Migration and Changing Occupational Patterns …repo.komazawa-u.ac.jp/opac/repository/all/16619/kci009...Migration and Changing Occupational Patterns of FELDA's Settlers in Malaysia:

Migration and Changing Occupational Patterns of FELDA'sSettlers in Malaysia: A Case of Felda Ayer

Hitam, Johor State

Yoshimi KOMOGUCHI*

I. Introduction

The recent remarkable economic achievementof Malaysia has received great attention amongresearchers in various academic fields, govern-ment officials and national/international develop-ment agencies. This is because the Malaysiancase is thought to be one of few examples amongthe multiethnic nations in the changing politicallandscape of the recent world.

This economic achievement might be attributedto a great extent to the fairly stabilized govern-ments, their implementation of unique internal/external policies and programs, peoples' great pa-

tience and efforts for integrating the multiethnicgroups as citizens of the nation and for sharing ofsocio-economic interests among them, and con-cerned leaders' fairly balanced performance intheir respective fields; those of which togetheramong others could have provided faborable con-ditions for the economic development.

Associated with some aspects of the recenteconomic development, this study is mainly con-cerned with changing agriculture and rural com-munity focussed upon FELDA's settlement andland development scheme which has had much todo with the dynamic process of "nation building"in the country for the past four decades.

This paper is a continuation of my previous

article on changing socio-economies in FELDAscheme areas which discussed some importantproblems involved in the following specific topics:( 1) landscape of settlement, (2) land develop-ment and management, (3) changing land-uses

and their associations, and (4) changing popula-

tion and its associations (Komoguchi 1995).This particular paper focuses upon an in-

tegrated theme of migration and occupationalchange occurring in Felda scheme areas. It is todepict more clearly not only the changing socio-economic conditions themselves in Felda scheme

areas, but also the villagers' adoption behavior inoccupations associated with the recent dynamicchange of regional economies in Malaysia.

As did the previous article, this paper deals

mainly with a selected kampung, Felda AyerHitam of Johor state (Fig. I-1).

It should be noted that this paper adopts some

figures and tables and their corresponding cap-

tions appeared in my previous article for readers'

convenience.

II. The FELDA and Studied Area

The Federal Land Development Authority(Felda: created in 1956) has been the foremostgovernment sponsored agency for human settle-ment and land development. It is administered bya Board responsible to the Minister for RuralDevelopment. The main objective of the landdevelopment program was to provide land to thepoor and landless in rural areas and to upgradetheir living and status in line with theGovernment's effort to uplift the rural sector.There were also administrative considerations ofpolitics and security in the country throughoutthe 1950s and early 1960s.

Felda has devoted much activity to the openingof land in Malaysia for nearly the past fourdecades. Legislative changes and procedures

were adopted to meet new situations; large amo-unts of funds were allocated; and new instititionsat both the federal and state levels were created tocope with increasing demands and activities(Shamsul Bahrin & Perera 1977; Shamsul Bahrin& Lee 1988; Shamsul Bahrin & Khadijah 1992:80).

Various aspects of Felda including conceptsand policies, organization and finance, its execu-

tion of programs for settlement and land develop-ment, corresponding settlers' activities, and cropproduction, etc., have attracted the attention ofstudents, academics, and development agencies. r

* Professor, Department of Geography, Komazawa University, Tokyo.

63

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一- 64 -―

Migration and Changing Occupational Patterns (Komoguchi)

By the end of 1993, Felda developped the totalarea of 895,793 hectares including settlemt areas

of 35,653 hectares in 468 schemes2 and resettled114,445 settler families3 in 309 schemes (FeldaAnnual Report 1993: 17-23).

In the following, we will show an outline of theprocess of the settlers' involvement and socio-economic activities in the Felda Ayer Hitam(FAH) scheme.

Adiministratively, FAH belongs to one of 13

kampungs under Kluangmukim which is one of 9mukim.s under Kluang district of Johor state. Asfar as Felda's administration is concerned, FAHis one 30 schemes under the Central Johor Office

which is one of three regional offices currentlyexisting in Johor state.

The roles of Felda regional offices are multi-facetted, controlled by the headquarters' policies

and regulations, but it might suffice here to pointout the following aspectsr ( 1) supervision and

advice for cropping and management, (2) regularaccounting of crop production, (3) extension

work for adoption of advanced practice and tech-

nology, (4) credit distribution, (5) implementa-

tion of agricultural inputs, and (6) promotion ofwelfare programs. Closely associated with set-

tlers at the scheme areas, Felda's grass-roots

offices have taken responsibility for operationalaspects of the work more directly under supervi-sion of the regional offices. As of September

1994, there were 14 staff posted in FAH.Figures II- 1 and -2 respectively depict the phys-

ical setting and residential and associated areas ofFAH. It has a territory of 1,776 hectares or4,338.5 acres including the settlement area (99

ha).The initial settlers of 336 households joined the

FAH scheme in three phases in different years, i.

e., phase-l: 121 households in July 1962; phase-2:

105 households in April 1963; and phase-3: 110

households in August 1965 and onward until 1980

(hereafter phas€- 1, phase-2, and phase-3 will be

referred to P-1, P-2, and P-3 respectively). Thissettlement is regarded as one of the earlier groups

among 468 schemes (as of 1993). In September1992, there were 332 households with a popula-

tion of 1 ,542 persons (Mt 777; F: 765).At the initial settlement in FAH, each house-

hold was provided a residential lot (0.28 acre)with a cottage and agricultural land (8 acres).Besides, &s a part of living maintenance, each

household was provided MR(S)69.60 per monthat 6Vo annual interest which continued for 6 years

after joining FAH scheme. This amount of loan

accounted for barely half of the living costs of ahousehold at that time.

