MicrosociologyMicrosociology

Effects of social situations on individualsEffects of social situations on individuals– Milgram’s Obedience StudiesMilgram’s Obedience Studies– Asch’s Conformity Studies Asch’s Conformity Studies – Helping BehaviorHelping Behavior

How groups of individuals create social How groups of individuals create social effectseffects– Symbolic InteractionismSymbolic Interactionism– Exchange ProcessesExchange Processes– Status ProcessesStatus Processes

Microsociology is sociology that concerns Microsociology is sociology that concerns small-scale processessmall-scale processes

It is important because people spend It is important because people spend most of their lives in small groups – in most of their lives in small groups – in the family, with our friends, and in the the family, with our friends, and in the workplaceworkplace

Also certain small groups are responsible Also certain small groups are responsible for important decisions – e.g. Boards of for important decisions – e.g. Boards of Trustees, Cabinet, Supreme CourtTrustees, Cabinet, Supreme Court

Microsociology (also called social Microsociology (also called social psychology) bridges the disciplines of psychology) bridges the disciplines of psychology and sociologypsychology and sociology

In psychology – most research is on In psychology – most research is on how social situations affect individual how social situations affect individual behaviorbehavior

In sociology – most research is on how In sociology – most research is on how groups of individuals produce social groups of individuals produce social effects.effects.

Social effects on Social effects on IndividualsIndividuals Milgram’s obedience studies – Milgram’s obedience studies –

how much will people obey how much will people obey authority?authority?

Classic experimentClassic experiment

The participant was the “teacher” and The participant was the “teacher” and his goal was to get another person, the his goal was to get another person, the “learner”, to learn something.“learner”, to learn something.

If the learner got an answer to a If the learner got an answer to a question wrong, the teacher was to question wrong, the teacher was to punish him by administering an electric punish him by administering an electric shock at an intensity specified by the shock at an intensity specified by the experimenter. experimenter.

The learner was a confederate of the The learner was a confederate of the experimenter and received no shock or experimenter and received no shock or pain at all. pain at all.

But the participant did not know this.But the participant did not know this.

In the course of the experiment, In the course of the experiment, the experimenter would raise the the experimenter would raise the shock levels higher and higher shock levels higher and higher

The learner would give evidence The learner would give evidence of increasing suffering, for of increasing suffering, for example, through grunts, example, through grunts, screams, and pleas to end the screams, and pleas to end the experiment. experiment.

A majority of participants continued A majority of participants continued to raise shock levels as ordered to raise shock levels as ordered even when audible groans and even when audible groans and sounds of pain came from the sounds of pain came from the learner.learner.

Are people different today? Recent Are people different today? Recent replication of the Milgram replication of the Milgram experiment (Burger 2009) found experiment (Burger 2009) found same resultssame results

Asch’s conformity Asch’s conformity studiesstudies How much will people go along with the How much will people go along with the

group when they know the group is group when they know the group is wrong?wrong?

In this experiment, a participant and a In this experiment, a participant and a group of accomplices were given two group of accomplices were given two cardscards

On one card was a line, on the other a set On one card was a line, on the other a set of three linesof three lines

People in the group were asked to state People in the group were asked to state which of the three lines was most similar which of the three lines was most similar to the single line.to the single line.

ExampleExample

In the first rounds, the In the first rounds, the accomplices in the group would accomplices in the group would give the correct answergive the correct answer

Later on, the accomplices in the Later on, the accomplices in the group would give the wrong group would give the wrong answeranswer

Would the participant go along Would the participant go along with the group, or not?with the group, or not?

Study found that overall there Study found that overall there was conformity to wrong answers was conformity to wrong answers at least once by 2/3 of the at least once by 2/3 of the participants participants

If only one of the accomplices If only one of the accomplices said the correct answer, the said the correct answer, the participants would never conform participants would never conform to the wrong answer.to the wrong answer.

