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Mixingoilandwater:NaturalizingoffshoreoilplatformsinGulf

Coastaquariums

DollyJørgensen

PublishedinJournalofAmericanStudies46,no.2(2012):461-480

(seepublishedversionforillustrations)

On26June2010,thebrandnewGulfofMexicoexhibitattheNational

MississippiRiverMuseum&AquariuminDubuque,Iowa,openeddevoidoflife.

Thetankswerepurposefullyleftempty,ratherthanshowingthevibrantaquatic

lifeoftheGulf,tohighlighttheoilspillassociatedwithBP’sDeepwaterHorizon

offshoredrillingincidentearlierin2010.AccordingtotheMuseum’spress

release,theMuseumwanted“toopenaGulfexhibitrecognizingthecrisisthatis

happeningontheGulfCoast.…Theexhibit,withoutfish,nowhasthe

opportunitytomakeaboldstatementrelatedtotheoilspillintheGulfCoastby

askingMuseum&AquariumvisitorstoimaginealifelessGulf.”1

WhiletheDeepwaterHorizonincidentraisedtheAmericanpublic’s

awarenessoftheenvironmentalrisksofoffshoreoil,environmentaldamagehas

bynomeansbeentheprimarydiscourseaboutU.S.offshoreoiloverthelast

twenty-fiveyears.OilhasbeenseenastheintruderinAmericanoceanswhenthe

nationhasconfrontedalargespill,mostprominentlytheExxonValdezin1989,

butatothertimestheresourcegoesrelativelyunnoticed.AlthoughCalifornians

1NationalMississippiRiverMuseum&Aquarium,“ImagineaLifelessGulf,”pressrelease,18Jun.2010.

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haveahistoryoffightingagainstoffshoreoildrilling,intheGulfofMexicoregion

offshoreoilisawayoflife.2

TheNationalMississippiRiverMuseum&Aquarium’sdramatic

representationofanemptyGulfwasaradicaldeparturefromthetypicalmodern

aquariumrepresentationoftheGulfofMexico.Ratherthanplacetheoilindustry

inoppositionwiththeGulf’secosystem,aquariumdisplayshaveintegratedthe

oilindustryintoit.OffshoreoilstructuresarepresentedtotheAmericanpublic

asanintegral—andevennecessary—partofnatureinaquariumdisplaysand

educationmaterial.

Toexaminetheintegrationofoilandocean,thisarticleanalyzes

aquariumdisplaysdepictingtheecosystemsoftheGulfofMexicotoseetheways

inwhichoffshoreoilstructureshavebeennaturalized.Itfocusesonaquariums

inTexasandLouisianathatuseoilstructuresaspartoftheirpublicdisplaysof

theoceanenvironment.Thesefacilitiesareownedbyavarietyoforganizations,

rangingfromcommercialrestaurantchainstonon-profitenvironmentally

focusedorganizations.Italsoincorporatessecondaryeducationalmaterialabout

theoffshoreecosystems,includingwrittenschoollessons,webcasts,and

educationalfilmsproducedbygovernmentalagencies.

ThearticlewillarguethatmuchofthepublicpresentationoftheGulf

ecosystemistiedupwiththedevelopmentofRigs-to-Reefsprograms,which

allowtheconversionofoffshoreoilstructuresintoartificialreefsaftertheyare

2SeeRobertGramlingandWilliamFreudenburg,“AttitudesTowardOffshoreOilDevelopment:ASummaryofCurrentEvidence,”Ocean&CoastalManagement,49(2006),442–61andWilliamFreudenburgandRobertGramling,OilinTroubledWaters:Perceptions,Politics,andtheBattleoverOffshoreDrilling(Albany:StateUniversityPressofNewYork,1994).

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decommissionedfromactiveuse.3TheRigs-to-Reefsconceptdevelopedaspart

ofbroadstrategiestoimproveUSfishinggroundsandtomakeoffshoreoil

productionenvironmentallyfriendly,andLouisianabeganthefirststateRigs-to-

Reefsprogramin1986.InthewakeoftheRigs-to-Reefsdevelopments,

aquariumslocatedintheGulfCoastchosetodisplayGulfofMexicotanks

highlightingthecontributionoftheoilindustrytotheGulf’secosystem.Although

thiswasavalidpresentationoftheGulfbasedonscience,itwasnottheonly

optionavailabletothedesigners.Byplacingthesedisplaysintothespecific

socialandpoliticalcontextoftheRigs-to-Reefsprogram,wecanseewhyGulf

Coastaquariumsdevelopedhybridschemesfortherepresentationofmarinelife

intheregionthatmixedoilandwater.

Aquariumsasplacesoflearning

BeforedelvingintothewatersatGulfCoastaquariums,weneedtounderstanda

littleabouttheirfunctionasplacesoflearning.Onlyanextremelysmallportion

oftheUSpopulationhaseverseenanoffshoreoilplatform,muchlessactually

beentoone.Inaddition,thevastmajorityofpeoplehaveneverbeendivingin

theoceantoseetheunderwaterlifethere.Aquariums,museums,and

educationalmaterialplayakeyroleinshapinghowoffshorestructuresand

environmentsareperceivedculturally.

3Althoughoffshoreplatformsaretechnicallynotrigs(theformerareusedintheproductionphaseofoilandgasextractionwhilethelatterisusedduringthedrillingphase),thephraseRigs-to-Reefsreferstotherepurposingofanyoffshoreoilandgasstructureasanartificialreef.LocalsintheGulfCoastoftenuse“rig”asasynonymforastandingoffshoreoilandgasplatformwhentheyrefertofishingaroundit.

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Aquariumsserveasaplaceofconservationlearning.Asignificantthree-

yearstudy,whichsurveyedmorethan5,500visitorsofaccreditedinstitutionsof

theAssociationofZoosandAquariums,revealedthatnearlyhalfofthe

individualssurveyedbelievedtheirvisitelevatedtheirawarenessof

conservationandforty-twopercentoftheindividualscommentedontheroleof

zoosandaquariumsineducation.Follow-upinterviewswithparticipantsseven

toelevenmonthsaftertheirvisitshowedthatsixty-onepercentofthemwere

stillabletotalkaboutwhattheyhadlearnedfromtheirpreviousvisit.4Astudy

ofvisitorstotheNationalAquariuminBaltimorehaveshownthatvisitors

retainedtheconservationmessageoftheaquariuminfollow-upinterviewssixto

eightweeksaftertheirvisit.5

Visitingaquariumsispartof“free-choicesciencelearning,”recently

definedas“thelearningthatindividualsengageinthroughouttheirliveswhen

theyhavetheopportunitytochoosewhat,where,whenandwithwhom,to

learn.”Assuch,thedisplayscontributedirectlytothepublicunderstandingof

science.6Ofcourse,notallvisitorsgetthesamethingsoutoftheirvisitsto

scientificinstitutions.Astudyofaquariumvisitorsfoundthatindividualswith

limitedknowledgebutmoderatetohighinterestgainedthemostconservation

4JohnH.Falk,EricM.Reinhard,CynthiaL.Vernon,KerryBronnenkant,NoraL.Deans,andJoeE.Heimlich,WhyZoos&AquariumsMatter:AssessingtheImpactofaVisit(SilverSpring,MD:AssociationofZoos&Aquariums.2007).5LeslieAdelman,JohnH.FalkandSylviaJames,“ImpactofNationalAquariuminBaltimoreonVisitors’ConservationAttitudes,Behavior,andKnowledge,”Curator,43(2000),33–66.6JohnH.Falk,MartinStorksdieckandLynnD.Dierking,“Investigatingpublicscienceinterestandunderstanding:evidencefortheimportanceoffree-choicelearning,”PublicUnderstandingofScience,16(2007),455–469.