Based on three different arrival groups in FAH,the settlers are identified as P-1, P-2, and P-3

settlers; and hold the corresponding P-l,P-2, and

P-3 land for residence and farming. Each of three

"physical phases" is further subdivided into 4 or 5

blocks (P-1:5;P-2:4; and P-3:4) (Figs. II-1 & -2). Thus, as a rule, a given settler occupies ahousing lot in the residential area and one or twofarming lot(s) of the main agricultural land in aspecific block in one of three physical phases

attributed to each settler.The block-based neighborhoods in residence

and working place of agricultural fields haveplayed some important functions not only insettlers' socio-cultural practices, but also in the

collaboration for some agricultural works. The

specific importance of the block unit should be

referred to as the "block work system" adopted inthe early stage of Felda's settlement and landdevelopment strategy in which the settlers workedtogether on an allocated block of fields (Shamsul

Bahrin & Lee 1988: 40-56; Komoguchi 1995: 95-ee).

Felda had assigned rubber as a plantation cropfor FAH scheme. It is often said that rubber trees

start to produce latex 6 years after transplanting,and should be replanted after 30 years in order toobtain economic return.

Table II- 1 shows basic statistics of some pro-

cesses of land development and rubber plantationin FAH. The initial land development for agri-cultural land in FAH has been made over a longperiod of 1960-7 5 during which the developed

area was 1,634.53 hectares or 4,038.92 acres in-cluding roads and passways, field canals, and

swamps (paya). The agricultural land in FAHwas largely divided into four "physical phases";

i.e., P-1, P-2, P-3, and P-4 of which the first three

were allocated respectively to P-1, P'2, and P-3

settlers; whereas P-4 land was Felda's land re-

serve.The land development for the first three phases

was carried out in earlier years, and young rubbertrees had already been planted in each phase

before corresponding group settlers' arrival toFAH. Within the three phases, even some steep

slopes of hills and swamps Qtaya) scattered in thesmall basins have been used for fruit trees

(durian, coffee, cocoa, etc.), banana, and vegeta-

bles; and for cattle grazittg. Thus, there was noidle land to be found in the three phases.

Land development in P-4 started long after all

65


ＡＩＩ上――

圃

圏

RESIDENTIAL AREAS &THEIR ASSOCIAT10NS

FIELD BOUNDARIES

区【 ROADS

EI三三:] swAMPY AREA

NVILLAGE0 500

BOUNDARY

1000METERS

Figure II-l Physical Setting of Felda Ayer Hitam of Kluang District, Johor State

settlers had arrived in FAH. At the early stage, land reserved.Felda announced a plan that the land in P-4 However, it was only in late 1977 that Feldawould be equally allocated among 336 initial set- made rubber plantation with 172.44 ha of whichtlers after the completion of development until farming has proceeded by Felda's direct manage-which it would have been pledged under Felda's ment. Covering the southeastern section of FAH,

一- 66 -T

――ＩＴＩ

融

Ｅ

lt

GRAVEYARD

0 100 200 300METERS

□団回

ＡＲ

　

　

Ｄ

　

　

ＨＰ

鍼□鐵

POST OFFICE

PUSAT HENGUHPUL GETAH(RUBBER COLLECTING CENTER)

PUBLIC HALL

回回回


Figure II-2 Residential and Associated Areas of Felda Ayer Hitam of Kluang Dishict, Johor State

the areal extent occupies only a little more thanhalf of the cultivable land in P-4 (Table II-l).

There was another portion of land within P-4extending narrowly from north to south at theeastern section of FAH which has been developedand cultivated by some 86 settlers without Felda'sauthorization (Fig. II-1). The privately devel-

oped area in P-4 has been made through piece-

meal process over 30 years started by a few P- 1

settlers as early as in 1962, and the area undercultivation seemed to be near the maximumextent by 1993. This land has been used mainlyfor oil palm, and a lesser extent for mixed gardensof fruit trees, banana, vegetables, etc., and ponds

一- 67 -―


Table II口 1

Land Developlment and Rubber Plantation in Felda Ayer IIitam

of Kluang]District,Johor State

(Area unit: in hectare)

Phases DTtted Devd‐

(1) (2)

Planted Date of Areas of Starting No.of Date of

Areas Planting Produce Date of Housc‐ Settle‐

Produce holds ment(7)

(3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

1

2

3

4

421.28

409。 95

373.68

429.62

(1960/61) 367.98(1962) 378.58

(1964/65) 336.50

(1974・ /75) 172.“

366.20 (05/1968)

353.20 (11/1969)

336.50 (04/1971)

172.44 (03/1984)

121 (07/1962)105 (04/1963)110 (08/1965)

(12/1961)

(12/1962)

(12/1964)

(12/1977)

Total 1634.53 1255。 50 1228.34 336

Source; Author's fieldwork.Not€s: l. The entirePhase-4 landsareFelda'sreservedareasforitserperimentalpurposes. Theplantedarea(172.44ha)has

been under Felda's management.

2. Of Phase4 lands, a sizeable area ( 168.28 ha) has b€en cultivated by a group of settlers without Felda's authorization.

for fish culture.Starting with rubber cultivation in FAH assig-

ned by Felda, it was the time for old rubber treesto be replaced by new crops. In fact, Felda-initiated replanting work was almost completedboth in P-l and P-2 by December 1993, and wasjust started in P-3 in August 1994, whereas rubbertrees in P-4 (planted in December 1977) havebeen still producing under Felda's management.

Table II-2 shows some basic statistics onchange of land-use between the initial crop (pla-nted in 1961-77 ) and replanted crops (planted inl99l-93) in FAH. And Figure II-3 depicts thespatial pattern of land-use in a transitional periodfrom old to new crops.

Despite Felda's suggestion that rubber shouldbe replanted, the settlers preferred to cultivate oil

palm rather than rubber wherever soil and physi-ographic conditions were suitable. Thus, amarked change in the replanted area was a partialadoption of oil palm in the erstwhile exclusivelyrubber area in FAH.

