MANAGEMENT

Benefits of Studying Organizational Behavior

1. Skill Development - Essential

requirement to survive and succeed in

the workplace

Generic skills - problem solving and

dealing with people

Soft skills - are generally interpersonal

skills such as motivating others, communicating,

and adapting to people of different cultures

Hard skills - are generally technical

skills, such as information technology and job

design

2. Personal Growth through Insight into

Human Behavior - Understanding

human beings can also lead to

enhanced self-knowledge and self-

insight

3. Enhancement of Organizational and

Individual Effectiveness- Organizational

effectiveness to the extent to which an

organization is productive and satisfies

the demands of its interested parties.

People work harder when they have

greater control over their work

environment and when they ate

encourage by peer pressure from

teammates

4. Sharpening and Refining of Common

Sense- Knowledge of OB sharpens and

enlarges the common sense

Common sense - is not an adequate

substitute for knowledge about organizational

behavior. By studying OB, you might learn that

recognition may be given frequently but not

every time somebody attains high performance.

Key Development in the History of

Organizational Behavior

1. The Classical Approach to

Management - encompassed scientific

management and administrative

management.

Scientific Management - application of scientific

methods to increase an individual worker’s

productivity

Frederick W. Taylor - father of scientific mgt;

engineer

Henry Gantt and Frank & Lillian Gilbreth (other

contributors)

Taylor believed that mgt and labor

should regard profit as the result of

cooperation between the two parties

Four Principles of Scientific Management

a. Careful study of the jobs to develop

standard work practices, with

standardization of the tools workers use

in their jobs

b. Selection of each worker using scientific

principles of personnel selection

c. Obtainment of cooperation between

mgt and workers to ensure that work is

accomplished according to standard

procedures

d. Plans and task assignments developed

by managers, which workers should

carry out

According to these principles, there is a division

of work between managers and workers

Managers - plan and design work, assign tasks,

set performance goals, make time schedules,

select and train workers to do the tasks

according to standard procedures and give the

workers feedback about their performance

Workers - are rewarded with financial

incentives when they increase their productivity

Administrative Management - concerned

primarily with the management and structure

of organizations

French businessman Henri Fayol and German

scholar Max Weber - main contributors

Fayol - developed 14 mgt principles

Weber - bureaucracy is the best form of

organization

The major strength of the classical school was

providing a systematic way of measuring people

and work that still exists in some form today

The major limitation of the classical school is

that it ignores differences among people and

situations.

2.The Hawthrone Studies - true

beginning of the behavioral approach to

management

First study: determine the effect of changes in

lighting on productivity

Result: constant lighting increases productivity

at about the same rate as that of the group with

gradual increase in lighting ; gradual decrease of

lighting does not decrease productivity until

only when the light was roughly the same as

moonlight

Hypothesis: Something other than illumination

caused the changes in productivity

Interpretation: Workers enjoyed being the

center of attention. Workers reacted positively

because management cared about them.

Hawthorne Effect - is the tendency of people to

behave differently when they receive attention

because they respond to the demands of the

situation

Other Findings:

a. Economic incentives are less potent

than generally believed in influencing

workers to achieve high levels of

output.

a. Dealing with human problems is

complicated an challenging.

b. Leadership practices and work-group

pressures profoundly influence

employee satisfaction and

performance.

c. Personal problems can strongly

influence worker productivity.

d. Effective communication with workers

is critical to managerial success.

e. Any factor influencing employee

behavior is embedded in a social

system. For instance, to understand the

impact of pay on performance, you

have to understand the climate in the

work group and the leadership style of

the manager. Furthermore, work

groups provide mutual support and may

resist management schemes to increase

output.

Criticisms about the Hawthrone Effect

a. Lacking scientific rigor

b. The dual impact of feedback and

differential rewards produced the

surprising results --- not the Hawthrone

effect

3. The Human Relations Movement -

based on the belief that there is an

important link among managerial

practices, morale and productivity.