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knowledgefromtheirvisit.7Wecanconcludethenthatthemessagesstressedin

exhibitscanmakealastingimpressionontheaveragevisitor.

Aquariumexhibits,andotherenvironmentaleducationalmaterialforthat

matter,arerarelyneutral.Theyhaveadefinedmessage—particularlya

conservationmessage—thattheywanttoimpart.Contentsmaybeinfluencedby

controversiesorrecentevents,suchastheGulfofMexicoexhibitinDubuque.8In

addition,corporatesponsorshipsofexhibits,whichareanecessityformanynon-

profitinstitutionstoexist,canaffectthecontentsofdisplaysinvariousways.

Exhibitcuratorsmayprioritizecertainelementswithinadisplayand

deemphasizeothers,orevenredefinetheirowngoalsinordertoappealtotheir

sponsors.9Evenmorecrucially,curatorsusebothscientificandcultural

understandingwhendesigningwhattoshowthepublic.

Hybridexhibits

InthelargestGulfofMexicotankintheworld(Fig.1),whichislocatedat

AquariumoftheAmericasinNewOrleans,grouper,amberjack,andtarponswim

aroundandthroughadownscaledversionofasteeloffshoreoiljacket(the

understructureofanoilproductionplatform).Stringraysandsandtigersharks

7JohnH.FalkandLeslieM.Adelman,“InvestigatingtheImpactofPriorKnowledgeandInterestonAquariumVisitorLearning,”JournalofResearchinScienceTeaching40(2003):163–176.Asacorollary,theauthorsnotethat“mostexpertsdonotfindmuseum-likesettingsidealfordramaticallyfurtheringtheirknowledge”(172).8Foradiscussionofthechallengesofupdatinganexhibittoaddressanewpubliccontroversy,seeSusanMacdonaldandRogerSilverstone,“Scienceondisplay:Therepresentationofscientificcontroversyinmuseumexhibitions,”PublicUnderstandingofScience,1(1992),69–87.9GarryC.GrayandVictoriaBishopZendzia,“OrganizationalSelf-Censorship:CorporateSponsorship,NonprofitFunding,andtheEducationalExperience,”CanadianSociologicalAssociation/LaSociétécanadiennedesociologie,46(2009),161–177.

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circlethe400,000-gallontank,whilenursesharkssitonthebottomamongst

oilfieldsparepartsandpiping.Thelegsofthereplicaplatformareintegrated

seamlesslyintothetank,andareplicaplatformitselfsitsabovethewaterline.

Theexhibithighlights“Louisiana’sOffshoreRiches.”Amodeloffshoreoil

platformandtextabouttheoilandgasindustryisfittedalongsidetextand

photographsaboutartificialreefs(Fig.2).Thetextonaboardtitled“Fishesand

Rigs”letsthevisitorknowwhythelegsofanoilplatformareappropriateinthe

exhibit:“You’relookingatascaleddownmodelofanoffshoreproduction

platform.StructureslikethissupportmarineecosystemsintheGulfofMexico

andenhancepopulationsoffish,shrimp,birdsandotherwildlifethatfeedon

aquaticlife.”Themessagetothevisitoristhatthestructurenotonlyservesas

marinehabitat,butthatitactuallyenhanceslifeintheGulfwaters.Thegiant

steelstructuresprovidethekindofhabitatthatthebarrenmud-sandbottomof

muchoftheGulfofMexicowithinUSjurisdictioncannot.

The125,00gallonIslandsofSteelexhibitatthenonprofitTexasState

AquariuminCorpusChristishowsvisitorsasimilarviewofGulfaquaticlife.

OpenedthesameyearasitsNewOrleanscounterpartin1990,theexhibit

featuresthesteellegsofajacketextendingthroughtheverticalspaceofthetank

andnumerousoffshorespeciesincludingnursesharks,morayeels,amberjack,

tarpon,andgrouper.Onesidetextonartificialreefsexplains,“Production

platforms,likenaturalreefs,helptoincreasethenumbersanddistributionof

marinelifeintheGulf.Atypicalplatformprovidesabout4,000squaremetersof

surfaceareaonwhichplantsandanimalscangrow.”Accompanyingphotographs

showclose-upsofthesmallfloraandfaunathatgrowonthesteellegs—

barnacles,oysters,hydroids,algae,andspongesallmakeanappearanceinfull

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color.Thesealifephotosappearside-by-sidewithimagesofproduction

platformsabovewateranddramaticviewsofthelegsfrombelow,bothofwhich

servetoconnecttheoilindustrywithbountifulnature.Onesmallpanelmentions

the1979IxtocIdisasterthatspilled134milliongallonsofoilintheGulf,

remindingus“thatwemustbecautiousinourrushtoharvesttheocean’s

riches,”buttheoverallexhibitstressestheenvironmentalbenefitsofoil

platforms.Visitorspickuponthis—afeaturereviewofthenewfacilityin1990

notedthatwhiletheoneplacardmentionedtheIxtocIspill,thepointofthe

IslandsofSteeltank“isthatthe3,500oilandgasrigsintheGulfdoadddesirable

habitatforsealife,”andthejournalistdoesnotappeartoquestionit.10

Interpretivetextsaroundthetankinsistonthispoint,framingthe

“islandsofsteel”as“Aquariumswithoutwalls,”thatarevitaltotheGulfof

Mexicoecosystem:

NaturallyoccurringreefsandrockyareasarerareintheGulfofMexico.

Instead,sealifedependentuponhardsurfacessettleonoilandgas

platforms.Smallfishes,attractedbyfood,findshelteramidthe“legs.”

Smallerfishattractlargerpredators,suchasmigratoryfishes,whichuse

thestructuresasfeedingstations.

