Mexico and the Cold War: The International Context of the

“Perfect Dictatorship”

Halbert Jones, Ph.D.Office of the HistorianU.S. Department of State

JonesHM@state.gov

The views expressed and interpretations presented in this session are those of the presenter and not

necessarily those of the U.S. Department of State or the U.S. Government.

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“Mexico is the perfect dictatorship. The perfect dictatorship is not communism. It is not

the USSR. It is not Fidel Castro. The perfect dictatorship is Mexico….”

- Mario Vargas Llosa, 1990

Mexico and the Cold War

• Unlike Chile, Argentina, and Brazil, no coups or anti-communist military dictatorships

• Unlike Cuba, no Marxist revolution

• Unlike Central America, no civil conflicts that became proxy wars

Cold War’s impact on Mexico less obvious than its effects on many other countries in the region:

Mexico as an Exceptional Case

• Political stability,marked by dominance of a single party, 1929-2000

• No extreme repression,though Mexico did have its own “dirty war”

• Alliance with US, but with displays of independence

Explaining Mexico’s StabilityHistorians have pointed to:

• Regime’s use of revolutionary rhetoric• “No Re-election” principle• Economic growth, “Mexican Miracle”• Sectoral organizations• Cooptation when possible• Repression when necessary

International Factors Also Important …

Cold War atmosphere made possible:

• A tacit understanding with the United States that enabled Mexico to enjoy an enhanced degree of independence in exchange for the maintenance of stability

• The implementation of anti-subversion laws justified by alleged threats from abroad

“Social Dissolution”Federal Penal Code

Article 145

Imprisonment from two to twelve years and a fine from a thousand to ten thousand pesos will be applied to the foreigner or Mexican national who in spoken or written form, or by any other means, carries out political propaganda among foreigners or among Mexican nationals, spreading ideas, programs or norms of action of any foreign government that disturb public order or affect the sovereignty of the Mexican State.

Article 145

• 1941 Enacted as WWII-era measure aimed at saboteurs and propagandists

• 1951 Expanded in light of Korean War; penalties stiffened, new clauses added

• 1952-59Law used against striking workers, opposition figures, students

Article 145

• 1959 Striking railroad workers arrested and charged; leaders later convicted

• 1960 Communist muralist Siqueiros imprisoned for “social dissolution,” pardoned in 1964

• 1968 Repeal of Article 145 included among demands of student movement

Tlatelolco• Student movement calling for

reforms arose following heavy-handed police response to July 1968 clash between rival student groups

• Tense stand-off with President Díaz Ordaz, who suspected communist involvement

• Movement suppressed by troops at Plaza de Tres Culturas, October 2, 1968, just before opening of Olympics

After Tlatelolco

• 1970 Article 145 repealed (replaced by new clauses on sabotage and terrorism)

• 1970-76Echeverría administration sought to win over an increasingly disillusioned younger generation (despite continuing, often extrajudicial, repression of urban and rural guerrilla groups and others)

Early Cold War Leaders

Miguel Alemán (1946-1952)• Quietly pledged support to US, while

adopting a more nationalist stance• Curtailed labor independence

through the charrazo

Adolfo Ruiz Cortines (1952-1958)• Promised a more honest administration

• Cracked down at various points on striking workers, students

• Limited objections to 1954 Guatemala coup

The 1960s

Adolfo López Mateos (1958-1964)• Maintained relations with Cuba after Revolution• Welcomed JFK to Mexico• Applied Article 145 against RR workers, Siqueiros;

Jaramillo murdered

Gustavo Díaz Ordaz (1964-1970)• Remembered as most repressive

figure in Mexico’s Cold War history• Held responsible for Tlatelolco

International Populism

Luis Echeverría (1970-1976)• GDO’s interior minister• Sought Third World leadership roles,

asserting independence from the United States

José López Portillo (1976-1982)• Bolstered by new oil discoveries, continued

to pursue an independent foreign policy• Faced extreme economic

problems by end of term

Debt Crisis and Economic Reform

Miguel de la Madrid (1982-1988)• Faced debt crisis inherited from JLP• Legitimacy of regime further undermined

by ineffective response to 1985 earthquake

Carlos Salinas (1988-1994)• Faced charges of electoral fraud• Carried out neoliberal reforms

• Signed NAFTA (shaped by end of Cold War)

Key Points

• Mexico’s Cold War experience was distinctive

• Cold War created conditions that facilitated the endurance of stable, single-party rule

• East-West conflict imposed limits but also created opportunities for Mexico and its leaders

Nikita Khrushchev, in response to the suggestion that Soviet aircraft could land in Mexico after bombing the United States:

“What do you think Mexico is – our mother-in-law? You think we can simply go calling any time we want?”