Studies of helping Studies of helping behaviorbehavior Variety of experiments mostly in Variety of experiments mostly in

the 1960s and 1970sthe 1960s and 1970s In what social situations are In what social situations are

people likely to offer help to people likely to offer help to others?others?– When they believe they are the only When they believe they are the only

person who knows of the problem, person who knows of the problem, they are more likely to helpthey are more likely to help

People are less likely to offer help People are less likely to offer help when:when:– They are unsure of the situation and They are unsure of the situation and

whether the need for help is whether the need for help is legitimatelegitimate

– If they are unsure of what will happen If they are unsure of what will happen to them if they helpto them if they help

– They think that other people are They think that other people are likely to help if they do not. Also likely to help if they do not. Also known as the “free rider” problemknown as the “free rider” problem

Symbolic Symbolic InteractionismInteractionism This is an area of sociology that This is an area of sociology that

describes and explains people’s describes and explains people’s social behavior in terms of the social behavior in terms of the meanings these behaviors have meanings these behaviors have for the people involved.for the people involved.

George Herbert Mead (1863-George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) in considered the founder 1931) in considered the founder of symbolic interactionismof symbolic interactionism

Symbolic interactionists look for Symbolic interactionists look for the hidden meanings and the hidden meanings and subtexts behind people’s words subtexts behind people’s words and actionsand actions

A person’s self identity is very A person’s self identity is very important to understanding the important to understanding the meanings behind their words and meanings behind their words and actionsactions

Men who see themselves as Men who see themselves as “real” men may only do things “real” men may only do things that they see are consistent with that they see are consistent with this self image – such as drinking this self image – such as drinking beer or whiskey in a bar, rather beer or whiskey in a bar, rather than some other drinkthan some other drink

Culture determines symbols and Culture determines symbols and meaningsmeanings

In addition, the way people want In addition, the way people want others to see them also helps us others to see them also helps us understand their words and actionsunderstand their words and actions

This is “impression management.”This is “impression management.”– E.g. dressing in a suit for a job E.g. dressing in a suit for a job

interview conveys the impression of a interview conveys the impression of a serious job candidateserious job candidate

A woman will dress in a suit for a job A woman will dress in a suit for a job interview – conveys the impression of a interview – conveys the impression of a serious job candidateserious job candidate

In a fashionable outfit to go out with friends-In a fashionable outfit to go out with friends-conveys the impression of a fun, hip personconveys the impression of a fun, hip person

Exchange processesExchange processes

Exchange theory is a sociological Exchange theory is a sociological theory that considers much social theory that considers much social behavior as based on exchanges of behavior as based on exchanges of valued things (e.g. things, time, valued things (e.g. things, time, friendship), between peoplefriendship), between people

Basically – “You scratch my back and Basically – “You scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours”I’ll scratch yours”

Developed by George Homans and Developed by George Homans and James ColemanJames Coleman

The power dependence The power dependence principleprinciple The person who is least dependent on the The person who is least dependent on the

other person has the most power in an other person has the most power in an exchangeexchange

E.g. A and B and C exchange with each other E.g. A and B and C exchange with each other as follows: as follows:

A B CA B C A and C can only exchange with B, B can A and C can only exchange with B, B can

trade with both A and C.trade with both A and C. B is least dependent, so B has more power B is least dependent, so B has more power

than A and C in the exchange.than A and C in the exchange.

The prisoner’s The prisoner’s dilemmadilemma This is a common predicament in This is a common predicament in

exchangeexchange Often presented as the case of two Often presented as the case of two

prisoners in prison, A and B. prisoners in prison, A and B. If both A and B keep quiet, both are If both A and B keep quiet, both are

better off. better off. If A informs on B and B does not inform If A informs on B and B does not inform

on A, A is best off, and vice versaon A, A is best off, and vice versa If A informs on B If A informs on B andand B informs on A, B informs on A,

both are worst offboth are worst off

There is an incentive for each to There is an incentive for each to inform on the other.inform on the other.

Yet if both inform on each other, Yet if both inform on each other, they are both worst off.they are both worst off.– Have students come up with the Have students come up with the

payoff matrix for the prisoner’s payoff matrix for the prisoner’s dilemma in classdilemma in class

____( ____ )____( ____ ) ____( ____ )____( ____ )

____( ____ )____( ____ ) ____( ____ )____( ____ )

PRISONER 1

DON’T INFORM INFORM

DON’T INFORM

PRISONER

2

INFORM

What does each prisoner prefer? Rank the 4 alternatives for each prisoner WITH HIGHEST EQUAL TO 4. (Put the ranking for person 2 in brackets).

_3_( _3__ )_3_( _3__ ) _4_( _1__ )_4_( _1__ )

_1__( _4__ )_1__( _4__ ) _2__( _2__ )_2__( _2__ )

PRISONER 1

DON’T INFORM INFORM

DON’T INFORM

PRISONER

2

INFORM

(Ranking for PRISONER 2 in brackets).

Solutions to the Solutions to the Prisoner’s dilemmaPrisoner’s dilemma Have an outside party monitor Have an outside party monitor

the situation and enforce good the situation and enforce good behavior by all partiesbehavior by all parties

Communication between the Communication between the persons involvedpersons involved

Repetition – when both people Repetition – when both people believe the exchange will be long believe the exchange will be long termterm

In exchange relations, trust in the In exchange relations, trust in the person with whom you are person with whom you are exchanging is vitalexchanging is vital

When trust is broken, exchange When trust is broken, exchange breaks downbreaks down

Because of the need for trust, a Because of the need for trust, a person’s reputation (as a person’s reputation (as a trustworthy person) is vitaltrustworthy person) is vital

People gossip in People gossip in part because that part because that way they can find way they can find out information out information about other about other people’s people’s trustworthiness trustworthiness

Wason selection task shows the Wason selection task shows the social nature of the brain.social nature of the brain.

Wason selection taskWason selection taskPart of your new clerical job at the local high school is to make sure that student documents have been processed correctly. Your job is to make sure the documents conform to the following alphanumeric rule: “If a person has a ‘D’ rating, then his documents must be marked code ‘3’.” You suspect the secretary you replaced did not categorize the students’ documents correctly. The cards below have information about the documents of four people who are enrolled at this high school. Each card represents one person. One side of a card tells a person’s letter rating and the other side of the card tells that person’s number code. Indicate only those card(s) you definitely need to turn over to see if the documents of any of these people violate this rule.

D F 3 7

D and 7. If the card D has anything D and 7. If the card D has anything other than 3, it breaks the rule. other than 3, it breaks the rule.

If we turn over the card labelled "F" and If we turn over the card labelled "F" and find that it is 3 (or anything else), this find that it is 3 (or anything else), this does not invalidate the rule. does not invalidate the rule.

Likewise, if we turn over the 3 card and Likewise, if we turn over the 3 card and find that it has the label "D" (or find that it has the label "D" (or anything else), this also does not break anything else), this also does not break the rule. the rule.

On the other hand, if the 7 card has the On the other hand, if the 7 card has the label "D", this invalidates the rule: it label "D", this invalidates the rule: it has D, but not 3.has D, but not 3.

Cheater Detector Version: In its crackdown against drunk drivers, North Carolina law enforcement officials are revoking liquor licenses left and right. You are a bouncer in a Charlotte bar, and you’ll lose your job unless you enforce the following law: “If a person is drinking beer, then he must be over 20 years old.” The cards below have information about four people sitting at a table in your bar. Each card represents one person. One side of a card tells what a person is drinking and the other side of the card tells that person’s age. Indicate only those card(s) you definitely need to turn over to see if the documents of any of these people violate this rule.

Drinking Beer

Drinking Coke

25 years old 16 years old

Detecting cheaters was important Detecting cheaters was important for the survival of our ancestors, for the survival of our ancestors, logic problems were not.logic problems were not.

Status ProcessesStatus Processes

People form hierarchies in small People form hierarchies in small groups very quickly – usually groups very quickly – usually within 10 minuteswithin 10 minutes

Once the hierarchy is established Once the hierarchy is established it is difficult to changeit is difficult to change

Who gets to be at the top of the Who gets to be at the top of the hierarchy?hierarchy?

Sociologists have found that Sociologists have found that certain general characteristics certain general characteristics help determine who gets to be at help determine who gets to be at the top – gender, age, race, the top – gender, age, race, ethnicity and educationethnicity and education

They call these things They call these things diffuse diffuse status characteristicsstatus characteristics

If people have specific skills If people have specific skills relevant to the situation, then relevant to the situation, then these people will often be put at these people will often be put at the top of the hierarchythe top of the hierarchy

Sociologists call these Sociologists call these characteristics characteristics specific status specific status characteristics.characteristics.

Sociologists have found that for Sociologists have found that for any person, his or her status any person, his or her status characteristics basically add up to characteristics basically add up to determine their total status in the determine their total status in the group.group.