TheGulfsealifeisdescribedhereasdependantonthesestructures;these

manmadesteelhomesmakeupforthelackofnaturalhabitats.Tofurther

underscorethismessage,theTexasStateAquariumfeaturedanexhibithallthat

screenedthefilmAquariumWithoutWallsinthe1990s.11Madein1989and

10“JoeNickPatoski,“GoFish,”TexasMonthly,Oct.1990,180.11SallyHoke,TexasStateAquarium,personalcommunication.TheauthorviewedthefilmattheLouisianaStateUniversitylibrary,whichholdsacopyintheirEducationResourceCenter.

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sponsoredbyExxonCorporation,thefilmhighlightedthelifearoundthe

standingplatformswhere“MotherNatureandman’stechnologymeet,anda

miracleoflifeisactedout.”Toillustratetheargumentthat“oilrigshavecreated

homesforsealifeunknownoffTexasandLouisianajustafewdecadesago,”the

videoshowedimagesofadazzlingarrayoflifearoundtheplatforms:sponges,

seasquirts,corals,blennies,bristleworms,angelfish,butterflyfish,sheepshead,

redsnappers,groupers,eels,sculpinsandmanymoremakeanappearance,

affirmingtheargumentmadebythenearby“IslandsofSteel”exhibit.12

ThesheersizeofthetanksattheAquariumoftheAmericasandtheTexas

StateAquariumallowtheinclusionofrelativelylargereplicaoilstructures,but

evensmalleraquariumsbuiltintheregionafterthesetwohavechosentoshow

petroleuminfrastructureaspartofthehabitat.SeaCenterTexas,whichisowned

bytheTexasParks&WildlifeDepartment,hasa5,000-gallontankdedicatedto

petroleumstructuresasartificialreefs.Theoilplatformclearlyhasaplaceinthe

ecosystemaccordingtothegraphicdisplayingthehabitatzonesthatappearsat

thebottomofmanyofthedisplays(Fig.3).TheDowntownAquariumin

Houston,ownedbyLandry’sRestaurants,likewisefeaturesthebottomofanoil

structureintheGulfofMexicotank(Fig.4).AttheABQBioparkAquarium

ownedbytheCityofAlbuquerque,NewMexico,insteadofincorporatingthe

structureintothestandardlargefishandsharktank,thedesignerschoseto

makeaseparatedisplayusingareplicajacketsection.13Thevisitorcanwalk

12AquariumWithoutWalls,written,producedanddirectedbyPaulK.Driessen,fundingprovidedbyExxonCorporation,1989.13ABQBioparkAquariumfollowstheecosystemsoftheRioGrandefromitsheadwatersalongtheTexas-MexicobordertotheGulfofMexico,soeventhoughNewMexicoisnotconsideredintheGulfregion,theaquariumdesignfollowsthepatternsoftheGulfregion.

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throughthelegsandonetankoftropicalfishisattachedtoalegateye-levelto

showthecolorfullifearoundtheplatformlegs(Fig.5).

AllofthesedisplaysintegratethesteeloiljacketstructureintotheGulfof

Mexicoecosystemandhighlighttheecosystembenefitsbroughtbythe

structures’functionasartificialreefs.Thevisitortotheseaquariumsthenis

confrontedwithahybridspace—onethatdisplaysman’sbuiltenvironmentand

technologicalartifactsalongsideofandintegratedwithnature.TheGulfof

Mexicoisavastecosystemwithmuchofitopenwaterratherthandominatedby

suchstructures,yettheseaquariumshavechosentofocusonthisparticular

hybridpartoftheecosystem.Suchachoicewasnotinevitable:thereareafew

aquariumsoutsideoftheGulfCoastregionthatalsohaveGulfCoasttanks,for

exampletheTennesseeAquariuminChattanoogaandtheNationalMississippi

RiverMuseuminIowa,andthesedonotuseoilstructuresaspartofthehabitat.

Theyshowinsteadfishswimmingaroundintankswithsandybottomsandafew

rockyoutcrops,whichisthedominantGulfhabitat.Sowhywasahybrid

technological-environmentalspacechosenastheecosystemtodisplayinthe

GulfCoast?

TheGulfofMexicoasamanmadeecosystem

SpecifichistoricalcircumstancesaffectedthepresentationofGulfwatersasan

oilindustryspace.Thehybridspacesdepictedintheaquariumexhibitshave

theirgenesisinunderstandingsoftheecosystemoftheGulfofMexicothatcame

totheforeinthe1970sand1980s.

Thousandsofoffshoreoilandgasstructuresdottedthemapofthe

westernGulfofMexicobythelate1970s.TheoffshoreoilbusinessintheGulf

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hadstartedhumblyin1946withMagnoliaPetroleumCompany’sfirstoperating

platformfivemilesoffshoreofMorgan,Louisiana;by1980,therewere

approximately4,000production-relatedstructuresupto1,000feetdeepand

130milesoffshore.14ThebottomoftheGulfofMexicowheretheseoilwells

standischaracterizedasagentlyslopingsand-mudflat,althoughsomemud

lumpsandsaltdomesbreakupthesmoothservice.Mostofthislandscapeis

sparselypopulated,withonlyafewareaswithlargerconcentrationsof

organisms.TheonlynaturalcoralreefinthewesternGulfisFlowerGarden

BanksoffthecoastofTexas.

Theunderstructureofproductionplatformsrisefromtheseafloortothe

surfaceinacriss-crossedpattern.Thesesteeljacketssupporttheweightofthe

above-watertanks,equipment,andplatformhousing;butunderthewater,they

cametosupportsealifeaswell.Barnacles,spinyoysters,corals,andother

colonizersattachthemselvestothesteel.Becausethejacketsextendvertically

hundredsoffeetthroughthewater,varioushabitatswithdifferinglightand

temperatureconditionsarecreated.Thecolonizersattractsmallfishwhichfind

foodandhidingplacesinthenewecosystem,aswellaslargerfishthatcomefor

thepreyandbecausetheplatformsarelargevisualmarkers.

Bythe1970s,recreationalfishermenhadbecomeregularvisitorsto

offshorestructuresbecauseofthelargersportsfishthatcouldbecaughtthere.

PhotographsfromtheLouisianaStateArchivesfromthelate1970sshow

Louisianasportsmenengagedintheincreasinglycommonpracticeoftyingup

boatstooperatingoilplatformsinordertofish.AstudytitledRecreational

14CommitteeonDispositionofOffshorePlatforms,DisposalofOffshorePlatforms,preparedfortheNationalResearchCouncil(Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress,1985),9.

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fishinguseofartificialreefsontheTexasCoastpreparedfortheTexasCoastaland

MarineCouncilin1978showedthatalmostalloffshorefishingboatcaptainshad

previouslyfishedoffoilandgasstructuresinTexasandthathalfofallfishing

tripsvisitedthem.15Localknowledgethusdefinedthestandingoilplatformsas

functionalartificialreefhabitatswithsignificantfishpopulationsbythelate

1970s.