Satisfied workers would be more

productive workers

Has a strong belief in workers’

capabilities

Douglas McGregor’s analysis of the assumptions

managers make about human nature,

delineated in two theories

Theory X

Set of traditional assumptions about

people

Managers are pessimistic about

worker’s capabilities

Managers believe that people dislike

work, seek to avoid responsibility, are

not ambitious and must be supervised

closely

Untrue in most circumstances

Theory Y

Alternative and optimistic set of

assumptions

People do accept responsibility, can

exercise self-control, have the capacity

to innovate and consider work to be as

natural as rest/play

Accurately describe human nature

4. The Contingency Approach -

emphasizes that there is no one best

way to manage people or work.

Emphasizes taking into account

individual and situational differences in

managing people

Derived from the study of leadership

styles

Strength: encourages managers and

professionals to examine individual and

situational differences before deciding on a

course of action

Problem: used as an excuse for not acquiring

knowledge about organizational behavior and

management

A formal study of management helps a

manager decide which factors are

relevant in particular situations

5. Positive Organizational Behavior -

focus on what is right with people.

Focuses on developing human

strengths, making people more

resilient, and cultivating extraordinary

individuals, work units, and

organizations

Fred Luthans defines this as the study and

application of human resource strengths and

psychological capacities that can be measured,

developed and managed for performance

improvement

Enneagram and Nine Personality Types

1. THE REFORMER: Rational, Idealistic Type:

Principled, Purposeful, Self-Controlled, and

Perfectionistic

2. THE HELPER: Caring, Interpersonal Type:

Demonstrative, Generous, People-Pleasing, and

Possessive

3. THE ACHIEVER: Success-Oriented, Pragmatic

Type: Adaptive, Excelling, Driven, and Image-

Conscious

4. THE INDIVIDUALIST: Sensitive, Withdrawn

Type: Expressive, Dramatic, Self-Absorbed, and

Temperamental

5. THE INVESTIGATOR: Intense, Cerebral Type:

Perceptive, Innovative, Secretive, and Isolated

6. THE LOYALIST: Committed, Security-Oriented

Type: Engaging, Responsible, Anxious, and

Suspicious

7. THE ENTHUSIAST: Busy, Fun-Loving Type:

Spontaneous, Versatile, Distractible, and

Scattered

8. THE CHALLENGER: Powerful, Dominating

Type: Self-Confident, Decisive, Willful, and

Confrontational

9. THE PEACEMAKER: Easygoing, Self-Effacing

Type: Receptive, Reassuring, Agreeable, and

Complacent

Seven Consequences of Individual Differences

that Have an Impact on Managing People

1. People differ in Productivity - As jobs

become more complex, individual

differences have a bigger impact on

work output

2. Quality of work varies because people

vary in their propensity (tendency) for

achieving high-quality results - Some

are conscientious, good capacity for

precision, pride in work (naturally strive

for high-quality) Others are less

conscientious, less precise, little pride

(more difficulty achieving quality

targets

3. Empowerment is effective with some

workers, but not with all - Grant

workers more authority to make

decisions by themselves and to involve

them in suggesting improvements

4. A given leadership style does not work

with all people - Some prefer freedom

on the job and can function well under

such leadership. Others want to be

supervised closely by their manager

(less competent, less motivated, less

experienced)

5. People differ in their need for contact

with other people - Some can work

alone all day and remain highly

productive. Others become restless

unless engaged in business and social

conversation

6. Company management will find that

commitment to the firm varies

considerably- Some employees are so

committed to their employers that they

act as if they are part-owners of the

firm. Others feel little commitment or

loyalty toward their employer.

7. Workers vary in their level of self-

esteem, which, in turn, influences their

productivity and capacity to take on

additional responsibilities - People with

high self-esteem can cope with basic

challenges of life (self-efficacy) and also

that they are worthy of happiness (self-

respect).

