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MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research Associate International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD) Geneva, 12 October 2016

MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

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Page 1: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030

WTO, Fisheries Subsidiesand Agenda 2030

Christophe BellmannSenior Resident Research Associate

International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD)Geneva, 12 October 2016

Page 2: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Overview

• The rationale for disciplining fisheries subsidies;• Documenting fisheries subsidies: what, how much and by whom?• Assessing the impact of fisheries subsidies:

• On sustainability;• On third countries.

• International negotiations on fisheries subsidies;• Conclusion.

Page 3: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

The fundamental challenge• Importance of the fisheries sector for trade, food security and development: 

• Fish as  one of the most heavily traded commodity;• Significant and sometimes vital share of export earnings (up to 90 percent in some SIDS);• Represents a major source of employment both direct and indirect to employment and livelihood (10‐12 % of the global population);

• Generate opportunities for processing and value addition;• Provides 3 billion people up to 15% of dietary animal protein (20% in low‐income food‐deficit countries). 

• Stocks are being depleted with roughly 58 percent of the stocks fished at maximum levels with no room to grow and 31 percent being already overfished, leaving only 11 percent of stocks with potential for further development;

• World bank estimates the cost of overfishing at 80 billion USD a year and calls for a 40 percent reduction in fishing capacity.

Page 4: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

The SDG targets

• 14.4: By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, IUU and destructive fishing practices and implement science‐based management plans […]

• 14.6: By 2020, prohibit certain form of fisheries subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute to IUU and refrain from introducing new such subsidies, recognizing that appropriate S&DT for developing countries and LDCs should be an integral part of the WTO fisheries subsidies negotiations

• Footnote: Taking into account ongoing WTO negotiations, the DDA and the Hong Kong ministerial mandate.

Page 5: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

The underlying problem: the tragedy of the common• In the absence of property rights in a fish stock, fishers collectively will tend to harvest more than the optimal amount of fish;

• Fisheries subsidies that increase capacity and effort tend to exacerbate this reality;

• Common problem exists to varying degrees:• High sea subject to no national jurisdictions;• High seas governed by Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMO) only bind members and of variable effectiveness in enforcing catch limits;

• Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ): varying degrees of effectiveness with very few states having established property rights.

Page 6: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Total Cost / Total Revenue

Fishing Efforts

Total Cost for Fishing Effort

Total Revenue for Fishing Effort

Effect of Production Enhancing Subsidies

Maximum Rent

MEY

Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY)

Rent

E3E2E1 E4

The Gordon-Schaefer Bioeconomic Model in Open Access Fisheries

Page 7: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Documenting fisheries subsidies: what, how much and by whom?

Page 8: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Not all subsidies are created equal• A variety of policy rationale (e.g. APEC survey) including:

• Supporting employment and income, improving domestic food supply, generating export revenues, supporting disadvantaged regions or cultural communities, managing fish stocks, improving safety, etc.

• Different policy tools and delivery mechanisms (tax exemption, direct transfer, price support, etc.);

• Impact depends on several factors including (a) scale and type of incentives (b) existing management regime and (c) existing capacity;

• No uniform/universally accepted classifications of fisheries subsidies; • Lack of reliable data, not least due to incomplete and delayed notifications under ASCM;• Different estimates in the literature:

• FAO (1992) : estimated amount of USD 54 billion;• Milazzo (1998) : estimated amount of  USD 14‐20 billion;• Sumaila et al (2013): estimated amount of  USD 35 billion.

Page 9: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

TYPE OF SUBSIDIES: THE UNEP APPROACH INCENTIVES TO INCREASE FISHING CAPACITY AND EFFORT

SUBSIDIES TO CAPITAL COSTSExpand or modernize fleet (incl. through improved or safer technology)

Injection of capital tends to increase investment in fishing capacity irrespective of current capacity level. In undercapitalized fleets, high risk of overshooting.

SUBSIDIES TO VARIABLE COSTSFuel gear, bait, ice, or taxes

Lowers the cost of each fishing trip and tends to increase fishing effort at a given level of capacity.

SUBSIDIES TO ACCESS FOREIGN WATERSPurchased by distant water fishing nations for their fleet

When cost not fully recovered from industry, becomes asubsidy to variable costs.

FISHERIES INFRASTRUCTUREFishing port, docks, processing facilities

Limited impact on incentives to fishers already in the industry.  But can discourage exit and make operations more profitable. Unclear distinction between public goods and “club goods”.

INCOME SUPPORT AND UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE, including laying‐up subsidies to compensate owners for restrictions

Ambiguous effect. May discourage exit and maintain unsustainable status quo.

PRICE SUPPORTTarget price above world prices or minimum guaranteed price

Generally incentivizes production increases and put pressure to increase allowed catches.

VESSEL DECOMMISSIONING AND LICENSE RETIREMENTReduce capacity and improve remaining fleet profitability

Usually not effective at rebuilding stocks. Injection of capital often re‐invested in building capacity and discourages exit.