The change of crop from rubber to oil palm hasincreasingly occurred in the southern states of thePeninsular, especially in Johor state.4 Relatedwith this, oil palm production in Felda's schemesincreased by 26.7 per cent from 8,249,397 tons in1992 to 10,453,386 tons in 1993; whereas rubberproduction declined by 7.8 per cent from 165,277tons in I 992 to 1 52,365 tons in I 993. This changeis mainly due to the outcome of shortage of laborforce (especially tapppers), land productivity(yields per unit of area) of respective crops andits corresponding income, and the number of

Table ll-2Change of Agricultural Land-use as Seen in a Replanting Process

in Felda Ayer Hitam of Kluang Dishict, Johor State(September 1993)

(Area unit: in hectare)

1961-1965 1991-1993

TotalAreas Rubber House‐

holds

(1) (2) (3)

Replanted Areas

Rubber Oil Palm(4) (5)

House‐ Housc‐ House‐Total holds holds holds

(4)十 (5) under(4) under(5) (7)+(8)(6) (7) (8) (9)

1

2

3

4

421

410

374

430

367.98

378.58

336.50

172.44

263.13

262.10

3.21

93.35

95。 99

9.30

356.48

358.09

12.50

３‐

２２

３

一

‐２‐

‐０５

‐‐０

一

88

76

1

119

98

4

Tota1 1,635 1,255.50 336 528.44 198.63 727.07

一- 68 -―

165 221

Source: Author's fieldwork.Note: The rubber arei (172.4 ha) in Phase-4 was planted in 1977.


|

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□01L PALM(NOT― PRODUCING)E□ ORCHARD

FISH BREEDING POND

ROADS

回因

REPLANTED RUBBER(NOT― PRODUCING) OIL PALM(PRODUCING)

OTHERS (00FFEE, COCOA, ETC。 )

SWAMPY AREA

500 1000METERS

RESIDENTIAL AREAS &THEIR ASSOCIAT10NS

陶囲□

ｏFigure II-3 Land-use in a Transitional Period in Felda Ayer Hitam

of Kluang District, Johor State (1992-93)

years before starting to produce after the initialplanting of individial crops (cf. rubber: 6 years;

oil palm: 3 years).The studied area, Felda Ayer Hitam (FAH), is

a planned kampung bahru (new village), and thusits socio-economies could be naturally different in

varying ways from those of traditional kampung.In my previous article, there was a detailed

discussion on the change in agricultural and someother socio-economic activities in FAH in whichwe pointed out that the most basic factor for thechange lies in the recent prevalent shortage of

―- 69 -―


labor force not only in urban/industrial area, butalso in rural Malaysia. Related with this, we willdiscuss some important problems involved in theintegrated theme of migration and occupationalchange in the following sections of this paper.

III. Changing Population and Migration inFelda Ayer Hitam

1. The DataThe socio-economic data used here are funda-

mentally based on those obtained from theauthor's own field survey of the household unitconducted during l99l-94 with the help of scat-

tered official documents available at FAH scheme

office.As already indicated, most settlers joined the

FAH scheme in different years: ( I ) July 1962, (2)April 1963, and (3) August 1965. In order toobtain the earliest data of FAH as whole, they are

arranged into an integrated form as of September1966 (Fig. III-1). This can be comparable withthe same kind of socio-economic data affanged as

of September 1992.The 1992 population data are organized in two

categories: ( 1) all resident settlers lived in FAHin 1992, and (2) all out-migrants from FAHduring 1966_1992 which consisted of the initialsettlers' children including the children ac-

companying them and new-born children of thefirst (initial) and second generation settlers inFAH (Fie. III-2).

The number of migrants in the second categorywas mostly those of the second generation, butincluded a few of their children and of the initial

settlers themselves as exceptional cases. By defi-nition, those who were born in the parents' migra-ted places were excluded from the second categ-ories. The various aspects of population are

closely related to the individual settlers' socialand economic backgrounds at the times of theirinitial settlement.

Felda's selection of the settlers was carried outbased on the judgement of several important fac-tors, i.e., t5e, marital status, job experience, andhealth conditions, to each of which a differentmaximum point was respectively given. Withregard to age and marital status, for example,Felda preferred to select younger married appli-cants with children, and gave them higher score,

if other conditions were the same as other appli-cants. The age factor was important, since thesettlers had to pay back an indebted loan within15 years after starting produce of rubber latex(Shamsul Bahrin & Lee 1988: 76). Thus, Feldahas repeatedly emphasized "the younger thebetter" policy in the selection of the settlers.

Table III-1 shows some important demograph-ic features of the initial settlers in three phases indifferent years. This table reveals the followingbasic points: ( I ) average age of both husbandsand wives at their settlement became younger inorder of P-l,P-2, and P-3; (2) average age differ-ence between husbands and wives in each phase

became smaller in order of P-1, P-2, and P-3; and(3) average number of children per settler in eachphase was smaller in order of P-1, P-2, and P-3.

With regard to (3), it is assumed that the average

children in P-2 and especially P-3 would increase

Ude I

I

1,042 persons | 4

70+ Female

955 persons60-@

50-59

40-49

54 35-39 駁

30-34

63 25-"

n-2415-19

133 10-14

198 5- I

6714 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Figure III-I Population Distribution by Age Group and Sex in Felda Ayer Hitam of KluangDistrict, Johor State (September 1966)

70

37 70+

98 60-69 ‐

３

107 50-59 19

|::::1141::

19 40-49 140

::::::60::::

16 35-39 143

55 30-34 173

89 25-29 173一７

131 20 24 86

91 15-19 ７

　

‐９

　

　

３

□ MJe

□ Female

69 10-14■50

32 5-9

33 0-4143=

76543210%01234567


Figure III‐ 2 E)istribution of `6stay_in" and “Stay‐ out(Migrant)" POpulation by Age

G:roup and Sex in Felda Ayer Hitam of]Kluang E)istrict, Johor State

(September 1992)

Table III‐ 1

Age of Husbands and Wives at the lnitial Settlement and

the Number of Children in Felda Ayer Hitam

Kluang】District,Johor State

PhasesHusbands(Average)

Wives(Average)

No.of Children Average Children

M M&F M M&F

I2

3

Total orAverage

37.13

35.54

32.34

35。 16

29。 32

28.29

26。 55

28.17

476

371

310

1,157

429

281

338

1,048

905

625

648

2,205

4.0

3.6

2.9

3.5

3.7

2.8

3.1

3.2

7.7

6.4

6.0

6.7

Source: The author's fieldwork.