In1978,theBureauofLandManagement(BLM),whichwasthelead

agencyresponsibleforoffshoreoilleasesatthetime,wasrequiredtoprepare

environmentalimpactstatementsforoilandgasleasesinthewakeofthe1976

FederalLandPolicyandManagementAct(FLMPA;43USC1701—1782);thusan

increasedunderstandingoftheeffectofoilandgasoperationsontheGulf

ecosystemwasimperative.TheycontractedtheSouthwestResearchInstituteto

preparealargestudyoftheoffshoreecologyoftheLouisianaOuterContinental

Shelf.Thestudyhadtwoareasofinquiry:pollutantfateandeffects,andthe

artificialreefcharacteristicsofstandingplatforms.16Whenthestudywasfinally

issuedin1981,itdescribedLouisiana’soffshoreplatformsas“artificialreefs

whichhaveapparentlyexpandedtheavailablehabitatfornumerousfishand

invertebratespeciesthataredependentonhardbanksashabitat.”17Thestudy

identifiedseveralspeciesthathadnotbeenpreviouslydocumentedinthe

centralGulfwatersorwerethoughttooccuronlyonnaturalcoralreefs,leading

totheconclusionthat“theplatformsarecontributingtotheoveralldiversityof

15RobertB.DittonandAlanR.Graefe,RecreationalFishingUseofArtificialReefsontheTexasCoast,contractreport(Austin,TX:TexasCoastalandMarineCouncil,1978).16C.A.Bedinger,ed.,EcologicalInvestigationsofPetroleumProductionPlatformsintheCentralGulfofMexico,3vols.,MMS1981-16(SanAntonio:SouthwestResearchInstitutefortheBureauofLandManagement,1981).17Bedinger,vol.2,89.

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theOCS.”18Inthisstudyandothersissuedintheearly1980s,standingjackets

aredescribedasbeneficialreefhabitat.19

Popularscientificandconservation-focusedmagazinesbasedintheGulf

carriedstorieshighlightingthebiologicaldiversityofstandingplatforms.The

earliest,anarticletitled“FromRigstoReefs”publishedin1975inLouisiana

Conservationist,toutedthetransformationofsteellegstoartificialreefs

supportinggameandfoodfish.Thearticleisrichlyillustratedwithunderwater

photographsfeaturingunderwaterbiologistsinspectingalgaegrowingonthe

structure,schoolsofspadefish,barracudalurkingamongthedarkcross-beams,

andimpressivelysizedcatchesmadewithrod-and-reelandunderwater

spears.20TexasParks&Wildliferanasimilararticlein1982aboutthefishingand

divingpossibilitiesaroundoffshoreproductionplatforms.Thisarticlelikewise

hasfull-colorclose-upunderwaterphotosofthefishandcoralresidentsof

platformjacketsandaschematicshowingthevarioushabitatzonesofthesteel

reefs.Thearticlecontraststhevast“sediment-coveredplain”oftheGulfof

18Bedinger,vol.3,16.19AstudycommissionedbytheFishandWildlifeServicestatedthatplatformshavea“reef”effectbecauseofthebiofoulingorganismsthatcanattachtothestructuresandcreatefoodandshelterforfish:BennyJ.Gallaway,AnEcosystemAnalysisofOilandGasDevelopmentontheTexas-LouisianaContinentalShelf,FWS/OBS-81/27(Washington,DC:U.S.FishandWildlifeService,OfficeofBiologicalServices,1981).Anotherstudyissuedin1982cametothesameconclusionthatpetroleumstructuresincreasedtheabundanceanddiversityofreeffishintheGulf:ContinentalShelfAssociates,StudyoftheEffectofOilandGasActivitiesonReefFishPopulationsintheGulfofMexicoOCSArea,MMS1982-40(Washington,DC:BureauofLandManagement,1982).20McFaddenDuffy,“FromRigstoReefs,”LouisianaConservationist27(1975),18–21.ThemagazineistheofficialpublicationoftheLouisianaDepartmentofWildlifeandFisheries.

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Mexico,whichhas“alackofhabitatdiversity,”withtheabundantlifearoundthe

platform.21

WithinthiscontextofportrayalsoftheGulfecosystemaroundstanding

platforms,itisnowonderthattheexhibitsthatopenedin1990attheAquarium

oftheAmericasandtheTexasStateAquariumincludescaleddownversionsof

offshorejacketsasamajorcomponentofthetankhabitat,withexplanatorytext

reinforcingtheintegralnatureofthesteelstructures.Thedisplayscontrastthe

naturalmudbottomoftheGulfwiththecolorfulandvibrantlifeonandaround

thestructuresjustasthescientificstudiesandpopulararticleshaddone.

Rigs-to-Reefsondisplay

Thecontextofoffshoreoilproductionintheseaquariumsgoesbeyondthead

hocfunctionofstandingplatformsasartificialreefsintothedeliberatereuseof

structuresasreefs.Theexhibitsnotonlyshowtheoilstructuresaspartofthe

habitat—theyalsohaveaccompanyingtexthighlightinglegislationthatallows

platformstostayasreefsafterbeingdecommissionedundervariousprograms

collectivelyknownasRigs-to-Reefs.Forexample,adisplaytitled“Artificial

Reefs”toonesideofthelargeGulfofMexicotankattheAquariumofthe

AmericasexplainstovisitorsthebenefitsoftheRigs-to-Reefsprogram:

Productionplatformswerenevermeanttobepermanentstructures.

Lawsrequiretheybetakenawaywhentheirwellsrundry.Butplatforms

createunderwaterhabitatsformarinelife—andgoodfishing—thatare

lostwhenplatformsareremoved.In1987LouisianastartedtheArtificial

21MauryOsbornFerguson,“UnderwaterCommunities,”TexasParks&Wildlife40(1982),2–7.ThemagazineistheofficialpublicationoftheTexasParks&WildlifeDepartment.

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ReefProgram,whichallowssomeplatformstobesunkinselectedspots

wheretheycontinuetosupportmarinelifecommunities.

Thelegislativedevelopmentreferredtointhisexhibitgrewoutofthe

recognitioninthe1980sthatstandingplatformsaddedhabitatandthusifthose

platformswereremoved,thenewhabitatwouldbelost.

Artificialreefscreatedtoincreaserecreationalfishcatcheshadbecome

moreandmorepopularintheUSafterWWII.In1961,theSportsFishing

Instituteestimatedthatthenumberofanglerswasgrowingatarateof270,000

personsperyearandtheannualcatchwasaround300millionediblefish.The

increasingnumbersofanglersledsportfishermenandgovernmentalagenciesto

purseartificialoffshorereefdevelopmentinthelate1950sand1960sinearnest.