MANAGEMENT SERVICES AND RESEARCHMonitoring of stocks, environmental protection, R&D

Unclear to what extent these constitute subsidies, usually beneficial.

Page 10: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

The OECD Approach

Access to other EEZs

Infrastructure

Marketing and promotion

Community support

Education and training

Research and Development

Management of Resources

Variable costs

Fixed costs

Income

Capacity reduction

Transfers to individuals General transfers

Source: OECD

Page 11: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

• Boat construction, renewal and modernization• Fishery development and support services• Fishing port construction and renovation• Marketing support and storage infrastructure• Tax exemption• Foreign access agreements• Fuel subsidies

• Fisher assistance• Vessel buyback• Rural fisheries community 

development

• Fisheries management & services• Fishery research and 

development• Maintenance of marine protected 

areas

Beneficial Capacity Enhancing Ambiguous

Important Caveat: data from 2009, estimates based on published information, not exactly the same definition as the ASCM, does not consider other factors in determining impact such as management regimes and existing capacity

Most comprehensive documentations by Sumaila et al. (2013) provide data by country for 2003 and 2009.

Classified under three broad categories:

Independent assessments from the literature

Page 12: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Subsidies estimates by sector (2009)

Total fisheries subsidies estimated at 35 billion USD including 20 billion of capacity enhancing subsidies.65% provided by developed countries.

Source: Adapted from FAO (1992), Milazzo (1998), Sumaila and Pauly (2006), and Sumaila et al. (2010).

Page 13: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Source: Adapted from FAO (1992), Milazzo (1998), Sumaila and Pauly (2006), and Sumaila et al. (2010).

Subsidy estimates by major fishing countries/political entities

Page 14: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Source: Mallory, T. G. (2016) Fisheries subsidies in China: Quantitative and Qualitative Assessment of Policy Coherence and Effectiveness, in Marine Policy 68 (2016) 74‐82

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

2011 2012 2013

More recent analysis based on sumaila et al:China: Central Government Expenditures on Fisheries Subsidies (USD billion)

Acquaculture Beneficial or likely to benefit Ambiguous or likely to harm Harmful

Page 15: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Assessing the impact of fisheries subsidies

Page 16: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

H = Harmful, PH = Possibly Harmful, NH= Not Harmful, ‐ = not applicable

Source: Adapted from UNEP 2011

Assessing the impact of subsidies on sustainability:The interaction between (a) type of subsidies (b), the management system and (c) the existing fishing capacity

Page 17: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

• In practice, 89 percent of the stocks would fall under the full or over‐capacity column;

• In theory, if management is effective and well designed, subsidies will not result in overcapacity and overfishing. However:

• Rare in practice and in this case, subsidies are usually unnecessary;• Systems focusing on catch limits or effort control (i.e. not based on property rights) can be undermined by pressure to increase production created by subsidies:

• Pressure to increase catch limits;• Effort‐based system struggle to exert effective control over every possible components of fishing efforts.

• In most cases, ineffective management compounded by incentives created by cost‐reducing subsidies have led to excess capacity (harvest potential) and efforts (actual fishing).

Some important caveats

Page 18: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Beyond national jurisdictions: the negative externalities associated with subsidies in third countries• The risk of exporting excess capacity, with significant spillover effects on other countries and the high seas;

• Large industrial fleet from distant water fishing nations are increasingly going beyond their domestic EEZ in high seas or other EEZ through access agreements or IUU;

• Subsidised vessel benefit from cost advantage when competing with others for access to stocks and may displace new comers and developing fisheries:

• Today 25 percent of all marine catches around Africa are by non‐African countries.• Subsidies are often the only reason large‐scale industrial fishing in areas beyond EEZ is profitable;

• Confronted with catch limitations but weak enforcement in developing countries some vessels have engaged in Illegal Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) fishing.

Page 19: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Combined Wild Catches By Distant Water Fleets Around the World: China, France, Japan, Korea, Russia, Spain

Source: “Sea around us”

Page 20: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Catches by fishing country in the Southwest Pacific (high sea)

Source: Sea around us project (http://www.seaaroundus.org/)

Page 21: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Catches by fishing country in the EEZ of  Solomon Islands and the evolution of stocks

Source: Sea around us project (http://www.seaaroundus.org/)

Page 22: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Catches by fishing country in the EEZ of Seychelles and the evolution of stocks

Source: Sea around us project (http://www.seaaroundus.org/)

Page 23: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Catches by fishing country in the EEZ of Liberia and the evolution of stocks

Source: Sea around us project (http://www.seaaroundus.org/)

Page 24: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

International negotiations on fisheries subsidies

Page 25: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

The 2007 Draft Text• A list of prohibited subsidies, including to construction or fuel; • A list of subsidies that would be allowed ‐ subject to fisheries management being in place (e.g. support to improve safety standards), 

• Minimum standards for fisheries management schemes that has to be in place for permitted subsidies to continue. 

• A detailed system of S&DT including:• Exemptions for LDCs and artisanal fishing conducted closer to shore • Stricter disciplines for commercial and industrial scale fishing.• Implicit restrictions of S&DT to fishing within Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs). 

• Subsidies would be actionable if they cause harm to straddling or shared stocks, or stocks in which another WTO member has an identifiable fishing interest. 

Failed to gather consensus, prompting Members to explore alternative approaches

Page 26: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

What disciplines for which types of subsidies?

• Focus in the run up to Nairobi: a TPP like approach• Transparency + a set of core disciplines:

• Subsidies to fishing activity negatively affecting overfished stocks;• Subsidies that contribute to IUU.

• Three major challenges on the road to MC11• What format for the negotiations (plurilateral, multilateral, hybrid)?• How to address other elements of the SDG mandate and particularly the need to disciplines subsidies that contribute to overcapacity and overfishing?

• How to address concerns of developing countries through effective and appropriate S&DT?

Page 27: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

USD

 Mio 

Beneficial Capacity Enhancing Ambiguous

Current proponents of a plurilateral approach:• 21 percent of total amount of fisheries subsidies provided in 2009 (14 percent of capacity enhancing + ambiguous subsidies)

• 20 percent of the world catches (avg. 2011 – 13)• 24 of world exports (avg. 2011‐2015)

Multilateral vs plurilateral approaches: the challenge of defining and achieving a critical mass

Source: Author’s elaboration based on data from the “Sea around US Project” http://www.seaaroundus.org/eez/

Page 28: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Addressing subsidies contributing to overfishing and overcapacity• Reconciling the need for simplicity, effectiveness and reflecting heterogeneity of interests• Four possible and non‐exclusive approaches to move forward:• Disciplines based on subsidies’ effects on fishing activities or fish stocks

• “IV.1 No Member shall cause, through the use of any subsidy [..], depletion of or harm to, or creation of overcapacity in respect of, (a) straddling or highly migratory fish stocks whose range extends into the EEZ of another Member;  or (b) stocks in which another Member has identifiable fishing interests”

• Disciplines based on the type of subsidies• “I.  (c) Subsidies the benefits of which are conferred on operating costs of fishing or service vessels (including licence fees or 

similar charges, fuel, ice, bait, personnel, social charges, insurance, gear, and at‐sea support)”

• Disciplines that apply differently depending on the geographic location(s) of the fishery (territorial seas vs EEZ vs high seas) 

• III. 2 (b) (3) […]subsidies referred to in Article  I.1(a) shall not be prohibited provided that (i) the vessels are exclusively for marine wild capture fishing activities of such Members in respect of particular, identified target stocks within their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)”

• Disciplines that differentiate between different scales of fishing activity (small‐scale, commercial, industrial) • Differentiated disciplines for artisanal fisheries, decked vessels not greater that 10 meters or undecked vessels.

Page 29: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Addressing development and food security concerns

The need for disciplines to reflect:• Minimal share in wild capture and small absolute amount of subsidies provided;• Countries not responsible for overfishing and overcapacity with activities often confined to their own territorial waters;

• Given the importance of the sector, need for flexibility – carve out in disciplines ‐ to support “under‐developed” fishing industry (including processing and infrastructure) at least to MSY;

• Need assistance to enforce any disciplines (e.g. improve management regimes, control and monitoring or fight against IUU).

• Options to define special and differential treatment (S&DT):• By categories of countries (LDCs, SIDS, SVEs, developing countries, developed);• By type of fisheries (artisanal vs. large scale);• By contribution to overcapacity (e.g. earlier ACP proposal on 0.6%);• Exceptions to the general rules vs enabling S&DT (including adaptation of a TFA Section II model).

Page 30: MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 - World Trade Organization · 2016-10-20 · MIKTA Workshop: Agenda 2030 WTO, Fisheries Subsidies and Agenda 2030 Christophe Bellmann Senior Resident Research

Concluding remarks

• The status of global stocks and the effect of capacity enhancing subsidies on third countries’ ability to access shared resources call for urgent action through  international cooperation;

• Lack of consistent data and comprehensive information is a concern but should not refrain countries from acting;

• Impact of subsidies depend largely on the kind of incentive provided, existing management regimes and current capacity. Yet, in a situation where most management schemes are imperfect and 90 percent of the stocks fully or over exploited the focus of discussions has been on incentives provided;

• Effective disciplines need to differentiate among different types of subsidies and reflect their potential contribution to overfishing and overcapacity;

• This can be achieved through a combination of ex‐ante prohibition and safe harbor disciplines (incl. special and differential treatment) with ex‐post possibility to challenge subsidies on economic/sustainability grounds;

• WTO as appropriate forum even if possible under RTAs (e.g. TPP).