsacrifice with agniÀtoma ritual.
43. Budh¡yana S£tra.24.4.
44. “ªÉ BÉ ±ÉÉäÊEòEò& .......... iÉ BÉ ÉèÊnùEò&” á¡barabh¡Àya onJaimin¢yas£tra.I. 3.30. Translated by Jha. I.116-117.
45. “¶É¤nùÉlÉǶSÉÉÊ{É ±ÉÉäEòÉiÉ” - Jaimin¢ya s£tra 10.3.44. Translated byJha.1.144.
46. The commentary on Jaimin¢yas£tra.I.1.5.
47. Kumarilabhatta - Tantravarttika.I.3.24.
48. Ibid., I.3.25.
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22049. Ibid., I.3.26.
50. Jaimin¢yas£tra.I.3.27.
51. Where there is a conflict, two texts of equal authority eithermay be accepted (as pram¡as).
52. There is option between two or more subjects which havethe same utility or purpose.
53. áruti - a vedic text is an authority more powerful than ¡c¡ra(custom, the authoritativeness of which is inferential.
54. P.V. Kane - P£rvam¢m¡ms¡ Systems.P.3. When an action isdue when are he as ready pleasure therefore, there is no inenceof á¡stra.
55. M¢m¡ms¡s£tra I.1.2., P.127.
56. á¡barabh¡Àya.I.1.5., P.127.
57. á¡barabh¡Àya.I.1.5. the quotation of the Vrittikara in thiscontext suggests that á¡bara has endossed the view ofV¤ttik¡ra who referes to six Pram¡as.
58. “VÉÉÊiÉÉäÉÉEÞòÊiÉ |ÉɽÖþªÉÇÊHò®úÉÊGòªÉiÉä ªÉªÉÉ” - álokav¡rttika - ¡kila sectionverse.3.
59. M¡nameyodaya - P.97.
60. K¡vyaprak¡¿a - P.133.
61. V¡kyapad¢ya - P.133.32.
62. “SÉÉänùxÉɱÉIÉhÉÉä%lÉÔ vÉÉÇ&” - M¢m¡ms¡s£tra.I.1.2.
63. “É說ÉÉEò®úhÉè®úJªÉÉiɺªÉ EòiÉÇÊ®ú ¶ÉÊHòÊ®úiªÉÖSªÉiÉä ÊEòxiÉÖ EÞòiÉxÉ ¶ÉÊHò±ÉÊvÉÉiÉxªÉɪÉʺÉrùÉxiÉÉÖHòÉÉʱɔ - P.360.
64. “<ǶÉÉäÊ®úÉ nùÒPÉÇiÉ®úÉä ªÉÉ{ÉÉ®ú& EòɪÉ|ÉEòɶÉ&” P.429-30.
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