Not6: (l) All data on age of husbands and wives at the initial s€ttlement were obtain€d by accounting individual birth dat€s

and month of the year joined the FAH scheme in thre phases in different years' Of 336 hubands md wives, one

couple (husband and wife) was omitted from the data due to lack of accurate evidence.

(2) phas€s-l, -2, and -3 consisted of 121, 105, and ll0 households respectively, of which 4, 3, md 3 households'data

regarding their children were respetively omitted du€ to lack of accurate information.

(3) The number of children was as of September 1992. The last child from the first settler's couple in this data, for

example, was in 1984.

-71-


to some extent in some more years, since someinitial settlers in P-2 and P-3 seemed to have stillpotential fertility.

The consequences relating to the age of initialsettlers and the number of their children (secondgeneration settlers) are more importantly consid-ered in this study in relation to their socio-economic activities.

2. Changing PopulationThe total population of FAH in 1966 ac-

counted for 1,997 persons (Mt 1,042; F: 955) in336 settlers (households). In the four years be-tween July 1962 and September 1966, there werea few settlers who once joined FAH scheme, butwithdrew due to the hardship of livelihood undernew socio-economic environs. When such casesoccurred, Felda immediately selected the samenumber of settlers among many applicants whohad been available at that time.

More specific ally, although the total number ofinitial settlers in FAH has accounted for 336, thepresent total includes 4 settlers who are sons ofthe initial settlers. They were selected by ballotamong existing settlers' family members in 1980.Being accounted as "initial settlers," the 4 settlershave been treated the same as other regular set-tlers including the allocation of housing and far-ming lots. One exception was that they could notget a cottage, since the initial settlers and theirsons have been living together in any case. Thesehouseholds owned two units of land titles. Thus,in FAH, there are 336 "initial settlers" in 332households.

The total "FAH originated population" in-creased from 1,997 persons in 1966 to 2,982 per-sons in 1992. In 1992 the population of 332households in FAH accounted for 1,542 persons(M' 777; F: 765). The total population in FAHdecreased by 455 persons (Mr 265; F: 190) duringthe 26 years between 1966 and 1992; whereas thetotal migrants from FAH during the same periodaccounted for 1,440 persons (Mr 742; F: 698).

Comparing population composition by agegroup between residents of FAH in 1992 andmigrants during 1966-1992, there is a markedcontrast between them: in the three age groups;(l) 0-19, (2) 20-49, and (3) 50 and above, theformer consisted of 28. lVo, 4O.3Vo, and 3l.6Vorespectively of the total resident population inFAH, whereas the latter consisted of l.3Vo, 96Vo,and 2.2Vo respectively of the total migrant popu-lation.

The first age group (0-19) of the migrant

population was distorted to a great extent, since,by definition, newly born children after theparents' migration were not included. When wecompared the second age group (20-49), theforrner (resident population in FAH) and latter(migrant population) accounted for 622 and1,390 respectively. Thus, it is apparent that themost active and productive age group originatedin FAH has migrated to a great extent to otherplaces between 1966 and 1992.

3. Migration and Its ImplicationsThere has been a prominent trend that a great

number of people migrate from rural villages tomore socio-economically resourceful areas (if notmerely urban areas) and occupational changefrom the traditional agricultural sector to varioustypes of non-agricultural sectors over the coun-try. This is fundamentally associated with the"wave" of recent economic development of thiscountry. However, there ate various human (cul-tural) factors in behavior along with physicalconditions.

We will examine marriage in relation withsome migration problems which occurred mostlyamong the settlers' second generation in FAH(Table III-2). The total number of marriedpeople during 1962-92 accovnted for 1,442 per-sons (M' 688; F:754) of which 176 persons (88couples x2) were involved in intra-kampung-marriage in FAH. Of the intra-m arfiage cases,only 60 persons (30 couples xZ) have continuedto stay in FAH, and the remaining 116 persons(58 couples x2) stayed out of FAH.

A great majority of marriages occurred be-tween FAH people and outsiders, i.e., 1,266 per-sons (Mt 600; F: 666) or 87.8Vo of the total mar-ried people. Again, only 163 persons (M, 78; F:85) have been staying in FAH, and the remaining1,103 persons (M, 522; F: 581) stayed out ofFAH.

The fact that 78 married men have been stayingin FAH means that they brought the samenumber of wives from outside. This could becommonly observed in any Muslim dominatedcommunity of'Malaysia. And the 85 marriedwomen brought the same number of husbandsfrom outside. It seemed to be a unique recentphenomenon that the number of "in-coming" hus-bands was more than that of "in-coming" wivesboth from outside but staying in FAH.

Generally speaking, these "in-coming" hus-bands have had nothing to do with the labor forcefor rubber cultivation and other agricultural ac-

72

Migration and Changing Occupational Patterns(K:oIIloguchi)

Table III‐ 2

Marriage:Intra口 village and(Other Cases in Felda Ayer]H[itam

Kluang】District,Johor State(1962-1992)

Intra-village Marriage Marriage with OutsidersTotalPhases

"Stay-in" "Stay-out" Subtotal "Stay-in" "Stay-out" Subtotal

M F266 280159 158

97 143

M&F M&F614 730

367 397

285 315

Ｆ

３‐

３。

２４

Ｍ

３７

２。

２‐

胡

‐６

３。

３。

Ｍ

ｌ

Ｆ

４２

８

８

Ｍ

４２

８

８

Ｆ

‐６

７

７

Ｍ

‐６

７

７

Total 58 176 78 522 1,266 1,442

Source: The author's fieldwork.

tivities in FAH, but were mostly engaged in non-

agricultural activities in and around FAH and itsnearby towns, especially Kluang and Ayer Hitam,to each of which the travel distance from FAHgate is 14.8 km and 10 km respectively. Thus,

FAH is regarded by them as a "bed-town/'kam-pung." This is thought to be one aspect of socio-

cultural changes associated with the regional eco-

nomic development.After all, of the total married people of the

second generation settlerss of FAH , 1,219 persons

(M' 580; F: 639) or 84.5Vo migrated to otherplaces during 1966-92, the numbers of which

accounted for 84.7Vo of the total migrants (1 ,440persons) from FAH during the same period.