Avastarrayofmaterials—oldcarbodiesandtrolleycars,decommissionedships,

concreterubble,stonefragments,andoldtires,amongotherthings—weresunk

inoffshorewaterstocreatereefs.Bylate1971,approximately150artificialreefs

andreefcomplexeshadbeencreatedoffUScoastlines,mosttargeting

commercialandrecreationalfish.22TexasandLouisianahadnotbeen

particularlyactiveintheartificialreefboom,mainlybecausetheyalreadyhad

lotsofartificialreefs—theirstandingoilplatforms.Whenproposalsfora

nationalartificialreefprogramcamebeforetheUSCongressbeginningin1978,

thefunctionoftheplatformsasreefstookascentralpositioninthedebates.

Twobillsaimedatmarineartificialreefdevelopmentcamebeforethe

HouseCommitteeonMerchantMarineandFisheriesin1981.23The

22AnnWeeks,“FishCities:ANewSchoolofDesign,”NOAA,2(April1972),2–7.23H.R.1041andH.R.1897.Earlierattemptsatlegislationhadalsobeenmade(S.3094of1978andH.R.4413,H.R.4714andS.325of1979)butnohearingshadbeenheld.

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SubcommitteeonFisheriesandWildlifeConservationandtheEnvironmentheld

aone-dayhearingtoconsiderthequestionofanationalprogramforartificial

reefdevelopmentinresponsetothesebills.Thebillsthemselvesmadeno

mentionofoffshoreoilstructures,butthechairmanofthehearing,JohnB.

BreauxofLouisiana,hadpersonalexperiencewithfishingatoilstructures:

“HavingparticipatedinmanyenjoyablefishingtripsoffshoreLouisiana,within

sightofmanysuchstructures,Icanattesttotheabilityofthesegiantreefsto

provideorientation,shelter,andfoodtofishthroughoutthewatercolumn.”24

Breaux’spersonalfishingexperiencesledhimtoautomaticallyassociatea

coordinatedreefprogramwithoffshorestructures.Muchofthetestimony,both

writtenandoral,alsofocusedonoffshoreoilandgasstructures,eventhough

theywerenotovertlyincludedinthebills.

Althoughnothingcameofthe1981bills,alaterattemptwouldcometo

fruitionastheNationalFishingEnhancementActof1984,whichmandatedthat

theDepartmentofCommercewriteaplanforUSartificialreefdevelopment.25

TheresultantNationalArtificialReefPlanof1985,ageneral39-pageguidance

document,focusesonimprovingrecreationalfishing.Thesectiononpotential

materialsofopportunitylistedships,concrete,tires,andoilandgasstructures.26

InthewakeoftheNationalArtificialReefPlan,bothLouisiana(in1986)

andTexas(in1989)establishedstate-levelartificialreefplansfocusedonRigs-

24HearingsbeforetheSubcommitteeonFisheriesandWildlifeConservationandtheEnvironmentoftheCommitteeonMerchantMarineandFisheries,HouseofRepresentatives,Ninety-seventhCongressonEstablishmentofaNationalArtificialReefPolicy–H.R.1041,H.R.1897,September11,1981,SerialNo.97-35(WashingtonDC:USGovernmentPrintingOffice,1982),1-225Therewereseveralfailedlegislativeattemptstogetanationalartificialreefplan,butthesewillnotbediscussedhere.26RichardB.Stone,NationalArtificialReefPlan,NOAATechnicalMemorandumNMFSOF-6(WashingtonDC:U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,1985).

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to-Reefstoallowtheconversionofobsoleteoffshoreoilstructuresintoartificial

reefs.Inbothstateplans,oilstructuresweretoutedasvitalfishhabitat.27The

LouisianaArtificialReefPlanhighlightedtheunintentionalyetcriticalnatureof

habitatsonoffshorestructures:

ThedevelopmentoftheoilandgasindustryintheGulfofMexicoresulted

inthecreationofthiscountry’smostextensiveartificialreefsystem.…

Forover40years,Louisianafishermenhavebenefitedfromtheincreased

biologicalactivityassociatedwiththisunintentionalartificialreefhabitat.

SincetheseplatformsaresocommonplaceofftheLouisianacoast,many

citizensandmanagementgroupsbelievethattheyarepermanentandwill

alwaysbeavailableforfishing.Thisis,however,notthecase.…Itwas,

therefore,imperativethatLouisianarecognizethispotentiallossof

habitatandplantooffsetitbyeithercreatingnewartificialreefsor

preservingexistingstructures.28

TheTexasplanalsostressedtheecologicalenhancementeffectofoffshore

structures,goingsofarastorecommendthat“the[TexasParksandWildlife]

Departmentshouldactivelypursueacquiringoffshoreplatformsforuseas

artificialreefsintheGulfofMexico,indeferencetootherstructures.”29This

languageshowsthatby1990,thelinkbetweenoffshoreoilandgasstructures

27SeeDollyJørgensen,“AnOasisinaWateryDesert?DiscoursesonanIndustrialEcosystemintheGulfofMexicoRigs-to-Reefsprogram,”HistoryandTechnology,25(2009),343–364forafulldiscussionofthediscoursesatworkintheGulfofMexicoRigs-to-Reefsconcept.28CharlesA.Wilson,VirginiaR.VanSickle,andDavidL.Pope,LouisianaArtificialReefPlan,TechnicalBulletinNo.41(BatonRouge:LouisianaDepartmentofWildlifeandFisheries,1987),vii.29C.DianneStephanetal..TexasArtificialReefFisheryManagementPlan,FisheryManagementPlanSeries,No.3(Austin:TexasParksandWildlifeDepartment,1990),[1].

17

andimprovedfishhabitatwasclear.Weshouldalsonotethattheseplanswere

writtenbyleadingfisheryscientists,referencingup-to-datescientific

publicationsthatbasicallycametothesameconclusionthatpetroleum

structuresconvertedintoartificialreefsmakegoodfishhabitat.

Asthislegislationwasunderway,scientistscontinuedtostudythe

relationshipbetweentheGulfenvironmentandoffshoreoilstructuresthrough

the1980s,focusingonreusingobsoletestructuresdeliberatelyasartificialreefs.

TheGulfofMexicoInformationTransfermeetingsbecamearegularvenuefor

bothscientistsandindustryrepresentativestoadvocatemakingartificialreefs

outofstructures.Inthepapersgivenatthesemeetings,theGulfecosystemwas

clearlyoneinwhichsteelstructureandfishco-exist;theonlyquestionwashow

tobestimplementartificialreefprogramstotakeadvantageofthestandingde

factoreefswhenthetimecametoremovethestructures.30Jacketsturnedinto

artificialreefswerethenaturalchoice.