Generation Stereotypes that Influence Work

Behavior

1. Sex and Gender Differences

Sex differences - actual biological differences

Gender differences - differences of perception

of male and female roles

Men (equity - people being treated

fairly)

Women (equality - people sharing

equally)

2. Generational and Age-Based

Differences - Every generation is

influenced by the major economic,

political and social events of its era

4 generations

o Traditionalists (Veterans; 1925

– 1945)

o Baby Boomers (1946 – 1960)

o Generation X (1961 – 1980)

o Generation Y (Millennials; 1981

– present)

Age (mental and physical capabilities)

Age comes with wisdom

3. Ethnic, Racial and Cultural Differences -

these differences are usually more

attributable to culture than to ethnicity

itself

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence and Theory of

Multiple Intelligence

1. The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence -

Emphasis on Practical Intelligence

Analytical - Solving abstract problems

Creative -Imagination and combining

things in novel ways

Practical -Adapting to an environment

to suit an individual’s needs

-Being street smart

2. Multiple Intelligences - People know

and understand the world in distinctly

different ways or look at it through

different lenses.

8 intelligences (or faculties)

o Linguistic - enables people to

communicate

o Logical-Mathematical - enables

individuals to see relationship

between objects and solve

problems

o Musical - gives people the

capacity to create and

understand meanings made out

of sounds

o Spatial - enables people to

perceive and manipulate

images in their brain and to

recreate them from memory

o Bodily-kinesthetic - enables

people to use their body and

perceptual and motor systems

in skilled ways

o Intrapersonal - enables people

to distinguish among their own

feelings and acquire accurate

self-knowledge

o Interpersonal - makes it

possible for individuals to

recognize and make distinctions

among the feeling, motives and

intentions of others

o Naturalist - enables individuals

to differentiate among, classify,

and use various features of the

physical external environment

8 Major Personality Factors and Traits

1. Neuroticism - this trait reflects

neuroticism versus emotional stability.

People with high neuroticism are prone

to psychological distress and coping

with problems in unproductive ways.

2. Extraversion - traits associated with

extraversion include being social,

gregarious, assertive, talkative and

active.

3. Openness to experience - people who

score high with openness have well-

developed intellects. Traits associated

with this factor include being

imaginative, cultured, curious, original,

broad-minded, intelligent and

artistically sensitive.

4. Agreeableness - this factor reflects the

quality of a person's interpersonal

orientation. An agreeable person is

friendly and cooperative. Traits

associated with this factor include being

courteous, flexible, trusting, good-

natured, cooperative, forgiving,

softhearted and tolerant.

5. Conscientiousness - a variety of

meanings have been attached to the

conscientiousness factor, but it

generally implies dependability.

Consists of 6 subfactors:

a. industriousness

b. order

c. self-control

d. responsibility

e. traditionalism

f. virtue

6. Self-monitoring behavior - refers to the

process of observing and controlling

how we appear to others.

High self-monitors - are pragmatic and

are even chameleon-like actors in social groups.

Low self-monitors - avoid situations that

require them to adopt different outer images.

7. Risk taking and thrill seeking - some

people crave constant excitement on

the job and are willing to take the risk.

8. Optimism - refers to the tendency to

experience positive emotional states

and to typically believe that negative

outcomes will be forthcoming from

most activities.

4 Key Factors in Emotional Intelligence

1. Self-awareness - the ability to

understand one's own emotion is the

most essential of the four emotional

intelligence competencies.

2. Self-management - the ability to

control one's emotions and act with

honesty and integrity in a consistent

and adaptable manner.

3. Social awareness - having empathy for

others and having intuition about

organizational problems are key aspects

of this dimension of emotional

intelligence.

4. Relationship management - includes

the interpersonal skills of being able to

communicate clearly and convincingly,

disarm conflicts and build strong

personal bonds.

- effective leaders use this to spread

their enthusiasm and solve

disagreements, often with kindness and

humor.

3 Learning Styles

1. Visual learners - learn best by seeing,

and they have two subchannels,

linguistic and spatial.

2. Auditory learners - prefer to learn by

hearing and they tend to move their lips

and read out loud.

3. Kinesthetic learners - learn best while

touching and moving and rely on two

subchannels, kinesthetic (movement)

and tactile (touch).

Four learning orientations or styles which are

based on the learning cycle

Orientation toward concrete

experiences

- Emphasizes involvement in experiences

and dealing with human interactions in

a personal way.

- A person with this orientation is more

intuitive and artistic than systematic

and scientific.

Orientation toward observations and

reflections

- Emphasizes understanding the

meanings of ideas, situations, and

things and describing them in an

unbiased way.

- A person with this orientation is

predisposed to reflection.

Orientation toward formation of

abstract concepts and generalizations

- Emphasizes applying logic, ideas, and

concepts.

- This person prefers thinking as opposed

to feeling.

Orientation toward testing

implications of concepts in new

situations

- Emphasizes actively influencing people

and changing situations.

- This person prefers practical

applications as opposed to reflective

understanding.

Ethical Theories

Deontology and Ethics

- Characterized primarily by a focus upon

adherence to independent moral rules

or duties.

- Thus, in order to make the correct

moral choices, we simply have to

understand what our moral duties are

and what correct rules exist which

regulate those duties.

- When we follow our duty, we are

behaving morally. When we fail to

follow our duty, we are behaving

immorally.

Teleology and Ethics

- Characterized primarily by a focus on

the consequences which any action

might have.

- Thus, in order to make correct moral

choices, we have to have some

understanding of what will result from

our choices.

- When we make choices which result in

the correct consequences, then we are

acting morally; when we make choices

which result in the incorrect

consequences, then we are acting

immorally.

Virtue Ethics

- Place much less emphasis on which

rules people should follow and instead

focus on helping people develop good

character traits, such as kindness and

generosity.

- These character traits will, in turn, allow

a person to make the correct decisions

later on in life.

Eight-step guide to Ethical Decision Making

- Linda K. Treviño and Katherine A.

Nelson developed a guide to ethical

decision making.

1. Gather the facts

2. Define the ethical issues.

3. Identify the affected parties.

4. Identify the consequences.

5. Identify the obligations.

6. Consider your character and integrity.

7. Think creatively about potential

actions.

8. Check your intuitions.

Strategies to Enhance Motivation

Motivation through JOB DESIGN

- A major strategy for enhancing

motivation is to make the job so

challenging and the worker so

responsible that he or she is motivated

just by performing the job.

a. Job enrichment

- gives workers a sense of

ownership, responsibility,

and accountability for their

work.

b. Job characteristics model

- a method of job design

that focuses on the task

and interpersonal demands

of the job.

Five measurable characteristics of jobs:

1. Skill variety—the degree to

which there are skills to

perform.

2. Task Identity—the degree to

which one worker does a

complete job, from beginning

to end, with a tangible and

possible outcome.

3. Task Significance—the degree

to which work has a heavy

impact on others in the

immediate organization or the

external environment.

4. Autonomy—the degree to

which a job offers freedom,

independence, and discretion in

its implementation.

5. Feedback—the degree to which

a job provides direct

information about

performance.

c. Job crafting

-Physical and mental changes

workers make in the task.

- Most frequent purpose of

crafting is to make the job more

meaningful.

Motivation through RECOGNITION

AND PRIDE

- Can be considered a direct application

of positive reinforcement.

- Recognition is such a potentially

powerful motivator that it merits

separate attention.

- Pride is a motive that makes recognition

an effective motivator.

Motivation through FINANCIAL

INCENTIVES

- A natural reinforcer for worker at any

level is to offer them financial

incentives for good performance.

- However, it predate behavior

modification in the workplace and are

an application of common sense.

Characteristics of an Enriched Job

Job Enrichment – refers to making a job more

motivational and satisfying by adding variety,

responsibility, and managerial decision making.

Direct Feedback

- Employees should receive immediate

evaluation of their work.

Client Relationships

- A job is automatically enriched when a

worker has a client or customer to serve

whether that client is internal or

external.