The prominent out-migration of productive

working population of married men and women

and other bachelors resulted in serious labor shor-

tage for farming which has brought about en-

forced change not only in agricultural systems

themselves, but also in other socio-economic ac-

tivities in the studied kampung.In fact, some households do not have any wor-

king members at all; other households do have

working member(s) for farmi.g, but they engage

in only managerial part of farmitg; and still otherhouseholds have working member(s), but they allengage in non-agricultural activities. In any case,

these households can not continue their farmingin the same way that they have done over a longperiod of time.

Recently, these households have started toadopt contract systems of farming available inFAH:6 (1) direct labor contract system between a

landowner and his laborer in which the laborer'smajor work is tapping and carrying rubber latexto the rubber collection center (PMG: Pusat Men-

gumpul Getah), and both parties agree on a fixed

amount of payment in cash for each work on

monthly basis (in case of tapping work, for exam-

ple, the landowner pays a fixed rate of the pro-

duced amount of rubber latex carried out by the

laborer); and (2) quasi land tenure system, called

"pajak," in which a "tenant" pays the landowner

a fixed monthly rent in cash for matured rubber

trees. The "tenant" in this type acts like a labor

broker (gang) or agent, since, while the "tenant"makes a contract with the landowner, he organ-

izes and supervises his recruited laborers' work,

and pays a fixed amount in cash for the workcarried out by each of the laborers the same as the

flrst type of labor contract system.

Since allocated plots for settlers in P- 1 and P-2

had just been replanted, the fields involved in the

above contract systems were those in P-3. Of 111

settlers in P-3, 24 settlers (landowners) or 22Vo

were involved in such contract systems. In the

near future when crops in P- 1 and P-2 would startproducing latex or fruits in full swing, the number

of settlers' involvement in contract systems offarming in FAH as a whole would increase to agreat extent.

We might add Felda's contract system in which

the operation is carried out in two stages: ( 1)

Felda itself takes care of the settlers' farming

from replanting until starting of production ofrubber latex and/or oil palm fruits, and charges

all costs to the settlers; and (2) Felda continues to

take care of managerial part of settlers' farming

by acting like the "tenant" in paiak system, and

charges all cost to the settlers (in practice, Felda

deducts the costs from the settlers' accounts ac-

cumlated from the produce of crops).Most settlers were involved in the first stage of

contract, whereas only a few settlers would be

involved in the second stage of conttact judging

from the 1993 situation in FAH.

一- 73 -一

Regional Views No。 9 1996

IV. Changing Occupational Patterns ofSettlers in Felda Ayer Hitam

1. Working PopulationWorking population means here those persons

engaged in certain varieties of work in exchangefor tangible rewards. It is more useful to pointout the borderline cases than elaborate upon thisminimal definition for our present purpose. Theseasonal variations of agricultural work oftencreate predictable short-term and long-term un-deremployment or unemployment among far-mers. Employed or self-employed agriculturalworkers therefore include those who are capableof, and/or willing to engage in, agriculture ifgiven opportunities regularly. The same appliesto non-agricultural population.

Although there are rough age limits to theworking population, the two categories of minorsand the aged have been included. At around theage of 10-14, boys (and sometimes also girls) insome families are given regular chores such as

cattle tending, help for tapping, etc. They are notcounted as working members as such. Exceptionsare those who receive wages and/or other re-wards, and those who are regularly entrusted withsome imortant agricultural implements withoutadult supervision. Those who attend school arenot included in the working population regardlessof age.

The aged men (and women) generally do notengage regularly in heavy physical labor; butthose who are active in supervising and coordinat-ing labor and other resource allocation, both inagriculture and non-agriculture, are counted asmembers of the working polulation. The exactdistinction is no doubt subject to the writer'spersonal judgement with regard to working andnon-working youngsters and the aged, but hebelieves that the exclusion of all the youngstersand the aged from the working population statist-ically creates more distortion than would theirpartial inclusion.

Women's participation both in agriculture andnon-agriculture has equal importance as laborforce with men's in Malaysia which can be rough-ly differentiated from those of the Muslim domi-nant communities of some regions (like North-west India) and/or countries (like Bangladesh) inSouth Asia, to say nothing of the countries inMiddle East.

In this study, women are counted as the work-ing population as long as they work regularly intheir own fields (like tapping) and/or are hired

for tangible rewards. Otherwise their labor isconsidered part of the housekeeping tasks forwomen as wives, mothers, and daughters. Thus,these women are not included in the workingpopulation. For instance, their participation insome productive activities is often limited to thosechores which are also allocated to non-workingyoungsters. The kinds of tasks by women areadmittedly an important part of the division oflabor for managing agricultural and other occu-pational activities, but this attribute is regarded asnot directly pertinent to the topic of this study.

2. Occupational SpecializationThe classification of occupations and corre-

sponding numbers of the working population inthe study area provide the basic data for thefollowing discussion. In this study, all the work-ing population is largely classified into three cat-egories; (I) agriculture, (II) non-agriculture, and(m) agriculture and non-agriculture mixed.Non-agriculture is again classified into two categ-ories; ( 1) government/public and (2) private sec-tors of which the latter is further grouped intofour categories; (a) private firm employees, (b)self-employed businessmen, (c) shop owners, and(d) workers. Besides, both government/publicand private firm employees are respectively gro-uped into three categories based on their officialand practical rankings, i.e., officers, clerk (staff),and laborers, which the individual educationalbackground and job experience have been reflec-ted to a great extent.