ThesedevelopmentsfactoredintothewaythattheGulfofMexico

aquariumtanksareinterpreted.JustastheAquariumoftheAmericas

interpretativetextmentionstheLouisianaRigs-to-Reefsprogram,asimilar

educationaldisplayattheTexasStateAquariumdiscussesRigs-to-Reefs

(withoutnamingtheprogram)asawaytocreatelong-lastinghabitats:

30ThisisobviousinthecontentsofthepapersinthesessionsonRigs-to-ReefsinProceedings:FourthAnnualGulfofMexicoInformationTransferMeeting,15–17November1983,NewOrleans,LA,OCSStudyMMS84-0026(NewOrleans,MineralsManagementService,1984)andProceedings:FifthAnnualGulfofMexicoInformationTransferMeeting,27–29November1984,NewOrleans,LA,OCSStudyMMS85-0008(NewOrleans,MineralsManagementService,1985).MajorstudieslaterincludeVillereReggio,Rigs-to-Reefs:Theuseofobsoletepetroleumstructuresasartificialreefs,OCSReportMMS87-0015(NewOrleans:MineralsManagementService,1987)andVillereReggio,compiler,PetroleumStructuresasArtificialReefs:ACompendium,OCSStudyMMS89-0021(NewOrleans:MineralsManagementService,1989).

18

Inthepast,rigsandplatformsweredismantledandremovedattheendof

theirproductionlivescausingthedestructionofestablishedreef

communities.Today,thepetroleumindustryoffersthestructuresto

coastalstatesthatplacetheminselectlocationsintheGulfofMexico.The

habitatsmaylastaslongasonehundredyearsbeforetheyaredestroyed

bycorrosion.

TheDowntownAquariuminHoustonlikewisehasaplacardnexttoitsGulftank

thatexplains,“Overthepasttwentyyears,morethan200platformsnolongerin

usehavegivenrisetorichcommunitiesthathaveboostedthesportfishing

industryintheGulfaswellasprovidedareasforcontinuedresearchinthefield

ofaquaculture.”Thesetextsplacetheexhibitdesignwithinthecontextofa

specificregulatoryframeworkthatdevelopedfortheGulfofMexico—onethat

emphasizesthebeneficialeffectofoffshorestructuresbothduringandafter

theirlifespanasproductionfacilities.Thebenefittosportfishingisspecifically

included,whichmakessenseconsideringthatsportsfishermenwerethefirstand

loudestadvocatesofRigs-to-Reefs.

TheartificialreeftankatSeaCenterTexas,whichopenedin1996,isthe

mostexplicitdisplayabouttheregulatoryframeworkoftheexhibit.Inthiscase,

theinterpretivetextputstheunderwaterjacketintocontextofotherartificial

reefcreationprojectsinwhich“waterandtheflatseafloorgetalittlehelp”,

noting,“Sincethe1940s,theTexasParksandWildlifeDepartmenthasbeen

placingartificialreefsinnearshorewaterstoattractplantsandanimalsthat

normallycan’tlivehere.Thesereefsarebuiltofmaterialslikestonerubble,

trees,concrete,oldshipsandoilrigs.”Abronzecommemorativeplaqueisplaced

prominentlyonthewallnexttothetankwiththeinscription:“TheTexas

19

ArtificialReefProgram,whichprovidedpartialfundingforthisaquarium,was

createdbythe71stlegislaturethroughtheTexasArtificialReefActof1989.That

importantlegislationwasauthoredbySenator‘Buster’BrownofLakeJackson.”

Theplaquehasaparticularcontext:thefacilityisrunbyTexasWildlifeand

Fisheries,whichisresponsiblefortheTexasArtificialReefProgramandis

locatedinLakeJackson,thehomeoftheauthorofthebillthatcreatedthe

program.Giventheinterconnectionsjoiningaquarium,environmentalagency,

andlegislation,itseemsentirelyunsurprisingthattheinstitutiondecidedto

highlighttheArtificialReefProgramnexttoatankwithsteeloiljacketlegsinthe

habitat.

Thebronzeplaque,however,hintsatanotherimportantissue—

sponsorshipofexhibits.Inthiscase,theTexasArtificialReefProgramitselfhad

partiallyfundedtheaquarium.Aquariumsrelytoagreatextentoncorporate

sponsorships,andnotunexpectedly,oilcompaniesareprimarysponsorsofGulf

ofMexicotanks.In1988,TennecoInc.andtwoofitsoperatingdivisions

announceda$250,000contributiontotheAquariumoftheAmericastosponsor

theGulfofMexicoexhibit.BobTaylor,vicepresentandgeneralmanagerfor

TennecoOilExplorationandProductionexplainedthesponsorshiprationale:

“ThePetroleumWingofthisfacilitywillhelpdemonstratethepositiveimpactof

oilandgasplatformsonmarinelife,thusprovidingfurtheropportunityto

explaintherelationshipbetweenthepetroleumindustryandtheabundant

aquaticlifeoftheGulfofMexico.”31Inthisstatement,Taylorevenreferstothe

sectionoftheaquariumas“ThePetroleumWing,”whichalthoughnottheofficial

31SouthwestNewswire,“TennecoInc.announces$250,000contributiontoAquariumoftheAmericasinNewOrleans,”3May1988.

20

name(itisnamed“GulfofMexico”onallfacilitymaps),isindicativeofhow

visibletheoilindustryisintheexhibit.Thecorporatesponsorsarehonoredwith

theircompanylogosononeofthepostsseparatingthetankglasssections;in

2009,thesponsorsincludedawho’swholistofmajoroilandgascompanies

operatinginthearea—BP,Shell,ExxonMobil,Tenneco,andChevron.Asnoted

above,ExxoncreatedthefilmthatwasshownattheTexasStateAquarium;the

companyisalsostilllistedasthesponsorofthepanel“Aquariumwithoutwalls.”

Thesesponsorshipsdonotmeanthattheoilcompanieshadadirecthandinthe

exhibitdesign,butitdoesshowthattheexhibitsreflectanunderstandingofthe

ecologyoftheGulfthatoilcompanieswouldagreewith—thatoffshore

structuresprovidekeyhabitatintheGulfofMexico,makingthem

environmentallybeneficial.32

ExtendingHybridEnvironmentstotheClassroom

TheconnectionbetweenthemanmadestructuresintheGulfofMexicoandits

naturalenvironmentpermeatetheaquariumexhibits,butitalsoreachesbeyond

themtoeducationalmaterials.Thesamegovernmentalagencieswhowere

heavilyinvolvedinRigs-to-Reefspolicymakingalsodevelopedteacher’sguides

andwebcastsdesignedforclassroomusethatreinforcetheaquariums’

presentationoftheGulfasahybridenvironment.

32WeshouldnotethatwhileoilcompaniescertainlysupportedtheRigs-to-Reefsconcept,theprogramswereprimarilypushedbyrecreationalfishinganddivinginterests.SincetheinceptionofprogramsinLouisianaandTexas,onlyabout10percentoftheobsoletestructureshavebeendonatedbytheoilcompaniesasartificialreefs.Inmanycases,thereisactuallyverylittlecostsavingsandmorepaperworktodonatethestructure,thustheindustrymaybemoreinterestedinitasanenvironmentalgoodwillactivitythanasamoney-savingactivity.

21

In1997,theMineralsManagementService(MMS)GulfofMexicoregion—

adivisionoftheUSDepartmentofInteriorthatsupersededBLMinmanaging

offshoreoilresourcesin1982—issuedaneducationalpostertitled“Islandsof

Life”andacompanionbookletdesignedtohelpteachersintroduce“aunique

aspectoftheGulfofMexico”tostudentsingrades6–8.Thefull-colorposter

showsaschematicofastandingplatforminthebackgroundoverlaidwith

photosoftropicalfishandcorals.Aseaturtle,amigratorysongbird,anda

recreationaldiverallappearaswell.Theimagesallhighlightthelifearoundthe

platform.Thebookletintroducedthestudythisway:“Severalthousandoiland

gasproductionfacilitieslocatedontheU.S.continentalshelfoftheGulfofMexico

makeupthelargestartificialislandandreefsystemintheworld,andentire

generationofGulfCoastcitizensnowdependsonthemforenergy,food,and

recreation.”33Theoffshorefacilitiesarethuspresentedasintegralinthe

ecosystemaswellasculturalsystemsoftheGulfregion.Indeed,thetext

emphasizesthecrucialroleofoffshorestructuresintheGulfenvironment:

Upuntilafewdecadesago,manyofthesecreatureswoulddrifthelplessly

inthecurrentswithlittlehopeofsurvivalbecausethecentralGulfhad

fewplacesthatextendupfromthemuddydepthstothesunlitsurface

waters.However,ourNation’soffshoreoilandgasplatformsnowprovide

suchahomeintheformofhardenedsteelsubstrateforamyriadofsea

creatures,establishingthese“IslandsofLife.”34

Acontrastismadeherebetweenwhathappenedtotheseacreaturesbefore

offshoreoildevelopment—theywoulddriftaimlesslyandprobablydie—and

33AnnBulletal.,IslandsofLife:ATeacher’sCompanion,OCSReportMMS2005-065,revisededition(NewOrleans:MMS,2005).Thefirstprintingwasin1997.34Bulletal.,3.

22

whathappenstothemnow—theyfindnewhomesonthesteellegs.The

structuresbecomeliterally“IslandsofLife”incontrasttoaseaofdeath.The

companionbookletdescribesthemanyhabitatzonesanddifferentspeciesfound

onandaroundoperatingoffshoreplatforms,supplementedbycolorphotos.The

textandimagesreinforcethenotionofthestructuresaslife-nourishing.One

sectiondiscussesthedevelopmentofRigs-to-Reefs,citingtheNationalFishing

EnhancementActof1984astheempoweringlegislation.35Thisteachermaterial,

whichwasupdatedin2005,isstillavailableonthewebsiteoftheBureauof

OceanEnergyManagement,Regulation,andEnforcement(BOEMRE),the

successorofMMS.36

TheTexasParksandWildlifeDepartment,theresponsiblegovernmental

agencyfortheTexasArtificialReefProgramandownerofSeaCenterTexas,

targetedhighschoolstudents(grades9-12)withaseriesofwebcastsaboutthe

GulfCoastecosystem.“TreasuresoftheGulfCoast”,whichoriginallyaired17

April1999andisnowavailableonline,invitedstudentstoexploretheGulfCoast,

fromcoastalmarshestocoralreefs.37Twoofthesegmentsfeaturedartificial

reefswithcommentarybyascientistintheartificialreefprogram.Inthe

presentation,studentsweretoldthat“hardbottomhabitatisverylimiting”in

theGulf,thuspetroleumstructures,ships,andcustom-madereefballswereall

valuabletocreatefishhabitat—“weneedtodoasmuchaswecantoprovide

habitatforbabyreeffishandotherinvertebratesthatliveinthatecosystem.”

Offshoreoilstructureswere“thebestmaterialthatwe’veeverused”tomake

35Bulletal.,15–16.36MMSwasreorganizedasBOEMREinresponsetotheDeepwaterHorizonincidentin2010.37http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/learning/webcasts/gulf/

23

artificialreefsbecauseoftheirstructuralcomplexity.Modelsoutofpopsicle

stickswereusedtodemonstratehowthestructuresarelaidontheseafloorand

howcreatures(madewhimsicallywithsmileyfacesoutofplaydough)attachto

thestructureasanartificialreef.Thispresentationstressedtheroleofthe

manmadestructuresasnaturalhabitat—bothwhenthestructuresarestanding

asoperatingfacilitiesandafterwardwhentheyareleftontheoceanflooras

reefs.

Thewebcast“RiverstotheOcean,”whichaired3May2000,includeda

20-minutelivediveatanoilplatformintheGulf.38Thescientist-diver

commentedonthevariouscreatureshesawundertheplatformandanswered

livequestionsfromthestudentswatchingtheoriginalwebcast.Thevideo

highlighted“thediversityoflifeandtheabundanceoflife”aroundtheplatforms.

OnesegmentofthedivefocusedonRigs-to-Reefsandthefunctionsofplatforms

asartificialreefsinprovidingsubstrate,shelter,food,andacommunityof

animalsforfindingmates.Asimilarwebcast,“Water,Wildlife&You”whichaired

2May2001,includedanotherlivedivearoundastandingplatform.39The

pedagogicalmessageofbothdiveswasthattheoffshoreoilstructuresprovide

habitatforanamazingarrayofoceanlife.Inthesewebcasts,whichwereviewed

livebystudentsandarestillavailableforviewingonline,theoffshorestructure

ispresentedasthehomeofacompleteecosystemwhichwouldnotexistofthe

structureswerenotinplace.Themanmadestructuresarethuspresentedasa

vitalpieceofthenaturalworld.