New Learning

- An enriched job allows its holder to

acquire new knowledge.

Control over method

- When a worker has some control over

which method to choose to accomplish

a task, his motivation generally

increases.

Control over schedule

- Scheduling includes the authority to

decide when to tackle which

assignments and having some say in

setting work hours.

Unique Experience

Control over resources

- Such as money, material, or people.

Direct Communication Authority

- Provides the workers the opportunity to

communicate directly with other people

who use their output.

Personal Accountability

Three Forms of Job Crafting

Job Crafting – refers to physical and mental

changes workers make in the task or

relationship aspects of their job.

1. Changing number, scope, and type of

job tasks.

2. Changing quality and or amount of

interaction with others encountered in

the job.

3. Changing the view of the job.

Steps in a Formal OB Modification Program

1. Identify behaviors for change

- Must be observable, measurable, task

related, and critical to the task.

2. Measure baseline frequency of

response

- Use direct observation, time sampling,

archival data, and historical data.

3. Analyze functional consequences

- Behavioral contingencies

- Contingent consequences – outcomes

that stem from the behavior.

4. Select an intervention strategy.

- Positive reinforcement is applied to

increase behaviors and decrease

dysfunctional behaviors.

- Punishment is used as a last resort.

5. Evaluate change in performance.

- If performance does not improve,

reevaluate and change the intervention

strategy.

- If performance improves, maintain with

reinforcement through a schedule of

reinforcement:

Ten Strategies to Overcoming Communication

Barriers

1. Clarify Ideas before communicating

- Managers and professionals must

consider the goals and attitudes of

those who will receive the message.

- Present them in a clear, exciting

manner at a level appropriate for the

audience.

2. Motivate the receiver

- Best accomplished by appealing to the

receiver’s interest or needs.

3. Discuss differences in frames of

reference of paradigms

- Paradigm – a model, framework,

viewpoint, perspective, or frame of

reference.

- The two people live by different rules or

guidelines.

- If they can recognize that they are

operating with different paradigms, the

chances for agreement are improved.

- People can change paradigms if reasons

are convincing.

4. Foster informal communication

- An abundance of informal, open

communication enhances trust within

the organization.

- Negative rumors are less likely to

appear on the grapevine when talking

about sensitive topics comes naturally.

5. Communicate feelings behind facts

- The facts in the message should be

accompanied by the appropriate

feelings.

- Feelings add power and conviction to

the message.

6. Be aware of non-verbal

communication

- A speaker’s tone of voice, expression,

and apparent receptiveness to the

responses of others have an impact to

the receiver.

- When sending messages to others, keep

in mind all the aspects of nonverbal

behavior described previously.

7. Obtain feedback

- Best efforts may be wasted if feedback

on how well the message came across is

not received.

- Asking questions, encouraging the

receiver to express reactions, following

up on contacts, and subsequently

reviewing performance are ways of

obtaining feedback.

8. Adapt to the other person’s

communication

- People communicate more freely with

those who match their communication

style.

- It is usually possible to learn the other

person’s style by careful observation.

9. Engage in meta-communication

- When having a difficult time getting

through to another person, it helps to

talk about your communication

difficulty.

- To meta-communicate is to

communicate about your

communication to help overcome

barriers or to resolve a problem.

Differentiate Nominal Group Technique from

the Delphi Technique

Nominal Group Technique

- Opposite of an interacting group

- Distinguishing characteristics is silent

effort during part of group problem

solving.

- Has met with acceptance because it

results in a disciplined decision.

- Advantage of this technique is that it

combines the merits of individual

reflection with the scrutiny of reflective

thought.

- Helps introverted people become

actively involved in group activity.

Delphi Technique

- A group decision making technique

designed to provide group members

with one another’s ideas and feedback.

- Incorporates a carefully structured

sequence of questionnaires distributed

to each group member, usually by

email.

- Has been accused of using the

technique to manipulate group opinion

- More time consuming than nominal

group technique.