The above classification of occupations of theworking population into limited categories in theagricultural and non-agricultural sectors is ex-tremely difficult. This is primarily because thecategories/sectors are not rigidly separated butinter-penetrate each other. More importantly,some of the same individuals may be partly en-gaged in plural categories,/sectors and may haveto make decisions which, to varying degrees,affect their commitment in each of them (Yamey1963: 378; Komoguchi 1986: 73-85). Thus, theclassification of occupations is possible only whenwe discard some of the less important overlappingparts of the individual activities within a catego-ry /sector or between categories/sectors.

3. Changing Occupational PatternsAs indicated earlier, the 1992 population data

of FAH origin are org anized in two ways: ( I ) allthe resident population in FAH (as of September1992), and (2) migrant population from FAH

一- 74 -―


during 1966-1992. The same method is appliedfor the 1992.

In relation to the following discussion on vari-ous aspects of the working population, it shouldbe recalled that the initial 336 settlers joined theFAH scheme in three phases at different years. Itshould be also noted that (following "the youngerthe better" policy in the selection of the initialsettlers) the average age of both husbands andwives at their settlement became younger in orderof P-1, P-2, and P-3, and that consequently aver-age number of children per settler was smaller inthe same order (by September 1992), though we

assume that the average children in P-2 and espe-

cially P-3 would increase to some extent in some

more years.

Table IV- l shows the summary figures on occu-pational classification of FAH settlers in threephases with distinctions of residents in FAH andout-migrants from FAH with gender. And TableIV -2 depicts more detailed figures based on initialsettler's household unit.

The total number of the working population ofFAH originated people accounted for 1,895 per-

sons (M' l,2ol; F: 694), of which the FAHresidents in L992 and migrants from FAH during1966-1992 respectively accounted for 889 persons

(M' 528; F: 361) or 46.9Vo of the total and 1,006persons (M' 673; F: 333) or 53.lVo. As such,

migrants' working population is much more thanthat of FAH residents.

Examining the working population of the FAHoriginated people (1,895 persons) based on phase

unit, it respectively accounted for 793 persons inP-1, 575 persons in P-2, and 527 persons in P-3.

These differences among the three phases werebasically associated with the initial settlers' settle-ment at FAH in different years (July 1992, April1963, and August 1965) along with a recent trendof longer schooling of children. Average settlershave been trying to give education to their chil-dren to high school and/or higher levels, andthus, their ages for employment have been muchhigher compared with those of traditional kam-pung youths or say, of their parents.

Let us examine the working population in theFAH residents in 1992 and out-migrants fromFAH during 1966-1992 based on our occupation-al classification. Of the total FAH resident work-ing population (889 persons) in 1992, there were438 persons (M' 265; F: 173) or 49.3Vo of thetotal engaged in agricultural sector; 425 persons

(M' 242; F: 183) or 47.8Vo in non-agriculturalsector; and 26 persons (M' 2l; F: 5) or 2.9Vo

overlapped in both sectors. On the other hand, ofthe total out-migrant working population ( I,006persons) during 1966-1992, there were 263 per-

sons (M' 132; F: 131) or 26.lVo of the totalengaged in the agricultural sector; 7 40 persons

(Mr 538; F:202) or 73.6Vo in the non-agriculturalsector; and 3 persons (M' 3; F: 0) or 0.3Vo

overlapped both in agricultural and non-agricultural sectors.

Most husbands and wives of the initial settlers(first generation) in FAH have engaged almostentirely in agricultural activities for a long periodof years. And their attitudes toward individualfarming in general have been continuing untiltoday, although the degree of their involvement infarming as a whole has been diminishing with theadvance of the years.

This is apparently due to the settlers' life cyclerelated to age and economic conditions surround-ing them. Of 327 examined households, ( I ) 69 ofthe households' heads and 14 of their wives werealready deceased by September 1992 (Table IV-3); (2) some aged and/or physically weak settlersdo not work regularly in the fields, but engage

only in managerial part of their farming; and (3)some other settlers engage in various types ofnon-agricultural activities as shop owners (gro-cery store, tea shop, fish store, barber shop, etc,)and their workers, bus and lorry owners and/ordrivers, goS dealers, contractors for miscellaneouswork, etc. With regard to (3), they fall under(self-employed) small business, shop owner,worker, or "mixed with agriculture" dependingupon the degree of their involvement in our occu-pational classification. These types of the work-ing population were also found in the second andeven third generations in FAH.

Thus, the main agricultural labor force andfarm management in FAH have been shifting to agreat extent from the initial settlers to the second,

and even sometimes to the third generation set-

tlers. This is basically the outcome of individualsettlers', their family members', and households'life cycles. However, it should be noted that themajority of active resident farmers in FAH have

been aged 50 years and above.With regard to the migrant working popula-

tion, readers might raise a question why and howa sizeable number (263 persons or 26.lVo) cameto engage in the agricultural sector. This isbecause these people had migrated almost ex-

lusively as Felda's settlers in other scheme areas

mostly in several districts (Kota Tinggi, Mersing,Kluang, Segamat, etc. ) within Johor state; but

一- 75 -―

Regional Views No。 9 1996

Table IV‐ 1

Summttγ Figures on Occupational Classincation in Felda Ayer IIitam(FAH)

Kluang]District,Johor State(September 1992)

NON AGRICULTURE

OFFICER LABORER

NON AGRICULTUREGOVERNMENTS

NON AGRICULTURE


NON AGRICULTURE


NON AGRICULTURE



Grand Total (In & Out)

一- 76 -―


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一- 82 -一


Table IV-3Types of Couples of the Initial Settlers in Felda Ayer Hitam of

Kluang District, Johor State (September 1992)

Types No. of Husbands No. of Wives No. of Households

1. Widowers2. Widows3. Both Dead

4. Both Alive

4

(-se)(-10)

254

( -4;r"r59

(-10)254

4

59

10

254

Total 327$\

Source: The author's fieldwork.Notes: (a) ( -4) indicates here that 4 wives were already dead.