38http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/learning/webcasts/livedive2000/39http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/learning/webcasts/livedive2001/

24

TheseextremelypositiveviewpointsonartificialreefsintheGulf—

createdbyGulfCoastagenciesandfocusedonaGulfCoastaudience—canbe

contrastedwithsometeachermaterialwrittenforNationalGeographic’s

educationaloutreachprogram.NationalGeographic’sXpeditionsseriesincludes

twolessonplanswithartificialreefsasacomponent:“AquariumHabitats”

(grades3-5)and“TheProsandConsofArtificialReefs”(Grades9-12).40

“AquariumHabitats”asksstudentstoconsiderpicturesofaquariumdisplaysat

theMontereyBayAquariumandwhetherornot“theaquariumisagoodhuman-

madehabitatformarineanimals.”Intheextendedversionofthelesson,students

areaskedtocomparetheiraquariumideastoartificialreefsas“human-made

structuresintheoceanorsea”whichare“outintheopen,whereanimalsare

freetocomeandgo.”Studentsaredirectedtoseveralwebsitestolookat

artificialreefs,includingtheRigs-to-ReefwebpagebyMMS.Inthispresentation,

studentsarenotdirectlytoldthatartificialreefsaregood,butbecausetheyare

askedtocontrast“closed”aquariumspaceswith“open”artificialreefs,theymay

beviewedpositively.Thelessonplanfortheolderstudentsasksstudentsto

criticallythinkaboutartificialreefs,boththeargumentsinfavorandagainst

them.Thenegativesideispromptedwithtwoquestions:“Howmightartificial

reefs‘fool’fishermenintothinkingtherearemorefishthanbeforetheartificial

reefexisted?”and“Whataretheecologicalargumentsagainstartificialreefs?”In

thismaterial,unliketheMMSandTPWpresentations,potentialarguments

againstartificialreefsareacknowledged.Argumentsagainstreefshavebeen

40http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/xpeditions/lessons/08/g35/aquarium.html;http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/xpeditions/lessons/08/g912/artificialreefs.html

25

highlyvisibleinthedebateoverRigs-to-ReefsinCalifornia,whichbeganinthe

late1990s,butarealmostnon-existentintheGulfofMexicodiscussions.41Itis

onlyinthelastfiveyearsthattheincreasingabundanceandhabitatrangeof

aquaticspeciesintheGulfofMexicobecauseofplatformhabitatavailabilityhas

beendiscussedasapotentialnegativeeffectofoffshoreoildevelopment.42

ThelackofacriticaldiscussionofthedrawbacksofartificialreefsinGulf

Coasteducationalprogramsreiterateshowthesocialandpoliticalcontextof

Rigs-to-ReefshasshapedunderstandingsoftheGulfofMexicoecosystem.The

long-termlocalrecreationalfishinguseofoffshorefacilitiesandtherig-

conversiondevelopmentsofthe1980ssparkedthereimaginingofoiljacketsas

life-giving.TheagenciesandthescientistsworkingontheGulfofMexico

ecosystemshaveinturnportrayedtheartificialreefcharacteristicsofoffshore

facilitiesasapositivebecauseoftheoceanlifethatgathersaroundthem.Thus

thestructuresthemselvesarepresentedasvitalhabitatinanotherwisesparse

ocean.

41SomeoftheargumentsthathavebeenleveledagainstconvertingplatformsintoreefsintheCaliforniadebatearethatartificialreefsonlyconcentratefishmakingthemeasiertocatch,thestructuresmightcauselong-termpollution,thatreefsshouldbemadeoutofonlyrocks(a“natural”material),andthattheoilcompanieshaveanobligationtoremovethestructuresandreturntheseabedtoitsoriginalstate.SeeSallyHolbrooketal.,EcologicalIssuesRelatedtoDecommissioningofCalifornia’sOffshoreProductionPlatforms,reporttotheUniversityofCaliforniaMarineCouncil(2000)foracompletediscussionoftheseissuesinaCaliforniancontext.ThepoliticalcontextoftheCaliforniaRigs-to-ReefsdebateisalsodiscussedinDanRothback,“Rigs-to-Reefs:RefocusingtheDebateinCalifornia,”DukeEnvironmentalLaw&PolicyForum17(2007),283–295,andDonnaSchroederandMiltonLove,“EcologicalandPoliticalIssuesSurroundingDecommissioningofOffshoreOilFacilitiesintheSouthernCaliforniaBight,”OceanandCoastalManagement47(2004),21–48.42e.g.T.A.Villarealetal.,“PetroleumproductionplatformsassitesfortheexpansionofciguaterainthenorthwesternGulfofMexico,”HarmfulAlgae6(2007),253–259;andDanielSheehyandSusanVik,“TheRoleofConstructedReefsinNon-indigenousSpeciesIntroductionsandRangeExpansions,”EcologicalEngineering36(2010),1–11.

26

ShowandTell

TheGulfofMexicoaquariumexhibitsintheGulfregionshowvisitorsaparticular

partoftheocean’secosystemandtellthestoryofabeneficialrelationship

betweenoffshoreoilandoceanlife.Theinclusionofoffshorestructuresinthese

exhibitscomesfromaparticularscientific,social,andpoliticalcontext.Gulf

fishermen’sexperienceswithstandingoffshoreplatformsencouragedmany

scientificstudiesofthestructuresashabitat.Anecdotalexperiencefishingat

offshorerigscombinedwithscientificfindingsbolsteredargumentsforcreating

Rigs-to-Reefsprogramsthatwouldturnobsoletejacketsintopermanent

artificialreefs.ThemajorGulfofMexicoaquariumexhibitsattheAquariumof

theAmericasandTexasStateAquariumbothopenedin1990ontheheelsof

Rigs-to-ReefsprogramsbeingestablishedinLouisianaandTexas.ThelaterSea

CenterTexasandHouston’sDowntownAquariumopenedaftertheRigs-to-Reefs

programswerewellestablished.Thechoicethenofincorporatingoffshore

structuresinaquaticdisplaysoftheGulfshouldcomeasnosurprise.The

thinkingisclear:fishswimaroundstructuresintheGulfbecausetheyprovide

habitat,therefore,thestructuresshouldbeintegratedinthetanksashabitat.As

thevisitorexperiencestheGulfofMexicodisplay,amberjack,grouper,and

sharksswimrhythmicallythroughthewater,dartingaroundandthoughthe

scaled-downversionofanoiljacket.Thesteelstructurebecomesaplaceteeming

withlife.Theinterpretivetextsattheexhibitsandteachingmaterialsaimedat

classroomusealltellthesamestoryaboutthecreationofspacesfororganisms

toliveonandaroundtheplatforms.

27

Thereisnoarguingthatvibrantcommunitiesofsealifedoindeedcrawl

onandswimthroughoffshoreoilstructuresandartificialreefsconstructedfrom

oldjackets,buttheinterpretationoftheseecosystemsandthechoicetouseoil

structuresintheaquariumdisplaysisnotagiven;rather,itwasaproductof

context.TheexhibitsareanaccuratedepictionofonesubsectionoftheGulf

ecosystem,buttheyarejustthat—onlyonespecificsub-ecosystem.Thechoice

bytheaquariumsintheGulfCoasttoshowthisparticularviewoftheGulf

revealsthesocial,political,andscientificcontextinwhichtheexhibitswere

developed—thattheGulfofMexicoisaharmoniousmeetingplaceofoiland

water.