(b) Out of initial 336 households, 327 hous€holds stayed in FAH, and the rest (9 households) stayed out of FAH.

less extensively in some districts of other states(Pahang, Negeri Sembilan, Perak, etc.); and atthe qualification selection of the settlers, Feldamight have preferred the applicants amongsettlers' descendents (second generation) since

they were young at that time, and had had some

experience of farming by living with parents andhelping farming for some years in FAH.

It should be noted that the above settlers wereonly a small proportion selected among manyapplicants for Felda schemes. This seems to be

related with the prevailing belief that securingland itself is an important means of propertyformation whether or not they have a strongincentive for agriculuture and cultivate the landby themselves.

Of the total woking population ( 1895 persons)

of FAH origin in 1992, those in (I) agriculture,(il) non-agriculture and (III) agriculture andnon-agriculture mixed respectively accounted for7Ol persons or 37 .OVo and 1, 165 persons or61 .5 Vo, and 29 persons or t.5Vo of the total.

As for the working population in non-agricultural sector of the FAH origin as a whole,the number of FAH residents and out-migrantsrespectively accounted for 425 persons (Mt 242;

F: 183) or 36Vo and 740 persons (M' 538; F:202)or 63.5Vo of the total.

Focusing upon the non-agricultural workingpopulation of all the FAH origin, those in govern-ment/public sector, private firms, and others(small business, shop owners, and workers to-gether in our category) respectively accountedfor 598 persons (M' 418; F: 180) or 5l.3Vo, 479persons (Mr 290; F: 189) or 4l.tVo, and 88 per-sons (Mr 72: F: 16) or 7.6Vo of the total.

It should be noted that the number of employ-ees in government/public sector occupied morethan half the total non-agricutural working popu-lation. Moreover, of the total government/public

employees, those of officer and clerical (stafl)ranks together occupied the great majority(95.OVo), though the latter was twice as many as

the former; whereas those of clerical/manual la-borer rank occupied very small part (S.OVo) ofthe total.

This might be one of successful results associa-

ted with bumiputera (sons of the soil) policywhich is to promote upgrading of the socio-economies and status of Mal&ys, for which thefederal and state governments and public agencies

have been working over a long period of years.

However, the case of private (firm) sector rev-ealed a reverse pattern compared with that ofgovernment/public sector: the number of officerand clerical (stafl) ranks together accounted foronly I4.6Vo of the total private firm employees,

whereas that of clerical/manual laborer rank ac-

counted for as high as 85.4Vo of the total. Thisfact could be interpreted that Malays as a majorethnic group in Malaysia have still been in a weakposition in the job markets for higher rankingemployees in private firms. Thus, it may allow thegovernment to keep emphasizing the bumiputerapolicy with regard to specific issues of employ-ment in the private (firm) sector.

Confined to the lower ranking clerical/manuallaborers in private firms, FAH residents and out-migrants respectively accounted for 285 persons

(M' 140; F: 145) or 69.3Vo and 124 persons (M'102; F: 22) or 3A3Vo of the total FAH origin(409 persons). Such a higher ratio and/or largernumber of the employment enabled to the resi-dents of the single kampung (FAH) is certainlyrelated to recent establishment of varied modernfactories surrounding FAH, most of which havebeen associated with foreign investment suchcountries as Singapore, Japan, Taiwan, SouthKorea, etc.

These factories are located on the outskirts of

83


local administrative centers and/or market townssuch as Kluang (district capital), Renggam(market town), Simpang Rengan (market town),Machap (market town, noted for ceramic manu-facture), Ayer Hitam (Johor's bustling crossroadtown, noted for ceramics), and Batu Pahat (dis-trict capital) along major state routes (roads).

It should be noted that the number of FAHresidents' female laborers in cleical/manual la-borer rank was more than that of male laborers,and that laborers employed for these factorieswere almost exclusively female laborers.

In 1992-93, monthly salary for women laborersin the above factories was around MR($)400, butsome experienced workers (supervisors of regularlaborers) received more than MR($)600; for menlaborers it was a little more than for womenlaborers, though the number of men laborersemployed for modern factories was small. Menlaborers in the above category engaged partly intraditional local factories, but mostly in serviceoriented firms.

As indicated earlier, the working populationfor "small businessr" "shop owner," and "worker"of FAH origin in our sub-categories respectivelyaccounted for 42 persons (Mr 34; F: 8),21 per-sons (Mr 16; F: 6), and 25 persons (M, 23; F: 2);which together occupied only a small part (7.6Vo)of the total of non-agricultural sector. Of theseworking polulation (88 persons) in three categor-ies, FAH residents and out-migrants respectivelyaccounted for 7l.6Vo and 28.4Vo of the total. Asfor the FAH residents in these categories, theireconomic activities were mostly carried outwithin their own kampung or in neighboringkampungs.

Many settlers in FAH have tried to engage insome types of self-employed business: by owningsmall shops with/without hired workers (such asgrocery store, tea shop, fish store, work shop forbicycle and motor bicycle, etc.); owning buses(school bus and mini-bus used for cartittg factorylaborers) and lorries with/without hired driversand helpers; and agro-based contractors andagents for small construction and other miscella-neous work.

However, for these small businesses, concernedsettlers have had to face considerably severe com-petitions among themselves. and thus, the attem-pted business of the settlers has not always beensuccessful. The owners of shops scattered alongthe main road and clustering in the "shoppingarea" of FAH (Fig. II-2) were examples of just a

few successful settlers.

V. Concluding Remarks

This paper dealt with an integrated theme ofmigration and occupational change occurring inFelda scheme areas with specific reference toFelda Ayer Hitam (FAH) of Kluang district,Johor state.

More than 30 years has passed since the initialsettlers joined the FAH scheme. In the process ofdevelopment of land and settlement and followingindividual farmirg, the settlers have had to facevarious problems related to the maintenance oftheir family living and farming itself, throughwhich, however, they have had a series of newexperience and knowledge for farming. By Sep-tember 1994 all settlers were granted by Johorstate government after their successful payoff ofindebted loans through Felda.

Thus, most of settlers in FAH achieved theirinitial objective of obtaining land by which, theythought they could secure a sound basis for theirhome and socio-economic activities. And thesettlers had their respective children (second gen-eration) accounted for 6.7 persons per settler onaverage and even their grand children (third gen-eration).

Malaysia has been in the midst of economicgrowth which has inevitably brought about corre-sponding changes in socio-economic conditions toa varied degree in different geographical scales:

kampung, local, regional, state, and national.Associated with this recent economic develop-

ment, more than half of the working populationof FAH origin has migrated to various placesfrom the neighboring kampungs and towns(Kluang: district capital; Ayer Hitam: Johor'sbustling crossroad town) to the distant kampungsand towns as far as Kota Kinabalu of East Ma-laysia during I96G92 in order to enjoy morecomfortable economic gains.

We examined various aspects of the workingpopulation of FAH originated people in relationto our occupational classification which is ar-ranged in three phases of settlers' groups whojoined the FAH scheme in different years, dis-tinctioning between residents in FAH and out-migrants from FAH.

Of the working population of FAH origin,more than half of the total were engaged innon-agricutural occupations. And they weremostly young and active second generation set-tlers.

Focused upon the non-agricultural working

―- 84 -―


population of FAH origin as a whole, the numberof employees in government/public sector, pri-vate firms, and others (small business, shopowners, and workers) respectively accounted for51.3 Vo, 4l.IVo, and 7 .6Vo of the total.

We examined the employment situation of gov-

ernment/public sector and private firms in rela-

tion to three categories (officer, clerk, and

worker): for government/public sector, employ-

ees in officer and clerical ranks together occupied

the great majority (95.OVo) of the total (thoughclerical rank employees were twice as many as

those of officer rank); whereas for private (firm)sector, those in lower laborer rank alone occupied

as high as 85.4Vo of the total.The above figures reveal that the employment

situation based on the working population ofFAH origin is strong in government/publicsector, but weak in private (firm) sector.

Besides employment in government/publicsector, Malays in general prefer to select theiroccupations in the non-agricultural sector, espe-

cially in modern manufacturing and/or service

oriented firms. The residents in FAH are no

exception.Despite the inevitable requirement of labor

force for farming in FAH, a great number ofFAH residents has engaged in the non-

agricultural sector. However, they were mostlymanual laborers in newly established modern fac-

tories which located surrounding FAH.As indicated earlier, many resident settlers in

FAH have tried to engage in various types ofsmall business, but only a few of them have been

successful because of lack of experience and cap-

ital.In order to upgrade the present occupational

situation discussed in the above, it might be neces-

sary for the government to continue to emphasize

current policies including that of bumiputera.

Acknowledgement

The research was made possible by the fund ofthe Scientific Research under the auspices of the

Japanese Ministry of Education in 1992-93 (No.03041033: Project Chief. Dr. K. Miyazaki ofILCAA of Tokyo University of Foreign Studies)and in 1993-95 (No. 05041015. Project Chief.Prof. Y. Komoguchi of Komazawa University,Tokyo) for which I am grateful.

In Malaysia, I am obliged to the EconomicPlanning Unit in the Prime Minister's Depart-ment; various Departments of the Johor State

Government, Kluang District, Majlis DaerahKluang; FELDA's headquarters, Regionaloffices, and Felda Ayer Hitam (FAH) office. Iwould like to express my sincere thanks to themall. Special words should be addressed to thepeople in the studied FAH for their support and

collaboration to this study, and my two assistants,

Mr. Samusudin b. Mansor for his interpretingwork and Miss Mani for her computer work.

My thanks also go to my friends, Mr. & Mrs.LEE Kok Chee of Cathay restaurant (Kluangtown) not only for the serving such excellent

food, but also for providing a liaison office in the

shop for this study.

This paper is dedicated to my respectable

friend, late Professor Takashi Yamaguchi (urbangeographer), Department of Human Geography,

the University of Tokyo at Komaba, Tokyo.

Notes

1. With regard to Felda's land and settlementschemes, various studies have already fo-cused upon various aspects, individual scope

and standpoints. The most comprehensive

works can be seen in two books, one,

FELDA: 2l Years of Land Levelopment byBahrin and Perera (1977), and the other,FELDA: 3 Decades of Evolution by Bharinand Lee (1988). Besides, the changing poli-cies and role since its creation in 1956 have

been well documented by the works of Wik-kramatilike (1972), MacAndrews (1977),and Bahrin (1988). Including these there

are many important works-original (based

on intensive fieldwork), reviewed, theory ori-ented, and/or combination at local (individ-ual scheme basis), regional, national, andeven international scale. Some of thoseworks are as follows: Hashim (1980), Bharinand Muhamed (1992), Horii (1984), Zak-arra et al. ( 1985), Yusoff ( 1985), Yonus(1988), Oberai (1986), Sutton (1987;1989),Hulme (1987; 1988), Kottak (1985), and

Scudder (1984;1985).2. The total number of the Felda's schemes

reduced from 478 in 1992 to 468 in 1993.

This was due to the outcome of the inte gra-

tion of a number of scheme areas.

3. At the end of 1993 there were 114,54 set-

tlers compared to 117,491 in 1992. Thedecrease of 2,947 settlers was mainly due tothe reconciliation of the register of holdings,

一- 85 -一


particularly pertaining to settlers who failedto reside permanently in the schemes, andwho were involved in disciplinary action.

4. Of the total replanted area (8,786 ha) in1993, rubber and oil palm respectively occ-upied 3,608ha and 5,178 ha.

5. However, there was one intra-marriedcouple's case included here in which a manof the second generation has married with agirl of the third generation.

6. This author made a detailed discussion oncontract systems of farming in his previousarticle (Komoguchi 1995: I 10-l I 1).

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Migration and Changing Occupational Patterns …repo.komazawa-u.ac.jp/opac/repository/all/16619/kci009...Migration and Changing Occupational Patterns of FELDA's Settlers in Malaysia: