i

METHODS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

By

Doreen Nanky Boikhutso

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

MAGISTER TECHNOLOGIAE

in the

FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND FINANCE

TSHWANE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Supervisor Dr Sanya Osha

June 2012

ii

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis submitted for the degree of M-Tech Comparative

Local Development Institute for Economic Research on Innovation Faculty of

Economics and Finance at Tshwane University of Technology is my original work

and has not previously been submitted to any other institution of higher education I

further declare that all sources cited or quoted are indicated and acknowledged by

means of a comprehensive list of references

Doreen Nanky Boikhutso

200184327

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all I want to thank God ldquoMoemedi-Modimomothordquo for the sound health and

wisdom He gave unto me throughout the period of this study It is from Him all

blessings flow

My special thanks go to my supervisor Dr Sanya Osha for his thorough supervision

and guidance Despite his busy schedule he created time to attend to this study His

advice and supervision were constructive and thorough I would also like to mention

the tireless support of my beloved husband Molefe Boikhutso and my son Manase

Boikhutso They stood by me throughout the period of this study and their

encouragement and prayers are commendable

I furthermore give thanks to my parents Emily and Fannie Maluwa my sister

Winky and my parents-in-law Nicholas and Shadigolo Boikhutso for their support

and prayers They prayed for me for divine inspiration and guidance throughout my

academic journey

My heart-felt appreciation also goes to the staff of IERI for their support and

mentorship The guidance of Prof Mario Scerri is sincerely appreciated as is the

mentorship of Jan Grundling He was the one who introduced me to the programme

and was always willing to assist me when I needed him The kind contribution of Dr

Benjamin Akpor is also worth mentioning

iv

The contribution of my colleagues is also appreciated most especially the advice

prayers and support of my good friend Sandrine Mouloungui cannot be forgotten

My special thanks also go to the Director of the Institute for Economic Research on

Innovation (IERI) Dr Rasigan Maharajh for creating an enabling environment in the

Institute for Postgraduate Study Finally I thank the Tshwane University of

Technology for providing me with a scholarship that enabled me complete my study

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

DECLARATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x

ABSTRACT xi

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation 1

12 Problem statement 10

13 Aim and objectives 11

14 Research questions 11

15 Study methodology 12

151 Study design 12

16 Chapter layout 13

17 Conclusion 14

CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction 15

22 Theoretical and conceptual framework of the study 16

221 Social theory 17

222 Ex-situ and in in-situ preservation approaches 20

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge 24

24 Indigenous knowledge system as tool for sustainable development 26

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge 30

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation 35

27 Conclusion 41

vi

CHAPTER 3 APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction 42

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture 42

33 Indigenous knowledge in health 47

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering 56

35 Conclusion 58

CHAPTER 4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN

CONTEXT

41 Introduction 59

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge 60

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy 64

531 Department of Arts and Culture 65

532 Department of Trade and Industry 66

533 Department of Health 66

534 Department of Science and Technology 67

44 Conclusion 79

CHAPTER 5 MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH

AFRICA

51 Introduction 80

52 Indigenous knowledge centres 81

53 Museums 83

54 Laboratories 85

55 Libraries 87

56 Knowledge management model 89

57 Conclusion 96

vii

CHAPTER 6 CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

PRESERVATION OF IN SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction 97

62 Challenges of management and preservation 98

621 Lack of taxonomists 98

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions 99

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities 100

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness

of individuals 100

63 Conclusion 101

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction 102

72 Conclusion 102

73 Recommendations 104

REFERENCES 107

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13

Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38

Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44

Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the

Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50

Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51

Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the

Limpopo Province of South Africa 53

ix

LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation

Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92

x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research

IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations

IK - Indigenous Knowledge

LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems

NGO - Non Governmental Organisation

NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office

REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation

UNDP - United Nation Development Program

UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations

SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination

UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes

FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational

WHO - World Health Organisation

UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights

SIDS - Small Island Developing States

THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act

WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation

DST - Department of Science and Technology

DTI - Department of trade and industry

HSRC - Human Science Research Council

NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development

xi

Abstract

Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people

through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at

reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular

emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of

a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and

the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge

promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and

document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for

decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources

management human animal and environmental health and other important activities

at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the

agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also

discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified

as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a

national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property

rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The

challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa

include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination

and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals

This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous

knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in

the country with particular emphasis on its preservation

1

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation

The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers

group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the

UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them

having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe

1998244)

Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism

was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign

colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking

control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the

colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics

and culture which regroup most of indigenous people

According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the

practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced

upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to

show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for

some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the

Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot

2

belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research

study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an

impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous

people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in

common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)

It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of

years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous

knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science

world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the

academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by

governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies

Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given

society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local

people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This

knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories

symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)

According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination

of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical

educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates

to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including

those used in liberation struggles

3

Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that

is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the

environment across cultures and geographical spaces

Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the

concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is

because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since

there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They

represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and

classification systems (Sithole 2007117)

Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms

such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural

people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although

certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the

purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo

are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts

of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the

preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of

indigenous knowledge

Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world

The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include

4

Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this

knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs

rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those

communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from

one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment

and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and

libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their

communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being

dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment

Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is

referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed

outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as

tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily

codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner

since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in

Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit

knowledge into explicit knowledge further

Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to

generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many

more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be

acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge

of what to eat

5

Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining

characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in

the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the

society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived

by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case

Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different

categories

(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa

is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a

multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up

about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of

black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural

resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous

people have always relied on their environment for survival

The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to

deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to

time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has

largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200812)

6

It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has

caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The

challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge

especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of

traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the

important aspects for sustainable resources

The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to

development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the

very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse

species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when

the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western

knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an

epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local

and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a

result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)

Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields

such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices

gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by

word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be

lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to

South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a

societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)

7

Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from

international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies

such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International

Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete

attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial

activities and development projects

Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management

objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both

knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little

indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places

of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge

serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of

the population as should be the case

There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is

the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information

plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is

also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs

to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by

authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)

Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos

minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though

8

most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to

explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden

the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and

generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important

for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool

This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving

indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of

material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals

Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly

designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According

to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of

their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and

access to them was aligned along racial lines

Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to

libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers

Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of

local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in

black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be

inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi

200562)

Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of

apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national

9

transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the

process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel

development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels

199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on

the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous

knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive

studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies

This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous

knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in

transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and

frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of

indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving

such information when needed

This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the

storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes

The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource

for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western

sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp

Lwoga 2007124)

10

12 Problem statement

Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due

to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a

result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies

which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is

argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer

quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances

where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental

Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and

younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To

avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent

need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few

instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are

either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)

Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous

knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for

preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will

adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South

Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that

serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos

indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo

11

(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as

well as in transferring it to future generations

13 Aims and objectives

Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect

encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution

this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and

methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were

pursued

to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with

specific focus on South Africa

to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge

systems and

to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of

indigenous knowledge in South Africa

14 Research questions

To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were

answered

Why is indigenous knowledge important

What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

12

What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa

Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South

Africa

What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems

face in South Africa

15 Study methodology

The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data

which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books

articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A

source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as

official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources

data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information

was then analysed in order to answer the research questions

151 Study Design

This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data

Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available

(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another

investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is

limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that

heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of

13

the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the

phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and

preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area

16 Chapter layout

The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11

Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study

Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter

Chapter 1

General introduction

This chapter starts with an overview of

indigenous knowledge in perspective It also

covers the problem statement the aim of the

study its research objectives and research

questions

Chapter 2

Theoretical framework

and literature review

This chapter presents the theoretical

framework of indigenous knowledge and

critically reviews the literature relating to

indigenous knowledge

Chapter 3

Application of

Indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter outlines the indigenous

knowledge found in South Africa and it

presents the existing of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as

agriculture health and culture in South Africa

Chapter 4

Indigenous knowledge

policy the South

This chapter provides the national policies

available for preserving and protecting

14

African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa

Chapter 5

Preservation of

indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter identifies the methods of

preserving indigenous knowledge used in

South Africa and the knowledge management

model that assists in preserving and managing

knowledge

Chapter 6 Challenges and

constrains of

indigenous knowledge

In this chapter the challenges and constraints

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are

discussed

Chapter7 Conclusion and

recommendation

Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion

limitations and recommendations

17 Conclusion

This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South

Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of

documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the

concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both

local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation

and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the

documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently

not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is

disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific

objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter

explains the theoretical framework of the study

15

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the

development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In

addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is

seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to

provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A

problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are

unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind

scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on

developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing

other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous

knowledge is important

Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous

farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse

geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations

crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous

knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most

local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable

resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore

16

considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development

processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch

20075)

This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for

development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed

by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different

scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable

development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this

chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries

The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from

harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently

introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that

indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development

22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study

According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of

statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept

that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among

variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and

reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)

Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation

to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving

17

attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of

resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ

and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed

221 Social theory

Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how

aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the

economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what

makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the

society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material

and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with

morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He

further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting

it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity

of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)

Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of

solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since

individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were

held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He

was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a

society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies

individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar

18

activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens

200613)

According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are

characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and

similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the

form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and

collective conscience (Giddens 200613)

Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which

arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and

they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the

body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would

certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was

characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity

was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)

South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that

social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely

appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included

certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the

industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the

result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into

racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic

disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)

19

Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural

context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances

and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and

design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and

conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry

farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers

200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same

purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as

Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order

to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)

In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the

current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business

promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is

difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)

Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn

about the solidarity from the indigenous communities

Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense

thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society

for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday

patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to

describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that

rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down

20

which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined

anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by

modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development

together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)

When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a

sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim

described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he

believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)

In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and

look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the

present (Giddens 200614)

222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches

To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of

survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate

some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is

acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous

knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and

accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important

role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced

two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These

theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering

21

development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for

the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)

The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect

indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various

ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more

The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical

and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve

this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should

be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He

stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate

information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge

systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations

Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of

various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account

the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their

production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural

development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for

designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not

to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick

198787)

Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an

effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another

22

advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in

preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge

preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be

scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and

dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)

The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and

documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of

practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be

considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is

required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their

cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts

and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and

documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of

indigenous knowledge

Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required

attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major

drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need

for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails

to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous

knowledge especially for the marginalised poor

It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to

communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus

23

becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to

gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of

sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to

individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state

and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation

of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights

Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of

the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is

tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs

stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates

that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities

gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on

which they rely

Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still

considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge

preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to

be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous

communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for

indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge

by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge

certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the

study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and

beliefs by spending time together

24

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge

The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on

economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable

development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for

development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable

development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to

Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit

knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western

sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions

based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)

Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences

analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods

Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development

processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development

programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship

deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities

are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of

knowing

Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one

knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the

Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and

the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that

25

development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field

of women in development (Escobar199514)

Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static

unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing

reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he

explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide

the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be

conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)

Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful

seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When

it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development

although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development

used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level

Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting

something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)

Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions

manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that

technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to

development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-

economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs

to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems

26

However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to

solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing

24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development

Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its

importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level

indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food

security education natural resources management human animal and

environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key

element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival

(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for

developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous

knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local

community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic

development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and

basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World

Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-

directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it

is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when

communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most

effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs

and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most

27

especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure

indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the

process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are

concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be

appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of

wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When

properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-

centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about

their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of

crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be

used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a

state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)

Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous

knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the

Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially

Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations

Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the

United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of

documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other

international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of

indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)

28

Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in

sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries

have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In

addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local

communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of

indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)

However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in

recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries

Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order

recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital

component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy

distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being

neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it

almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems

and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making

it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp

Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)

Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and

municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report

from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous

knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for

29

stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations

were made

Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-

cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for

cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural

democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems

must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa

The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African

Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised

Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes

must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes

Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to

engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions

A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including

traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth

Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for

implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development

programmes

Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are

currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear

that they will give away their rights

Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning

Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain

categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is

30

restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or

commercialised

All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government

structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous

knowledge system policy

Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical

to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system

Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development

it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is

therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives

originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same

philosophical underpinning

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge

In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and

dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of

those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information

gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and

developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor

This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are

unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde

20089)

31

The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important

way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years

indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic

and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although

the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various

bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the

appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific

and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it

Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the

prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of

indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove

destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process

of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied

in developing countries The steps are

Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case

indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to

find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it

requires an external observer to identify it

The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of

the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is

essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge

Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because

indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature

32

It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person

to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations

modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs

Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from

disappearing

It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the

form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and

storytelling

Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the

other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments

The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the

developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally

Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and

community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals

and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for

social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement

and capabilities

Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance

development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous

knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals

within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions

that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is

33

vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national

level

According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange

of indigenous knowledge

Computers

Tape recorders

Radio

Television

Newspapers

Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras

ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities

Fax

CD-ROM

Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets

Diskettes

Social gatherings in communities

Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However

formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of

indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge

and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous

knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living

sustainably

34

To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities

there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage

teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its

wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant

skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of

indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by

(Gorjestani 2002)

In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic

Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household

incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted

to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not

properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were

destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied

gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant

increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green

manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to

reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani

2002)

In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk

and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose

by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local

farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work

35

Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200

households in 65 villages

The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce

technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training

institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous

institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned

resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the

importance of community involvement in local solutions

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation

In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or

damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is

reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the

survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)

According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300

million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and

cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of

emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic

approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for

forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap

strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure

indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local

36

communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their

knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been

involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed

their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)

In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the

South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous

people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the

unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The

indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away

from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were

destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima

amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)

A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development

of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge

System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The

programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities

to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges

Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective

governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local

knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to

Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights

methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is

37

still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western

knowledge (Ngulube 2002)

It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small

scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is

more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local

knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation

strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and

national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ

preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous

medicinal practises

It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous

knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on

indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional

medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like

malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical

companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture

of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily

on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief

Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic

needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of

Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported

out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some

38

Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and

protection of biodiversity

Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are

found in Table 21

Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa

Country Application

Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into

sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation

agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted

from generation to generation

Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The

knowledge is passed down from generation to generation

Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and

burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes

away

Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region

were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and

Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural

crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering

accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a

local language called Bambara

Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are

secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of

39

the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating

hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a

special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to

contract and to expel blood clots

South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried

mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are

inhaled through the mouth

Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the

fields to prevent soil degradation

Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of

ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease

Source Dlamini 2005

In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of

society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their

environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to

use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo

people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these

plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake

bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving

as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)

Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per

cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical

infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people

40

rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important

aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality

In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine

practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional

medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when

compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is

120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly

found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more

reasonable option for the rural people

As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances

local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts

of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional

techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally

available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation

and building on the patterns and processes of nature

In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent

of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000

to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic

practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-

billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala

20084)

41

27 Conclusion

Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people

throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of

the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were

also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous

knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable

development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the

application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa

42

CHAPTER 3

APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction

Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges

facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa

The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries

cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the

health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing

It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective

ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural

communities and future generations

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture

Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked

collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-

sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its

powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous

communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994

indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)

43

During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in

Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods

which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which

are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous

communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation

(Matenge et al 2011)

Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the

livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated

that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional

agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which

contributed towards better food security

Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology

usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately

modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South

Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous

farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel

owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural

activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga

(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start

ploughing and sowing

44

Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have

gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions

They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite

accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance

which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation

after generation

Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers

in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind

of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the

English translation

Table 31 Classification of different types of rain

Sepedi (local language) English

Pula yakgogolamooko First rain

Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail

Modupi Soft and very desirable rain

Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction

Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction

Borwa A cool rain coming from the south

Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)

Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms

and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-

million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia

45

Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in

Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the

Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people

stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)

The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for

many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-

bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of

Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly

affected during the mopane worm season

Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content

of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it

has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent

protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)

Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated

from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of

warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to

release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes

After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is

repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs

are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat

the bugs raw or cooked with porridge

46

Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed

Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they

dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still

widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried

meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo

Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is

a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa

has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of

trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary

source of income for many people

Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good

source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore

perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects

are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo

Leader Spring 2006)

Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at

the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the

Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm

and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted

resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms

valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African

47

silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the

building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)

Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but

over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability

Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they

are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof

Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a

yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)

According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000

square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it

could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is

also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for

rural people

Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is

bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)

33 Indigenous knowledge in health

In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines

was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative

therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft

Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970

48

banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of

traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their

knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al

2007208)

Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an

annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority

for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban

areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for

many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor

households

At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because

they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or

because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties

and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it

defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs

incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies

manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well

being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)

Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important

resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and

economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of

49

diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites

headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others

It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the

treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory

diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)

Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been

lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous

plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is

focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally

Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not

strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)

Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African

economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of

traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade

contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or

traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous

plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines

are still more affordable than Western medicine

It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by

Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal

plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to

50

areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented

them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects

the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the

other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that

the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent

between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male

circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences

Research Council 20091)

The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector

usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32

provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional

healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant

harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same

income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done

through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers

Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional

medicines industry of South Africa

Role player Estimated number in the business Average income

(Rand) per partaker

Traditional healer

diviner herbalist

prophets

6 8000- fulltime healers

20 0000 - include all traditional healers

in South Africa

3 8491

51

Street trader 3 000 7 941

Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do

business on the streets

7 941

Source Mander et al 2007

As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers

Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of

South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of

alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of

preservation qualification and accreditation

Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa

traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To

address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test

products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain

and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)

Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007

Province Total

Gauteng 61 465

Mpumalanga 57 524

KwaZulu-Natal 25 430

Free State 22 645

Eastern Cape 10 780

52

Limpopo 7 366

North West 5 935

Western Cape 2 600

Northern Cape 2 221

Total 185 477

Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi

2009)

Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the

daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in

South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources

including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species

are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South

Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity

Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also

make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger

200979)

Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for

food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while

26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional

which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal

properties

53

In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)

shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of

South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in

muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open

access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi

markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in

Table 34

Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo

South Africa

Scientific name Frequency of

species traded

()

Part

used

Total amount in

16 muthi shops

(kg)

Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308

Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245

Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967

Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940

Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267

Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247

Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935

Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774

Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011

The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the

Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a

54

slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education

widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the

land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional

properties of various plants in their environment

The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites

during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It

has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause

irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels

In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the

hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in

the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )

A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected

extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites

accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The

CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an

ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by

1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$

yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely

scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The

CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has

entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people

55

The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is

another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The

Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different

medicinal plants

According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million

South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700

indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also

known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species

The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a

beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other

beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel

1997)

Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not

yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different

ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have

aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as

medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush

teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people

chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people

boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it

56

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering

Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social

behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort

(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or

label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its

eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities

which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures

it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates

that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older

person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the

oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the

expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)

Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where

oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure

that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and

traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce

excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and

furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered

heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion

The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great

deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures

by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The

57

Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is

discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study

Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive

baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of

sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as

beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea

markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the

economy (Nettleton 201060)

According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets

ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that

are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa

have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain

storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with

lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)

The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to

create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable

indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective

in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its

meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous

groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings

58

Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The

challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small

amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the

cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of

this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous

knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop

indigenous crafts

35 Conclusion

South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of

poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in

order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa

have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other

communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted

preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge

can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible

healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people

having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with

indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully

explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to

promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into

the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge

policy and framework

59

CHAPTER 4

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

41 Introduction

The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a

result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities

experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South

Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has

resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and

development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard

all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted

the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New

Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge

system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished

continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)

South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual

property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some

countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding

their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology

(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on

indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free

60

education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla

200729)

Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of

indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of

indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its

preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in

many African countries (Msuya 20074)

This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of

indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property

rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes

the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge

Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen

as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever

government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla

200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is

essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities

Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some

government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key

61

ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the

participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play

an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity

reasoning of policy

Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and

recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to

realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring

about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous

knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and

exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates

the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural

communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for

indigenous knowledge

Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge

Political commitment on indigenous knowledge

Preservation of indigenous knowledge

Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge

Copyright and patent issues

Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it

Use of indigenous knowledge

Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge

In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing

protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to

62

understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are

connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the

protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and

Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the

society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or

companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical

performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo

Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people

have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over

the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property

rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at

an international level through legally binding treaties

Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a

result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while

developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is

communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult

to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-

Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)

Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative

sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft

sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and

63

eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial

benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)

Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge

Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus

on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the

preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council

2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are

in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of

Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade

Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several

countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among

themselves

Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different

agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements

were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These

include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United

Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)

TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO

agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with

trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement

The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to

64

developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities

(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access

to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard

for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise

and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe

199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the

UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty

needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the

sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights

of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural

identity (Mugabe 199925)

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy

Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a

policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999

The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and

research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory

measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the

DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and

Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on

formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge

policy

65

431 Department of Arts and Culture

The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with

encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and

tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of

Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the

Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local

As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South

Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of

social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The

policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural

diversity during apartheid

Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression

which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to

redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise

all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected

and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge

by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the

value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department

of Science and Technology 200519)

It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social

imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and

remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions

66

expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next

Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and

documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that

reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established

(Department of Trade Industry 2008)

432 Department of Trade and Industry

The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being

exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered

protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are

various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual

property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African

context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis

legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved

in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents

Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a

positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a

model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)

433 Department of Health

Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a

source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive

contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while

67

knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a

hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of

benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of

NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that

give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to

preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the

benefits

The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly

recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to

ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The

purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a

national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over

registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and

Technology 200518)

434 Department of Science and Technology

The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting

indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge

report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is

committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing

indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge

adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate

for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive

68

various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at

organisations such as the National Research Foundation

Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because

of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of

Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the

identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology

(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous

knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of

globalisation

As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos

development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions

towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of

African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different

cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One

of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of

self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must

ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a

commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture

language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)

69

Development of services provided by traditional healers

Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa

making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South

Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As

indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the

practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks

safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available

also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The

Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system

The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the

Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional

Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the

constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement

The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety

and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management

and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners

It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in

violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing

At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such

as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the

circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South

70

Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos

Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)

Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy

Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in

the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has

been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the

lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role

in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir

for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems

Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national

laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and

Development linear model of innovation

Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge

system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge

to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to

the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms

promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous

knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology

200528)

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create

new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale

71

of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is

therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge

The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable

cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South

African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing

framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures

minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous

knowledge research

Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous

knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds

wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a

good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to

innovation

Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has

contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is

adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to

appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology

sector

While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant

methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various

learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many

72

years Western context has influenced the South African education and development

policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the

educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not

only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous

knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning

The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous

knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST

enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology

strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as

specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science

and Technology 200528)

In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At

the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0

76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in

addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as

the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty

In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous

knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance

of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the

various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems

The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous

73

knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the

follows

The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed

under the DST

The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to

advise the ministers

The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge

systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights

Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional

framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous

knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced

with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the

rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play

a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information

Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the

NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the

National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual

Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous

knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from

growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an

indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges

74

the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and

bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to

organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the

project

Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of

funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of

these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and

international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding

indigenous knowledge are

To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous

communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and

technologies

Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural

industries that cater for rural areas in particular

Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to

local communities

Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous

knowledge centres studies and laboratories

Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers

and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills

In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous

knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to

75

enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative

framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued

that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by

their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in

terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights

As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of

understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no

function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently

using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents

neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and

geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of

indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and

socially achieved

While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is

important there is a time limit to ownership

Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy

for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous

knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos

indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous

knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local

communities

76

Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge

systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge

holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge

systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)

The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will

serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge

systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to

promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to

develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to

provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training

for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and

Technology 200530)

In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective

mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems

practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous

knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved

and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to

conduct and develop indigenous knowledge

However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous

knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available

regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this

77

study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library

service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department

of Science and Technology 200533)

Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community

information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes

community participation in empowering the community through preservation

However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore

libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment

Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record

and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous

and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one

person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law

Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of

indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording

using technology instruments such as video recording and others

At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including

abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from

the past The next chapter will focus more on this

It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its

ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners

78

Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure

that it is successfully preserved

Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local

communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current

policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and

there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems

Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights

while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective

policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain

their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against

indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal

The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous

knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the

policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must

legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms

recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of

rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort

has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of

indigenous knowledge

79

54 Conclusion

After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that

government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous

knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The

implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of

indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge

in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous

communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge

collectively

80

CHAPTER 5

MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

51 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from

getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous

knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is

also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices

(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)

The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep

alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through

specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by

keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on

passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp

Miruka 200990)

It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous

knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into

contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community

development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)

81

This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums

libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established

and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge

52 Indigenous knowledge centres

A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading

national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in

1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and

universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which

new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered

The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of

South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal

medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous

knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent

applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for

Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health

benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)

82

The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised

database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants

remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard

materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology

plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous

knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

Communication 2007)

The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous

knowledge centres should follow to include

Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect

document and distribute information on various components of indigenous

knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment

and so forth

Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable

methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap

and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor

Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary

research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including

knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence

on indigenous knowledge systems

Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres

should be promoted

83

Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical

assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge

53 Museums

Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language

culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable

resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous

knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public

money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage

of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of

Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online

2012)

The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of

indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs

with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the

mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people

It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with

human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal

plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial

(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their

consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)

84

In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the

public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as

their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San

peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also

accessible to the public

However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from

the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry

Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include

rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections

Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an

alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and

protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations

In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked

However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that

every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for

museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in

the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a

Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South

African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as

a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England

85

According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large

buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display

throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both

inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris

displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a

ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie

Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial

Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African

History Online 20111)

Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics

and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at

Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study

collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South

Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a

new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online

20111)

54 Laboratories

Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in

various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many

more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for

researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in

line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development

86

The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and

Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In

2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF

of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for

the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource

development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity

to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55

million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of

research equipment (Cherry 20101)

The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces

innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been

involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from

indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge

that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new

herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in

collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles

were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant

Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the

custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of

indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together

87

towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa

(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

55 Libraries

Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional

cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have

generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving

indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals

to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection

organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)

Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have

positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21

and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed

that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks

and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation

of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)

Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly

and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important

process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs

different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species

The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and

Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have

established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which

88

commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the

foundation of indigenous knowledge systems

According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous

Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and

teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous

knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific

areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including

languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green

magazine 2010)

Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local

communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations

(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express

knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends

libraries and archives to do the following

It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and

disseminates indigenous knowledge resources

Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research

and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society

The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be

involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to

understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the

indigenous knowledge system

89

Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to

indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people

56 Knowledge management model

When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is

important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge

Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by

indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities

(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be

preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if

indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become

static and redundant

The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems

store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by

going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology

music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving

indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to

be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a

good opportunity to refine it and renew it

Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge

systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated

90

in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing

retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of

individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the

community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the

first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models

are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can

also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the

Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports

libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa

needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa

is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural

collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In

this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture

will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that

comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube

amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it

should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the

indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture

91

Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated

with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which

have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe

Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to

create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product

development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because

the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous

knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model

promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural

values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit

knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The

process entails four different modes of conversion

Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with

converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to

show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together

In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous

knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work

experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and

teamwork (Hong 2010)

92

Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and

internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)

The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of

tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an

organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and

other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit

understanding

The third process called the combination process is the type where members

combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop

strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)

Socialisation

Empathising

Externalisation

Articulating

Embodying

Internalisation

Connecting

Combination

Tacit knowledge

Explicit

knowledge

Tacit

knowledge

Explicit knowledge

Tacit knowledge

93

If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such

knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the

community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of

common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively

creates a sharing atmosphere

Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the

embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of

self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge

through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental

assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo

The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word

which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed

together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and

a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the

knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge

management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the

knowledge management processes

There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba

and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are

94

Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences

beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is

particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things

especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is

built (socialisation)

Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared

converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images

symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit

(Externalisation)

Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing

knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for

growth and development

Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit

knowledge

According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the

inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his

colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets

to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of

knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a

negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities

Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten

principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp

95

Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge

management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The

principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes

and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is

based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter

The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective

management requires investment of other assets

Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and

technology in complementary ways

Knowledge management requires knowledge managers

It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their

knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which

will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the

Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in

formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on

knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

96

57 Conclusion

This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South

Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management

provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and

in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries

and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that

government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local

needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded

access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and

other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering

with communities

The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous

knowledge system in South Africa

97

CHAPTER 6

CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN

SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction

The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing

requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction

(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that

concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge

Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the

discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring

the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu

20084)

This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and

preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we

can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path

to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous

knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the

next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several

challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge

Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution

and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives

98

62 Challenges of management and preservation

621 Lack of taxonomists

Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet

Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of

organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the

variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four

tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem

diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are

as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen

as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)

There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new

and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification

classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be

preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific

names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have

always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species

that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)

Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has

encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy

positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it

can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000

botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)

99

stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous

knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology

and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge

(Raphesu 20085)

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions

Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for

agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the

usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)

The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-

economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance

of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that

explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer

Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution

in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This

has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger

generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South

African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique

indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has

made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was

reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access

100

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities

The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it

difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous

knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different

parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor

indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge

is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and

information centres

National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous

knowledge

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of

individuals

Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the

profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in

particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products

for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was

tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an

individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and

documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not

want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for

knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)

101

63 Conclusion

Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels

the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of

proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals

and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges

facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa

Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of

indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to

promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the

potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing

information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much

more

The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the

study

102

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction

This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to

different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as

for future research on the subject

72 Conclusion

The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge

preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the

theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available

in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of

preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main

findings are

The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in

different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and

traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several

fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-

economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because

the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this

103

knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast

growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research

activities etc

In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available

to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries

museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible

mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present

libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model

thus their services currently only caters for the elite

Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National

Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition

only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities

Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous

knowledge studies

Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more

attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is

crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is

a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which

was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In

addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the

needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for

104

policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and

initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation

72 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this

study makes the following recommendations

Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social

interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure

that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to

generation

Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow

of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such

as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage

and share their indigenous knowledge

To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories

and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information

are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All

bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and

databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will

achieve sustainable development

105

All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have

indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be

obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information

centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in

the preservation of indigenous knowledge

Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation

and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous

knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement

of traditional healers but should include farmers and others

There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC

and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in

facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not

only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual

Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in

order for various indigenous species to be preserved

It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels

are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and

documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder

such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute

the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful

106

Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it

was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time

and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the

geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the

researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would

have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation

and its importance as a development tool

107

REFERENCES

ADACHI Y 2010 Examination of knowledge Nonakarsquos theory in terms of

linguistic framework team Minutes of the Ministry of International Policy of

YamanashiYamanashi Prefectural University 6 21-33

AGRAWAL A 1995Dismantling the divide between the indigenous and

scientific knowledge108 Cowley RD Oxford OX4 1JFUKJournal of

Development and Change 26 413-439

AGRAWAL A 1996 Indigenous and scientific knowledge some critical

comments Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor3(3) 33-41

AKINDE TA 2008 Indigenous knowledge dissemination and use a discuss

Samaru Journal of Information Studies 8(2) 8-11

ALTIERI MA amp MERRICK LC 1987 In situ Conservation of crop genetic

resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems New York

Botanical Garden and Springer Economic Botany 41(1) 86-96

BERCKMOES LH 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge in South

AfricaResearch and Communication Division Directorate Cultural

Cooperation Education and Research Ministry of Foreign Affairs The Hague

BINNEMAN J 1999 Mummified human remains from the Kouga Mountains

Eastern CapeThe Digging Stick 16(2) 1-12

BLACK J 1993 Development Jujitsu looking on the bright sideStudies in

Comparative International Development 28(1) 71-79

BURCH S 2007 Knowledge sharing for rural development challenges

experiences and methods Latin American Information Agency ALAI

108

Available from httpalainetorgpublicaknowledgetss20inglespdf

[Accessed 12022012]

CLARKSON L MORRISETTE V amp REGALLET G 1992Our responsibility

to the seventh generation Indigenous people and sustainable development

International Institute for Sustainable Development Winnipegp1-92

CHABALALA H 2008 African Traditional Medicines The role of indigenous

knowledge systems in bioprospecting and product development in South

Africa National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems Department of

Science and Technology South Africa

CHERRY M 2010 National Research Foundation gets R250 million boost

from government while PHD numbers fall South African Journal of Science

106(1112) 1

CHIKONZO A 2006The potential of information and communication

technologies in collecting preserving and disseminating indigenous

knowledge in Africa The International Information and Library Review

38132-138

CONSIDE OXFORD DICTIONARY 2002 South Africa Cape Town Oxford

University Press

COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

COMMUNICATION 2007 Annual report 20078 CSIRScienceScope 2(1)

1-56

DAHLBERG AC amp TRYGGER SB 2009 Indigenous Medicine and primary

health care The importance of lay knowledge and use of medicinal plants in

rural South Africa Human Ecology 37 79-94

DANIELS G1994 Resource centres a challenge for us all The Cape

Librarian 38(1) 34-35

ii

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis submitted for the degree of M-Tech Comparative

Local Development Institute for Economic Research on Innovation Faculty of

Economics and Finance at Tshwane University of Technology is my original work

and has not previously been submitted to any other institution of higher education I

further declare that all sources cited or quoted are indicated and acknowledged by

means of a comprehensive list of references

Doreen Nanky Boikhutso

200184327

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all I want to thank God ldquoMoemedi-Modimomothordquo for the sound health and

wisdom He gave unto me throughout the period of this study It is from Him all

blessings flow

My special thanks go to my supervisor Dr Sanya Osha for his thorough supervision

and guidance Despite his busy schedule he created time to attend to this study His

advice and supervision were constructive and thorough I would also like to mention

the tireless support of my beloved husband Molefe Boikhutso and my son Manase

Boikhutso They stood by me throughout the period of this study and their

encouragement and prayers are commendable

I furthermore give thanks to my parents Emily and Fannie Maluwa my sister

Winky and my parents-in-law Nicholas and Shadigolo Boikhutso for their support

and prayers They prayed for me for divine inspiration and guidance throughout my

academic journey

My heart-felt appreciation also goes to the staff of IERI for their support and

mentorship The guidance of Prof Mario Scerri is sincerely appreciated as is the

mentorship of Jan Grundling He was the one who introduced me to the programme

and was always willing to assist me when I needed him The kind contribution of Dr

Benjamin Akpor is also worth mentioning

iv

The contribution of my colleagues is also appreciated most especially the advice

prayers and support of my good friend Sandrine Mouloungui cannot be forgotten

My special thanks also go to the Director of the Institute for Economic Research on

Innovation (IERI) Dr Rasigan Maharajh for creating an enabling environment in the

Institute for Postgraduate Study Finally I thank the Tshwane University of

Technology for providing me with a scholarship that enabled me complete my study

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

DECLARATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x

ABSTRACT xi

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation 1

12 Problem statement 10

13 Aim and objectives 11

14 Research questions 11

15 Study methodology 12

151 Study design 12

16 Chapter layout 13

17 Conclusion 14

CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction 15

22 Theoretical and conceptual framework of the study 16

221 Social theory 17

222 Ex-situ and in in-situ preservation approaches 20

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge 24

24 Indigenous knowledge system as tool for sustainable development 26

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge 30

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation 35

27 Conclusion 41

vi

CHAPTER 3 APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction 42

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture 42

33 Indigenous knowledge in health 47

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering 56

35 Conclusion 58

CHAPTER 4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN

CONTEXT

41 Introduction 59

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge 60

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy 64

531 Department of Arts and Culture 65

532 Department of Trade and Industry 66

533 Department of Health 66

534 Department of Science and Technology 67

44 Conclusion 79

CHAPTER 5 MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH

AFRICA

51 Introduction 80

52 Indigenous knowledge centres 81

53 Museums 83

54 Laboratories 85

55 Libraries 87

56 Knowledge management model 89

57 Conclusion 96

vii

CHAPTER 6 CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

PRESERVATION OF IN SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction 97

62 Challenges of management and preservation 98

621 Lack of taxonomists 98

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions 99

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities 100

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness

of individuals 100

63 Conclusion 101

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction 102

72 Conclusion 102

73 Recommendations 104

REFERENCES 107

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13

Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38

Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44

Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the

Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50

Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51

Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the

Limpopo Province of South Africa 53

ix

LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation

Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92

x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research

IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations

IK - Indigenous Knowledge

LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems

NGO - Non Governmental Organisation

NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office

REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation

UNDP - United Nation Development Program

UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations

SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination

UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes

FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational

WHO - World Health Organisation

UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights

SIDS - Small Island Developing States

THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act

WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation

DST - Department of Science and Technology

DTI - Department of trade and industry

HSRC - Human Science Research Council

NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development

xi

Abstract

Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people

through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at

reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular

emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of

a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and

the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge

promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and

document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for

decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources

management human animal and environmental health and other important activities

at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the

agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also

discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified

as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a

national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property

rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The

challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa

include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination

and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals

This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous

knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in

the country with particular emphasis on its preservation

1

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation

The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers

group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the

UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them

having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe

1998244)

Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism

was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign

colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking

control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the

colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics

and culture which regroup most of indigenous people

According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the

practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced

upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to

show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for

some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the

Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot

2

belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research

study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an

impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous

people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in

common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)

It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of

years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous

knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science

world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the

academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by

governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies

Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given

society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local

people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This

knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories

symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)

According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination

of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical

educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates

to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including

those used in liberation struggles

3

Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that

is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the

environment across cultures and geographical spaces

Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the

concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is

because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since

there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They

represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and

classification systems (Sithole 2007117)

Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms

such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural

people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although

certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the

purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo

are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts

of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the

preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of

indigenous knowledge

Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world

The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include

4

Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this

knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs

rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those

communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from

one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment

and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and

libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their

communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being

dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment

Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is

referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed

outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as

tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily

codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner

since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in

Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit

knowledge into explicit knowledge further

Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to

generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many

more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be

acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge

of what to eat

5

Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining

characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in

the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the

society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived

by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case

Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different

categories

(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa

is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a

multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up

about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of

black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural

resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous

people have always relied on their environment for survival

The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to

deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to

time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has

largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200812)

6

It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has

caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The

challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge

especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of

traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the

important aspects for sustainable resources

The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to

development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the

very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse

species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when

the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western

knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an

epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local

and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a

result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)

Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields

such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices

gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by

word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be

lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to

South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a

societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)

7

Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from

international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies

such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International

Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete

attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial

activities and development projects

Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management

objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both

knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little

indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places

of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge

serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of

the population as should be the case

There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is

the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information

plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is

also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs

to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by

authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)

Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos

minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though

8

most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to

explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden

the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and

generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important

for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool

This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving

indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of

material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals

Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly

designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According

to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of

their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and

access to them was aligned along racial lines

Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to

libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers

Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of

local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in

black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be

inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi

200562)

Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of

apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national

9

transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the

process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel

development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels

199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on

the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous

knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive

studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies

This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous

knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in

transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and

frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of

indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving

such information when needed

This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the

storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes

The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource

for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western

sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp

Lwoga 2007124)

10

12 Problem statement

Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due

to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a

result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies

which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is

argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer

quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances

where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental

Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and

younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To

avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent

need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few

instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are

either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)

Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous

knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for

preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will

adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South

Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that

serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos

indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo

11

(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as

well as in transferring it to future generations

13 Aims and objectives

Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect

encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution

this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and

methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were

pursued

to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with

specific focus on South Africa

to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge

systems and

to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of

indigenous knowledge in South Africa

14 Research questions

To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were

answered

Why is indigenous knowledge important

What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

12

What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa

Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South

Africa

What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems

face in South Africa

15 Study methodology

The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data

which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books

articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A

source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as

official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources

data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information

was then analysed in order to answer the research questions

151 Study Design

This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data

Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available

(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another

investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is

limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that

heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of

13

the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the

phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and

preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area

16 Chapter layout

The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11

Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study

Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter

Chapter 1

General introduction

This chapter starts with an overview of

indigenous knowledge in perspective It also

covers the problem statement the aim of the

study its research objectives and research

questions

Chapter 2

Theoretical framework

and literature review

This chapter presents the theoretical

framework of indigenous knowledge and

critically reviews the literature relating to

indigenous knowledge

Chapter 3

Application of

Indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter outlines the indigenous

knowledge found in South Africa and it

presents the existing of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as

agriculture health and culture in South Africa

Chapter 4

Indigenous knowledge

policy the South

This chapter provides the national policies

available for preserving and protecting

14

African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa

Chapter 5

Preservation of

indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter identifies the methods of

preserving indigenous knowledge used in

South Africa and the knowledge management

model that assists in preserving and managing

knowledge

Chapter 6 Challenges and

constrains of

indigenous knowledge

In this chapter the challenges and constraints

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are

discussed

Chapter7 Conclusion and

recommendation

Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion

limitations and recommendations

17 Conclusion

This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South

Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of

documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the

concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both

local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation

and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the

documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently

not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is

disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific

objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter

explains the theoretical framework of the study

15

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the

development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In

addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is

seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to

provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A

problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are

unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind

scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on

developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing

other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous

knowledge is important

Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous

farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse

geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations

crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous

knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most

local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable

resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore

16

considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development

processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch

20075)

This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for

development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed

by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different

scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable

development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this

chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries

The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from

harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently

introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that

indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development

22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study

According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of

statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept

that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among

variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and

reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)

Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation

to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving

17

attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of

resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ

and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed

221 Social theory

Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how

aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the

economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what

makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the

society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material

and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with

morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He

further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting

it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity

of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)

Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of

solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since

individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were

held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He

was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a

society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies

individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar

18

activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens

200613)

According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are

characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and

similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the

form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and

collective conscience (Giddens 200613)

Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which

arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and

they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the

body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would

certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was

characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity

was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)

South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that

social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely

appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included

certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the

industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the

result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into

racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic

disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)

19

Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural

context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances

and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and

design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and

conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry

farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers

200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same

purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as

Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order

to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)

In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the

current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business

promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is

difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)

Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn

about the solidarity from the indigenous communities

Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense

thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society

for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday

patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to

describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that

rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down

20

which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined

anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by

modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development

together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)

When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a

sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim

described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he

believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)

In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and

look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the

present (Giddens 200614)

222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches

To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of

survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate

some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is

acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous

knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and

accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important

role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced

two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These

theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering

21

development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for

the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)

The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect

indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various

ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more

The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical

and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve

this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should

be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He

stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate

information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge

systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations

Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of

various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account

the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their

production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural

development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for

designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not

to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick

198787)

Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an

effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another

22

advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in

preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge

preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be

scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and

dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)

The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and

documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of

practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be

considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is

required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their

cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts

and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and

documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of

indigenous knowledge

Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required

attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major

drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need

for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails

to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous

knowledge especially for the marginalised poor

It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to

communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus

23

becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to

gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of

sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to

individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state

and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation

of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights

Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of

the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is

tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs

stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates

that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities

gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on

which they rely

Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still

considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge

preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to

be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous

communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for

indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge

by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge

certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the

study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and

beliefs by spending time together

24

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge

The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on

economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable

development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for

development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable

development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to

Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit

knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western

sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions

based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)

Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences

analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods

Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development

processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development

programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship

deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities

are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of

knowing

Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one

knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the

Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and

the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that

25

development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field

of women in development (Escobar199514)

Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static

unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing

reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he

explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide

the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be

conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)

Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful

seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When

it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development

although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development

used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level

Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting

something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)

Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions

manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that

technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to

development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-

economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs

to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems

26

However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to

solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing

24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development

Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its

importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level

indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food

security education natural resources management human animal and

environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key

element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival

(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for

developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous

knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local

community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic

development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and

basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World

Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-

directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it

is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when

communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most

effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs

and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most

27

especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure

indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the

process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are

concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be

appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of

wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When

properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-

centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about

their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of

crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be

used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a

state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)

Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous

knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the

Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially

Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations

Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the

United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of

documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other

international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of

indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)

28

Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in

sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries

have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In

addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local

communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of

indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)

However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in

recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries

Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order

recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital

component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy

distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being

neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it

almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems

and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making

it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp

Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)

Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and

municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report

from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous

knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for

29

stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations

were made

Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-

cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for

cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural

democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems

must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa

The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African

Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised

Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes

must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes

Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to

engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions

A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including

traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth

Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for

implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development

programmes

Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are

currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear

that they will give away their rights

Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning

Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain

categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is

30

restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or

commercialised

All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government

structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous

knowledge system policy

Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical

to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system

Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development

it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is

therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives

originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same

philosophical underpinning

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge

In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and

dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of

those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information

gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and

developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor

This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are

unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde

20089)

31

The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important

way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years

indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic

and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although

the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various

bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the

appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific

and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it

Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the

prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of

indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove

destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process

of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied

in developing countries The steps are

Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case

indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to

find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it

requires an external observer to identify it

The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of

the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is

essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge

Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because

indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature

32

It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person

to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations

modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs

Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from

disappearing

It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the

form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and

storytelling

Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the

other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments

The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the

developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally

Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and

community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals

and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for

social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement

and capabilities

Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance

development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous

knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals

within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions

that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is

33

vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national

level

According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange

of indigenous knowledge

Computers

Tape recorders

Radio

Television

Newspapers

Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras

ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities

Fax

CD-ROM

Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets

Diskettes

Social gatherings in communities

Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However

formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of

indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge

and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous

knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living

sustainably

34

To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities

there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage

teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its

wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant

skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of

indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by

(Gorjestani 2002)

In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic

Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household

incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted

to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not

properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were

destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied

gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant

increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green

manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to

reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani

2002)

In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk

and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose

by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local

farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work

35

Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200

households in 65 villages

The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce

technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training

institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous

institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned

resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the

importance of community involvement in local solutions

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation

In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or

damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is

reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the

survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)

According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300

million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and

cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of

emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic

approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for

forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap

strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure

indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local

36

communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their

knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been

involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed

their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)

In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the

South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous

people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the

unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The

indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away

from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were

destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima

amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)

A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development

of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge

System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The

programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities

to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges

Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective

governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local

knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to

Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights

methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is

37

still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western

knowledge (Ngulube 2002)

It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small

scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is

more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local

knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation

strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and

national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ

preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous

medicinal practises

It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous

knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on

indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional

medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like

malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical

companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture

of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily

on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief

Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic

needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of

Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported

out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some

38

Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and

protection of biodiversity

Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are

found in Table 21

Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa

Country Application

Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into

sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation

agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted

from generation to generation

Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The

knowledge is passed down from generation to generation

Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and

burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes

away

Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region

were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and

Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural

crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering

accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a

local language called Bambara

Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are

secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of

39

the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating

hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a

special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to

contract and to expel blood clots

South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried

mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are

inhaled through the mouth

Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the

fields to prevent soil degradation

Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of

ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease

Source Dlamini 2005

In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of

society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their

environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to

use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo

people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these

plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake

bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving

as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)

Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per

cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical

infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people

40

rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important

aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality

In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine

practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional

medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when

compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is

120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly

found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more

reasonable option for the rural people

As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances

local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts

of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional

techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally

available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation

and building on the patterns and processes of nature

In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent

of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000

to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic

practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-

billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala

20084)

41

27 Conclusion

Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people

throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of

the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were

also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous

knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable

development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the

application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa

42

CHAPTER 3

APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction

Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges

facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa

The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries

cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the

health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing

It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective

ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural

communities and future generations

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture

Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked

collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-

sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its

powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous

communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994

indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)

43

During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in

Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods

which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which

are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous

communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation

(Matenge et al 2011)

Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the

livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated

that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional

agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which

contributed towards better food security

Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology

usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately

modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South

Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous

farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel

owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural

activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga

(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start

ploughing and sowing

44

Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have

gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions

They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite

accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance

which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation

after generation

Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers

in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind

of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the

English translation

Table 31 Classification of different types of rain

Sepedi (local language) English

Pula yakgogolamooko First rain

Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail

Modupi Soft and very desirable rain

Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction

Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction

Borwa A cool rain coming from the south

Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)

Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms

and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-

million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia

45

Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in

Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the

Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people

stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)

The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for

many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-

bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of

Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly

affected during the mopane worm season

Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content

of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it

has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent

protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)

Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated

from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of

warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to

release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes

After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is

repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs

are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat

the bugs raw or cooked with porridge

46

Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed

Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they

dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still

widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried

meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo

Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is

a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa

has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of

trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary

source of income for many people

Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good

source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore

perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects

are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo

Leader Spring 2006)

Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at

the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the

Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm

and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted

resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms

valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African

47

silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the

building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)

Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but

over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability

Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they

are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof

Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a

yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)

According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000

square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it

could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is

also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for

rural people

Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is

bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)

33 Indigenous knowledge in health

In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines

was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative

therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft

Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970

48

banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of

traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their

knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al

2007208)

Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an

annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority

for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban

areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for

many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor

households

At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because

they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or

because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties

and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it

defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs

incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies

manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well

being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)

Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important

resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and

economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of

49

diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites

headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others

It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the

treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory

diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)

Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been

lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous

plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is

focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally

Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not

strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)

Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African

economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of

traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade

contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or

traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous

plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines

are still more affordable than Western medicine

It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by

Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal

plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to

50

areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented

them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects

the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the

other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that

the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent

between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male

circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences

Research Council 20091)

The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector

usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32

provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional

healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant

harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same

income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done

through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers

Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional

medicines industry of South Africa

Role player Estimated number in the business Average income

(Rand) per partaker

Traditional healer

diviner herbalist

prophets

6 8000- fulltime healers

20 0000 - include all traditional healers

in South Africa

3 8491

51

Street trader 3 000 7 941

Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do

business on the streets

7 941

Source Mander et al 2007

As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers

Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of

South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of

alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of

preservation qualification and accreditation

Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa

traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To

address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test

products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain

and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)

Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007

Province Total

Gauteng 61 465

Mpumalanga 57 524

KwaZulu-Natal 25 430

Free State 22 645

Eastern Cape 10 780

52

Limpopo 7 366

North West 5 935

Western Cape 2 600

Northern Cape 2 221

Total 185 477

Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi

2009)

Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the

daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in

South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources

including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species

are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South

Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity

Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also

make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger

200979)

Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for

food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while

26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional

which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal

properties

53

In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)

shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of

South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in

muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open

access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi

markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in

Table 34

Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo

South Africa

Scientific name Frequency of

species traded

()

Part

used

Total amount in

16 muthi shops

(kg)

Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308

Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245

Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967

Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940

Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267

Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247

Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935

Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774

Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011

The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the

Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a

54

slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education

widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the

land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional

properties of various plants in their environment

The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites

during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It

has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause

irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels

In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the

hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in

the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )

A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected

extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites

accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The

CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an

ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by

1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$

yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely

scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The

CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has

entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people

55

The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is

another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The

Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different

medicinal plants

According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million

South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700

indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also

known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species

The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a

beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other

beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel

1997)

Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not

yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different

ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have

aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as

medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush

teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people

chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people

boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it

56

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering

Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social

behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort

(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or

label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its

eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities

which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures

it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates

that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older

person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the

oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the

expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)

Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where

oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure

that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and

traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce

excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and

furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered

heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion

The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great

deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures

by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The

57

Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is

discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study

Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive

baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of

sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as

beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea

markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the

economy (Nettleton 201060)

According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets

ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that

are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa

have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain

storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with

lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)

The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to

create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable

indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective

in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its

meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous

groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings

58

Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The

challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small

amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the

cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of

this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous

knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop

indigenous crafts

35 Conclusion

South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of

poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in

order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa

have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other

communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted

preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge

can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible

healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people

having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with

indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully

explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to

promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into

the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge

policy and framework

59

CHAPTER 4

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

41 Introduction

The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a

result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities

experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South

Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has

resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and

development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard

all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted

the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New

Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge

system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished

continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)

South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual

property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some

countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding

their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology

(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on

indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free

60

education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla

200729)

Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of

indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of

indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its

preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in

many African countries (Msuya 20074)

This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of

indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property

rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes

the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge

Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen

as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever

government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla

200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is

essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities

Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some

government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key

61

ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the

participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play

an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity

reasoning of policy

Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and

recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to

realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring

about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous

knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and

exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates

the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural

communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for

indigenous knowledge

Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge

Political commitment on indigenous knowledge

Preservation of indigenous knowledge

Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge

Copyright and patent issues

Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it

Use of indigenous knowledge

Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge

In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing

protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to

62

understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are

connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the

protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and

Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the

society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or

companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical

performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo

Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people

have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over

the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property

rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at

an international level through legally binding treaties

Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a

result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while

developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is

communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult

to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-

Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)

Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative

sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft

sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and

63

eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial

benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)

Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge

Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus

on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the

preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council

2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are

in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of

Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade

Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several

countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among

themselves

Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different

agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements

were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These

include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United

Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)

TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO

agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with

trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement

The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to

64

developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities

(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access

to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard

for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise

and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe

199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the

UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty

needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the

sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights

of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural

identity (Mugabe 199925)

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy

Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a

policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999

The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and

research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory

measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the

DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and

Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on

formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge

policy

65

431 Department of Arts and Culture

The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with

encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and

tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of

Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the

Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local

As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South

Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of

social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The

policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural

diversity during apartheid

Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression

which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to

redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise

all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected

and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge

by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the

value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department

of Science and Technology 200519)

It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social

imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and

remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions

66

expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next

Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and

documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that

reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established

(Department of Trade Industry 2008)

432 Department of Trade and Industry

The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being

exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered

protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are

various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual

property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African

context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis

legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved

in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents

Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a

positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a

model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)

433 Department of Health

Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a

source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive

contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while

67

knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a

hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of

benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of

NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that

give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to

preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the

benefits

The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly

recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to

ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The

purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a

national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over

registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and

Technology 200518)

434 Department of Science and Technology

The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting

indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge

report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is

committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing

indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge

adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate

for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive

68

various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at

organisations such as the National Research Foundation

Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because

of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of

Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the

identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology

(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous

knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of

globalisation

As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos

development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions

towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of

African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different

cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One

of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of

self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must

ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a

commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture

language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)

69

Development of services provided by traditional healers

Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa

making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South

Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As

indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the

practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks

safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available

also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The

Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system

The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the

Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional

Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the

constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement

The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety

and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management

and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners

It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in

violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing

At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such

as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the

circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South

70

Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos

Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)

Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy

Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in

the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has

been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the

lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role

in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir

for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems

Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national

laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and

Development linear model of innovation

Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge

system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge

to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to

the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms

promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous

knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology

200528)

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create

new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale

71

of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is

therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge

The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable

cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South

African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing

framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures

minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous

knowledge research

Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous

knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds

wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a

good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to

innovation

Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has

contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is

adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to

appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology

sector

While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant

methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various

learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many

72

years Western context has influenced the South African education and development

policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the

educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not

only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous

knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning

The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous

knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST

enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology

strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as

specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science

and Technology 200528)

In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At

the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0

76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in

addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as

the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty

In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous

knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance

of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the

various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems

The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous

73

knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the

follows

The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed

under the DST

The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to

advise the ministers

The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge

systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights

Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional

framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous

knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced

with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the

rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play

a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information

Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the

NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the

National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual

Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous

knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from

growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an

indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges

74

the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and

bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to

organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the

project

Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of

funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of

these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and

international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding

indigenous knowledge are

To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous

communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and

technologies

Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural

industries that cater for rural areas in particular

Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to

local communities

Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous

knowledge centres studies and laboratories

Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers

and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills

In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous

knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to

75

enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative

framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued

that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by

their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in

terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights

As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of

understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no

function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently

using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents

neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and

geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of

indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and

socially achieved

While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is

important there is a time limit to ownership

Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy

for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous

knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos

indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous

knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local

communities

76

Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge

systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge

holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge

systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)

The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will

serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge

systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to

promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to

develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to

provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training

for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and

Technology 200530)

In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective

mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems

practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous

knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved

and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to

conduct and develop indigenous knowledge

However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous

knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available

regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this

77

study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library

service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department

of Science and Technology 200533)

Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community

information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes

community participation in empowering the community through preservation

However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore

libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment

Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record

and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous

and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one

person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law

Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of

indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording

using technology instruments such as video recording and others

At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including

abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from

the past The next chapter will focus more on this

It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its

ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners

78

Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure

that it is successfully preserved

Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local

communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current

policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and

there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems

Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights

while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective

policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain

their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against

indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal

The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous

knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the

policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must

legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms

recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of

rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort

has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of

indigenous knowledge

79

54 Conclusion

After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that

government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous

knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The

implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of

indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge

in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous

communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge

collectively

80

CHAPTER 5

MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

51 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from

getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous

knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is

also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices

(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)

The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep

alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through

specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by

keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on

passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp

Miruka 200990)

It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous

knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into

contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community

development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)

81

This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums

libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established

and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge

52 Indigenous knowledge centres

A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading

national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in

1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and

universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which

new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered

The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of

South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal

medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous

knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent

applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for

Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health

benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)

82

The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised

database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants

remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard

materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology

plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous

knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

Communication 2007)

The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous

knowledge centres should follow to include

Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect

document and distribute information on various components of indigenous

knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment

and so forth

Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable

methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap

and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor

Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary

research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including

knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence

on indigenous knowledge systems

Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres

should be promoted

83

Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical

assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge

53 Museums

Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language

culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable

resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous

knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public

money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage

of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of

Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online

2012)

The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of

indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs

with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the

mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people

It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with

human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal

plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial

(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their

consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)

84

In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the

public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as

their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San

peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also

accessible to the public

However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from

the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry

Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include

rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections

Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an

alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and

protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations

In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked

However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that

every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for

museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in

the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a

Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South

African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as

a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England

85

According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large

buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display

throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both

inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris

displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a

ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie

Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial

Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African

History Online 20111)

Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics

and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at

Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study

collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South

Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a

new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online

20111)

54 Laboratories

Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in

various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many

more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for

researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in

line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development

86

The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and

Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In

2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF

of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for

the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource

development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity

to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55

million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of

research equipment (Cherry 20101)

The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces

innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been

involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from

indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge

that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new

herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in

collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles

were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant

Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the

custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of

indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together

87

towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa

(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

55 Libraries

Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional

cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have

generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving

indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals

to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection

organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)

Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have

positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21

and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed

that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks

and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation

of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)

Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly

and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important

process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs

different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species

The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and

Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have

established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which

88

commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the

foundation of indigenous knowledge systems

According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous

Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and

teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous

knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific

areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including

languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green

magazine 2010)

Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local

communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations

(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express

knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends

libraries and archives to do the following

It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and

disseminates indigenous knowledge resources

Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research

and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society

The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be

involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to

understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the

indigenous knowledge system

89

Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to

indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people

56 Knowledge management model

When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is

important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge

Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by

indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities

(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be

preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if

indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become

static and redundant

The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems

store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by

going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology

music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving

indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to

be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a

good opportunity to refine it and renew it

Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge

systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated

90

in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing

retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of

individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the

community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the

first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models

are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can

also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the

Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports

libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa

needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa

is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural

collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In

this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture

will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that

comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube

amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it

should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the

indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture

91

Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated

with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which

have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe

Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to

create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product

development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because

the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous

knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model

promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural

values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit

knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The

process entails four different modes of conversion

Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with

converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to

show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together

In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous

knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work

experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and

teamwork (Hong 2010)

92

Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and

internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)

The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of

tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an

organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and

other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit

understanding

The third process called the combination process is the type where members

combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop

strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)

Socialisation

Empathising

Externalisation

Articulating

Embodying

Internalisation

Connecting

Combination

Tacit knowledge

Explicit

knowledge

Tacit

knowledge

Explicit knowledge

Tacit knowledge

93

If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such

knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the

community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of

common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively

creates a sharing atmosphere

Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the

embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of

self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge

through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental

assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo

The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word

which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed

together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and

a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the

knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge

management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the

knowledge management processes

There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba

and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are

94

Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences

beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is

particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things

especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is

built (socialisation)

Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared

converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images

symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit

(Externalisation)

Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing

knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for

growth and development

Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit

knowledge

According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the

inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his

colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets

to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of

knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a

negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities

Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten

principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp

95

Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge

management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The

principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes

and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is

based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter

The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective

management requires investment of other assets

Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and

technology in complementary ways

Knowledge management requires knowledge managers

It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their

knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which

will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the

Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in

formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on

knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

96

57 Conclusion

This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South

Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management

provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and

in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries

and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that

government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local

needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded

access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and

other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering

with communities

The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous

knowledge system in South Africa

97

CHAPTER 6

CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN

SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction

The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing

requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction

(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that

concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge

Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the

discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring

the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu

20084)

This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and

preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we

can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path

to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous

knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the

next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several

challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge

Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution

and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives

98

62 Challenges of management and preservation

621 Lack of taxonomists

Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet

Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of

organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the

variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four

tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem

diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are

as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen

as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)

There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new

and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification

classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be

preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific

names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have

always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species

that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)

Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has

encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy

positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it

can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000

botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)

99

stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous

knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology

and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge

(Raphesu 20085)

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions

Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for

agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the

usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)

The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-

economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance

of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that

explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer

Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution

in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This

has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger

generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South

African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique

indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has

made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was

reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access

100

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities

The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it

difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous

knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different

parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor

indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge

is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and

information centres

National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous

knowledge

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of

individuals

Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the

profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in

particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products

for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was

tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an

individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and

documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not

want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for

knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)

101

63 Conclusion

Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels

the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of

proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals

and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges

facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa

Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of

indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to

promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the

potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing

information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much

more

The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the

study

102

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction

This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to

different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as

for future research on the subject

72 Conclusion

The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge

preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the

theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available

in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of

preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main

findings are

The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in

different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and

traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several

fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-

economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because

the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this

103

knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast

growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research

activities etc

In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available

to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries

museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible

mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present

libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model

thus their services currently only caters for the elite

Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National

Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition

only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities

Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous

knowledge studies

Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more

attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is

crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is

a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which

was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In

addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the

needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for

104

policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and

initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation

72 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this

study makes the following recommendations

Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social

interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure

that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to

generation

Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow

of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such

as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage

and share their indigenous knowledge

To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories

and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information

are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All

bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and

databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will

achieve sustainable development

105

All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have

indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be

obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information

centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in

the preservation of indigenous knowledge

Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation

and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous

knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement

of traditional healers but should include farmers and others

There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC

and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in

facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not

only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual

Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in

order for various indigenous species to be preserved

It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels

are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and

documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder

such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute

the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful

106

Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it

was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time

and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the

geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the

researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would

have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation

and its importance as a development tool

107

REFERENCES

ADACHI Y 2010 Examination of knowledge Nonakarsquos theory in terms of

linguistic framework team Minutes of the Ministry of International Policy of

YamanashiYamanashi Prefectural University 6 21-33

AGRAWAL A 1995Dismantling the divide between the indigenous and

scientific knowledge108 Cowley RD Oxford OX4 1JFUKJournal of

Development and Change 26 413-439

AGRAWAL A 1996 Indigenous and scientific knowledge some critical

comments Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor3(3) 33-41

AKINDE TA 2008 Indigenous knowledge dissemination and use a discuss

Samaru Journal of Information Studies 8(2) 8-11

ALTIERI MA amp MERRICK LC 1987 In situ Conservation of crop genetic

resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems New York

Botanical Garden and Springer Economic Botany 41(1) 86-96

BERCKMOES LH 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge in South

AfricaResearch and Communication Division Directorate Cultural

Cooperation Education and Research Ministry of Foreign Affairs The Hague

BINNEMAN J 1999 Mummified human remains from the Kouga Mountains

Eastern CapeThe Digging Stick 16(2) 1-12

BLACK J 1993 Development Jujitsu looking on the bright sideStudies in

Comparative International Development 28(1) 71-79

BURCH S 2007 Knowledge sharing for rural development challenges

experiences and methods Latin American Information Agency ALAI

108

Available from httpalainetorgpublicaknowledgetss20inglespdf

[Accessed 12022012]

CLARKSON L MORRISETTE V amp REGALLET G 1992Our responsibility

to the seventh generation Indigenous people and sustainable development

International Institute for Sustainable Development Winnipegp1-92

CHABALALA H 2008 African Traditional Medicines The role of indigenous

knowledge systems in bioprospecting and product development in South

Africa National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems Department of

Science and Technology South Africa

CHERRY M 2010 National Research Foundation gets R250 million boost

from government while PHD numbers fall South African Journal of Science

106(1112) 1

CHIKONZO A 2006The potential of information and communication

technologies in collecting preserving and disseminating indigenous

knowledge in Africa The International Information and Library Review

38132-138

CONSIDE OXFORD DICTIONARY 2002 South Africa Cape Town Oxford

University Press

COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

COMMUNICATION 2007 Annual report 20078 CSIRScienceScope 2(1)

1-56

DAHLBERG AC amp TRYGGER SB 2009 Indigenous Medicine and primary

health care The importance of lay knowledge and use of medicinal plants in

rural South Africa Human Ecology 37 79-94

DANIELS G1994 Resource centres a challenge for us all The Cape

Librarian 38(1) 34-35

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all I want to thank God ldquoMoemedi-Modimomothordquo for the sound health and

wisdom He gave unto me throughout the period of this study It is from Him all

blessings flow

My special thanks go to my supervisor Dr Sanya Osha for his thorough supervision

and guidance Despite his busy schedule he created time to attend to this study His

advice and supervision were constructive and thorough I would also like to mention

the tireless support of my beloved husband Molefe Boikhutso and my son Manase

Boikhutso They stood by me throughout the period of this study and their

encouragement and prayers are commendable

I furthermore give thanks to my parents Emily and Fannie Maluwa my sister

Winky and my parents-in-law Nicholas and Shadigolo Boikhutso for their support

and prayers They prayed for me for divine inspiration and guidance throughout my

academic journey

My heart-felt appreciation also goes to the staff of IERI for their support and

mentorship The guidance of Prof Mario Scerri is sincerely appreciated as is the

mentorship of Jan Grundling He was the one who introduced me to the programme

and was always willing to assist me when I needed him The kind contribution of Dr

Benjamin Akpor is also worth mentioning

iv

The contribution of my colleagues is also appreciated most especially the advice

prayers and support of my good friend Sandrine Mouloungui cannot be forgotten

My special thanks also go to the Director of the Institute for Economic Research on

Innovation (IERI) Dr Rasigan Maharajh for creating an enabling environment in the

Institute for Postgraduate Study Finally I thank the Tshwane University of

Technology for providing me with a scholarship that enabled me complete my study

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

DECLARATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x

ABSTRACT xi

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation 1

12 Problem statement 10

13 Aim and objectives 11

14 Research questions 11

15 Study methodology 12

151 Study design 12

16 Chapter layout 13

17 Conclusion 14

CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction 15

22 Theoretical and conceptual framework of the study 16

221 Social theory 17

222 Ex-situ and in in-situ preservation approaches 20

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge 24

24 Indigenous knowledge system as tool for sustainable development 26

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge 30

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation 35

27 Conclusion 41

vi

CHAPTER 3 APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction 42

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture 42

33 Indigenous knowledge in health 47

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering 56

35 Conclusion 58

CHAPTER 4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN

CONTEXT

41 Introduction 59

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge 60

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy 64

531 Department of Arts and Culture 65

532 Department of Trade and Industry 66

533 Department of Health 66

534 Department of Science and Technology 67

44 Conclusion 79

CHAPTER 5 MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH

AFRICA

51 Introduction 80

52 Indigenous knowledge centres 81

53 Museums 83

54 Laboratories 85

55 Libraries 87

56 Knowledge management model 89

57 Conclusion 96

vii

CHAPTER 6 CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

PRESERVATION OF IN SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction 97

62 Challenges of management and preservation 98

621 Lack of taxonomists 98

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions 99

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities 100

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness

of individuals 100

63 Conclusion 101

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction 102

72 Conclusion 102

73 Recommendations 104

REFERENCES 107

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13

Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38

Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44

Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the

Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50

Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51

Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the

Limpopo Province of South Africa 53

ix

LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation

Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92

x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research

IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations

IK - Indigenous Knowledge

LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems

NGO - Non Governmental Organisation

NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office

REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation

UNDP - United Nation Development Program

UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations

SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination

UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes

FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational

WHO - World Health Organisation

UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights

SIDS - Small Island Developing States

THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act

WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation

DST - Department of Science and Technology

DTI - Department of trade and industry

HSRC - Human Science Research Council

NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development

xi

Abstract

Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people

through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at

reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular

emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of

a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and

the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge

promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and

document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for

decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources

management human animal and environmental health and other important activities

at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the

agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also

discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified

as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a

national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property

rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The

challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa

include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination

and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals

This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous

knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in

the country with particular emphasis on its preservation

1

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation

The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers

group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the

UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them

having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe

1998244)

Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism

was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign

colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking

control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the

colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics

and culture which regroup most of indigenous people

According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the

practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced

upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to

show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for

some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the

Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot

2

belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research

study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an

impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous

people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in

common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)

It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of

years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous

knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science

world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the

academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by

governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies

Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given

society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local

people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This

knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories

symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)

According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination

of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical

educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates

to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including

those used in liberation struggles

3

Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that

is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the

environment across cultures and geographical spaces

Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the

concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is

because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since

there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They

represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and

classification systems (Sithole 2007117)

Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms

such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural

people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although

certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the

purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo

are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts

of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the

preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of

indigenous knowledge

Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world

The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include

4

Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this

knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs

rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those

communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from

one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment

and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and

libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their

communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being

dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment

Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is

referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed

outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as

tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily

codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner

since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in

Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit

knowledge into explicit knowledge further

Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to

generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many

more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be

acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge

of what to eat

5

Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining

characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in

the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the

society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived

by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case

Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different

categories

(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa

is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a

multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up

about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of

black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural

resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous

people have always relied on their environment for survival

The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to

deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to

time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has

largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200812)

6

It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has

caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The

challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge

especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of

traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the

important aspects for sustainable resources

The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to

development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the

very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse

species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when

the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western

knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an

epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local

and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a

result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)

Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields

such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices

gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by

word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be

lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to

South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a

societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)

7

Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from

international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies

such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International

Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete

attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial

activities and development projects

Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management

objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both

knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little

indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places

of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge

serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of

the population as should be the case

There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is

the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information

plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is

also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs

to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by

authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)

Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos

minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though

8

most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to

explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden

the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and

generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important

for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool

This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving

indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of

material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals

Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly

designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According

to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of

their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and

access to them was aligned along racial lines

Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to

libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers

Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of

local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in

black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be

inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi

200562)

Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of

apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national

9

transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the

process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel

development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels

199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on

the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous

knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive

studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies

This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous

knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in

transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and

frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of

indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving

such information when needed

This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the

storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes

The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource

for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western

sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp

Lwoga 2007124)

10

12 Problem statement

Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due

to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a

result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies

which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is

argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer

quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances

where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental

Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and

younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To

avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent

need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few

instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are

either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)

Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous

knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for

preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will

adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South

Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that

serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos

indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo

11

(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as

well as in transferring it to future generations

13 Aims and objectives

Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect

encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution

this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and

methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were

pursued

to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with

specific focus on South Africa

to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge

systems and

to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of

indigenous knowledge in South Africa

14 Research questions

To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were

answered

Why is indigenous knowledge important

What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

12

What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa

Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South

Africa

What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems

face in South Africa

15 Study methodology

The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data

which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books

articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A

source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as

official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources

data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information

was then analysed in order to answer the research questions

151 Study Design

This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data

Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available

(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another

investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is

limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that

heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of

13

the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the

phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and

preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area

16 Chapter layout

The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11

Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study

Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter

Chapter 1

General introduction

This chapter starts with an overview of

indigenous knowledge in perspective It also

covers the problem statement the aim of the

study its research objectives and research

questions

Chapter 2

Theoretical framework

and literature review

This chapter presents the theoretical

framework of indigenous knowledge and

critically reviews the literature relating to

indigenous knowledge

Chapter 3

Application of

Indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter outlines the indigenous

knowledge found in South Africa and it

presents the existing of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as

agriculture health and culture in South Africa

Chapter 4

Indigenous knowledge

policy the South

This chapter provides the national policies

available for preserving and protecting

14

African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa

Chapter 5

Preservation of

indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter identifies the methods of

preserving indigenous knowledge used in

South Africa and the knowledge management

model that assists in preserving and managing

knowledge

Chapter 6 Challenges and

constrains of

indigenous knowledge

In this chapter the challenges and constraints

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are

discussed

Chapter7 Conclusion and

recommendation

Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion

limitations and recommendations

17 Conclusion

This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South

Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of

documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the

concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both

local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation

and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the

documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently

not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is

disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific

objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter

explains the theoretical framework of the study

15

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the

development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In

addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is

seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to

provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A

problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are

unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind

scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on

developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing

other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous

knowledge is important

Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous

farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse

geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations

crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous

knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most

local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable

resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore

16

considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development

processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch

20075)

This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for

development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed

by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different

scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable

development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this

chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries

The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from

harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently

introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that

indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development

22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study

According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of

statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept

that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among

variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and

reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)

Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation

to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving

17

attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of

resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ

and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed

221 Social theory

Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how

aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the

economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what

makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the

society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material

and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with

morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He

further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting

it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity

of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)

Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of

solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since

individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were

held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He

was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a

society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies

individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar

18

activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens

200613)

According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are

characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and

similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the

form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and

collective conscience (Giddens 200613)

Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which

arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and

they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the

body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would

certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was

characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity

was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)

South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that

social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely

appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included

certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the

industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the

result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into

racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic

disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)

19

Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural

context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances

and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and

design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and

conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry

farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers

200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same

purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as

Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order

to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)

In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the

current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business

promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is

difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)

Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn

about the solidarity from the indigenous communities

Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense

thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society

for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday

patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to

describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that

rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down

20

which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined

anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by

modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development

together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)

When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a

sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim

described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he

believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)

In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and

look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the

present (Giddens 200614)

222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches

To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of

survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate

some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is

acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous

knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and

accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important

role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced

two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These

theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering

21

development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for

the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)

The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect

indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various

ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more

The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical

and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve

this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should

be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He

stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate

information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge

systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations

Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of

various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account

the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their

production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural

development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for

designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not

to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick

198787)

Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an

effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another

22

advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in

preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge

preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be

scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and

dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)

The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and

documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of

practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be

considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is

required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their

cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts

and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and

documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of

indigenous knowledge

Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required

attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major

drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need

for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails

to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous

knowledge especially for the marginalised poor

It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to

communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus

23

becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to

gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of

sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to

individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state

and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation

of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights

Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of

the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is

tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs

stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates

that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities

gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on

which they rely

Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still

considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge

preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to

be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous

communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for

indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge

by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge

certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the

study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and

beliefs by spending time together

24

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge

The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on

economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable

development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for

development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable

development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to

Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit

knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western

sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions

based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)

Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences

analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods

Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development

processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development

programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship

deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities

are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of

knowing

Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one

knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the

Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and

the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that

25

development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field

of women in development (Escobar199514)

Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static

unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing

reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he

explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide

the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be

conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)

Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful

seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When

it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development

although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development

used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level

Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting

something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)

Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions

manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that

technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to

development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-

economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs

to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems

26

However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to

solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing

24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development

Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its

importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level

indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food

security education natural resources management human animal and

environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key

element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival

(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for

developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous

knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local

community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic

development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and

basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World

Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-

directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it

is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when

communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most

effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs

and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most

27

especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure

indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the

process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are

concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be

appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of

wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When

properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-

centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about

their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of

crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be

used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a

state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)

Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous

knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the

Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially

Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations

Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the

United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of

documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other

international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of

indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)

28

Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in

sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries

have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In

addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local

communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of

indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)

However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in

recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries

Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order

recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital

component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy

distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being

neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it

almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems

and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making

it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp

Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)

Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and

municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report

from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous

knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for

29

stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations

were made

Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-

cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for

cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural

democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems

must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa

The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African

Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised

Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes

must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes

Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to

engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions

A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including

traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth

Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for

implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development

programmes

Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are

currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear

that they will give away their rights

Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning

Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain

categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is

30

restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or

commercialised

All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government

structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous

knowledge system policy

Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical

to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system

Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development

it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is

therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives

originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same

philosophical underpinning

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge

In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and

dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of

those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information

gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and

developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor

This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are

unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde

20089)

31

The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important

way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years

indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic

and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although

the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various

bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the

appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific

and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it

Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the

prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of

indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove

destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process

of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied

in developing countries The steps are

Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case

indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to

find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it

requires an external observer to identify it

The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of

the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is

essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge

Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because

indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature

32

It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person

to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations

modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs

Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from

disappearing

It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the

form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and

storytelling

Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the

other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments

The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the

developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally

Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and

community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals

and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for

social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement

and capabilities

Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance

development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous

knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals

within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions

that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is

33

vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national

level

According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange

of indigenous knowledge

Computers

Tape recorders

Radio

Television

Newspapers

Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras

ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities

Fax

CD-ROM

Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets

Diskettes

Social gatherings in communities

Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However

formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of

indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge

and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous

knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living

sustainably

34

To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities

there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage

teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its

wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant

skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of

indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by

(Gorjestani 2002)

In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic

Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household

incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted

to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not

properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were

destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied

gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant

increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green

manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to

reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani

2002)

In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk

and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose

by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local

farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work

35

Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200

households in 65 villages

The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce

technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training

institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous

institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned

resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the

importance of community involvement in local solutions

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation

In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or

damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is

reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the

survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)

According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300

million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and

cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of

emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic

approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for

forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap

strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure

indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local

36

communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their

knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been

involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed

their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)

In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the

South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous

people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the

unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The

indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away

from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were

destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima

amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)

A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development

of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge

System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The

programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities

to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges

Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective

governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local

knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to

Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights

methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is

37

still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western

knowledge (Ngulube 2002)

It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small

scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is

more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local

knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation

strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and

national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ

preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous

medicinal practises

It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous

knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on

indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional

medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like

malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical

companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture

of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily

on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief

Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic

needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of

Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported

out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some

38

Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and

protection of biodiversity

Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are

found in Table 21

Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa

Country Application

Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into

sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation

agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted

from generation to generation

Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The

knowledge is passed down from generation to generation

Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and

burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes

away

Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region

were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and

Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural

crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering

accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a

local language called Bambara

Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are

secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of

39

the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating

hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a

special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to

contract and to expel blood clots

South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried

mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are

inhaled through the mouth

Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the

fields to prevent soil degradation

Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of

ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease

Source Dlamini 2005

In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of

society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their

environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to

use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo

people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these

plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake

bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving

as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)

Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per

cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical

infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people

40

rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important

aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality

In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine

practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional

medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when

compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is

120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly

found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more

reasonable option for the rural people

As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances

local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts

of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional

techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally

available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation

and building on the patterns and processes of nature

In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent

of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000

to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic

practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-

billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala

20084)

41

27 Conclusion

Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people

throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of

the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were

also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous

knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable

development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the

application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa

42

CHAPTER 3

APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction

Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges

facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa

The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries

cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the

health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing

It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective

ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural

communities and future generations

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture

Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked

collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-

sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its

powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous

communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994

indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)

43

During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in

Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods

which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which

are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous

communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation

(Matenge et al 2011)

Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the

livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated

that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional

agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which

contributed towards better food security

Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology

usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately

modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South

Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous

farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel

owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural

activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga

(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start

ploughing and sowing

44

Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have

gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions

They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite

accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance

which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation

after generation

Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers

in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind

of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the

English translation

Table 31 Classification of different types of rain

Sepedi (local language) English

Pula yakgogolamooko First rain

Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail

Modupi Soft and very desirable rain

Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction

Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction

Borwa A cool rain coming from the south

Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)

Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms

and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-

million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia

45

Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in

Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the

Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people

stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)

The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for

many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-

bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of

Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly

affected during the mopane worm season

Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content

of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it

has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent

protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)

Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated

from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of

warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to

release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes

After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is

repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs

are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat

the bugs raw or cooked with porridge

46

Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed

Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they

dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still

widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried

meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo

Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is

a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa

has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of

trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary

source of income for many people

Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good

source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore

perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects

are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo

Leader Spring 2006)

Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at

the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the

Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm

and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted

resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms

valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African

47

silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the

building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)

Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but

over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability

Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they

are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof

Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a

yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)

According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000

square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it

could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is

also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for

rural people

Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is

bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)

33 Indigenous knowledge in health

In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines

was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative

therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft

Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970

48

banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of

traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their

knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al

2007208)

Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an

annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority

for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban

areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for

many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor

households

At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because

they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or

because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties

and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it

defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs

incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies

manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well

being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)

Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important

resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and

economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of

49

diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites

headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others

It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the

treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory

diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)

Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been

lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous

plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is

focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally

Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not

strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)

Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African

economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of

traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade

contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or

traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous

plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines

are still more affordable than Western medicine

It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by

Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal

plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to

50

areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented

them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects

the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the

other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that

the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent

between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male

circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences

Research Council 20091)

The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector

usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32

provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional

healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant

harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same

income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done

through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers

Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional

medicines industry of South Africa

Role player Estimated number in the business Average income

(Rand) per partaker

Traditional healer

diviner herbalist

prophets

6 8000- fulltime healers

20 0000 - include all traditional healers

in South Africa

3 8491

51

Street trader 3 000 7 941

Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do

business on the streets

7 941

Source Mander et al 2007

As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers

Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of

South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of

alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of

preservation qualification and accreditation

Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa

traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To

address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test

products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain

and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)

Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007

Province Total

Gauteng 61 465

Mpumalanga 57 524

KwaZulu-Natal 25 430

Free State 22 645

Eastern Cape 10 780

52

Limpopo 7 366

North West 5 935

Western Cape 2 600

Northern Cape 2 221

Total 185 477

Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi

2009)

Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the

daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in

South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources

including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species

are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South

Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity

Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also

make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger

200979)

Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for

food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while

26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional

which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal

properties

53

In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)

shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of

South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in

muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open

access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi

markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in

Table 34

Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo

South Africa

Scientific name Frequency of

species traded

()

Part

used

Total amount in

16 muthi shops

(kg)

Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308

Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245

Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967

Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940

Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267

Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247

Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935

Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774

Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011

The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the

Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a

54

slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education

widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the

land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional

properties of various plants in their environment

The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites

during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It

has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause

irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels

In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the

hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in

the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )

A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected

extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites

accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The

CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an

ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by

1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$

yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely

scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The

CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has

entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people

55

The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is

another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The

Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different

medicinal plants

According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million

South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700

indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also

known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species

The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a

beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other

beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel

1997)

Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not

yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different

ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have

aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as

medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush

teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people

chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people

boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it

56

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering

Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social

behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort

(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or

label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its

eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities

which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures

it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates

that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older

person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the

oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the

expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)

Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where

oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure

that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and

traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce

excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and

furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered

heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion

The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great

deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures

by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The

57

Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is

discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study

Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive

baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of

sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as

beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea

markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the

economy (Nettleton 201060)

According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets

ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that

are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa

have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain

storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with

lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)

The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to

create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable

indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective

in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its

meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous

groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings

58

Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The

challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small

amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the

cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of

this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous

knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop

indigenous crafts

35 Conclusion

South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of

poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in

order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa

have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other

communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted

preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge

can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible

healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people

having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with

indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully

explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to

promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into

the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge

policy and framework

59

CHAPTER 4

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

41 Introduction

The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a

result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities

experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South

Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has

resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and

development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard

all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted

the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New

Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge

system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished

continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)

South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual

property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some

countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding

their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology

(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on

indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free

60

education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla

200729)

Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of

indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of

indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its

preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in

many African countries (Msuya 20074)

This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of

indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property

rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes

the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge

Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen

as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever

government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla

200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is

essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities

Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some

government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key

61

ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the

participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play

an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity

reasoning of policy

Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and

recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to

realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring

about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous

knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and

exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates

the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural

communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for

indigenous knowledge

Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge

Political commitment on indigenous knowledge

Preservation of indigenous knowledge

Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge

Copyright and patent issues

Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it

Use of indigenous knowledge

Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge

In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing

protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to

62

understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are

connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the

protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and

Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the

society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or

companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical

performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo

Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people

have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over

the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property

rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at

an international level through legally binding treaties

Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a

result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while

developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is

communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult

to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-

Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)

Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative

sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft

sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and

63

eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial

benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)

Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge

Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus

on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the

preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council

2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are

in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of

Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade

Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several

countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among

themselves

Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different

agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements

were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These

include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United

Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)

TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO

agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with

trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement

The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to

64

developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities

(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access

to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard

for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise

and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe

199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the

UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty

needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the

sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights

of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural

identity (Mugabe 199925)

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy

Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a

policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999

The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and

research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory

measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the

DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and

Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on

formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge

policy

65

431 Department of Arts and Culture

The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with

encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and

tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of

Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the

Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local

As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South

Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of

social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The

policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural

diversity during apartheid

Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression

which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to

redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise

all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected

and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge

by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the

value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department

of Science and Technology 200519)

It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social

imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and

remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions

66

expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next

Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and

documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that

reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established

(Department of Trade Industry 2008)

432 Department of Trade and Industry

The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being

exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered

protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are

various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual

property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African

context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis

legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved

in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents

Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a

positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a

model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)

433 Department of Health

Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a

source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive

contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while

67

knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a

hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of

benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of

NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that

give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to

preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the

benefits

The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly

recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to

ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The

purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a

national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over

registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and

Technology 200518)

434 Department of Science and Technology

The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting

indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge

report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is

committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing

indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge

adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate

for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive

68

various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at

organisations such as the National Research Foundation

Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because

of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of

Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the

identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology

(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous

knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of

globalisation

As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos

development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions

towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of

African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different

cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One

of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of

self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must

ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a

commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture

language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)

69

Development of services provided by traditional healers

Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa

making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South

Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As

indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the

practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks

safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available

also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The

Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system

The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the

Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional

Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the

constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement

The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety

and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management

and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners

It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in

violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing

At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such

as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the

circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South

70

Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos

Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)

Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy

Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in

the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has

been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the

lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role

in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir

for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems

Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national

laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and

Development linear model of innovation

Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge

system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge

to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to

the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms

promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous

knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology

200528)

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create

new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale

71

of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is

therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge

The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable

cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South

African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing

framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures

minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous

knowledge research

Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous

knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds

wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a

good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to

innovation

Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has

contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is

adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to

appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology

sector

While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant

methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various

learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many

72

years Western context has influenced the South African education and development

policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the

educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not

only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous

knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning

The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous

knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST

enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology

strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as

specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science

and Technology 200528)

In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At

the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0

76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in

addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as

the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty

In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous

knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance

of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the

various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems

The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous

73

knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the

follows

The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed

under the DST

The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to

advise the ministers

The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge

systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights

Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional

framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous

knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced

with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the

rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play

a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information

Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the

NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the

National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual

Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous

knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from

growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an

indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges

74

the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and

bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to

organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the

project

Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of

funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of

these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and

international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding

indigenous knowledge are

To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous

communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and

technologies

Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural

industries that cater for rural areas in particular

Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to

local communities

Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous

knowledge centres studies and laboratories

Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers

and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills

In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous

knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to

75

enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative

framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued

that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by

their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in

terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights

As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of

understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no

function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently

using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents

neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and

geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of

indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and

socially achieved

While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is

important there is a time limit to ownership

Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy

for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous

knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos

indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous

knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local

communities

76

Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge

systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge

holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge

systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)

The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will

serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge

systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to

promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to

develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to

provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training

for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and

Technology 200530)

In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective

mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems

practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous

knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved

and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to

conduct and develop indigenous knowledge

However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous

knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available

regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this

77

study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library

service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department

of Science and Technology 200533)

Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community

information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes

community participation in empowering the community through preservation

However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore

libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment

Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record

and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous

and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one

person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law

Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of

indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording

using technology instruments such as video recording and others

At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including

abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from

the past The next chapter will focus more on this

It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its

ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners

78

Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure

that it is successfully preserved

Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local

communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current

policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and

there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems

Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights

while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective

policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain

their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against

indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal

The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous

knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the

policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must

legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms

recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of

rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort

has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of

indigenous knowledge

79

54 Conclusion

After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that

government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous

knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The

implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of

indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge

in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous

communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge

collectively

80

CHAPTER 5

MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

51 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from

getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous

knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is

also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices

(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)

The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep

alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through

specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by

keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on

passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp

Miruka 200990)

It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous

knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into

contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community

development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)

81

This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums

libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established

and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge

52 Indigenous knowledge centres

A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading

national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in

1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and

universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which

new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered

The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of

South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal

medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous

knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent

applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for

Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health

benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)

82

The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised

database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants

remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard

materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology

plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous

knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

Communication 2007)

The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous

knowledge centres should follow to include

Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect

document and distribute information on various components of indigenous

knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment

and so forth

Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable

methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap

and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor

Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary

research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including

knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence

on indigenous knowledge systems

Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres

should be promoted

83

Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical

assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge

53 Museums

Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language

culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable

resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous

knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public

money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage

of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of

Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online

2012)

The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of

indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs

with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the

mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people

It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with

human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal

plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial

(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their

consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)

84

In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the

public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as

their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San

peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also

accessible to the public

However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from

the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry

Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include

rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections

Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an

alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and

protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations

In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked

However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that

every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for

museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in

the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a

Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South

African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as

a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England

85

According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large

buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display

throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both

inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris

displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a

ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie

Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial

Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African

History Online 20111)

Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics

and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at

Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study

collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South

Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a

new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online

20111)

54 Laboratories

Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in

various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many

more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for

researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in

line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development

86

The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and

Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In

2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF

of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for

the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource

development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity

to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55

million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of

research equipment (Cherry 20101)

The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces

innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been

involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from

indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge

that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new

herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in

collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles

were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant

Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the

custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of

indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together

87

towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa

(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

55 Libraries

Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional

cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have

generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving

indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals

to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection

organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)

Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have

positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21

and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed

that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks

and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation

of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)

Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly

and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important

process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs

different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species

The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and

Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have

established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which

88

commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the

foundation of indigenous knowledge systems

According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous

Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and

teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous

knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific

areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including

languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green

magazine 2010)

Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local

communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations

(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express

knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends

libraries and archives to do the following

It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and

disseminates indigenous knowledge resources

Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research

and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society

The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be

involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to

understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the

indigenous knowledge system

89

Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to

indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people

56 Knowledge management model

When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is

important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge

Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by

indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities

(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be

preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if

indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become

static and redundant

The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems

store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by

going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology

music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving

indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to

be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a

good opportunity to refine it and renew it

Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge

systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated

90

in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing

retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of

individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the

community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the

first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models

are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can

also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the

Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports

libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa

needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa

is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural

collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In

this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture

will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that

comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube

amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it

should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the

indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture

91

Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated

with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which

have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe

Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to

create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product

development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because

the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous

knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model

promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural

values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit

knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The

process entails four different modes of conversion

Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with

converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to

show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together

In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous

knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work

experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and

teamwork (Hong 2010)

92

Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and

internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)

The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of

tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an

organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and

other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit

understanding

The third process called the combination process is the type where members

combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop

strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)

Socialisation

Empathising

Externalisation

Articulating

Embodying

Internalisation

Connecting

Combination

Tacit knowledge

Explicit

knowledge

Tacit

knowledge

Explicit knowledge

Tacit knowledge

93

If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such

knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the

community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of

common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively

creates a sharing atmosphere

Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the

embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of

self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge

through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental

assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo

The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word

which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed

together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and

a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the

knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge

management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the

knowledge management processes

There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba

and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are

94

Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences

beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is

particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things

especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is

built (socialisation)

Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared

converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images

symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit

(Externalisation)

Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing

knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for

growth and development

Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit

knowledge

According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the

inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his

colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets

to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of

knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a

negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities

Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten

principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp

95

Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge

management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The

principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes

and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is

based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter

The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective

management requires investment of other assets

Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and

technology in complementary ways

Knowledge management requires knowledge managers

It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their

knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which

will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the

Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in

formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on

knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

96

57 Conclusion

This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South

Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management

provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and

in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries

and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that

government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local

needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded

access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and

other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering

with communities

The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous

knowledge system in South Africa

97

CHAPTER 6

CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN

SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction

The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing

requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction

(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that

concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge

Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the

discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring

the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu

20084)

This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and

preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we

can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path

to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous

knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the

next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several

challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge

Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution

and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives

98

62 Challenges of management and preservation

621 Lack of taxonomists

Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet

Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of

organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the

variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four

tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem

diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are

as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen

as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)

There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new

and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification

classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be

preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific

names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have

always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species

that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)

Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has

encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy

positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it

can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000

botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)

99

stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous

knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology

and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge

(Raphesu 20085)

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions

Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for

agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the

usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)

The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-

economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance

of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that

explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer

Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution

in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This

has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger

generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South

African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique

indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has

made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was

reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access

100

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities

The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it

difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous

knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different

parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor

indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge

is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and

information centres

National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous

knowledge

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of

individuals

Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the

profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in

particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products

for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was

tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an

individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and

documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not

want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for

knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)

101

63 Conclusion

Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels

the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of

proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals

and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges

facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa

Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of

indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to

promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the

potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing

information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much

more

The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the

study

102

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction

This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to

different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as

for future research on the subject

72 Conclusion

The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge

preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the

theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available

in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of

preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main

findings are

The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in

different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and

traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several

fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-

economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because

the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this

103

knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast

growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research

activities etc

In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available

to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries

museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible

mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present

libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model

thus their services currently only caters for the elite

Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National

Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition

only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities

Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous

knowledge studies

Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more

attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is

crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is

a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which

was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In

addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the

needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for

104

policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and

initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation

72 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this

study makes the following recommendations

Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social

interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure

that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to

generation

Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow

of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such

as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage

and share their indigenous knowledge

To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories

and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information

are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All

bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and

databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will

achieve sustainable development

105

All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have

indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be

obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information

centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in

the preservation of indigenous knowledge

Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation

and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous

knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement

of traditional healers but should include farmers and others

There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC

and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in

facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not

only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual

Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in

order for various indigenous species to be preserved

It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels

are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and

documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder

such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute

the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful

106

Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it

was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time

and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the

geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the

researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would

have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation

and its importance as a development tool

107

REFERENCES

ADACHI Y 2010 Examination of knowledge Nonakarsquos theory in terms of

linguistic framework team Minutes of the Ministry of International Policy of

YamanashiYamanashi Prefectural University 6 21-33

AGRAWAL A 1995Dismantling the divide between the indigenous and

scientific knowledge108 Cowley RD Oxford OX4 1JFUKJournal of

Development and Change 26 413-439

AGRAWAL A 1996 Indigenous and scientific knowledge some critical

comments Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor3(3) 33-41

AKINDE TA 2008 Indigenous knowledge dissemination and use a discuss

Samaru Journal of Information Studies 8(2) 8-11

ALTIERI MA amp MERRICK LC 1987 In situ Conservation of crop genetic

resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems New York

Botanical Garden and Springer Economic Botany 41(1) 86-96

BERCKMOES LH 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge in South

AfricaResearch and Communication Division Directorate Cultural

Cooperation Education and Research Ministry of Foreign Affairs The Hague

BINNEMAN J 1999 Mummified human remains from the Kouga Mountains

Eastern CapeThe Digging Stick 16(2) 1-12

BLACK J 1993 Development Jujitsu looking on the bright sideStudies in

Comparative International Development 28(1) 71-79

BURCH S 2007 Knowledge sharing for rural development challenges

experiences and methods Latin American Information Agency ALAI

108

Available from httpalainetorgpublicaknowledgetss20inglespdf

[Accessed 12022012]

CLARKSON L MORRISETTE V amp REGALLET G 1992Our responsibility

to the seventh generation Indigenous people and sustainable development

International Institute for Sustainable Development Winnipegp1-92

CHABALALA H 2008 African Traditional Medicines The role of indigenous

knowledge systems in bioprospecting and product development in South

Africa National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems Department of

Science and Technology South Africa

CHERRY M 2010 National Research Foundation gets R250 million boost

from government while PHD numbers fall South African Journal of Science

106(1112) 1

CHIKONZO A 2006The potential of information and communication

technologies in collecting preserving and disseminating indigenous

knowledge in Africa The International Information and Library Review

38132-138

CONSIDE OXFORD DICTIONARY 2002 South Africa Cape Town Oxford

University Press

COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

COMMUNICATION 2007 Annual report 20078 CSIRScienceScope 2(1)

1-56

DAHLBERG AC amp TRYGGER SB 2009 Indigenous Medicine and primary

health care The importance of lay knowledge and use of medicinal plants in

rural South Africa Human Ecology 37 79-94

DANIELS G1994 Resource centres a challenge for us all The Cape

Librarian 38(1) 34-35

iv

The contribution of my colleagues is also appreciated most especially the advice

prayers and support of my good friend Sandrine Mouloungui cannot be forgotten

My special thanks also go to the Director of the Institute for Economic Research on

Innovation (IERI) Dr Rasigan Maharajh for creating an enabling environment in the

Institute for Postgraduate Study Finally I thank the Tshwane University of

Technology for providing me with a scholarship that enabled me complete my study

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

DECLARATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x

ABSTRACT xi

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation 1

12 Problem statement 10

13 Aim and objectives 11

14 Research questions 11

15 Study methodology 12

151 Study design 12

16 Chapter layout 13

17 Conclusion 14

CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction 15

22 Theoretical and conceptual framework of the study 16

221 Social theory 17

222 Ex-situ and in in-situ preservation approaches 20

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge 24

24 Indigenous knowledge system as tool for sustainable development 26

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge 30

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation 35

27 Conclusion 41

vi

CHAPTER 3 APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction 42

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture 42

33 Indigenous knowledge in health 47

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering 56

35 Conclusion 58

CHAPTER 4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN

CONTEXT

41 Introduction 59

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge 60

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy 64

531 Department of Arts and Culture 65

532 Department of Trade and Industry 66

533 Department of Health 66

534 Department of Science and Technology 67

44 Conclusion 79

CHAPTER 5 MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH

AFRICA

51 Introduction 80

52 Indigenous knowledge centres 81

53 Museums 83

54 Laboratories 85

55 Libraries 87

56 Knowledge management model 89

57 Conclusion 96

vii

CHAPTER 6 CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

PRESERVATION OF IN SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction 97

62 Challenges of management and preservation 98

621 Lack of taxonomists 98

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions 99

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities 100

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness

of individuals 100

63 Conclusion 101

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction 102

72 Conclusion 102

73 Recommendations 104

REFERENCES 107

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13

Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38

Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44

Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the

Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50

Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51

Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the

Limpopo Province of South Africa 53

ix

LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation

Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92

x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research

IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations

IK - Indigenous Knowledge

LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems

NGO - Non Governmental Organisation

NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office

REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation

UNDP - United Nation Development Program

UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations

SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination

UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes

FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational

WHO - World Health Organisation

UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights

SIDS - Small Island Developing States

THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act

WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation

DST - Department of Science and Technology

DTI - Department of trade and industry

HSRC - Human Science Research Council

NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development

xi

Abstract

Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people

through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at

reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular

emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of

a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and

the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge

promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and

document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for

decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources

management human animal and environmental health and other important activities

at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the

agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also

discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified

as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a

national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property

rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The

challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa

include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination

and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals

This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous

knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in

the country with particular emphasis on its preservation

1

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation

The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers

group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the

UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them

having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe

1998244)

Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism

was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign

colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking

control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the

colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics

and culture which regroup most of indigenous people

According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the

practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced

upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to

show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for

some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the

Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot

2

belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research

study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an

impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous

people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in

common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)

It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of

years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous

knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science

world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the

academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by

governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies

Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given

society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local

people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This

knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories

symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)

According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination

of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical

educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates

to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including

those used in liberation struggles

3

Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that

is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the

environment across cultures and geographical spaces

Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the

concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is

because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since

there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They

represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and

classification systems (Sithole 2007117)

Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms

such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural

people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although

certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the

purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo

are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts

of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the

preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of

indigenous knowledge

Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world

The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include

4

Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this

knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs

rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those

communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from

one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment

and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and

libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their

communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being

dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment

Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is

referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed

outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as

tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily

codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner

since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in

Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit

knowledge into explicit knowledge further

Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to

generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many

more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be

acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge

of what to eat

5

Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining

characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in

the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the

society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived

by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case

Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different

categories

(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa

is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a

multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up

about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of

black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural

resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous

people have always relied on their environment for survival

The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to

deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to

time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has

largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200812)

6

It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has

caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The

challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge

especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of

traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the

important aspects for sustainable resources

The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to

development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the

very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse

species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when

the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western

knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an

epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local

and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a

result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)

Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields

such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices

gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by

word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be

lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to

South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a

societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)

7

Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from

international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies

such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International

Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete

attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial

activities and development projects

Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management

objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both

knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little

indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places

of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge

serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of

the population as should be the case

There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is

the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information

plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is

also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs

to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by

authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)

Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos

minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though

8

most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to

explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden

the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and

generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important

for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool

This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving

indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of

material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals

Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly

designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According

to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of

their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and

access to them was aligned along racial lines

Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to

libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers

Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of

local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in

black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be

inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi

200562)

Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of

apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national

9

transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the

process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel

development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels

199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on

the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous

knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive

studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies

This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous

knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in

transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and

frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of

indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving

such information when needed

This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the

storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes

The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource

for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western

sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp

Lwoga 2007124)

10

12 Problem statement

Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due

to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a

result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies

which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is

argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer

quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances

where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental

Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and

younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To

avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent

need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few

instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are

either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)

Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous

knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for

preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will

adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South

Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that

serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos

indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo

11

(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as

well as in transferring it to future generations

13 Aims and objectives

Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect

encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution

this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and

methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were

pursued

to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with

specific focus on South Africa

to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge

systems and

to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of

indigenous knowledge in South Africa

14 Research questions

To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were

answered

Why is indigenous knowledge important

What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

12

What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa

Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South

Africa

What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems

face in South Africa

15 Study methodology

The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data

which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books

articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A

source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as

official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources

data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information

was then analysed in order to answer the research questions

151 Study Design

This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data

Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available

(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another

investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is

limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that

heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of

13

the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the

phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and

preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area

16 Chapter layout

The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11

Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study

Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter

Chapter 1

General introduction

This chapter starts with an overview of

indigenous knowledge in perspective It also

covers the problem statement the aim of the

study its research objectives and research

questions

Chapter 2

Theoretical framework

and literature review

This chapter presents the theoretical

framework of indigenous knowledge and

critically reviews the literature relating to

indigenous knowledge

Chapter 3

Application of

Indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter outlines the indigenous

knowledge found in South Africa and it

presents the existing of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as

agriculture health and culture in South Africa

Chapter 4

Indigenous knowledge

policy the South

This chapter provides the national policies

available for preserving and protecting

14

African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa

Chapter 5

Preservation of

indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter identifies the methods of

preserving indigenous knowledge used in

South Africa and the knowledge management

model that assists in preserving and managing

knowledge

Chapter 6 Challenges and

constrains of

indigenous knowledge

In this chapter the challenges and constraints

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are

discussed

Chapter7 Conclusion and

recommendation

Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion

limitations and recommendations

17 Conclusion

This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South

Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of

documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the

concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both

local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation

and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the

documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently

not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is

disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific

objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter

explains the theoretical framework of the study

15

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the

development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In

addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is

seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to

provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A

problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are

unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind

scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on

developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing

other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous

knowledge is important

Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous

farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse

geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations

crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous

knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most

local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable

resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore

16

considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development

processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch

20075)

This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for

development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed

by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different

scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable

development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this

chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries

The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from

harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently

introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that

indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development

22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study

According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of

statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept

that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among

variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and

reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)

Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation

to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving

17

attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of

resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ

and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed

221 Social theory

Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how

aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the

economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what

makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the

society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material

and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with

morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He

further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting

it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity

of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)

Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of

solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since

individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were

held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He

was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a

society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies

individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar

18

activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens

200613)

According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are

characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and

similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the

form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and

collective conscience (Giddens 200613)

Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which

arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and

they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the

body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would

certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was

characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity

was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)

South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that

social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely

appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included

certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the

industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the

result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into

racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic

disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)

19

Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural

context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances

and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and

design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and

conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry

farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers

200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same

purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as

Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order

to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)

In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the

current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business

promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is

difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)

Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn

about the solidarity from the indigenous communities

Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense

thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society

for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday

patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to

describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that

rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down

20

which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined

anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by

modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development

together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)

When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a

sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim

described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he

believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)

In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and

look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the

present (Giddens 200614)

222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches

To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of

survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate

some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is

acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous

knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and

accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important

role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced

two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These

theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering

21

development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for

the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)

The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect

indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various

ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more

The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical

and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve

this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should

be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He

stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate

information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge

systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations

Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of

various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account

the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their

production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural

development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for

designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not

to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick

198787)

Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an

effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another

22

advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in

preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge

preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be

scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and

dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)

The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and

documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of

practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be

considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is

required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their

cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts

and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and

documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of

indigenous knowledge

Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required

attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major

drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need

for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails

to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous

knowledge especially for the marginalised poor

It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to

communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus

23

becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to

gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of

sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to

individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state

and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation

of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights

Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of

the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is

tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs

stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates

that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities

gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on

which they rely

Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still

considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge

preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to

be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous

communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for

indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge

by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge

certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the

study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and

beliefs by spending time together

24

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge

The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on

economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable

development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for

development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable

development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to

Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit

knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western

sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions

based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)

Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences

analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods

Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development

processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development

programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship

deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities

are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of

knowing

Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one

knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the

Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and

the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that

25

development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field

of women in development (Escobar199514)

Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static

unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing

reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he

explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide

the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be

conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)

Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful

seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When

it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development

although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development

used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level

Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting

something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)

Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions

manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that

technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to

development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-

economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs

to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems

26

However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to

solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing

24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development

Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its

importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level

indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food

security education natural resources management human animal and

environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key

element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival

(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for

developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous

knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local

community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic

development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and

basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World

Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-

directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it

is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when

communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most

effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs

and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most

27

especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure

indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the

process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are

concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be

appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of

wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When

properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-

centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about

their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of

crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be

used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a

state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)

Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous

knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the

Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially

Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations

Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the

United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of

documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other

international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of

indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)

28

Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in

sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries

have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In

addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local

communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of

indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)

However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in

recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries

Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order

recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital

component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy

distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being

neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it

almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems

and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making

it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp

Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)

Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and

municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report

from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous

knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for

29

stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations

were made

Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-

cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for

cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural

democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems

must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa

The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African

Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised

Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes

must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes

Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to

engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions

A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including

traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth

Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for

implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development

programmes

Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are

currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear

that they will give away their rights

Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning

Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain

categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is

30

restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or

commercialised

All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government

structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous

knowledge system policy

Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical

to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system

Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development

it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is

therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives

originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same

philosophical underpinning

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge

In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and

dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of

those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information

gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and

developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor

This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are

unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde

20089)

31

The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important

way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years

indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic

and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although

the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various

bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the

appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific

and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it

Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the

prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of

indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove

destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process

of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied

in developing countries The steps are

Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case

indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to

find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it

requires an external observer to identify it

The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of

the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is

essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge

Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because

indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature

32

It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person

to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations

modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs

Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from

disappearing

It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the

form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and

storytelling

Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the

other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments

The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the

developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally

Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and

community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals

and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for

social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement

and capabilities

Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance

development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous

knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals

within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions

that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is

33

vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national

level

According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange

of indigenous knowledge

Computers

Tape recorders

Radio

Television

Newspapers

Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras

ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities

Fax

CD-ROM

Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets

Diskettes

Social gatherings in communities

Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However

formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of

indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge

and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous

knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living

sustainably

34

To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities

there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage

teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its

wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant

skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of

indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by

(Gorjestani 2002)

In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic

Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household

incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted

to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not

properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were

destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied

gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant

increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green

manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to

reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani

2002)

In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk

and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose

by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local

farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work

35

Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200

households in 65 villages

The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce

technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training

institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous

institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned

resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the

importance of community involvement in local solutions

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation

In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or

damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is

reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the

survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)

According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300

million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and

cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of

emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic

approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for

forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap

strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure

indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local

36

communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their

knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been

involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed

their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)

In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the

South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous

people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the

unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The

indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away

from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were

destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima

amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)

A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development

of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge

System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The

programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities

to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges

Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective

governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local

knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to

Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights

methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is

37

still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western

knowledge (Ngulube 2002)

It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small

scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is

more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local

knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation

strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and

national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ

preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous

medicinal practises

It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous

knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on

indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional

medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like

malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical

companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture

of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily

on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief

Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic

needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of

Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported

out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some

38

Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and

protection of biodiversity

Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are

found in Table 21

Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa

Country Application

Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into

sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation

agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted

from generation to generation

Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The

knowledge is passed down from generation to generation

Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and

burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes

away

Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region

were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and

Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural

crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering

accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a

local language called Bambara

Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are

secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of

39

the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating

hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a

special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to

contract and to expel blood clots

South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried

mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are

inhaled through the mouth

Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the

fields to prevent soil degradation

Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of

ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease

Source Dlamini 2005

In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of

society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their

environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to

use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo

people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these

plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake

bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving

as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)

Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per

cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical

infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people

40

rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important

aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality

In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine

practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional

medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when

compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is

120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly

found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more

reasonable option for the rural people

As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances

local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts

of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional

techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally

available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation

and building on the patterns and processes of nature

In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent

of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000

to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic

practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-

billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala

20084)

41

27 Conclusion

Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people

throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of

the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were

also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous

knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable

development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the

application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa

42

CHAPTER 3

APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction

Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges

facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa

The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries

cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the

health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing

It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective

ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural

communities and future generations

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture

Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked

collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-

sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its

powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous

communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994

indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)

43

During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in

Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods

which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which

are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous

communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation

(Matenge et al 2011)

Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the

livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated

that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional

agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which

contributed towards better food security

Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology

usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately

modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South

Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous

farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel

owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural

activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga

(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start

ploughing and sowing

44

Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have

gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions

They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite

accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance

which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation

after generation

Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers

in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind

of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the

English translation

Table 31 Classification of different types of rain

Sepedi (local language) English

Pula yakgogolamooko First rain

Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail

Modupi Soft and very desirable rain

Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction

Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction

Borwa A cool rain coming from the south

Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)

Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms

and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-

million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia

45

Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in

Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the

Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people

stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)

The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for

many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-

bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of

Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly

affected during the mopane worm season

Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content

of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it

has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent

protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)

Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated

from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of

warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to

release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes

After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is

repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs

are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat

the bugs raw or cooked with porridge

46

Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed

Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they

dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still

widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried

meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo

Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is

a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa

has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of

trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary

source of income for many people

Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good

source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore

perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects

are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo

Leader Spring 2006)

Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at

the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the

Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm

and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted

resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms

valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African

47

silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the

building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)

Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but

over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability

Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they

are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof

Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a

yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)

According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000

square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it

could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is

also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for

rural people

Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is

bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)

33 Indigenous knowledge in health

In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines

was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative

therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft

Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970

48

banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of

traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their

knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al

2007208)

Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an

annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority

for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban

areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for

many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor

households

At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because

they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or

because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties

and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it

defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs

incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies

manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well

being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)

Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important

resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and

economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of

49

diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites

headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others

It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the

treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory

diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)

Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been

lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous

plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is

focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally

Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not

strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)

Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African

economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of

traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade

contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or

traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous

plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines

are still more affordable than Western medicine

It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by

Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal

plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to

50

areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented

them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects

the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the

other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that

the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent

between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male

circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences

Research Council 20091)

The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector

usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32

provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional

healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant

harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same

income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done

through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers

Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional

medicines industry of South Africa

Role player Estimated number in the business Average income

(Rand) per partaker

Traditional healer

diviner herbalist

prophets

6 8000- fulltime healers

20 0000 - include all traditional healers

in South Africa

3 8491

51

Street trader 3 000 7 941

Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do

business on the streets

7 941

Source Mander et al 2007

As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers

Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of

South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of

alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of

preservation qualification and accreditation

Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa

traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To

address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test

products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain

and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)

Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007

Province Total

Gauteng 61 465

Mpumalanga 57 524

KwaZulu-Natal 25 430

Free State 22 645

Eastern Cape 10 780

52

Limpopo 7 366

North West 5 935

Western Cape 2 600

Northern Cape 2 221

Total 185 477

Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi

2009)

Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the

daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in

South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources

including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species

are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South

Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity

Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also

make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger

200979)

Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for

food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while

26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional

which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal

properties

53

In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)

shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of

South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in

muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open

access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi

markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in

Table 34

Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo

South Africa

Scientific name Frequency of

species traded

()

Part

used

Total amount in

16 muthi shops

(kg)

Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308

Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245

Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967

Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940

Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267

Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247

Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935

Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774

Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011

The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the

Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a

54

slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education

widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the

land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional

properties of various plants in their environment

The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites

during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It

has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause

irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels

In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the

hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in

the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )

A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected

extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites

accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The

CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an

ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by

1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$

yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely

scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The

CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has

entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people

55

The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is

another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The

Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different

medicinal plants

According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million

South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700

indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also

known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species

The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a

beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other

beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel

1997)

Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not

yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different

ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have

aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as

medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush

teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people

chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people

boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it

56

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering

Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social

behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort

(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or

label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its

eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities

which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures

it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates

that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older

person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the

oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the

expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)

Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where

oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure

that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and

traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce

excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and

furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered

heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion

The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great

deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures

by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The

57

Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is

discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study

Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive

baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of

sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as

beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea

markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the

economy (Nettleton 201060)

According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets

ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that

are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa

have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain

storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with

lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)

The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to

create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable

indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective

in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its

meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous

groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings

58

Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The

challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small

amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the

cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of

this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous

knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop

indigenous crafts

35 Conclusion

South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of

poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in

order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa

have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other

communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted

preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge

can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible

healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people

having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with

indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully

explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to

promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into

the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge

policy and framework

59

CHAPTER 4

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

41 Introduction

The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a

result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities

experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South

Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has

resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and

development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard

all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted

the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New

Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge

system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished

continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)

South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual

property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some

countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding

their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology

(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on

indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free

60

education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla

200729)

Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of

indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of

indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its

preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in

many African countries (Msuya 20074)

This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of

indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property

rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes

the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge

Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen

as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever

government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla

200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is

essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities

Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some

government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key

61

ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the

participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play

an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity

reasoning of policy

Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and

recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to

realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring

about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous

knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and

exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates

the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural

communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for

indigenous knowledge

Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge

Political commitment on indigenous knowledge

Preservation of indigenous knowledge

Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge

Copyright and patent issues

Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it

Use of indigenous knowledge

Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge

In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing

protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to

62

understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are

connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the

protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and

Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the

society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or

companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical

performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo

Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people

have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over

the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property

rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at

an international level through legally binding treaties

Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a

result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while

developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is

communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult

to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-

Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)

Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative

sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft

sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and

63

eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial

benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)

Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge

Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus

on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the

preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council

2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are

in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of

Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade

Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several

countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among

themselves

Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different

agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements

were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These

include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United

Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)

TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO

agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with

trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement

The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to

64

developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities

(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access

to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard

for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise

and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe

199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the

UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty

needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the

sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights

of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural

identity (Mugabe 199925)

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy

Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a

policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999

The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and

research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory

measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the

DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and

Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on

formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge

policy

65

431 Department of Arts and Culture

The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with

encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and

tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of

Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the

Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local

As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South

Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of

social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The

policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural

diversity during apartheid

Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression

which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to

redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise

all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected

and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge

by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the

value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department

of Science and Technology 200519)

It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social

imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and

remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions

66

expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next

Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and

documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that

reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established

(Department of Trade Industry 2008)

432 Department of Trade and Industry

The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being

exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered

protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are

various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual

property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African

context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis

legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved

in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents

Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a

positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a

model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)

433 Department of Health

Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a

source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive

contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while

67

knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a

hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of

benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of

NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that

give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to

preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the

benefits

The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly

recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to

ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The

purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a

national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over

registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and

Technology 200518)

434 Department of Science and Technology

The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting

indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge

report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is

committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing

indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge

adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate

for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive

68

various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at

organisations such as the National Research Foundation

Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because

of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of

Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the

identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology

(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous

knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of

globalisation

As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos

development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions

towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of

African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different

cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One

of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of

self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must

ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a

commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture

language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)

69

Development of services provided by traditional healers

Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa

making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South

Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As

indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the

practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks

safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available

also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The

Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system

The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the

Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional

Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the

constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement

The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety

and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management

and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners

It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in

violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing

At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such

as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the

circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South

70

Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos

Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)

Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy

Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in

the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has

been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the

lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role

in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir

for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems

Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national

laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and

Development linear model of innovation

Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge

system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge

to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to

the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms

promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous

knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology

200528)

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create

new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale

71

of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is

therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge

The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable

cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South

African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing

framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures

minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous

knowledge research

Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous

knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds

wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a

good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to

innovation

Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has

contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is

adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to

appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology

sector

While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant

methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various

learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many

72

years Western context has influenced the South African education and development

policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the

educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not

only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous

knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning

The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous

knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST

enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology

strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as

specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science

and Technology 200528)

In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At

the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0

76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in

addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as

the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty

In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous

knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance

of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the

various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems

The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous

73

knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the

follows

The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed

under the DST

The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to

advise the ministers

The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge

systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights

Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional

framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous

knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced

with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the

rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play

a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information

Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the

NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the

National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual

Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous

knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from

growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an

indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges

74

the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and

bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to

organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the

project

Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of

funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of

these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and

international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding

indigenous knowledge are

To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous

communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and

technologies

Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural

industries that cater for rural areas in particular

Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to

local communities

Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous

knowledge centres studies and laboratories

Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers

and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills

In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous

knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to

75

enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative

framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued

that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by

their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in

terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights

As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of

understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no

function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently

using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents

neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and

geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of

indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and

socially achieved

While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is

important there is a time limit to ownership

Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy

for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous

knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos

indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous

knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local

communities

76

Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge

systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge

holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge

systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)

The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will

serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge

systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to

promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to

develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to

provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training

for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and

Technology 200530)

In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective

mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems

practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous

knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved

and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to

conduct and develop indigenous knowledge

However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous

knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available

regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this

77

study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library

service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department

of Science and Technology 200533)

Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community

information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes

community participation in empowering the community through preservation

However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore

libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment

Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record

and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous

and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one

person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law

Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of

indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording

using technology instruments such as video recording and others

At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including

abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from

the past The next chapter will focus more on this

It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its

ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners

78

Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure

that it is successfully preserved

Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local

communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current

policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and

there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems

Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights

while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective

policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain

their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against

indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal

The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous

knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the

policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must

legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms

recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of

rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort

has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of

indigenous knowledge

79

54 Conclusion

After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that

government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous

knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The

implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of

indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge

in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous

communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge

collectively

80

CHAPTER 5

MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

51 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from

getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous

knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is

also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices

(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)

The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep

alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through

specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by

keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on

passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp

Miruka 200990)

It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous

knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into

contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community

development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)

81

This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums

libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established

and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge

52 Indigenous knowledge centres

A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading

national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in

1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and

universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which

new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered

The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of

South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal

medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous

knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent

applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for

Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health

benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)

82

The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised

database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants

remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard

materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology

plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous

knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

Communication 2007)

The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous

knowledge centres should follow to include

Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect

document and distribute information on various components of indigenous

knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment

and so forth

Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable

methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap

and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor

Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary

research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including

knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence

on indigenous knowledge systems

Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres

should be promoted

83

Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical

assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge

53 Museums

Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language

culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable

resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous

knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public

money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage

of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of

Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online

2012)

The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of

indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs

with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the

mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people

It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with

human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal

plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial

(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their

consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)

84

In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the

public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as

their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San

peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also

accessible to the public

However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from

the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry

Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include

rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections

Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an

alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and

protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations

In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked

However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that

every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for

museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in

the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a

Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South

African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as

a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England

85

According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large

buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display

throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both

inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris

displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a

ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie

Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial

Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African

History Online 20111)

Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics

and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at

Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study

collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South

Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a

new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online

20111)

54 Laboratories

Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in

various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many

more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for

researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in

line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development

86

The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and

Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In

2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF

of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for

the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource

development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity

to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55

million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of

research equipment (Cherry 20101)

The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces

innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been

involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from

indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge

that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new

herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in

collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles

were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant

Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the

custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of

indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together

87

towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa

(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

55 Libraries

Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional

cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have

generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving

indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals

to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection

organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)

Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have

positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21

and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed

that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks

and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation

of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)

Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly

and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important

process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs

different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species

The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and

Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have

established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which

88

commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the

foundation of indigenous knowledge systems

According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous

Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and

teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous

knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific

areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including

languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green

magazine 2010)

Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local

communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations

(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express

knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends

libraries and archives to do the following

It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and

disseminates indigenous knowledge resources

Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research

and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society

The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be

involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to

understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the

indigenous knowledge system

89

Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to

indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people

56 Knowledge management model

When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is

important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge

Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by

indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities

(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be

preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if

indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become

static and redundant

The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems

store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by

going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology

music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving

indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to

be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a

good opportunity to refine it and renew it

Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge

systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated

90

in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing

retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of

individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the

community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the

first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models

are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can

also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the

Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports

libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa

needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa

is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural

collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In

this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture

will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that

comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube

amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it

should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the

indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture

91

Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated

with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which

have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe

Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to

create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product

development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because

the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous

knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model

promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural

values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit

knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The

process entails four different modes of conversion

Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with

converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to

show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together

In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous

knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work

experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and

teamwork (Hong 2010)

92

Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and

internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)

The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of

tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an

organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and

other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit

understanding

The third process called the combination process is the type where members

combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop

strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)

Socialisation

Empathising

Externalisation

Articulating

Embodying

Internalisation

Connecting

Combination

Tacit knowledge

Explicit

knowledge

Tacit

knowledge

Explicit knowledge

Tacit knowledge

93

If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such

knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the

community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of

common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively

creates a sharing atmosphere

Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the

embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of

self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge

through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental

assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo

The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word

which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed

together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and

a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the

knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge

management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the

knowledge management processes

There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba

and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are

94

Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences

beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is

particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things

especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is

built (socialisation)

Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared

converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images

symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit

(Externalisation)

Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing

knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for

growth and development

Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit

knowledge

According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the

inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his

colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets

to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of

knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a

negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities

Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten

principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp

95

Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge

management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The

principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes

and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is

based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter

The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective

management requires investment of other assets

Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and

technology in complementary ways

Knowledge management requires knowledge managers

It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their

knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which

will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the

Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in

formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on

knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

96

57 Conclusion

This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South

Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management

provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and

in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries

and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that

government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local

needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded

access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and

other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering

with communities

The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous

knowledge system in South Africa

97

CHAPTER 6

CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN

SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction

The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing

requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction

(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that

concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge

Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the

discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring

the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu

20084)

This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and

preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we

can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path

to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous

knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the

next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several

challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge

Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution

and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives

98

62 Challenges of management and preservation

621 Lack of taxonomists

Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet

Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of

organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the

variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four

tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem

diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are

as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen

as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)

There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new

and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification

classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be

preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific

names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have

always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species

that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)

Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has

encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy

positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it

can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000

botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)

99

stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous

knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology

and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge

(Raphesu 20085)

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions

Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for

agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the

usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)

The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-

economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance

of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that

explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer

Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution

in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This

has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger

generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South

African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique

indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has

made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was

reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access

100

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities

The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it

difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous

knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different

parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor

indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge

is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and

information centres

National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous

knowledge

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of

individuals

Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the

profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in

particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products

for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was

tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an

individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and

documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not

want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for

knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)

101

63 Conclusion

Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels

the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of

proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals

and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges

facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa

Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of

indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to

promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the

potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing

information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much

more

The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the

study

102

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction

This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to

different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as

for future research on the subject

72 Conclusion

The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge

preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the

theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available

in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of

preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main

findings are

The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in

different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and

traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several

fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-

economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because

the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this

103

knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast

growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research

activities etc

In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available

to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries

museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible

mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present

libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model

thus their services currently only caters for the elite

Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National

Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition

only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities

Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous

knowledge studies

Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more

attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is

crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is

a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which

was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In

addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the

needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for

104

policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and

initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation

72 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this

study makes the following recommendations

Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social

interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure

that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to

generation

Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow

of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such

as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage

and share their indigenous knowledge

To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories

and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information

are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All

bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and

databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will

achieve sustainable development

105

All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have

indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be

obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information

centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in

the preservation of indigenous knowledge

Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation

and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous

knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement

of traditional healers but should include farmers and others

There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC

and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in

facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not

only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual

Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in

order for various indigenous species to be preserved

It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels

are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and

documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder

such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute

the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful

106

Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it

was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time

and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the

geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the

researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would

have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation

and its importance as a development tool

107

REFERENCES

ADACHI Y 2010 Examination of knowledge Nonakarsquos theory in terms of

linguistic framework team Minutes of the Ministry of International Policy of

YamanashiYamanashi Prefectural University 6 21-33

AGRAWAL A 1995Dismantling the divide between the indigenous and

scientific knowledge108 Cowley RD Oxford OX4 1JFUKJournal of

Development and Change 26 413-439

AGRAWAL A 1996 Indigenous and scientific knowledge some critical

comments Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor3(3) 33-41

AKINDE TA 2008 Indigenous knowledge dissemination and use a discuss

Samaru Journal of Information Studies 8(2) 8-11

ALTIERI MA amp MERRICK LC 1987 In situ Conservation of crop genetic

resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems New York

Botanical Garden and Springer Economic Botany 41(1) 86-96

BERCKMOES LH 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge in South

AfricaResearch and Communication Division Directorate Cultural

Cooperation Education and Research Ministry of Foreign Affairs The Hague

BINNEMAN J 1999 Mummified human remains from the Kouga Mountains

Eastern CapeThe Digging Stick 16(2) 1-12

BLACK J 1993 Development Jujitsu looking on the bright sideStudies in

Comparative International Development 28(1) 71-79

BURCH S 2007 Knowledge sharing for rural development challenges

experiences and methods Latin American Information Agency ALAI

108

Available from httpalainetorgpublicaknowledgetss20inglespdf

[Accessed 12022012]

CLARKSON L MORRISETTE V amp REGALLET G 1992Our responsibility

to the seventh generation Indigenous people and sustainable development

International Institute for Sustainable Development Winnipegp1-92

CHABALALA H 2008 African Traditional Medicines The role of indigenous

knowledge systems in bioprospecting and product development in South

Africa National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems Department of

Science and Technology South Africa

CHERRY M 2010 National Research Foundation gets R250 million boost

from government while PHD numbers fall South African Journal of Science

106(1112) 1

CHIKONZO A 2006The potential of information and communication

technologies in collecting preserving and disseminating indigenous

knowledge in Africa The International Information and Library Review

38132-138

CONSIDE OXFORD DICTIONARY 2002 South Africa Cape Town Oxford

University Press

COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

COMMUNICATION 2007 Annual report 20078 CSIRScienceScope 2(1)

1-56

DAHLBERG AC amp TRYGGER SB 2009 Indigenous Medicine and primary

health care The importance of lay knowledge and use of medicinal plants in

rural South Africa Human Ecology 37 79-94

DANIELS G1994 Resource centres a challenge for us all The Cape

Librarian 38(1) 34-35

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i

DECLARATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x

ABSTRACT xi

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation 1

12 Problem statement 10

13 Aim and objectives 11

14 Research questions 11

15 Study methodology 12

151 Study design 12

16 Chapter layout 13

17 Conclusion 14

CHAPTER 2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction 15

22 Theoretical and conceptual framework of the study 16

221 Social theory 17

222 Ex-situ and in in-situ preservation approaches 20

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge 24

24 Indigenous knowledge system as tool for sustainable development 26

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge 30

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation 35

27 Conclusion 41

vi

CHAPTER 3 APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction 42

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture 42

33 Indigenous knowledge in health 47

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering 56

35 Conclusion 58

CHAPTER 4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN

CONTEXT

41 Introduction 59

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge 60

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy 64

531 Department of Arts and Culture 65

532 Department of Trade and Industry 66

533 Department of Health 66

534 Department of Science and Technology 67

44 Conclusion 79

CHAPTER 5 MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH

AFRICA

51 Introduction 80

52 Indigenous knowledge centres 81

53 Museums 83

54 Laboratories 85

55 Libraries 87

56 Knowledge management model 89

57 Conclusion 96

vii

CHAPTER 6 CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

PRESERVATION OF IN SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction 97

62 Challenges of management and preservation 98

621 Lack of taxonomists 98

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions 99

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities 100

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness

of individuals 100

63 Conclusion 101

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction 102

72 Conclusion 102

73 Recommendations 104

REFERENCES 107

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13

Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38

Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44

Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the

Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50

Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51

Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the

Limpopo Province of South Africa 53

ix

LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation

Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92

x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research

IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations

IK - Indigenous Knowledge

LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems

NGO - Non Governmental Organisation

NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office

REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation

UNDP - United Nation Development Program

UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations

SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination

UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes

FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational

WHO - World Health Organisation

UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights

SIDS - Small Island Developing States

THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act

WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation

DST - Department of Science and Technology

DTI - Department of trade and industry

HSRC - Human Science Research Council

NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development

xi

Abstract

Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people

through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at

reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular

emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of

a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and

the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge

promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and

document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for

decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources

management human animal and environmental health and other important activities

at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the

agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also

discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified

as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a

national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property

rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The

challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa

include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination

and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals

This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous

knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in

the country with particular emphasis on its preservation

1

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation

The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers

group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the

UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them

having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe

1998244)

Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism

was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign

colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking

control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the

colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics

and culture which regroup most of indigenous people

According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the

practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced

upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to

show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for

some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the

Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot

2

belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research

study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an

impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous

people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in

common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)

It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of

years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous

knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science

world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the

academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by

governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies

Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given

society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local

people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This

knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories

symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)

According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination

of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical

educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates

to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including

those used in liberation struggles

3

Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that

is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the

environment across cultures and geographical spaces

Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the

concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is

because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since

there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They

represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and

classification systems (Sithole 2007117)

Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms

such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural

people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although

certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the

purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo

are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts

of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the

preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of

indigenous knowledge

Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world

The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include

4

Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this

knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs

rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those

communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from

one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment

and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and

libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their

communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being

dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment

Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is

referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed

outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as

tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily

codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner

since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in

Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit

knowledge into explicit knowledge further

Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to

generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many

more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be

acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge

of what to eat

5

Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining

characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in

the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the

society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived

by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case

Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different

categories

(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa

is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a

multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up

about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of

black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural

resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous

people have always relied on their environment for survival

The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to

deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to

time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has

largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200812)

6

It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has

caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The

challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge

especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of

traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the

important aspects for sustainable resources

The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to

development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the

very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse

species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when

the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western

knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an

epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local

and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a

result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)

Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields

such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices

gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by

word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be

lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to

South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a

societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)

7

Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from

international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies

such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International

Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete

attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial

activities and development projects

Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management

objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both

knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little

indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places

of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge

serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of

the population as should be the case

There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is

the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information

plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is

also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs

to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by

authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)

Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos

minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though

8

most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to

explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden

the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and

generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important

for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool

This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving

indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of

material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals

Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly

designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According

to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of

their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and

access to them was aligned along racial lines

Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to

libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers

Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of

local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in

black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be

inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi

200562)

Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of

apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national

9

transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the

process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel

development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels

199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on

the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous

knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive

studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies

This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous

knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in

transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and

frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of

indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving

such information when needed

This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the

storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes

The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource

for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western

sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp

Lwoga 2007124)

10

12 Problem statement

Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due

to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a

result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies

which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is

argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer

quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances

where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental

Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and

younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To

avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent

need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few

instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are

either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)

Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous

knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for

preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will

adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South

Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that

serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos

indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo

11

(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as

well as in transferring it to future generations

13 Aims and objectives

Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect

encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution

this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and

methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were

pursued

to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with

specific focus on South Africa

to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge

systems and

to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of

indigenous knowledge in South Africa

14 Research questions

To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were

answered

Why is indigenous knowledge important

What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

12

What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa

Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South

Africa

What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems

face in South Africa

15 Study methodology

The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data

which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books

articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A

source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as

official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources

data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information

was then analysed in order to answer the research questions

151 Study Design

This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data

Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available

(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another

investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is

limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that

heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of

13

the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the

phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and

preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area

16 Chapter layout

The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11

Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study

Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter

Chapter 1

General introduction

This chapter starts with an overview of

indigenous knowledge in perspective It also

covers the problem statement the aim of the

study its research objectives and research

questions

Chapter 2

Theoretical framework

and literature review

This chapter presents the theoretical

framework of indigenous knowledge and

critically reviews the literature relating to

indigenous knowledge

Chapter 3

Application of

Indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter outlines the indigenous

knowledge found in South Africa and it

presents the existing of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as

agriculture health and culture in South Africa

Chapter 4

Indigenous knowledge

policy the South

This chapter provides the national policies

available for preserving and protecting

14

African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa

Chapter 5

Preservation of

indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter identifies the methods of

preserving indigenous knowledge used in

South Africa and the knowledge management

model that assists in preserving and managing

knowledge

Chapter 6 Challenges and

constrains of

indigenous knowledge

In this chapter the challenges and constraints

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are

discussed

Chapter7 Conclusion and

recommendation

Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion

limitations and recommendations

17 Conclusion

This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South

Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of

documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the

concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both

local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation

and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the

documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently

not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is

disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific

objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter

explains the theoretical framework of the study

15

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the

development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In

addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is

seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to

provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A

problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are

unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind

scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on

developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing

other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous

knowledge is important

Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous

farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse

geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations

crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous

knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most

local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable

resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore

16

considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development

processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch

20075)

This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for

development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed

by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different

scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable

development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this

chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries

The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from

harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently

introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that

indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development

22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study

According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of

statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept

that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among

variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and

reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)

Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation

to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving

17

attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of

resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ

and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed

221 Social theory

Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how

aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the

economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what

makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the

society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material

and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with

morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He

further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting

it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity

of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)

Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of

solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since

individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were

held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He

was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a

society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies

individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar

18

activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens

200613)

According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are

characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and

similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the

form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and

collective conscience (Giddens 200613)

Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which

arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and

they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the

body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would

certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was

characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity

was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)

South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that

social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely

appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included

certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the

industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the

result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into

racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic

disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)

19

Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural

context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances

and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and

design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and

conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry

farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers

200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same

purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as

Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order

to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)

In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the

current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business

promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is

difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)

Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn

about the solidarity from the indigenous communities

Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense

thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society

for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday

patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to

describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that

rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down

20

which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined

anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by

modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development

together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)

When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a

sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim

described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he

believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)

In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and

look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the

present (Giddens 200614)

222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches

To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of

survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate

some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is

acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous

knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and

accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important

role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced

two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These

theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering

21

development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for

the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)

The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect

indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various

ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more

The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical

and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve

this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should

be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He

stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate

information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge

systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations

Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of

various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account

the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their

production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural

development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for

designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not

to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick

198787)

Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an

effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another

22

advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in

preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge

preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be

scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and

dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)

The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and

documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of

practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be

considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is

required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their

cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts

and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and

documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of

indigenous knowledge

Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required

attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major

drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need

for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails

to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous

knowledge especially for the marginalised poor

It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to

communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus

23

becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to

gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of

sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to

individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state

and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation

of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights

Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of

the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is

tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs

stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates

that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities

gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on

which they rely

Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still

considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge

preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to

be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous

communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for

indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge

by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge

certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the

study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and

beliefs by spending time together

24

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge

The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on

economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable

development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for

development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable

development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to

Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit

knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western

sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions

based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)

Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences

analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods

Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development

processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development

programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship

deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities

are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of

knowing

Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one

knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the

Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and

the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that

25

development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field

of women in development (Escobar199514)

Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static

unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing

reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he

explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide

the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be

conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)

Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful

seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When

it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development

although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development

used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level

Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting

something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)

Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions

manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that

technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to

development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-

economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs

to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems

26

However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to

solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing

24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development

Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its

importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level

indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food

security education natural resources management human animal and

environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key

element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival

(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for

developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous

knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local

community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic

development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and

basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World

Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-

directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it

is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when

communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most

effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs

and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most

27

especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure

indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the

process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are

concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be

appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of

wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When

properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-

centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about

their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of

crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be

used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a

state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)

Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous

knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the

Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially

Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations

Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the

United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of

documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other

international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of

indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)

28

Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in

sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries

have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In

addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local

communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of

indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)

However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in

recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries

Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order

recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital

component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy

distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being

neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it

almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems

and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making

it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp

Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)

Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and

municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report

from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous

knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for

29

stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations

were made

Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-

cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for

cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural

democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems

must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa

The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African

Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised

Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes

must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes

Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to

engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions

A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including

traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth

Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for

implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development

programmes

Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are

currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear

that they will give away their rights

Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning

Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain

categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is

30

restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or

commercialised

All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government

structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous

knowledge system policy

Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical

to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system

Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development

it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is

therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives

originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same

philosophical underpinning

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge

In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and

dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of

those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information

gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and

developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor

This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are

unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde

20089)

31

The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important

way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years

indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic

and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although

the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various

bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the

appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific

and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it

Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the

prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of

indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove

destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process

of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied

in developing countries The steps are

Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case

indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to

find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it

requires an external observer to identify it

The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of

the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is

essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge

Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because

indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature

32

It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person

to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations

modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs

Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from

disappearing

It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the

form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and

storytelling

Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the

other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments

The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the

developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally

Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and

community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals

and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for

social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement

and capabilities

Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance

development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous

knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals

within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions

that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is

33

vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national

level

According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange

of indigenous knowledge

Computers

Tape recorders

Radio

Television

Newspapers

Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras

ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities

Fax

CD-ROM

Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets

Diskettes

Social gatherings in communities

Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However

formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of

indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge

and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous

knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living

sustainably

34

To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities

there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage

teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its

wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant

skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of

indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by

(Gorjestani 2002)

In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic

Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household

incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted

to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not

properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were

destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied

gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant

increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green

manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to

reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani

2002)

In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk

and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose

by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local

farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work

35

Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200

households in 65 villages

The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce

technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training

institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous

institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned

resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the

importance of community involvement in local solutions

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation

In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or

damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is

reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the

survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)

According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300

million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and

cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of

emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic

approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for

forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap

strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure

indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local

36

communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their

knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been

involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed

their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)

In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the

South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous

people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the

unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The

indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away

from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were

destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima

amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)

A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development

of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge

System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The

programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities

to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges

Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective

governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local

knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to

Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights

methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is

37

still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western

knowledge (Ngulube 2002)

It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small

scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is

more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local

knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation

strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and

national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ

preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous

medicinal practises

It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous

knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on

indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional

medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like

malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical

companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture

of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily

on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief

Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic

needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of

Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported

out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some

38

Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and

protection of biodiversity

Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are

found in Table 21

Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa

Country Application

Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into

sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation

agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted

from generation to generation

Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The

knowledge is passed down from generation to generation

Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and

burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes

away

Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region

were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and

Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural

crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering

accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a

local language called Bambara

Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are

secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of

39

the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating

hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a

special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to

contract and to expel blood clots

South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried

mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are

inhaled through the mouth

Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the

fields to prevent soil degradation

Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of

ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease

Source Dlamini 2005

In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of

society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their

environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to

use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo

people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these

plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake

bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving

as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)

Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per

cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical

infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people

40

rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important

aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality

In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine

practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional

medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when

compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is

120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly

found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more

reasonable option for the rural people

As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances

local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts

of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional

techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally

available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation

and building on the patterns and processes of nature

In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent

of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000

to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic

practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-

billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala

20084)

41

27 Conclusion

Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people

throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of

the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were

also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous

knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable

development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the

application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa

42

CHAPTER 3

APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction

Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges

facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa

The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries

cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the

health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing

It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective

ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural

communities and future generations

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture

Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked

collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-

sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its

powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous

communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994

indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)

43

During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in

Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods

which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which

are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous

communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation

(Matenge et al 2011)

Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the

livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated

that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional

agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which

contributed towards better food security

Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology

usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately

modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South

Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous

farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel

owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural

activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga

(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start

ploughing and sowing

44

Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have

gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions

They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite

accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance

which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation

after generation

Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers

in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind

of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the

English translation

Table 31 Classification of different types of rain

Sepedi (local language) English

Pula yakgogolamooko First rain

Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail

Modupi Soft and very desirable rain

Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction

Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction

Borwa A cool rain coming from the south

Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)

Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms

and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-

million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia

45

Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in

Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the

Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people

stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)

The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for

many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-

bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of

Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly

affected during the mopane worm season

Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content

of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it

has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent

protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)

Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated

from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of

warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to

release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes

After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is

repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs

are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat

the bugs raw or cooked with porridge

46

Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed

Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they

dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still

widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried

meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo

Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is

a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa

has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of

trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary

source of income for many people

Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good

source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore

perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects

are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo

Leader Spring 2006)

Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at

the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the

Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm

and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted

resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms

valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African

47

silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the

building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)

Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but

over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability

Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they

are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof

Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a

yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)

According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000

square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it

could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is

also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for

rural people

Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is

bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)

33 Indigenous knowledge in health

In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines

was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative

therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft

Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970

48

banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of

traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their

knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al

2007208)

Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an

annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority

for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban

areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for

many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor

households

At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because

they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or

because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties

and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it

defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs

incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies

manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well

being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)

Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important

resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and

economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of

49

diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites

headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others

It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the

treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory

diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)

Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been

lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous

plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is

focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally

Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not

strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)

Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African

economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of

traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade

contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or

traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous

plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines

are still more affordable than Western medicine

It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by

Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal

plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to

50

areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented

them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects

the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the

other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that

the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent

between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male

circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences

Research Council 20091)

The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector

usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32

provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional

healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant

harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same

income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done

through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers

Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional

medicines industry of South Africa

Role player Estimated number in the business Average income

(Rand) per partaker

Traditional healer

diviner herbalist

prophets

6 8000- fulltime healers

20 0000 - include all traditional healers

in South Africa

3 8491

51

Street trader 3 000 7 941

Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do

business on the streets

7 941

Source Mander et al 2007

As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers

Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of

South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of

alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of

preservation qualification and accreditation

Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa

traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To

address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test

products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain

and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)

Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007

Province Total

Gauteng 61 465

Mpumalanga 57 524

KwaZulu-Natal 25 430

Free State 22 645

Eastern Cape 10 780

52

Limpopo 7 366

North West 5 935

Western Cape 2 600

Northern Cape 2 221

Total 185 477

Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi

2009)

Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the

daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in

South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources

including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species

are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South

Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity

Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also

make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger

200979)

Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for

food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while

26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional

which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal

properties

53

In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)

shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of

South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in

muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open

access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi

markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in

Table 34

Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo

South Africa

Scientific name Frequency of

species traded

()

Part

used

Total amount in

16 muthi shops

(kg)

Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308

Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245

Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967

Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940

Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267

Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247

Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935

Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774

Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011

The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the

Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a

54

slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education

widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the

land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional

properties of various plants in their environment

The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites

during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It

has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause

irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels

In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the

hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in

the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )

A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected

extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites

accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The

CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an

ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by

1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$

yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely

scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The

CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has

entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people

55

The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is

another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The

Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different

medicinal plants

According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million

South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700

indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also

known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species

The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a

beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other

beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel

1997)

Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not

yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different

ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have

aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as

medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush

teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people

chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people

boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it

56

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering

Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social

behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort

(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or

label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its

eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities

which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures

it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates

that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older

person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the

oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the

expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)

Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where

oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure

that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and

traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce

excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and

furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered

heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion

The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great

deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures

by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The

57

Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is

discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study

Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive

baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of

sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as

beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea

markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the

economy (Nettleton 201060)

According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets

ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that

are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa

have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain

storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with

lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)

The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to

create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable

indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective

in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its

meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous

groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings

58

Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The

challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small

amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the

cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of

this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous

knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop

indigenous crafts

35 Conclusion

South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of

poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in

order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa

have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other

communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted

preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge

can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible

healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people

having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with

indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully

explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to

promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into

the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge

policy and framework

59

CHAPTER 4

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

41 Introduction

The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a

result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities

experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South

Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has

resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and

development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard

all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted

the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New

Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge

system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished

continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)

South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual

property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some

countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding

their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology

(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on

indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free

60

education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla

200729)

Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of

indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of

indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its

preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in

many African countries (Msuya 20074)

This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of

indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property

rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes

the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge

Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen

as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever

government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla

200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is

essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities

Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some

government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key

61

ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the

participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play

an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity

reasoning of policy

Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and

recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to

realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring

about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous

knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and

exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates

the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural

communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for

indigenous knowledge

Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge

Political commitment on indigenous knowledge

Preservation of indigenous knowledge

Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge

Copyright and patent issues

Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it

Use of indigenous knowledge

Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge

In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing

protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to

62

understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are

connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the

protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and

Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the

society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or

companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical

performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo

Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people

have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over

the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property

rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at

an international level through legally binding treaties

Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a

result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while

developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is

communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult

to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-

Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)

Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative

sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft

sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and

63

eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial

benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)

Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge

Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus

on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the

preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council

2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are

in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of

Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade

Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several

countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among

themselves

Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different

agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements

were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These

include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United

Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)

TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO

agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with

trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement

The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to

64

developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities

(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access

to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard

for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise

and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe

199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the

UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty

needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the

sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights

of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural

identity (Mugabe 199925)

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy

Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a

policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999

The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and

research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory

measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the

DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and

Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on

formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge

policy

65

431 Department of Arts and Culture

The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with

encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and

tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of

Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the

Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local

As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South

Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of

social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The

policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural

diversity during apartheid

Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression

which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to

redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise

all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected

and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge

by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the

value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department

of Science and Technology 200519)

It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social

imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and

remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions

66

expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next

Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and

documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that

reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established

(Department of Trade Industry 2008)

432 Department of Trade and Industry

The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being

exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered

protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are

various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual

property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African

context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis

legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved

in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents

Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a

positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a

model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)

433 Department of Health

Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a

source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive

contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while

67

knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a

hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of

benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of

NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that

give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to

preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the

benefits

The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly

recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to

ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The

purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a

national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over

registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and

Technology 200518)

434 Department of Science and Technology

The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting

indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge

report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is

committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing

indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge

adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate

for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive

68

various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at

organisations such as the National Research Foundation

Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because

of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of

Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the

identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology

(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous

knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of

globalisation

As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos

development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions

towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of

African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different

cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One

of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of

self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must

ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a

commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture

language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)

69

Development of services provided by traditional healers

Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa

making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South

Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As

indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the

practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks

safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available

also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The

Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system

The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the

Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional

Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the

constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement

The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety

and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management

and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners

It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in

violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing

At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such

as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the

circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South

70

Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos

Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)

Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy

Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in

the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has

been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the

lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role

in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir

for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems

Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national

laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and

Development linear model of innovation

Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge

system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge

to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to

the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms

promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous

knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology

200528)

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create

new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale

71

of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is

therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge

The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable

cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South

African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing

framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures

minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous

knowledge research

Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous

knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds

wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a

good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to

innovation

Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has

contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is

adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to

appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology

sector

While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant

methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various

learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many

72

years Western context has influenced the South African education and development

policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the

educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not

only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous

knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning

The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous

knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST

enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology

strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as

specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science

and Technology 200528)

In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At

the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0

76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in

addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as

the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty

In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous

knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance

of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the

various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems

The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous

73

knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the

follows

The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed

under the DST

The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to

advise the ministers

The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge

systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights

Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional

framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous

knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced

with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the

rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play

a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information

Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the

NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the

National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual

Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous

knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from

growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an

indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges

74

the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and

bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to

organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the

project

Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of

funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of

these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and

international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding

indigenous knowledge are

To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous

communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and

technologies

Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural

industries that cater for rural areas in particular

Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to

local communities

Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous

knowledge centres studies and laboratories

Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers

and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills

In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous

knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to

75

enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative

framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued

that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by

their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in

terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights

As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of

understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no

function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently

using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents

neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and

geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of

indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and

socially achieved

While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is

important there is a time limit to ownership

Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy

for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous

knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos

indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous

knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local

communities

76

Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge

systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge

holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge

systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)

The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will

serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge

systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to

promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to

develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to

provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training

for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and

Technology 200530)

In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective

mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems

practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous

knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved

and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to

conduct and develop indigenous knowledge

However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous

knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available

regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this

77

study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library

service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department

of Science and Technology 200533)

Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community

information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes

community participation in empowering the community through preservation

However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore

libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment

Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record

and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous

and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one

person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law

Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of

indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording

using technology instruments such as video recording and others

At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including

abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from

the past The next chapter will focus more on this

It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its

ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners

78

Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure

that it is successfully preserved

Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local

communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current

policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and

there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems

Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights

while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective

policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain

their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against

indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal

The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous

knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the

policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must

legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms

recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of

rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort

has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of

indigenous knowledge

79

54 Conclusion

After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that

government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous

knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The

implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of

indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge

in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous

communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge

collectively

80

CHAPTER 5

MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

51 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from

getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous

knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is

also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices

(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)

The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep

alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through

specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by

keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on

passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp

Miruka 200990)

It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous

knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into

contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community

development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)

81

This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums

libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established

and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge

52 Indigenous knowledge centres

A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading

national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in

1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and

universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which

new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered

The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of

South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal

medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous

knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent

applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for

Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health

benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)

82

The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised

database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants

remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard

materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology

plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous

knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

Communication 2007)

The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous

knowledge centres should follow to include

Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect

document and distribute information on various components of indigenous

knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment

and so forth

Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable

methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap

and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor

Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary

research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including

knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence

on indigenous knowledge systems

Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres

should be promoted

83

Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical

assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge

53 Museums

Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language

culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable

resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous

knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public

money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage

of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of

Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online

2012)

The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of

indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs

with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the

mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people

It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with

human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal

plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial

(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their

consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)

84

In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the

public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as

their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San

peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also

accessible to the public

However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from

the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry

Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include

rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections

Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an

alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and

protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations

In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked

However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that

every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for

museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in

the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a

Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South

African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as

a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England

85

According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large

buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display

throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both

inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris

displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a

ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie

Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial

Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African

History Online 20111)

Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics

and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at

Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study

collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South

Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a

new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online

20111)

54 Laboratories

Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in

various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many

more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for

researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in

line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development

86

The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and

Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In

2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF

of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for

the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource

development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity

to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55

million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of

research equipment (Cherry 20101)

The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces

innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been

involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from

indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge

that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new

herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in

collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles

were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant

Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the

custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of

indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together

87

towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa

(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

55 Libraries

Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional

cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have

generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving

indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals

to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection

organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)

Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have

positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21

and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed

that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks

and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation

of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)

Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly

and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important

process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs

different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species

The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and

Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have

established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which

88

commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the

foundation of indigenous knowledge systems

According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous

Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and

teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous

knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific

areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including

languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green

magazine 2010)

Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local

communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations

(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express

knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends

libraries and archives to do the following

It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and

disseminates indigenous knowledge resources

Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research

and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society

The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be

involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to

understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the

indigenous knowledge system

89

Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to

indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people

56 Knowledge management model

When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is

important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge

Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by

indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities

(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be

preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if

indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become

static and redundant

The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems

store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by

going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology

music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving

indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to

be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a

good opportunity to refine it and renew it

Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge

systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated

90

in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing

retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of

individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the

community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the

first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models

are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can

also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the

Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports

libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa

needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa

is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural

collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In

this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture

will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that

comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube

amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it

should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the

indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture

91

Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated

with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which

have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe

Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to

create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product

development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because

the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous

knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model

promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural

values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit

knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The

process entails four different modes of conversion

Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with

converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to

show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together

In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous

knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work

experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and

teamwork (Hong 2010)

92

Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and

internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)

The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of

tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an

organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and

other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit

understanding

The third process called the combination process is the type where members

combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop

strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)

Socialisation

Empathising

Externalisation

Articulating

Embodying

Internalisation

Connecting

Combination

Tacit knowledge

Explicit

knowledge

Tacit

knowledge

Explicit knowledge

Tacit knowledge

93

If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such

knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the

community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of

common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively

creates a sharing atmosphere

Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the

embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of

self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge

through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental

assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo

The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word

which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed

together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and

a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the

knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge

management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the

knowledge management processes

There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba

and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are

94

Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences

beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is

particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things

especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is

built (socialisation)

Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared

converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images

symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit

(Externalisation)

Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing

knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for

growth and development

Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit

knowledge

According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the

inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his

colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets

to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of

knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a

negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities

Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten

principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp

95

Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge

management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The

principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes

and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is

based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter

The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective

management requires investment of other assets

Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and

technology in complementary ways

Knowledge management requires knowledge managers

It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their

knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which

will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the

Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in

formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on

knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

96

57 Conclusion

This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South

Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management

provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and

in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries

and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that

government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local

needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded

access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and

other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering

with communities

The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous

knowledge system in South Africa

97

CHAPTER 6

CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN

SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction

The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing

requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction

(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that

concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge

Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the

discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring

the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu

20084)

This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and

preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we

can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path

to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous

knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the

next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several

challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge

Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution

and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives

98

62 Challenges of management and preservation

621 Lack of taxonomists

Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet

Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of

organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the

variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four

tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem

diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are

as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen

as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)

There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new

and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification

classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be

preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific

names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have

always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species

that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)

Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has

encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy

positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it

can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000

botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)

99

stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous

knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology

and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge

(Raphesu 20085)

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions

Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for

agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the

usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)

The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-

economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance

of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that

explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer

Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution

in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This

has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger

generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South

African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique

indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has

made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was

reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access

100

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities

The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it

difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous

knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different

parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor

indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge

is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and

information centres

National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous

knowledge

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of

individuals

Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the

profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in

particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products

for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was

tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an

individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and

documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not

want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for

knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)

101

63 Conclusion

Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels

the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of

proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals

and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges

facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa

Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of

indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to

promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the

potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing

information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much

more

The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the

study

102

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction

This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to

different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as

for future research on the subject

72 Conclusion

The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge

preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the

theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available

in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of

preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main

findings are

The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in

different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and

traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several

fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-

economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because

the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this

103

knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast

growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research

activities etc

In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available

to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries

museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible

mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present

libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model

thus their services currently only caters for the elite

Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National

Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition

only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities

Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous

knowledge studies

Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more

attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is

crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is

a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which

was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In

addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the

needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for

104

policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and

initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation

72 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this

study makes the following recommendations

Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social

interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure

that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to

generation

Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow

of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such

as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage

and share their indigenous knowledge

To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories

and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information

are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All

bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and

databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will

achieve sustainable development

105

All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have

indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be

obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information

centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in

the preservation of indigenous knowledge

Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation

and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous

knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement

of traditional healers but should include farmers and others

There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC

and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in

facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not

only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual

Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in

order for various indigenous species to be preserved

It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels

are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and

documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder

such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute

the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful

106

Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it

was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time

and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the

geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the

researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would

have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation

and its importance as a development tool

107

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1-56

DAHLBERG AC amp TRYGGER SB 2009 Indigenous Medicine and primary

health care The importance of lay knowledge and use of medicinal plants in

rural South Africa Human Ecology 37 79-94

DANIELS G1994 Resource centres a challenge for us all The Cape

Librarian 38(1) 34-35

vi

CHAPTER 3 APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction 42

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture 42

33 Indigenous knowledge in health 47

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering 56

35 Conclusion 58

CHAPTER 4 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN

CONTEXT

41 Introduction 59

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge 60

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy 64

531 Department of Arts and Culture 65

532 Department of Trade and Industry 66

533 Department of Health 66

534 Department of Science and Technology 67

44 Conclusion 79

CHAPTER 5 MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH

AFRICA

51 Introduction 80

52 Indigenous knowledge centres 81

53 Museums 83

54 Laboratories 85

55 Libraries 87

56 Knowledge management model 89

57 Conclusion 96

vii

CHAPTER 6 CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

PRESERVATION OF IN SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction 97

62 Challenges of management and preservation 98

621 Lack of taxonomists 98

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions 99

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities 100

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness

of individuals 100

63 Conclusion 101

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction 102

72 Conclusion 102

73 Recommendations 104

REFERENCES 107

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13

Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38

Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44

Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the

Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50

Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51

Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the

Limpopo Province of South Africa 53

ix

LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation

Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92

x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research

IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations

IK - Indigenous Knowledge

LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems

NGO - Non Governmental Organisation

NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office

REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation

UNDP - United Nation Development Program

UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations

SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination

UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes

FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational

WHO - World Health Organisation

UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights

SIDS - Small Island Developing States

THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act

WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation

DST - Department of Science and Technology

DTI - Department of trade and industry

HSRC - Human Science Research Council

NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development

xi

Abstract

Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people

through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at

reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular

emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of

a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and

the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge

promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and

document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for

decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources

management human animal and environmental health and other important activities

at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the

agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also

discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified

as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a

national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property

rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The

challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa

include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination

and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals

This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous

knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in

the country with particular emphasis on its preservation

1

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation

The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers

group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the

UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them

having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe

1998244)

Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism

was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign

colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking

control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the

colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics

and culture which regroup most of indigenous people

According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the

practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced

upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to

show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for

some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the

Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot

2

belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research

study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an

impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous

people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in

common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)

It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of

years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous

knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science

world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the

academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by

governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies

Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given

society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local

people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This

knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories

symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)

According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination

of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical

educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates

to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including

those used in liberation struggles

3

Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that

is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the

environment across cultures and geographical spaces

Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the

concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is

because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since

there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They

represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and

classification systems (Sithole 2007117)

Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms

such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural

people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although

certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the

purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo

are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts

of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the

preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of

indigenous knowledge

Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world

The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include

4

Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this

knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs

rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those

communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from

one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment

and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and

libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their

communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being

dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment

Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is

referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed

outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as

tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily

codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner

since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in

Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit

knowledge into explicit knowledge further

Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to

generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many

more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be

acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge

of what to eat

5

Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining

characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in

the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the

society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived

by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case

Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different

categories

(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa

is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a

multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up

about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of

black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural

resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous

people have always relied on their environment for survival

The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to

deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to

time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has

largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200812)

6

It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has

caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The

challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge

especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of

traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the

important aspects for sustainable resources

The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to

development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the

very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse

species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when

the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western

knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an

epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local

and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a

result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)

Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields

such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices

gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by

word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be

lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to

South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a

societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)

7

Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from

international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies

such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International

Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete

attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial

activities and development projects

Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management

objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both

knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little

indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places

of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge

serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of

the population as should be the case

There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is

the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information

plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is

also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs

to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by

authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)

Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos

minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though

8

most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to

explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden

the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and

generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important

for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool

This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving

indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of

material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals

Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly

designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According

to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of

their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and

access to them was aligned along racial lines

Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to

libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers

Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of

local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in

black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be

inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi

200562)

Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of

apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national

9

transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the

process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel

development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels

199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on

the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous

knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive

studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies

This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous

knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in

transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and

frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of

indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving

such information when needed

This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the

storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes

The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource

for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western

sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp

Lwoga 2007124)

10

12 Problem statement

Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due

to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a

result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies

which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is

argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer

quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances

where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental

Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and

younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To

avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent

need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few

instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are

either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)

Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous

knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for

preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will

adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South

Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that

serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos

indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo

11

(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as

well as in transferring it to future generations

13 Aims and objectives

Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect

encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution

this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and

methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were

pursued

to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with

specific focus on South Africa

to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge

systems and

to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of

indigenous knowledge in South Africa

14 Research questions

To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were

answered

Why is indigenous knowledge important

What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

12

What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa

Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South

Africa

What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems

face in South Africa

15 Study methodology

The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data

which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books

articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A

source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as

official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources

data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information

was then analysed in order to answer the research questions

151 Study Design

This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data

Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available

(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another

investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is

limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that

heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of

13

the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the

phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and

preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area

16 Chapter layout

The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11

Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study

Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter

Chapter 1

General introduction

This chapter starts with an overview of

indigenous knowledge in perspective It also

covers the problem statement the aim of the

study its research objectives and research

questions

Chapter 2

Theoretical framework

and literature review

This chapter presents the theoretical

framework of indigenous knowledge and

critically reviews the literature relating to

indigenous knowledge

Chapter 3

Application of

Indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter outlines the indigenous

knowledge found in South Africa and it

presents the existing of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as

agriculture health and culture in South Africa

Chapter 4

Indigenous knowledge

policy the South

This chapter provides the national policies

available for preserving and protecting

14

African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa

Chapter 5

Preservation of

indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter identifies the methods of

preserving indigenous knowledge used in

South Africa and the knowledge management

model that assists in preserving and managing

knowledge

Chapter 6 Challenges and

constrains of

indigenous knowledge

In this chapter the challenges and constraints

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are

discussed

Chapter7 Conclusion and

recommendation

Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion

limitations and recommendations

17 Conclusion

This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South

Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of

documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the

concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both

local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation

and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the

documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently

not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is

disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific

objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter

explains the theoretical framework of the study

15

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the

development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In

addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is

seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to

provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A

problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are

unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind

scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on

developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing

other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous

knowledge is important

Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous

farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse

geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations

crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous

knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most

local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable

resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore

16

considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development

processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch

20075)

This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for

development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed

by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different

scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable

development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this

chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries

The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from

harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently

introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that

indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development

22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study

According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of

statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept

that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among

variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and

reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)

Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation

to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving

17

attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of

resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ

and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed

221 Social theory

Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how

aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the

economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what

makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the

society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material

and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with

morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He

further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting

it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity

of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)

Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of

solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since

individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were

held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He

was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a

society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies

individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar

18

activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens

200613)

According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are

characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and

similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the

form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and

collective conscience (Giddens 200613)

Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which

arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and

they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the

body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would

certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was

characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity

was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)

South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that

social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely

appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included

certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the

industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the

result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into

racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic

disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)

19

Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural

context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances

and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and

design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and

conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry

farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers

200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same

purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as

Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order

to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)

In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the

current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business

promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is

difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)

Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn

about the solidarity from the indigenous communities

Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense

thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society

for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday

patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to

describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that

rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down

20

which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined

anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by

modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development

together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)

When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a

sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim

described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he

believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)

In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and

look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the

present (Giddens 200614)

222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches

To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of

survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate

some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is

acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous

knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and

accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important

role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced

two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These

theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering

21

development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for

the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)

The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect

indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various

ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more

The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical

and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve

this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should

be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He

stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate

information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge

systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations

Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of

various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account

the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their

production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural

development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for

designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not

to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick

198787)

Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an

effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another

22

advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in

preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge

preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be

scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and

dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)

The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and

documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of

practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be

considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is

required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their

cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts

and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and

documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of

indigenous knowledge

Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required

attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major

drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need

for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails

to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous

knowledge especially for the marginalised poor

It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to

communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus

23

becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to

gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of

sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to

individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state

and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation

of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights

Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of

the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is

tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs

stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates

that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities

gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on

which they rely

Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still

considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge

preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to

be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous

communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for

indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge

by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge

certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the

study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and

beliefs by spending time together

24

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge

The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on

economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable

development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for

development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable

development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to

Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit

knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western

sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions

based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)

Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences

analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods

Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development

processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development

programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship

deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities

are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of

knowing

Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one

knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the

Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and

the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that

25

development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field

of women in development (Escobar199514)

Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static

unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing

reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he

explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide

the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be

conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)

Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful

seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When

it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development

although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development

used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level

Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting

something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)

Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions

manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that

technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to

development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-

economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs

to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems

26

However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to

solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing

24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development

Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its

importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level

indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food

security education natural resources management human animal and

environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key

element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival

(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for

developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous

knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local

community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic

development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and

basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World

Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-

directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it

is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when

communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most

effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs

and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most

27

especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure

indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the

process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are

concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be

appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of

wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When

properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-

centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about

their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of

crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be

used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a

state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)

Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous

knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the

Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially

Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations

Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the

United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of

documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other

international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of

indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)

28

Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in

sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries

have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In

addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local

communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of

indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)

However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in

recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries

Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order

recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital

component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy

distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being

neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it

almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems

and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making

it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp

Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)

Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and

municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report

from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous

knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for

29

stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations

were made

Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-

cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for

cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural

democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems

must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa

The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African

Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised

Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes

must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes

Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to

engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions

A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including

traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth

Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for

implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development

programmes

Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are

currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear

that they will give away their rights

Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning

Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain

categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is

30

restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or

commercialised

All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government

structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous

knowledge system policy

Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical

to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system

Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development

it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is

therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives

originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same

philosophical underpinning

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge

In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and

dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of

those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information

gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and

developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor

This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are

unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde

20089)

31

The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important

way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years

indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic

and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although

the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various

bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the

appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific

and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it

Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the

prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of

indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove

destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process

of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied

in developing countries The steps are

Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case

indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to

find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it

requires an external observer to identify it

The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of

the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is

essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge

Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because

indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature

32

It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person

to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations

modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs

Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from

disappearing

It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the

form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and

storytelling

Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the

other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments

The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the

developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally

Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and

community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals

and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for

social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement

and capabilities

Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance

development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous

knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals

within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions

that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is

33

vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national

level

According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange

of indigenous knowledge

Computers

Tape recorders

Radio

Television

Newspapers

Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras

ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities

Fax

CD-ROM

Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets

Diskettes

Social gatherings in communities

Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However

formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of

indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge

and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous

knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living

sustainably

34

To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities

there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage

teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its

wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant

skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of

indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by

(Gorjestani 2002)

In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic

Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household

incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted

to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not

properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were

destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied

gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant

increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green

manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to

reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani

2002)

In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk

and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose

by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local

farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work

35

Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200

households in 65 villages

The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce

technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training

institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous

institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned

resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the

importance of community involvement in local solutions

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation

In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or

damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is

reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the

survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)

According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300

million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and

cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of

emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic

approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for

forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap

strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure

indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local

36

communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their

knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been

involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed

their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)

In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the

South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous

people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the

unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The

indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away

from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were

destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima

amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)

A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development

of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge

System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The

programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities

to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges

Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective

governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local

knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to

Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights

methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is

37

still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western

knowledge (Ngulube 2002)

It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small

scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is

more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local

knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation

strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and

national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ

preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous

medicinal practises

It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous

knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on

indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional

medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like

malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical

companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture

of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily

on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief

Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic

needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of

Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported

out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some

38

Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and

protection of biodiversity

Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are

found in Table 21

Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa

Country Application

Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into

sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation

agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted

from generation to generation

Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The

knowledge is passed down from generation to generation

Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and

burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes

away

Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region

were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and

Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural

crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering

accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a

local language called Bambara

Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are

secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of

39

the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating

hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a

special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to

contract and to expel blood clots

South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried

mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are

inhaled through the mouth

Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the

fields to prevent soil degradation

Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of

ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease

Source Dlamini 2005

In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of

society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their

environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to

use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo

people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these

plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake

bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving

as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)

Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per

cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical

infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people

40

rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important

aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality

In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine

practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional

medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when

compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is

120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly

found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more

reasonable option for the rural people

As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances

local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts

of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional

techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally

available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation

and building on the patterns and processes of nature

In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent

of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000

to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic

practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-

billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala

20084)

41

27 Conclusion

Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people

throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of

the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were

also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous

knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable

development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the

application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa

42

CHAPTER 3

APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction

Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges

facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa

The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries

cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the

health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing

It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective

ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural

communities and future generations

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture

Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked

collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-

sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its

powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous

communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994

indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)

43

During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in

Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods

which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which

are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous

communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation

(Matenge et al 2011)

Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the

livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated

that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional

agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which

contributed towards better food security

Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology

usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately

modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South

Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous

farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel

owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural

activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga

(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start

ploughing and sowing

44

Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have

gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions

They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite

accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance

which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation

after generation

Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers

in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind

of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the

English translation

Table 31 Classification of different types of rain

Sepedi (local language) English

Pula yakgogolamooko First rain

Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail

Modupi Soft and very desirable rain

Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction

Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction

Borwa A cool rain coming from the south

Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)

Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms

and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-

million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia

45

Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in

Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the

Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people

stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)

The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for

many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-

bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of

Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly

affected during the mopane worm season

Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content

of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it

has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent

protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)

Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated

from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of

warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to

release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes

After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is

repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs

are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat

the bugs raw or cooked with porridge

46

Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed

Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they

dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still

widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried

meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo

Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is

a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa

has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of

trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary

source of income for many people

Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good

source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore

perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects

are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo

Leader Spring 2006)

Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at

the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the

Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm

and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted

resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms

valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African

47

silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the

building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)

Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but

over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability

Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they

are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof

Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a

yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)

According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000

square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it

could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is

also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for

rural people

Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is

bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)

33 Indigenous knowledge in health

In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines

was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative

therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft

Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970

48

banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of

traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their

knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al

2007208)

Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an

annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority

for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban

areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for

many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor

households

At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because

they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or

because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties

and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it

defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs

incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies

manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well

being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)

Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important

resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and

economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of

49

diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites

headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others

It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the

treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory

diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)

Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been

lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous

plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is

focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally

Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not

strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)

Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African

economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of

traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade

contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or

traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous

plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines

are still more affordable than Western medicine

It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by

Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal

plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to

50

areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented

them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects

the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the

other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that

the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent

between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male

circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences

Research Council 20091)

The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector

usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32

provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional

healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant

harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same

income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done

through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers

Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional

medicines industry of South Africa

Role player Estimated number in the business Average income

(Rand) per partaker

Traditional healer

diviner herbalist

prophets

6 8000- fulltime healers

20 0000 - include all traditional healers

in South Africa

3 8491

51

Street trader 3 000 7 941

Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do

business on the streets

7 941

Source Mander et al 2007

As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers

Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of

South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of

alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of

preservation qualification and accreditation

Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa

traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To

address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test

products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain

and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)

Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007

Province Total

Gauteng 61 465

Mpumalanga 57 524

KwaZulu-Natal 25 430

Free State 22 645

Eastern Cape 10 780

52

Limpopo 7 366

North West 5 935

Western Cape 2 600

Northern Cape 2 221

Total 185 477

Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi

2009)

Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the

daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in

South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources

including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species

are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South

Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity

Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also

make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger

200979)

Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for

food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while

26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional

which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal

properties

53

In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)

shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of

South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in

muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open

access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi

markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in

Table 34

Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo

South Africa

Scientific name Frequency of

species traded

()

Part

used

Total amount in

16 muthi shops

(kg)

Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308

Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245

Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967

Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940

Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267

Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247

Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935

Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774

Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011

The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the

Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a

54

slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education

widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the

land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional

properties of various plants in their environment

The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites

during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It

has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause

irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels

In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the

hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in

the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )

A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected

extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites

accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The

CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an

ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by

1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$

yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely

scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The

CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has

entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people

55

The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is

another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The

Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different

medicinal plants

According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million

South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700

indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also

known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species

The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a

beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other

beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel

1997)

Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not

yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different

ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have

aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as

medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush

teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people

chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people

boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it

56

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering

Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social

behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort

(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or

label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its

eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities

which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures

it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates

that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older

person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the

oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the

expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)

Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where

oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure

that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and

traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce

excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and

furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered

heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion

The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great

deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures

by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The

57

Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is

discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study

Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive

baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of

sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as

beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea

markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the

economy (Nettleton 201060)

According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets

ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that

are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa

have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain

storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with

lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)

The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to

create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable

indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective

in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its

meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous

groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings

58

Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The

challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small

amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the

cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of

this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous

knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop

indigenous crafts

35 Conclusion

South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of

poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in

order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa

have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other

communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted

preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge

can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible

healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people

having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with

indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully

explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to

promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into

the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge

policy and framework

59

CHAPTER 4

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

41 Introduction

The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a

result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities

experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South

Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has

resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and

development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard

all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted

the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New

Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge

system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished

continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)

South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual

property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some

countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding

their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology

(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on

indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free

60

education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla

200729)

Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of

indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of

indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its

preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in

many African countries (Msuya 20074)

This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of

indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property

rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes

the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge

Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen

as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever

government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla

200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is

essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities

Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some

government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key

61

ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the

participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play

an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity

reasoning of policy

Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and

recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to

realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring

about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous

knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and

exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates

the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural

communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for

indigenous knowledge

Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge

Political commitment on indigenous knowledge

Preservation of indigenous knowledge

Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge

Copyright and patent issues

Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it

Use of indigenous knowledge

Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge

In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing

protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to

62

understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are

connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the

protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and

Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the

society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or

companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical

performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo

Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people

have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over

the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property

rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at

an international level through legally binding treaties

Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a

result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while

developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is

communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult

to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-

Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)

Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative

sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft

sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and

63

eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial

benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)

Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge

Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus

on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the

preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council

2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are

in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of

Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade

Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several

countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among

themselves

Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different

agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements

were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These

include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United

Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)

TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO

agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with

trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement

The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to

64

developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities

(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access

to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard

for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise

and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe

199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the

UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty

needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the

sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights

of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural

identity (Mugabe 199925)

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy

Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a

policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999

The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and

research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory

measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the

DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and

Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on

formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge

policy

65

431 Department of Arts and Culture

The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with

encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and

tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of

Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the

Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local

As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South

Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of

social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The

policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural

diversity during apartheid

Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression

which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to

redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise

all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected

and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge

by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the

value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department

of Science and Technology 200519)

It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social

imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and

remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions

66

expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next

Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and

documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that

reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established

(Department of Trade Industry 2008)

432 Department of Trade and Industry

The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being

exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered

protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are

various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual

property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African

context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis

legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved

in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents

Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a

positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a

model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)

433 Department of Health

Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a

source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive

contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while

67

knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a

hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of

benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of

NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that

give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to

preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the

benefits

The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly

recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to

ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The

purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a

national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over

registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and

Technology 200518)

434 Department of Science and Technology

The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting

indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge

report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is

committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing

indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge

adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate

for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive

68

various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at

organisations such as the National Research Foundation

Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because

of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of

Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the

identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology

(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous

knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of

globalisation

As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos

development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions

towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of

African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different

cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One

of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of

self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must

ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a

commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture

language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)

69

Development of services provided by traditional healers

Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa

making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South

Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As

indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the

practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks

safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available

also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The

Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system

The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the

Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional

Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the

constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement

The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety

and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management

and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners

It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in

violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing

At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such

as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the

circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South

70

Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos

Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)

Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy

Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in

the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has

been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the

lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role

in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir

for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems

Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national

laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and

Development linear model of innovation

Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge

system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge

to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to

the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms

promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous

knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology

200528)

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create

new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale

71

of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is

therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge

The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable

cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South

African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing

framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures

minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous

knowledge research

Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous

knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds

wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a

good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to

innovation

Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has

contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is

adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to

appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology

sector

While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant

methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various

learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many

72

years Western context has influenced the South African education and development

policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the

educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not

only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous

knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning

The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous

knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST

enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology

strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as

specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science

and Technology 200528)

In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At

the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0

76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in

addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as

the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty

In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous

knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance

of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the

various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems

The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous

73

knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the

follows

The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed

under the DST

The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to

advise the ministers

The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge

systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights

Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional

framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous

knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced

with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the

rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play

a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information

Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the

NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the

National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual

Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous

knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from

growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an

indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges

74

the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and

bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to

organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the

project

Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of

funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of

these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and

international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding

indigenous knowledge are

To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous

communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and

technologies

Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural

industries that cater for rural areas in particular

Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to

local communities

Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous

knowledge centres studies and laboratories

Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers

and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills

In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous

knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to

75

enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative

framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued

that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by

their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in

terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights

As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of

understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no

function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently

using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents

neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and

geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of

indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and

socially achieved

While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is

important there is a time limit to ownership

Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy

for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous

knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos

indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous

knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local

communities

76

Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge

systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge

holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge

systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)

The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will

serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge

systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to

promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to

develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to

provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training

for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and

Technology 200530)

In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective

mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems

practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous

knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved

and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to

conduct and develop indigenous knowledge

However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous

knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available

regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this

77

study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library

service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department

of Science and Technology 200533)

Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community

information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes

community participation in empowering the community through preservation

However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore

libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment

Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record

and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous

and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one

person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law

Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of

indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording

using technology instruments such as video recording and others

At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including

abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from

the past The next chapter will focus more on this

It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its

ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners

78

Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure

that it is successfully preserved

Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local

communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current

policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and

there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems

Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights

while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective

policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain

their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against

indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal

The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous

knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the

policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must

legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms

recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of

rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort

has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of

indigenous knowledge

79

54 Conclusion

After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that

government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous

knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The

implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of

indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge

in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous

communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge

collectively

80

CHAPTER 5

MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

51 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from

getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous

knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is

also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices

(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)

The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep

alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through

specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by

keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on

passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp

Miruka 200990)

It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous

knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into

contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community

development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)

81

This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums

libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established

and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge

52 Indigenous knowledge centres

A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading

national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in

1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and

universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which

new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered

The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of

South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal

medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous

knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent

applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for

Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health

benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)

82

The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised

database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants

remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard

materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology

plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous

knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

Communication 2007)

The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous

knowledge centres should follow to include

Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect

document and distribute information on various components of indigenous

knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment

and so forth

Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable

methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap

and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor

Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary

research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including

knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence

on indigenous knowledge systems

Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres

should be promoted

83

Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical

assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge

53 Museums

Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language

culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable

resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous

knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public

money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage

of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of

Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online

2012)

The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of

indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs

with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the

mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people

It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with

human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal

plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial

(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their

consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)

84

In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the

public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as

their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San

peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also

accessible to the public

However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from

the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry

Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include

rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections

Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an

alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and

protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations

In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked

However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that

every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for

museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in

the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a

Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South

African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as

a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England

85

According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large

buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display

throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both

inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris

displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a

ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie

Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial

Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African

History Online 20111)

Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics

and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at

Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study

collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South

Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a

new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online

20111)

54 Laboratories

Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in

various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many

more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for

researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in

line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development

86

The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and

Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In

2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF

of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for

the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource

development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity

to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55

million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of

research equipment (Cherry 20101)

The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces

innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been

involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from

indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge

that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new

herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in

collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles

were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant

Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the

custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of

indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together

87

towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa

(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

55 Libraries

Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional

cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have

generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving

indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals

to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection

organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)

Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have

positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21

and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed

that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks

and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation

of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)

Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly

and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important

process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs

different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species

The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and

Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have

established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which

88

commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the

foundation of indigenous knowledge systems

According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous

Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and

teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous

knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific

areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including

languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green

magazine 2010)

Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local

communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations

(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express

knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends

libraries and archives to do the following

It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and

disseminates indigenous knowledge resources

Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research

and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society

The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be

involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to

understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the

indigenous knowledge system

89

Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to

indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people

56 Knowledge management model

When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is

important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge

Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by

indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities

(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be

preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if

indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become

static and redundant

The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems

store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by

going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology

music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving

indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to

be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a

good opportunity to refine it and renew it

Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge

systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated

90

in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing

retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of

individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the

community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the

first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models

are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can

also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the

Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports

libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa

needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa

is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural

collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In

this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture

will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that

comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube

amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it

should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the

indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture

91

Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated

with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which

have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe

Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to

create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product

development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because

the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous

knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model

promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural

values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit

knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The

process entails four different modes of conversion

Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with

converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to

show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together

In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous

knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work

experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and

teamwork (Hong 2010)

92

Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and

internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)

The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of

tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an

organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and

other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit

understanding

The third process called the combination process is the type where members

combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop

strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)

Socialisation

Empathising

Externalisation

Articulating

Embodying

Internalisation

Connecting

Combination

Tacit knowledge

Explicit

knowledge

Tacit

knowledge

Explicit knowledge

Tacit knowledge

93

If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such

knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the

community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of

common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively

creates a sharing atmosphere

Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the

embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of

self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge

through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental

assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo

The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word

which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed

together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and

a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the

knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge

management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the

knowledge management processes

There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba

and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are

94

Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences

beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is

particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things

especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is

built (socialisation)

Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared

converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images

symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit

(Externalisation)

Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing

knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for

growth and development

Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit

knowledge

According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the

inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his

colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets

to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of

knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a

negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities

Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten

principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp

95

Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge

management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The

principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes

and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is

based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter

The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective

management requires investment of other assets

Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and

technology in complementary ways

Knowledge management requires knowledge managers

It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their

knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which

will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the

Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in

formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on

knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

96

57 Conclusion

This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South

Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management

provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and

in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries

and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that

government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local

needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded

access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and

other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering

with communities

The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous

knowledge system in South Africa

97

CHAPTER 6

CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN

SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction

The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing

requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction

(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that

concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge

Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the

discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring

the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu

20084)

This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and

preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we

can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path

to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous

knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the

next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several

challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge

Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution

and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives

98

62 Challenges of management and preservation

621 Lack of taxonomists

Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet

Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of

organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the

variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four

tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem

diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are

as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen

as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)

There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new

and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification

classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be

preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific

names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have

always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species

that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)

Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has

encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy

positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it

can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000

botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)

99

stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous

knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology

and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge

(Raphesu 20085)

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions

Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for

agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the

usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)

The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-

economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance

of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that

explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer

Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution

in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This

has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger

generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South

African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique

indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has

made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was

reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access

100

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities

The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it

difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous

knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different

parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor

indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge

is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and

information centres

National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous

knowledge

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of

individuals

Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the

profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in

particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products

for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was

tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an

individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and

documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not

want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for

knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)

101

63 Conclusion

Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels

the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of

proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals

and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges

facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa

Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of

indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to

promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the

potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing

information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much

more

The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the

study

102

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction

This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to

different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as

for future research on the subject

72 Conclusion

The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge

preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the

theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available

in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of

preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main

findings are

The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in

different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and

traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several

fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-

economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because

the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this

103

knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast

growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research

activities etc

In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available

to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries

museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible

mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present

libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model

thus their services currently only caters for the elite

Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National

Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition

only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities

Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous

knowledge studies

Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more

attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is

crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is

a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which

was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In

addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the

needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for

104

policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and

initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation

72 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this

study makes the following recommendations

Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social

interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure

that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to

generation

Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow

of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such

as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage

and share their indigenous knowledge

To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories

and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information

are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All

bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and

databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will

achieve sustainable development

105

All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have

indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be

obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information

centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in

the preservation of indigenous knowledge

Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation

and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous

knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement

of traditional healers but should include farmers and others

There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC

and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in

facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not

only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual

Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in

order for various indigenous species to be preserved

It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels

are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and

documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder

such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute

the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful

106

Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it

was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time

and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the

geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the

researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would

have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation

and its importance as a development tool

107

REFERENCES

ADACHI Y 2010 Examination of knowledge Nonakarsquos theory in terms of

linguistic framework team Minutes of the Ministry of International Policy of

YamanashiYamanashi Prefectural University 6 21-33

AGRAWAL A 1995Dismantling the divide between the indigenous and

scientific knowledge108 Cowley RD Oxford OX4 1JFUKJournal of

Development and Change 26 413-439

AGRAWAL A 1996 Indigenous and scientific knowledge some critical

comments Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor3(3) 33-41

AKINDE TA 2008 Indigenous knowledge dissemination and use a discuss

Samaru Journal of Information Studies 8(2) 8-11

ALTIERI MA amp MERRICK LC 1987 In situ Conservation of crop genetic

resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems New York

Botanical Garden and Springer Economic Botany 41(1) 86-96

BERCKMOES LH 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge in South

AfricaResearch and Communication Division Directorate Cultural

Cooperation Education and Research Ministry of Foreign Affairs The Hague

BINNEMAN J 1999 Mummified human remains from the Kouga Mountains

Eastern CapeThe Digging Stick 16(2) 1-12

BLACK J 1993 Development Jujitsu looking on the bright sideStudies in

Comparative International Development 28(1) 71-79

BURCH S 2007 Knowledge sharing for rural development challenges

experiences and methods Latin American Information Agency ALAI

108

Available from httpalainetorgpublicaknowledgetss20inglespdf

[Accessed 12022012]

CLARKSON L MORRISETTE V amp REGALLET G 1992Our responsibility

to the seventh generation Indigenous people and sustainable development

International Institute for Sustainable Development Winnipegp1-92

CHABALALA H 2008 African Traditional Medicines The role of indigenous

knowledge systems in bioprospecting and product development in South

Africa National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems Department of

Science and Technology South Africa

CHERRY M 2010 National Research Foundation gets R250 million boost

from government while PHD numbers fall South African Journal of Science

106(1112) 1

CHIKONZO A 2006The potential of information and communication

technologies in collecting preserving and disseminating indigenous

knowledge in Africa The International Information and Library Review

38132-138

CONSIDE OXFORD DICTIONARY 2002 South Africa Cape Town Oxford

University Press

COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

COMMUNICATION 2007 Annual report 20078 CSIRScienceScope 2(1)

1-56

DAHLBERG AC amp TRYGGER SB 2009 Indigenous Medicine and primary

health care The importance of lay knowledge and use of medicinal plants in

rural South Africa Human Ecology 37 79-94

DANIELS G1994 Resource centres a challenge for us all The Cape

Librarian 38(1) 34-35

vii

CHAPTER 6 CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

PRESERVATION OF IN SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction 97

62 Challenges of management and preservation 98

621 Lack of taxonomists 98

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions 99

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities 100

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness

of individuals 100

63 Conclusion 101

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction 102

72 Conclusion 102

73 Recommendations 104

REFERENCES 107

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13

Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38

Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44

Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the

Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50

Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51

Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the

Limpopo Province of South Africa 53

ix

LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation

Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92

x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research

IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations

IK - Indigenous Knowledge

LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems

NGO - Non Governmental Organisation

NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office

REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation

UNDP - United Nation Development Program

UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations

SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination

UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes

FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational

WHO - World Health Organisation

UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights

SIDS - Small Island Developing States

THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act

WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation

DST - Department of Science and Technology

DTI - Department of trade and industry

HSRC - Human Science Research Council

NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development

xi

Abstract

Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people

through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at

reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular

emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of

a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and

the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge

promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and

document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for

decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources

management human animal and environmental health and other important activities

at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the

agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also

discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified

as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a

national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property

rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The

challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa

include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination

and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals

This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous

knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in

the country with particular emphasis on its preservation

1

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation

The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers

group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the

UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them

having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe

1998244)

Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism

was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign

colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking

control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the

colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics

and culture which regroup most of indigenous people

According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the

practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced

upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to

show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for

some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the

Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot

2

belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research

study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an

impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous

people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in

common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)

It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of

years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous

knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science

world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the

academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by

governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies

Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given

society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local

people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This

knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories

symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)

According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination

of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical

educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates

to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including

those used in liberation struggles

3

Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that

is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the

environment across cultures and geographical spaces

Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the

concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is

because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since

there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They

represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and

classification systems (Sithole 2007117)

Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms

such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural

people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although

certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the

purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo

are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts

of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the

preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of

indigenous knowledge

Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world

The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include

4

Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this

knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs

rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those

communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from

one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment

and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and

libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their

communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being

dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment

Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is

referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed

outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as

tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily

codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner

since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in

Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit

knowledge into explicit knowledge further

Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to

generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many

more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be

acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge

of what to eat

5

Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining

characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in

the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the

society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived

by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case

Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different

categories

(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa

is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a

multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up

about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of

black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural

resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous

people have always relied on their environment for survival

The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to

deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to

time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has

largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200812)

6

It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has

caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The

challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge

especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of

traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the

important aspects for sustainable resources

The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to

development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the

very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse

species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when

the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western

knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an

epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local

and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a

result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)

Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields

such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices

gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by

word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be

lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to

South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a

societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)

7

Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from

international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies

such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International

Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete

attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial

activities and development projects

Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management

objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both

knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little

indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places

of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge

serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of

the population as should be the case

There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is

the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information

plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is

also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs

to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by

authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)

Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos

minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though

8

most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to

explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden

the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and

generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important

for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool

This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving

indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of

material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals

Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly

designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According

to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of

their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and

access to them was aligned along racial lines

Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to

libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers

Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of

local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in

black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be

inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi

200562)

Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of

apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national

9

transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the

process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel

development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels

199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on

the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous

knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive

studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies

This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous

knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in

transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and

frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of

indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving

such information when needed

This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the

storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes

The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource

for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western

sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp

Lwoga 2007124)

10

12 Problem statement

Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due

to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a

result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies

which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is

argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer

quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances

where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental

Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and

younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To

avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent

need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few

instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are

either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)

Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous

knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for

preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will

adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South

Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that

serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos

indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo

11

(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as

well as in transferring it to future generations

13 Aims and objectives

Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect

encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution

this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and

methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were

pursued

to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with

specific focus on South Africa

to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge

systems and

to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of

indigenous knowledge in South Africa

14 Research questions

To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were

answered

Why is indigenous knowledge important

What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

12

What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa

Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South

Africa

What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems

face in South Africa

15 Study methodology

The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data

which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books

articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A

source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as

official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources

data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information

was then analysed in order to answer the research questions

151 Study Design

This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data

Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available

(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another

investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is

limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that

heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of

13

the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the

phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and

preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area

16 Chapter layout

The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11

Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study

Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter

Chapter 1

General introduction

This chapter starts with an overview of

indigenous knowledge in perspective It also

covers the problem statement the aim of the

study its research objectives and research

questions

Chapter 2

Theoretical framework

and literature review

This chapter presents the theoretical

framework of indigenous knowledge and

critically reviews the literature relating to

indigenous knowledge

Chapter 3

Application of

Indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter outlines the indigenous

knowledge found in South Africa and it

presents the existing of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as

agriculture health and culture in South Africa

Chapter 4

Indigenous knowledge

policy the South

This chapter provides the national policies

available for preserving and protecting

14

African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa

Chapter 5

Preservation of

indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter identifies the methods of

preserving indigenous knowledge used in

South Africa and the knowledge management

model that assists in preserving and managing

knowledge

Chapter 6 Challenges and

constrains of

indigenous knowledge

In this chapter the challenges and constraints

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are

discussed

Chapter7 Conclusion and

recommendation

Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion

limitations and recommendations

17 Conclusion

This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South

Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of

documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the

concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both

local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation

and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the

documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently

not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is

disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific

objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter

explains the theoretical framework of the study

15

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the

development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In

addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is

seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to

provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A

problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are

unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind

scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on

developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing

other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous

knowledge is important

Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous

farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse

geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations

crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous

knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most

local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable

resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore

16

considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development

processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch

20075)

This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for

development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed

by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different

scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable

development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this

chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries

The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from

harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently

introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that

indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development

22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study

According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of

statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept

that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among

variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and

reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)

Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation

to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving

17

attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of

resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ

and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed

221 Social theory

Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how

aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the

economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what

makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the

society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material

and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with

morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He

further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting

it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity

of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)

Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of

solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since

individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were

held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He

was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a

society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies

individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar

18

activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens

200613)

According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are

characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and

similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the

form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and

collective conscience (Giddens 200613)

Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which

arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and

they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the

body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would

certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was

characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity

was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)

South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that

social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely

appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included

certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the

industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the

result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into

racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic

disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)

19

Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural

context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances

and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and

design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and

conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry

farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers

200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same

purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as

Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order

to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)

In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the

current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business

promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is

difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)

Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn

about the solidarity from the indigenous communities

Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense

thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society

for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday

patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to

describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that

rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down

20

which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined

anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by

modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development

together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)

When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a

sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim

described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he

believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)

In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and

look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the

present (Giddens 200614)

222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches

To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of

survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate

some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is

acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous

knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and

accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important

role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced

two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These

theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering

21

development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for

the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)

The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect

indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various

ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more

The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical

and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve

this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should

be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He

stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate

information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge

systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations

Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of

various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account

the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their

production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural

development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for

designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not

to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick

198787)

Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an

effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another

22

advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in

preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge

preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be

scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and

dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)

The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and

documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of

practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be

considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is

required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their

cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts

and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and

documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of

indigenous knowledge

Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required

attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major

drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need

for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails

to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous

knowledge especially for the marginalised poor

It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to

communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus

23

becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to

gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of

sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to

individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state

and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation

of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights

Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of

the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is

tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs

stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates

that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities

gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on

which they rely

Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still

considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge

preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to

be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous

communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for

indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge

by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge

certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the

study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and

beliefs by spending time together

24

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge

The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on

economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable

development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for

development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable

development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to

Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit

knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western

sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions

based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)

Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences

analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods

Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development

processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development

programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship

deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities

are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of

knowing

Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one

knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the

Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and

the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that

25

development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field

of women in development (Escobar199514)

Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static

unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing

reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he

explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide

the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be

conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)

Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful

seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When

it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development

although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development

used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level

Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting

something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)

Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions

manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that

technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to

development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-

economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs

to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems

26

However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to

solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing

24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development

Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its

importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level

indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food

security education natural resources management human animal and

environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key

element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival

(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for

developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous

knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local

community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic

development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and

basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World

Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-

directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it

is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when

communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most

effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs

and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most

27

especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure

indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the

process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are

concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be

appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of

wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When

properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-

centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about

their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of

crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be

used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a

state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)

Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous

knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the

Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially

Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations

Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the

United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of

documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other

international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of

indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)

28

Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in

sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries

have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In

addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local

communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of

indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)

However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in

recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries

Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order

recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital

component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy

distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being

neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it

almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems

and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making

it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp

Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)

Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and

municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report

from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous

knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for

29

stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations

were made

Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-

cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for

cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural

democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems

must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa

The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African

Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised

Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes

must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes

Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to

engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions

A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including

traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth

Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for

implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development

programmes

Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are

currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear

that they will give away their rights

Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning

Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain

categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is

30

restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or

commercialised

All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government

structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous

knowledge system policy

Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical

to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system

Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development

it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is

therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives

originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same

philosophical underpinning

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge

In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and

dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of

those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information

gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and

developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor

This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are

unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde

20089)

31

The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important

way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years

indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic

and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although

the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various

bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the

appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific

and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it

Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the

prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of

indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove

destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process

of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied

in developing countries The steps are

Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case

indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to

find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it

requires an external observer to identify it

The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of

the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is

essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge

Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because

indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature

32

It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person

to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations

modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs

Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from

disappearing

It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the

form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and

storytelling

Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the

other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments

The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the

developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally

Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and

community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals

and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for

social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement

and capabilities

Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance

development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous

knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals

within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions

that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is

33

vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national

level

According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange

of indigenous knowledge

Computers

Tape recorders

Radio

Television

Newspapers

Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras

ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities

Fax

CD-ROM

Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets

Diskettes

Social gatherings in communities

Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However

formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of

indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge

and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous

knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living

sustainably

34

To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities

there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage

teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its

wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant

skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of

indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by

(Gorjestani 2002)

In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic

Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household

incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted

to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not

properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were

destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied

gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant

increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green

manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to

reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani

2002)

In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk

and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose

by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local

farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work

35

Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200

households in 65 villages

The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce

technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training

institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous

institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned

resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the

importance of community involvement in local solutions

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation

In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or

damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is

reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the

survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)

According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300

million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and

cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of

emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic

approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for

forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap

strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure

indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local

36

communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their

knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been

involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed

their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)

In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the

South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous

people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the

unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The

indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away

from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were

destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima

amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)

A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development

of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge

System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The

programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities

to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges

Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective

governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local

knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to

Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights

methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is

37

still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western

knowledge (Ngulube 2002)

It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small

scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is

more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local

knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation

strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and

national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ

preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous

medicinal practises

It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous

knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on

indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional

medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like

malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical

companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture

of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily

on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief

Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic

needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of

Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported

out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some

38

Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and

protection of biodiversity

Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are

found in Table 21

Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa

Country Application

Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into

sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation

agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted

from generation to generation

Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The

knowledge is passed down from generation to generation

Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and

burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes

away

Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region

were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and

Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural

crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering

accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a

local language called Bambara

Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are

secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of

39

the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating

hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a

special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to

contract and to expel blood clots

South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried

mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are

inhaled through the mouth

Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the

fields to prevent soil degradation

Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of

ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease

Source Dlamini 2005

In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of

society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their

environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to

use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo

people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these

plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake

bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving

as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)

Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per

cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical

infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people

40

rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important

aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality

In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine

practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional

medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when

compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is

120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly

found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more

reasonable option for the rural people

As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances

local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts

of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional

techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally

available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation

and building on the patterns and processes of nature

In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent

of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000

to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic

practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-

billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala

20084)

41

27 Conclusion

Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people

throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of

the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were

also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous

knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable

development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the

application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa

42

CHAPTER 3

APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction

Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges

facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa

The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries

cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the

health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing

It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective

ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural

communities and future generations

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture

Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked

collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-

sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its

powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous

communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994

indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)

43

During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in

Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods

which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which

are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous

communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation

(Matenge et al 2011)

Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the

livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated

that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional

agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which

contributed towards better food security

Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology

usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately

modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South

Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous

farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel

owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural

activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga

(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start

ploughing and sowing

44

Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have

gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions

They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite

accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance

which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation

after generation

Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers

in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind

of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the

English translation

Table 31 Classification of different types of rain

Sepedi (local language) English

Pula yakgogolamooko First rain

Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail

Modupi Soft and very desirable rain

Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction

Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction

Borwa A cool rain coming from the south

Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)

Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms

and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-

million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia

45

Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in

Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the

Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people

stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)

The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for

many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-

bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of

Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly

affected during the mopane worm season

Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content

of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it

has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent

protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)

Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated

from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of

warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to

release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes

After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is

repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs

are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat

the bugs raw or cooked with porridge

46

Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed

Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they

dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still

widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried

meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo

Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is

a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa

has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of

trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary

source of income for many people

Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good

source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore

perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects

are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo

Leader Spring 2006)

Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at

the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the

Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm

and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted

resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms

valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African

47

silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the

building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)

Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but

over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability

Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they

are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof

Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a

yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)

According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000

square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it

could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is

also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for

rural people

Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is

bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)

33 Indigenous knowledge in health

In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines

was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative

therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft

Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970

48

banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of

traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their

knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al

2007208)

Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an

annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority

for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban

areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for

many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor

households

At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because

they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or

because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties

and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it

defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs

incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies

manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well

being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)

Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important

resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and

economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of

49

diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites

headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others

It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the

treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory

diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)

Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been

lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous

plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is

focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally

Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not

strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)

Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African

economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of

traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade

contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or

traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous

plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines

are still more affordable than Western medicine

It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by

Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal

plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to

50

areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented

them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects

the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the

other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that

the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent

between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male

circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences

Research Council 20091)

The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector

usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32

provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional

healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant

harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same

income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done

through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers

Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional

medicines industry of South Africa

Role player Estimated number in the business Average income

(Rand) per partaker

Traditional healer

diviner herbalist

prophets

6 8000- fulltime healers

20 0000 - include all traditional healers

in South Africa

3 8491

51

Street trader 3 000 7 941

Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do

business on the streets

7 941

Source Mander et al 2007

As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers

Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of

South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of

alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of

preservation qualification and accreditation

Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa

traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To

address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test

products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain

and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)

Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007

Province Total

Gauteng 61 465

Mpumalanga 57 524

KwaZulu-Natal 25 430

Free State 22 645

Eastern Cape 10 780

52

Limpopo 7 366

North West 5 935

Western Cape 2 600

Northern Cape 2 221

Total 185 477

Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi

2009)

Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the

daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in

South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources

including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species

are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South

Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity

Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also

make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger

200979)

Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for

food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while

26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional

which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal

properties

53

In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)

shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of

South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in

muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open

access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi

markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in

Table 34

Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo

South Africa

Scientific name Frequency of

species traded

()

Part

used

Total amount in

16 muthi shops

(kg)

Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308

Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245

Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967

Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940

Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267

Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247

Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935

Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774

Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011

The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the

Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a

54

slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education

widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the

land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional

properties of various plants in their environment

The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites

during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It

has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause

irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels

In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the

hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in

the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )

A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected

extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites

accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The

CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an

ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by

1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$

yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely

scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The

CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has

entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people

55

The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is

another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The

Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different

medicinal plants

According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million

South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700

indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also

known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species

The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a

beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other

beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel

1997)

Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not

yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different

ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have

aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as

medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush

teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people

chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people

boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it

56

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering

Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social

behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort

(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or

label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its

eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities

which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures

it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates

that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older

person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the

oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the

expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)

Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where

oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure

that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and

traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce

excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and

furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered

heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion

The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great

deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures

by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The

57

Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is

discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study

Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive

baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of

sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as

beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea

markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the

economy (Nettleton 201060)

According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets

ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that

are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa

have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain

storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with

lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)

The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to

create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable

indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective

in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its

meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous

groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings

58

Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The

challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small

amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the

cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of

this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous

knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop

indigenous crafts

35 Conclusion

South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of

poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in

order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa

have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other

communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted

preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge

can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible

healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people

having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with

indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully

explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to

promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into

the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge

policy and framework

59

CHAPTER 4

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

41 Introduction

The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a

result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities

experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South

Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has

resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and

development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard

all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted

the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New

Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge

system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished

continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)

South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual

property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some

countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding

their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology

(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on

indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free

60

education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla

200729)

Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of

indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of

indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its

preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in

many African countries (Msuya 20074)

This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of

indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property

rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes

the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge

Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen

as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever

government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla

200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is

essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities

Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some

government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key

61

ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the

participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play

an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity

reasoning of policy

Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and

recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to

realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring

about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous

knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and

exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates

the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural

communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for

indigenous knowledge

Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge

Political commitment on indigenous knowledge

Preservation of indigenous knowledge

Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge

Copyright and patent issues

Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it

Use of indigenous knowledge

Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge

In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing

protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to

62

understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are

connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the

protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and

Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the

society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or

companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical

performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo

Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people

have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over

the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property

rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at

an international level through legally binding treaties

Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a

result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while

developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is

communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult

to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-

Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)

Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative

sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft

sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and

63

eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial

benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)

Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge

Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus

on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the

preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council

2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are

in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of

Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade

Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several

countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among

themselves

Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different

agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements

were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These

include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United

Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)

TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO

agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with

trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement

The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to

64

developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities

(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access

to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard

for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise

and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe

199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the

UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty

needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the

sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights

of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural

identity (Mugabe 199925)

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy

Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a

policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999

The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and

research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory

measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the

DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and

Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on

formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge

policy

65

431 Department of Arts and Culture

The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with

encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and

tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of

Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the

Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local

As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South

Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of

social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The

policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural

diversity during apartheid

Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression

which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to

redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise

all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected

and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge

by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the

value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department

of Science and Technology 200519)

It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social

imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and

remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions

66

expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next

Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and

documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that

reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established

(Department of Trade Industry 2008)

432 Department of Trade and Industry

The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being

exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered

protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are

various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual

property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African

context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis

legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved

in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents

Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a

positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a

model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)

433 Department of Health

Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a

source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive

contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while

67

knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a

hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of

benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of

NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that

give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to

preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the

benefits

The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly

recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to

ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The

purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a

national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over

registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and

Technology 200518)

434 Department of Science and Technology

The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting

indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge

report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is

committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing

indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge

adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate

for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive

68

various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at

organisations such as the National Research Foundation

Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because

of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of

Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the

identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology

(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous

knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of

globalisation

As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos

development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions

towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of

African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different

cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One

of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of

self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must

ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a

commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture

language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)

69

Development of services provided by traditional healers

Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa

making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South

Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As

indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the

practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks

safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available

also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The

Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system

The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the

Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional

Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the

constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement

The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety

and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management

and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners

It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in

violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing

At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such

as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the

circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South

70

Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos

Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)

Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy

Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in

the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has

been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the

lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role

in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir

for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems

Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national

laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and

Development linear model of innovation

Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge

system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge

to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to

the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms

promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous

knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology

200528)

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create

new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale

71

of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is

therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge

The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable

cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South

African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing

framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures

minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous

knowledge research

Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous

knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds

wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a

good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to

innovation

Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has

contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is

adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to

appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology

sector

While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant

methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various

learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many

72

years Western context has influenced the South African education and development

policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the

educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not

only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous

knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning

The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous

knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST

enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology

strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as

specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science

and Technology 200528)

In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At

the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0

76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in

addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as

the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty

In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous

knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance

of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the

various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems

The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous

73

knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the

follows

The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed

under the DST

The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to

advise the ministers

The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge

systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights

Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional

framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous

knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced

with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the

rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play

a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information

Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the

NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the

National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual

Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous

knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from

growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an

indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges

74

the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and

bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to

organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the

project

Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of

funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of

these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and

international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding

indigenous knowledge are

To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous

communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and

technologies

Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural

industries that cater for rural areas in particular

Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to

local communities

Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous

knowledge centres studies and laboratories

Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers

and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills

In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous

knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to

75

enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative

framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued

that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by

their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in

terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights

As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of

understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no

function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently

using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents

neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and

geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of

indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and

socially achieved

While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is

important there is a time limit to ownership

Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy

for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous

knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos

indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous

knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local

communities

76

Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge

systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge

holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge

systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)

The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will

serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge

systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to

promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to

develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to

provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training

for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and

Technology 200530)

In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective

mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems

practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous

knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved

and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to

conduct and develop indigenous knowledge

However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous

knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available

regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this

77

study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library

service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department

of Science and Technology 200533)

Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community

information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes

community participation in empowering the community through preservation

However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore

libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment

Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record

and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous

and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one

person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law

Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of

indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording

using technology instruments such as video recording and others

At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including

abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from

the past The next chapter will focus more on this

It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its

ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners

78

Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure

that it is successfully preserved

Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local

communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current

policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and

there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems

Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights

while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective

policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain

their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against

indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal

The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous

knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the

policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must

legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms

recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of

rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort

has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of

indigenous knowledge

79

54 Conclusion

After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that

government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous

knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The

implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of

indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge

in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous

communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge

collectively

80

CHAPTER 5

MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

51 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from

getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous

knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is

also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices

(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)

The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep

alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through

specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by

keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on

passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp

Miruka 200990)

It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous

knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into

contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community

development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)

81

This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums

libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established

and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge

52 Indigenous knowledge centres

A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading

national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in

1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and

universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which

new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered

The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of

South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal

medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous

knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent

applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for

Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health

benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)

82

The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised

database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants

remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard

materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology

plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous

knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

Communication 2007)

The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous

knowledge centres should follow to include

Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect

document and distribute information on various components of indigenous

knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment

and so forth

Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable

methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap

and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor

Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary

research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including

knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence

on indigenous knowledge systems

Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres

should be promoted

83

Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical

assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge

53 Museums

Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language

culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable

resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous

knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public

money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage

of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of

Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online

2012)

The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of

indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs

with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the

mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people

It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with

human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal

plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial

(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their

consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)

84

In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the

public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as

their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San

peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also

accessible to the public

However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from

the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry

Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include

rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections

Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an

alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and

protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations

In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked

However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that

every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for

museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in

the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a

Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South

African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as

a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England

85

According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large

buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display

throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both

inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris

displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a

ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie

Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial

Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African

History Online 20111)

Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics

and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at

Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study

collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South

Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a

new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online

20111)

54 Laboratories

Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in

various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many

more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for

researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in

line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development

86

The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and

Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In

2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF

of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for

the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource

development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity

to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55

million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of

research equipment (Cherry 20101)

The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces

innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been

involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from

indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge

that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new

herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in

collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles

were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant

Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the

custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of

indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together

87

towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa

(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

55 Libraries

Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional

cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have

generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving

indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals

to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection

organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)

Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have

positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21

and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed

that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks

and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation

of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)

Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly

and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important

process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs

different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species

The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and

Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have

established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which

88

commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the

foundation of indigenous knowledge systems

According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous

Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and

teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous

knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific

areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including

languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green

magazine 2010)

Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local

communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations

(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express

knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends

libraries and archives to do the following

It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and

disseminates indigenous knowledge resources

Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research

and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society

The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be

involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to

understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the

indigenous knowledge system

89

Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to

indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people

56 Knowledge management model

When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is

important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge

Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by

indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities

(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be

preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if

indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become

static and redundant

The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems

store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by

going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology

music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving

indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to

be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a

good opportunity to refine it and renew it

Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge

systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated

90

in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing

retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of

individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the

community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the

first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models

are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can

also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the

Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports

libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa

needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa

is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural

collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In

this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture

will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that

comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube

amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it

should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the

indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture

91

Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated

with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which

have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe

Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to

create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product

development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because

the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous

knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model

promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural

values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit

knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The

process entails four different modes of conversion

Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with

converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to

show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together

In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous

knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work

experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and

teamwork (Hong 2010)

92

Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and

internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)

The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of

tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an

organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and

other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit

understanding

The third process called the combination process is the type where members

combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop

strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)

Socialisation

Empathising

Externalisation

Articulating

Embodying

Internalisation

Connecting

Combination

Tacit knowledge

Explicit

knowledge

Tacit

knowledge

Explicit knowledge

Tacit knowledge

93

If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such

knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the

community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of

common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively

creates a sharing atmosphere

Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the

embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of

self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge

through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental

assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo

The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word

which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed

together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and

a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the

knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge

management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the

knowledge management processes

There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba

and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are

94

Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences

beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is

particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things

especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is

built (socialisation)

Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared

converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images

symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit

(Externalisation)

Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing

knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for

growth and development

Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit

knowledge

According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the

inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his

colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets

to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of

knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a

negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities

Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten

principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp

95

Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge

management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The

principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes

and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is

based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter

The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective

management requires investment of other assets

Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and

technology in complementary ways

Knowledge management requires knowledge managers

It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their

knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which

will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the

Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in

formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on

knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

96

57 Conclusion

This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South

Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management

provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and

in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries

and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that

government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local

needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded

access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and

other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering

with communities

The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous

knowledge system in South Africa

97

CHAPTER 6

CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN

SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction

The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing

requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction

(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that

concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge

Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the

discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring

the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu

20084)

This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and

preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we

can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path

to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous

knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the

next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several

challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge

Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution

and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives

98

62 Challenges of management and preservation

621 Lack of taxonomists

Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet

Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of

organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the

variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four

tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem

diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are

as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen

as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)

There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new

and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification

classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be

preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific

names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have

always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species

that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)

Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has

encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy

positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it

can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000

botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)

99

stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous

knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology

and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge

(Raphesu 20085)

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions

Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for

agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the

usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)

The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-

economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance

of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that

explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer

Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution

in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This

has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger

generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South

African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique

indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has

made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was

reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access

100

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities

The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it

difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous

knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different

parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor

indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge

is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and

information centres

National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous

knowledge

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of

individuals

Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the

profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in

particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products

for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was

tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an

individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and

documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not

want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for

knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)

101

63 Conclusion

Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels

the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of

proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals

and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges

facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa

Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of

indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to

promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the

potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing

information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much

more

The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the

study

102

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction

This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to

different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as

for future research on the subject

72 Conclusion

The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge

preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the

theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available

in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of

preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main

findings are

The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in

different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and

traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several

fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-

economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because

the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this

103

knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast

growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research

activities etc

In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available

to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries

museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible

mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present

libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model

thus their services currently only caters for the elite

Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National

Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition

only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities

Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous

knowledge studies

Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more

attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is

crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is

a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which

was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In

addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the

needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for

104

policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and

initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation

72 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this

study makes the following recommendations

Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social

interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure

that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to

generation

Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow

of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such

as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage

and share their indigenous knowledge

To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories

and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information

are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All

bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and

databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will

achieve sustainable development

105

All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have

indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be

obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information

centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in

the preservation of indigenous knowledge

Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation

and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous

knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement

of traditional healers but should include farmers and others

There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC

and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in

facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not

only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual

Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in

order for various indigenous species to be preserved

It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels

are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and

documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder

such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute

the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful

106

Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it

was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time

and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the

geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the

researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would

have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation

and its importance as a development tool

107

REFERENCES

ADACHI Y 2010 Examination of knowledge Nonakarsquos theory in terms of

linguistic framework team Minutes of the Ministry of International Policy of

YamanashiYamanashi Prefectural University 6 21-33

AGRAWAL A 1995Dismantling the divide between the indigenous and

scientific knowledge108 Cowley RD Oxford OX4 1JFUKJournal of

Development and Change 26 413-439

AGRAWAL A 1996 Indigenous and scientific knowledge some critical

comments Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor3(3) 33-41

AKINDE TA 2008 Indigenous knowledge dissemination and use a discuss

Samaru Journal of Information Studies 8(2) 8-11

ALTIERI MA amp MERRICK LC 1987 In situ Conservation of crop genetic

resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems New York

Botanical Garden and Springer Economic Botany 41(1) 86-96

BERCKMOES LH 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge in South

AfricaResearch and Communication Division Directorate Cultural

Cooperation Education and Research Ministry of Foreign Affairs The Hague

BINNEMAN J 1999 Mummified human remains from the Kouga Mountains

Eastern CapeThe Digging Stick 16(2) 1-12

BLACK J 1993 Development Jujitsu looking on the bright sideStudies in

Comparative International Development 28(1) 71-79

BURCH S 2007 Knowledge sharing for rural development challenges

experiences and methods Latin American Information Agency ALAI

108

Available from httpalainetorgpublicaknowledgetss20inglespdf

[Accessed 12022012]

CLARKSON L MORRISETTE V amp REGALLET G 1992Our responsibility

to the seventh generation Indigenous people and sustainable development

International Institute for Sustainable Development Winnipegp1-92

CHABALALA H 2008 African Traditional Medicines The role of indigenous

knowledge systems in bioprospecting and product development in South

Africa National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems Department of

Science and Technology South Africa

CHERRY M 2010 National Research Foundation gets R250 million boost

from government while PHD numbers fall South African Journal of Science

106(1112) 1

CHIKONZO A 2006The potential of information and communication

technologies in collecting preserving and disseminating indigenous

knowledge in Africa The International Information and Library Review

38132-138

CONSIDE OXFORD DICTIONARY 2002 South Africa Cape Town Oxford

University Press

COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

COMMUNICATION 2007 Annual report 20078 CSIRScienceScope 2(1)

1-56

DAHLBERG AC amp TRYGGER SB 2009 Indigenous Medicine and primary

health care The importance of lay knowledge and use of medicinal plants in

rural South Africa Human Ecology 37 79-94

DANIELS G1994 Resource centres a challenge for us all The Cape

Librarian 38(1) 34-35

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 11 Layout of Chapters of the Study 13

Table 21 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge Applications in Africa 38

Table 31 Classification of Different Types of Rain 44

Table 32 Type and Number of Informal Sector Players in the

Traditional Medicines Industry of South Africa 50

Table 33 Number of Traditional Healers in South Africa in 2007 51

Table 34 Eight Most Frequently Traded Medicinal Plants in the

Limpopo Province of South Africa 53

ix

LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation

Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92

x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research

IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations

IK - Indigenous Knowledge

LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems

NGO - Non Governmental Organisation

NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office

REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation

UNDP - United Nation Development Program

UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations

SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination

UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes

FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational

WHO - World Health Organisation

UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights

SIDS - Small Island Developing States

THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act

WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation

DST - Department of Science and Technology

DTI - Department of trade and industry

HSRC - Human Science Research Council

NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development

xi

Abstract

Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people

through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at

reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular

emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of

a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and

the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge

promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and

document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for

decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources

management human animal and environmental health and other important activities

at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the

agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also

discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified

as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a

national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property

rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The

challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa

include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination

and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals

This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous

knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in

the country with particular emphasis on its preservation

1

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation

The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers

group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the

UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them

having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe

1998244)

Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism

was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign

colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking

control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the

colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics

and culture which regroup most of indigenous people

According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the

practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced

upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to

show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for

some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the

Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot

2

belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research

study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an

impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous

people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in

common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)

It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of

years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous

knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science

world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the

academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by

governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies

Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given

society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local

people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This

knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories

symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)

According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination

of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical

educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates

to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including

those used in liberation struggles

3

Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that

is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the

environment across cultures and geographical spaces

Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the

concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is

because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since

there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They

represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and

classification systems (Sithole 2007117)

Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms

such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural

people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although

certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the

purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo

are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts

of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the

preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of

indigenous knowledge

Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world

The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include

4

Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this

knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs

rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those

communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from

one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment

and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and

libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their

communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being

dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment

Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is

referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed

outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as

tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily

codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner

since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in

Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit

knowledge into explicit knowledge further

Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to

generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many

more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be

acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge

of what to eat

5

Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining

characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in

the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the

society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived

by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case

Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different

categories

(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa

is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a

multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up

about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of

black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural

resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous

people have always relied on their environment for survival

The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to

deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to

time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has

largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200812)

6

It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has

caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The

challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge

especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of

traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the

important aspects for sustainable resources

The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to

development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the

very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse

species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when

the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western

knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an

epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local

and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a

result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)

Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields

such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices

gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by

word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be

lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to

South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a

societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)

7

Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from

international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies

such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International

Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete

attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial

activities and development projects

Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management

objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both

knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little

indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places

of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge

serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of

the population as should be the case

There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is

the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information

plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is

also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs

to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by

authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)

Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos

minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though

8

most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to

explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden

the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and

generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important

for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool

This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving

indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of

material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals

Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly

designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According

to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of

their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and

access to them was aligned along racial lines

Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to

libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers

Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of

local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in

black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be

inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi

200562)

Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of

apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national

9

transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the

process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel

development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels

199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on

the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous

knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive

studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies

This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous

knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in

transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and

frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of

indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving

such information when needed

This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the

storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes

The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource

for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western

sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp

Lwoga 2007124)

10

12 Problem statement

Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due

to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a

result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies

which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is

argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer

quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances

where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental

Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and

younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To

avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent

need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few

instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are

either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)

Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous

knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for

preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will

adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South

Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that

serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos

indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo

11

(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as

well as in transferring it to future generations

13 Aims and objectives

Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect

encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution

this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and

methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were

pursued

to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with

specific focus on South Africa

to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge

systems and

to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of

indigenous knowledge in South Africa

14 Research questions

To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were

answered

Why is indigenous knowledge important

What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

12

What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa

Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South

Africa

What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems

face in South Africa

15 Study methodology

The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data

which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books

articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A

source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as

official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources

data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information

was then analysed in order to answer the research questions

151 Study Design

This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data

Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available

(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another

investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is

limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that

heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of

13

the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the

phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and

preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area

16 Chapter layout

The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11

Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study

Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter

Chapter 1

General introduction

This chapter starts with an overview of

indigenous knowledge in perspective It also

covers the problem statement the aim of the

study its research objectives and research

questions

Chapter 2

Theoretical framework

and literature review

This chapter presents the theoretical

framework of indigenous knowledge and

critically reviews the literature relating to

indigenous knowledge

Chapter 3

Application of

Indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter outlines the indigenous

knowledge found in South Africa and it

presents the existing of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as

agriculture health and culture in South Africa

Chapter 4

Indigenous knowledge

policy the South

This chapter provides the national policies

available for preserving and protecting

14

African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa

Chapter 5

Preservation of

indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter identifies the methods of

preserving indigenous knowledge used in

South Africa and the knowledge management

model that assists in preserving and managing

knowledge

Chapter 6 Challenges and

constrains of

indigenous knowledge

In this chapter the challenges and constraints

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are

discussed

Chapter7 Conclusion and

recommendation

Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion

limitations and recommendations

17 Conclusion

This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South

Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of

documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the

concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both

local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation

and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the

documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently

not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is

disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific

objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter

explains the theoretical framework of the study

15

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the

development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In

addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is

seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to

provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A

problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are

unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind

scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on

developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing

other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous

knowledge is important

Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous

farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse

geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations

crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous

knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most

local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable

resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore

16

considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development

processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch

20075)

This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for

development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed

by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different

scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable

development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this

chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries

The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from

harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently

introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that

indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development

22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study

According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of

statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept

that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among

variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and

reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)

Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation

to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving

17

attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of

resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ

and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed

221 Social theory

Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how

aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the

economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what

makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the

society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material

and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with

morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He

further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting

it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity

of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)

Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of

solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since

individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were

held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He

was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a

society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies

individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar

18

activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens

200613)

According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are

characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and

similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the

form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and

collective conscience (Giddens 200613)

Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which

arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and

they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the

body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would

certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was

characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity

was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)

South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that

social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely

appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included

certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the

industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the

result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into

racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic

disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)

19

Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural

context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances

and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and

design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and

conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry

farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers

200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same

purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as

Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order

to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)

In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the

current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business

promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is

difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)

Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn

about the solidarity from the indigenous communities

Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense

thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society

for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday

patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to

describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that

rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down

20

which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined

anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by

modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development

together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)

When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a

sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim

described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he

believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)

In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and

look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the

present (Giddens 200614)

222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches

To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of

survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate

some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is

acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous

knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and

accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important

role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced

two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These

theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering

21

development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for

the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)

The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect

indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various

ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more

The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical

and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve

this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should

be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He

stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate

information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge

systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations

Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of

various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account

the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their

production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural

development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for

designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not

to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick

198787)

Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an

effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another

22

advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in

preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge

preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be

scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and

dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)

The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and

documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of

practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be

considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is

required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their

cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts

and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and

documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of

indigenous knowledge

Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required

attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major

drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need

for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails

to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous

knowledge especially for the marginalised poor

It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to

communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus

23

becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to

gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of

sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to

individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state

and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation

of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights

Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of

the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is

tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs

stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates

that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities

gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on

which they rely

Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still

considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge

preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to

be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous

communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for

indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge

by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge

certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the

study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and

beliefs by spending time together

24

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge

The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on

economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable

development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for

development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable

development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to

Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit

knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western

sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions

based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)

Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences

analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods

Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development

processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development

programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship

deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities

are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of

knowing

Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one

knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the

Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and

the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that

25

development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field

of women in development (Escobar199514)

Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static

unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing

reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he

explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide

the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be

conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)

Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful

seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When

it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development

although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development

used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level

Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting

something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)

Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions

manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that

technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to

development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-

economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs

to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems

26

However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to

solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing

24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development

Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its

importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level

indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food

security education natural resources management human animal and

environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key

element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival

(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for

developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous

knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local

community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic

development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and

basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World

Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-

directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it

is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when

communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most

effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs

and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most

27

especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure

indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the

process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are

concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be

appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of

wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When

properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-

centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about

their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of

crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be

used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a

state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)

Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous

knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the

Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially

Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations

Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the

United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of

documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other

international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of

indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)

28

Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in

sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries

have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In

addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local

communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of

indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)

However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in

recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries

Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order

recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital

component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy

distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being

neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it

almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems

and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making

it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp

Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)

Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and

municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report

from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous

knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for

29

stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations

were made

Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-

cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for

cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural

democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems

must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa

The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African

Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised

Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes

must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes

Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to

engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions

A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including

traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth

Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for

implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development

programmes

Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are

currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear

that they will give away their rights

Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning

Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain

categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is

30

restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or

commercialised

All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government

structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous

knowledge system policy

Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical

to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system

Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development

it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is

therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives

originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same

philosophical underpinning

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge

In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and

dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of

those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information

gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and

developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor

This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are

unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde

20089)

31

The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important

way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years

indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic

and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although

the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various

bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the

appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific

and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it

Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the

prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of

indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove

destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process

of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied

in developing countries The steps are

Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case

indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to

find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it

requires an external observer to identify it

The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of

the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is

essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge

Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because

indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature

32

It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person

to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations

modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs

Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from

disappearing

It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the

form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and

storytelling

Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the

other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments

The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the

developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally

Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and

community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals

and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for

social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement

and capabilities

Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance

development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous

knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals

within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions

that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is

33

vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national

level

According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange

of indigenous knowledge

Computers

Tape recorders

Radio

Television

Newspapers

Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras

ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities

Fax

CD-ROM

Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets

Diskettes

Social gatherings in communities

Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However

formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of

indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge

and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous

knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living

sustainably

34

To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities

there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage

teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its

wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant

skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of

indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by

(Gorjestani 2002)

In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic

Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household

incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted

to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not

properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were

destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied

gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant

increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green

manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to

reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani

2002)

In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk

and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose

by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local

farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work

35

Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200

households in 65 villages

The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce

technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training

institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous

institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned

resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the

importance of community involvement in local solutions

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation

In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or

damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is

reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the

survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)

According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300

million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and

cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of

emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic

approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for

forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap

strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure

indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local

36

communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their

knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been

involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed

their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)

In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the

South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous

people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the

unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The

indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away

from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were

destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima

amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)

A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development

of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge

System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The

programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities

to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges

Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective

governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local

knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to

Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights

methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is

37

still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western

knowledge (Ngulube 2002)

It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small

scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is

more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local

knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation

strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and

national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ

preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous

medicinal practises

It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous

knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on

indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional

medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like

malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical

companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture

of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily

on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief

Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic

needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of

Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported

out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some

38

Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and

protection of biodiversity

Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are

found in Table 21

Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa

Country Application

Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into

sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation

agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted

from generation to generation

Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The

knowledge is passed down from generation to generation

Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and

burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes

away

Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region

were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and

Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural

crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering

accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a

local language called Bambara

Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are

secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of

39

the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating

hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a

special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to

contract and to expel blood clots

South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried

mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are

inhaled through the mouth

Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the

fields to prevent soil degradation

Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of

ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease

Source Dlamini 2005

In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of

society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their

environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to

use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo

people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these

plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake

bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving

as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)

Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per

cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical

infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people

40

rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important

aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality

In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine

practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional

medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when

compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is

120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly

found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more

reasonable option for the rural people

As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances

local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts

of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional

techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally

available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation

and building on the patterns and processes of nature

In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent

of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000

to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic

practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-

billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala

20084)

41

27 Conclusion

Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people

throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of

the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were

also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous

knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable

development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the

application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa

42

CHAPTER 3

APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction

Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges

facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa

The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries

cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the

health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing

It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective

ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural

communities and future generations

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture

Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked

collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-

sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its

powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous

communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994

indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)

43

During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in

Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods

which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which

are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous

communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation

(Matenge et al 2011)

Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the

livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated

that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional

agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which

contributed towards better food security

Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology

usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately

modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South

Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous

farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel

owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural

activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga

(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start

ploughing and sowing

44

Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have

gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions

They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite

accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance

which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation

after generation

Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers

in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind

of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the

English translation

Table 31 Classification of different types of rain

Sepedi (local language) English

Pula yakgogolamooko First rain

Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail

Modupi Soft and very desirable rain

Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction

Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction

Borwa A cool rain coming from the south

Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)

Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms

and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-

million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia

45

Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in

Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the

Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people

stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)

The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for

many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-

bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of

Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly

affected during the mopane worm season

Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content

of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it

has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent

protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)

Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated

from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of

warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to

release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes

After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is

repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs

are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat

the bugs raw or cooked with porridge

46

Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed

Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they

dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still

widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried

meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo

Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is

a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa

has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of

trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary

source of income for many people

Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good

source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore

perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects

are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo

Leader Spring 2006)

Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at

the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the

Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm

and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted

resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms

valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African

47

silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the

building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)

Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but

over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability

Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they

are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof

Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a

yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)

According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000

square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it

could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is

also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for

rural people

Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is

bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)

33 Indigenous knowledge in health

In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines

was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative

therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft

Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970

48

banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of

traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their

knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al

2007208)

Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an

annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority

for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban

areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for

many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor

households

At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because

they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or

because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties

and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it

defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs

incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies

manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well

being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)

Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important

resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and

economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of

49

diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites

headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others

It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the

treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory

diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)

Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been

lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous

plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is

focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally

Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not

strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)

Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African

economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of

traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade

contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or

traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous

plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines

are still more affordable than Western medicine

It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by

Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal

plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to

50

areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented

them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects

the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the

other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that

the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent

between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male

circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences

Research Council 20091)

The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector

usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32

provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional

healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant

harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same

income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done

through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers

Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional

medicines industry of South Africa

Role player Estimated number in the business Average income

(Rand) per partaker

Traditional healer

diviner herbalist

prophets

6 8000- fulltime healers

20 0000 - include all traditional healers

in South Africa

3 8491

51

Street trader 3 000 7 941

Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do

business on the streets

7 941

Source Mander et al 2007

As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers

Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of

South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of

alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of

preservation qualification and accreditation

Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa

traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To

address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test

products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain

and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)

Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007

Province Total

Gauteng 61 465

Mpumalanga 57 524

KwaZulu-Natal 25 430

Free State 22 645

Eastern Cape 10 780

52

Limpopo 7 366

North West 5 935

Western Cape 2 600

Northern Cape 2 221

Total 185 477

Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi

2009)

Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the

daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in

South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources

including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species

are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South

Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity

Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also

make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger

200979)

Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for

food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while

26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional

which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal

properties

53

In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)

shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of

South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in

muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open

access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi

markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in

Table 34

Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo

South Africa

Scientific name Frequency of

species traded

()

Part

used

Total amount in

16 muthi shops

(kg)

Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308

Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245

Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967

Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940

Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267

Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247

Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935

Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774

Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011

The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the

Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a

54

slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education

widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the

land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional

properties of various plants in their environment

The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites

during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It

has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause

irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels

In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the

hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in

the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )

A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected

extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites

accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The

CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an

ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by

1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$

yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely

scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The

CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has

entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people

55

The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is

another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The

Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different

medicinal plants

According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million

South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700

indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also

known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species

The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a

beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other

beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel

1997)

Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not

yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different

ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have

aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as

medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush

teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people

chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people

boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it

56

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering

Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social

behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort

(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or

label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its

eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities

which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures

it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates

that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older

person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the

oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the

expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)

Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where

oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure

that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and

traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce

excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and

furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered

heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion

The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great

deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures

by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The

57

Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is

discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study

Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive

baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of

sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as

beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea

markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the

economy (Nettleton 201060)

According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets

ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that

are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa

have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain

storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with

lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)

The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to

create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable

indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective

in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its

meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous

groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings

58

Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The

challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small

amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the

cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of

this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous

knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop

indigenous crafts

35 Conclusion

South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of

poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in

order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa

have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other

communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted

preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge

can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible

healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people

having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with

indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully

explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to

promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into

the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge

policy and framework

59

CHAPTER 4

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

41 Introduction

The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a

result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities

experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South

Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has

resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and

development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard

all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted

the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New

Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge

system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished

continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)

South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual

property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some

countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding

their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology

(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on

indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free

60

education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla

200729)

Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of

indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of

indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its

preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in

many African countries (Msuya 20074)

This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of

indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property

rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes

the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge

Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen

as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever

government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla

200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is

essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities

Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some

government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key

61

ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the

participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play

an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity

reasoning of policy

Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and

recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to

realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring

about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous

knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and

exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates

the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural

communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for

indigenous knowledge

Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge

Political commitment on indigenous knowledge

Preservation of indigenous knowledge

Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge

Copyright and patent issues

Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it

Use of indigenous knowledge

Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge

In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing

protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to

62

understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are

connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the

protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and

Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the

society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or

companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical

performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo

Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people

have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over

the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property

rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at

an international level through legally binding treaties

Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a

result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while

developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is

communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult

to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-

Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)

Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative

sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft

sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and

63

eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial

benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)

Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge

Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus

on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the

preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council

2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are

in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of

Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade

Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several

countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among

themselves

Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different

agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements

were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These

include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United

Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)

TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO

agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with

trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement

The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to

64

developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities

(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access

to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard

for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise

and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe

199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the

UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty

needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the

sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights

of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural

identity (Mugabe 199925)

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy

Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a

policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999

The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and

research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory

measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the

DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and

Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on

formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge

policy

65

431 Department of Arts and Culture

The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with

encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and

tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of

Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the

Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local

As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South

Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of

social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The

policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural

diversity during apartheid

Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression

which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to

redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise

all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected

and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge

by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the

value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department

of Science and Technology 200519)

It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social

imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and

remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions

66

expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next

Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and

documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that

reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established

(Department of Trade Industry 2008)

432 Department of Trade and Industry

The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being

exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered

protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are

various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual

property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African

context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis

legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved

in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents

Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a

positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a

model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)

433 Department of Health

Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a

source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive

contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while

67

knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a

hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of

benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of

NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that

give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to

preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the

benefits

The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly

recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to

ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The

purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a

national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over

registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and

Technology 200518)

434 Department of Science and Technology

The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting

indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge

report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is

committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing

indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge

adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate

for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive

68

various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at

organisations such as the National Research Foundation

Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because

of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of

Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the

identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology

(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous

knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of

globalisation

As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos

development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions

towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of

African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different

cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One

of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of

self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must

ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a

commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture

language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)

69

Development of services provided by traditional healers

Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa

making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South

Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As

indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the

practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks

safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available

also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The

Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system

The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the

Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional

Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the

constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement

The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety

and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management

and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners

It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in

violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing

At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such

as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the

circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South

70

Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos

Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)

Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy

Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in

the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has

been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the

lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role

in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir

for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems

Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national

laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and

Development linear model of innovation

Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge

system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge

to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to

the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms

promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous

knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology

200528)

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create

new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale

71

of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is

therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge

The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable

cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South

African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing

framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures

minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous

knowledge research

Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous

knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds

wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a

good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to

innovation

Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has

contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is

adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to

appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology

sector

While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant

methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various

learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many

72

years Western context has influenced the South African education and development

policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the

educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not

only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous

knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning

The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous

knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST

enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology

strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as

specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science

and Technology 200528)

In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At

the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0

76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in

addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as

the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty

In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous

knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance

of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the

various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems

The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous

73

knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the

follows

The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed

under the DST

The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to

advise the ministers

The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge

systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights

Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional

framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous

knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced

with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the

rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play

a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information

Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the

NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the

National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual

Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous

knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from

growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an

indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges

74

the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and

bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to

organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the

project

Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of

funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of

these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and

international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding

indigenous knowledge are

To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous

communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and

technologies

Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural

industries that cater for rural areas in particular

Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to

local communities

Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous

knowledge centres studies and laboratories

Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers

and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills

In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous

knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to

75

enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative

framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued

that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by

their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in

terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights

As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of

understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no

function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently

using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents

neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and

geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of

indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and

socially achieved

While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is

important there is a time limit to ownership

Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy

for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous

knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos

indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous

knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local

communities

76

Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge

systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge

holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge

systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)

The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will

serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge

systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to

promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to

develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to

provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training

for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and

Technology 200530)

In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective

mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems

practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous

knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved

and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to

conduct and develop indigenous knowledge

However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous

knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available

regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this

77

study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library

service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department

of Science and Technology 200533)

Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community

information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes

community participation in empowering the community through preservation

However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore

libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment

Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record

and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous

and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one

person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law

Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of

indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording

using technology instruments such as video recording and others

At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including

abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from

the past The next chapter will focus more on this

It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its

ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners

78

Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure

that it is successfully preserved

Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local

communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current

policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and

there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems

Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights

while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective

policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain

their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against

indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal

The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous

knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the

policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must

legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms

recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of

rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort

has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of

indigenous knowledge

79

54 Conclusion

After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that

government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous

knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The

implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of

indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge

in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous

communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge

collectively

80

CHAPTER 5

MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

51 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from

getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous

knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is

also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices

(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)

The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep

alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through

specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by

keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on

passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp

Miruka 200990)

It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous

knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into

contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community

development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)

81

This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums

libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established

and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge

52 Indigenous knowledge centres

A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading

national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in

1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and

universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which

new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered

The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of

South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal

medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous

knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent

applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for

Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health

benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)

82

The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised

database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants

remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard

materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology

plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous

knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

Communication 2007)

The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous

knowledge centres should follow to include

Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect

document and distribute information on various components of indigenous

knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment

and so forth

Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable

methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap

and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor

Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary

research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including

knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence

on indigenous knowledge systems

Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres

should be promoted

83

Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical

assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge

53 Museums

Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language

culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable

resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous

knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public

money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage

of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of

Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online

2012)

The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of

indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs

with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the

mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people

It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with

human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal

plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial

(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their

consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)

84

In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the

public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as

their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San

peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also

accessible to the public

However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from

the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry

Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include

rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections

Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an

alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and

protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations

In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked

However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that

every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for

museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in

the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a

Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South

African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as

a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England

85

According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large

buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display

throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both

inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris

displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a

ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie

Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial

Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African

History Online 20111)

Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics

and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at

Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study

collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South

Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a

new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online

20111)

54 Laboratories

Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in

various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many

more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for

researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in

line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development

86

The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and

Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In

2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF

of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for

the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource

development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity

to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55

million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of

research equipment (Cherry 20101)

The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces

innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been

involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from

indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge

that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new

herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in

collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles

were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant

Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the

custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of

indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together

87

towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa

(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

55 Libraries

Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional

cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have

generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving

indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals

to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection

organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)

Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have

positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21

and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed

that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks

and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation

of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)

Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly

and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important

process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs

different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species

The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and

Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have

established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which

88

commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the

foundation of indigenous knowledge systems

According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous

Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and

teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous

knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific

areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including

languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green

magazine 2010)

Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local

communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations

(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express

knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends

libraries and archives to do the following

It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and

disseminates indigenous knowledge resources

Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research

and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society

The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be

involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to

understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the

indigenous knowledge system

89

Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to

indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people

56 Knowledge management model

When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is

important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge

Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by

indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities

(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be

preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if

indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become

static and redundant

The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems

store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by

going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology

music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving

indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to

be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a

good opportunity to refine it and renew it

Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge

systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated

90

in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing

retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of

individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the

community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the

first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models

are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can

also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the

Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports

libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa

needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa

is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural

collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In

this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture

will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that

comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube

amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it

should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the

indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture

91

Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated

with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which

have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe

Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to

create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product

development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because

the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous

knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model

promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural

values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit

knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The

process entails four different modes of conversion

Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with

converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to

show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together

In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous

knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work

experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and

teamwork (Hong 2010)

92

Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and

internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)

The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of

tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an

organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and

other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit

understanding

The third process called the combination process is the type where members

combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop

strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)

Socialisation

Empathising

Externalisation

Articulating

Embodying

Internalisation

Connecting

Combination

Tacit knowledge

Explicit

knowledge

Tacit

knowledge

Explicit knowledge

Tacit knowledge

93

If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such

knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the

community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of

common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively

creates a sharing atmosphere

Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the

embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of

self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge

through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental

assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo

The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word

which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed

together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and

a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the

knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge

management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the

knowledge management processes

There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba

and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are

94

Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences

beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is

particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things

especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is

built (socialisation)

Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared

converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images

symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit

(Externalisation)

Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing

knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for

growth and development

Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit

knowledge

According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the

inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his

colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets

to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of

knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a

negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities

Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten

principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp

95

Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge

management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The

principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes

and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is

based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter

The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective

management requires investment of other assets

Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and

technology in complementary ways

Knowledge management requires knowledge managers

It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their

knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which

will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the

Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in

formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on

knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

96

57 Conclusion

This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South

Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management

provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and

in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries

and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that

government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local

needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded

access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and

other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering

with communities

The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous

knowledge system in South Africa

97

CHAPTER 6

CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN

SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction

The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing

requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction

(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that

concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge

Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the

discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring

the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu

20084)

This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and

preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we

can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path

to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous

knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the

next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several

challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge

Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution

and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives

98

62 Challenges of management and preservation

621 Lack of taxonomists

Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet

Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of

organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the

variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four

tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem

diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are

as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen

as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)

There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new

and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification

classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be

preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific

names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have

always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species

that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)

Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has

encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy

positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it

can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000

botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)

99

stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous

knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology

and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge

(Raphesu 20085)

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions

Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for

agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the

usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)

The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-

economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance

of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that

explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer

Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution

in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This

has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger

generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South

African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique

indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has

made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was

reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access

100

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities

The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it

difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous

knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different

parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor

indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge

is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and

information centres

National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous

knowledge

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of

individuals

Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the

profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in

particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products

for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was

tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an

individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and

documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not

want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for

knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)

101

63 Conclusion

Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels

the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of

proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals

and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges

facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa

Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of

indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to

promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the

potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing

information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much

more

The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the

study

102

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction

This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to

different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as

for future research on the subject

72 Conclusion

The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge

preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the

theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available

in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of

preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main

findings are

The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in

different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and

traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several

fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-

economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because

the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this

103

knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast

growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research

activities etc

In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available

to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries

museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible

mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present

libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model

thus their services currently only caters for the elite

Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National

Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition

only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities

Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous

knowledge studies

Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more

attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is

crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is

a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which

was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In

addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the

needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for

104

policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and

initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation

72 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this

study makes the following recommendations

Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social

interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure

that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to

generation

Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow

of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such

as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage

and share their indigenous knowledge

To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories

and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information

are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All

bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and

databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will

achieve sustainable development

105

All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have

indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be

obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information

centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in

the preservation of indigenous knowledge

Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation

and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous

knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement

of traditional healers but should include farmers and others

There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC

and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in

facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not

only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual

Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in

order for various indigenous species to be preserved

It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels

are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and

documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder

such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute

the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful

106

Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it

was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time

and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the

geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the

researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would

have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation

and its importance as a development tool

107

REFERENCES

ADACHI Y 2010 Examination of knowledge Nonakarsquos theory in terms of

linguistic framework team Minutes of the Ministry of International Policy of

YamanashiYamanashi Prefectural University 6 21-33

AGRAWAL A 1995Dismantling the divide between the indigenous and

scientific knowledge108 Cowley RD Oxford OX4 1JFUKJournal of

Development and Change 26 413-439

AGRAWAL A 1996 Indigenous and scientific knowledge some critical

comments Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor3(3) 33-41

AKINDE TA 2008 Indigenous knowledge dissemination and use a discuss

Samaru Journal of Information Studies 8(2) 8-11

ALTIERI MA amp MERRICK LC 1987 In situ Conservation of crop genetic

resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems New York

Botanical Garden and Springer Economic Botany 41(1) 86-96

BERCKMOES LH 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge in South

AfricaResearch and Communication Division Directorate Cultural

Cooperation Education and Research Ministry of Foreign Affairs The Hague

BINNEMAN J 1999 Mummified human remains from the Kouga Mountains

Eastern CapeThe Digging Stick 16(2) 1-12

BLACK J 1993 Development Jujitsu looking on the bright sideStudies in

Comparative International Development 28(1) 71-79

BURCH S 2007 Knowledge sharing for rural development challenges

experiences and methods Latin American Information Agency ALAI

108

Available from httpalainetorgpublicaknowledgetss20inglespdf

[Accessed 12022012]

CLARKSON L MORRISETTE V amp REGALLET G 1992Our responsibility

to the seventh generation Indigenous people and sustainable development

International Institute for Sustainable Development Winnipegp1-92

CHABALALA H 2008 African Traditional Medicines The role of indigenous

knowledge systems in bioprospecting and product development in South

Africa National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems Department of

Science and Technology South Africa

CHERRY M 2010 National Research Foundation gets R250 million boost

from government while PHD numbers fall South African Journal of Science

106(1112) 1

CHIKONZO A 2006The potential of information and communication

technologies in collecting preserving and disseminating indigenous

knowledge in Africa The International Information and Library Review

38132-138

CONSIDE OXFORD DICTIONARY 2002 South Africa Cape Town Oxford

University Press

COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

COMMUNICATION 2007 Annual report 20078 CSIRScienceScope 2(1)

1-56

DAHLBERG AC amp TRYGGER SB 2009 Indigenous Medicine and primary

health care The importance of lay knowledge and use of medicinal plants in

rural South Africa Human Ecology 37 79-94

DANIELS G1994 Resource centres a challenge for us all The Cape

Librarian 38(1) 34-35

ix

LIST OF FIGURES Fig 51 Diagrammatic Representation of the Socialisation

Externalisation and Internalisation Combination Model 92

x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research

IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations

IK - Indigenous Knowledge

LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems

NGO - Non Governmental Organisation

NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office

REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation

UNDP - United Nation Development Program

UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations

SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination

UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes

FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational

WHO - World Health Organisation

UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights

SIDS - Small Island Developing States

THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act

WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation

DST - Department of Science and Technology

DTI - Department of trade and industry

HSRC - Human Science Research Council

NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development

xi

Abstract

Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people

through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at

reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular

emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of

a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and

the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge

promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and

document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for

decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources

management human animal and environmental health and other important activities

at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the

agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also

discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified

as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a

national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property

rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The

challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa

include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination

and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals

This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous

knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in

the country with particular emphasis on its preservation

1

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation

The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers

group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the

UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them

having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe

1998244)

Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism

was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign

colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking

control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the

colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics

and culture which regroup most of indigenous people

According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the

practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced

upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to

show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for

some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the

Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot

2

belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research

study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an

impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous

people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in

common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)

It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of

years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous

knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science

world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the

academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by

governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies

Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given

society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local

people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This

knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories

symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)

According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination

of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical

educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates

to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including

those used in liberation struggles

3

Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that

is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the

environment across cultures and geographical spaces

Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the

concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is

because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since

there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They

represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and

classification systems (Sithole 2007117)

Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms

such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural

people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although

certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the

purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo

are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts

of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the

preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of

indigenous knowledge

Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world

The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include

4

Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this

knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs

rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those

communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from

one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment

and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and

libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their

communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being

dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment

Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is

referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed

outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as

tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily

codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner

since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in

Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit

knowledge into explicit knowledge further

Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to

generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many

more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be

acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge

of what to eat

5

Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining

characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in

the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the

society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived

by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case

Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different

categories

(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa

is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a

multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up

about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of

black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural

resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous

people have always relied on their environment for survival

The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to

deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to

time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has

largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200812)

6

It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has

caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The

challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge

especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of

traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the

important aspects for sustainable resources

The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to

development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the

very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse

species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when

the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western

knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an

epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local

and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a

result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)

Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields

such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices

gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by

word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be

lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to

South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a

societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)

7

Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from

international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies

such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International

Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete

attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial

activities and development projects

Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management

objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both

knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little

indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places

of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge

serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of

the population as should be the case

There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is

the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information

plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is

also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs

to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by

authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)

Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos

minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though

8

most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to

explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden

the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and

generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important

for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool

This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving

indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of

material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals

Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly

designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According

to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of

their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and

access to them was aligned along racial lines

Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to

libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers

Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of

local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in

black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be

inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi

200562)

Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of

apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national

9

transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the

process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel

development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels

199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on

the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous

knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive

studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies

This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous

knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in

transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and

frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of

indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving

such information when needed

This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the

storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes

The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource

for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western

sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp

Lwoga 2007124)

10

12 Problem statement

Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due

to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a

result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies

which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is

argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer

quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances

where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental

Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and

younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To

avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent

need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few

instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are

either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)

Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous

knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for

preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will

adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South

Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that

serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos

indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo

11

(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as

well as in transferring it to future generations

13 Aims and objectives

Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect

encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution

this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and

methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were

pursued

to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with

specific focus on South Africa

to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge

systems and

to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of

indigenous knowledge in South Africa

14 Research questions

To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were

answered

Why is indigenous knowledge important

What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

12

What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa

Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South

Africa

What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems

face in South Africa

15 Study methodology

The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data

which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books

articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A

source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as

official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources

data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information

was then analysed in order to answer the research questions

151 Study Design

This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data

Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available

(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another

investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is

limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that

heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of

13

the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the

phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and

preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area

16 Chapter layout

The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11

Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study

Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter

Chapter 1

General introduction

This chapter starts with an overview of

indigenous knowledge in perspective It also

covers the problem statement the aim of the

study its research objectives and research

questions

Chapter 2

Theoretical framework

and literature review

This chapter presents the theoretical

framework of indigenous knowledge and

critically reviews the literature relating to

indigenous knowledge

Chapter 3

Application of

Indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter outlines the indigenous

knowledge found in South Africa and it

presents the existing of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as

agriculture health and culture in South Africa

Chapter 4

Indigenous knowledge

policy the South

This chapter provides the national policies

available for preserving and protecting

14

African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa

Chapter 5

Preservation of

indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter identifies the methods of

preserving indigenous knowledge used in

South Africa and the knowledge management

model that assists in preserving and managing

knowledge

Chapter 6 Challenges and

constrains of

indigenous knowledge

In this chapter the challenges and constraints

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are

discussed

Chapter7 Conclusion and

recommendation

Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion

limitations and recommendations

17 Conclusion

This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South

Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of

documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the

concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both

local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation

and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the

documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently

not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is

disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific

objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter

explains the theoretical framework of the study

15

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the

development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In

addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is

seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to

provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A

problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are

unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind

scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on

developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing

other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous

knowledge is important

Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous

farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse

geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations

crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous

knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most

local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable

resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore

16

considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development

processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch

20075)

This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for

development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed

by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different

scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable

development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this

chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries

The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from

harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently

introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that

indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development

22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study

According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of

statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept

that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among

variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and

reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)

Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation

to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving

17

attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of

resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ

and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed

221 Social theory

Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how

aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the

economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what

makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the

society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material

and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with

morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He

further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting

it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity

of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)

Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of

solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since

individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were

held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He

was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a

society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies

individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar

18

activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens

200613)

According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are

characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and

similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the

form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and

collective conscience (Giddens 200613)

Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which

arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and

they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the

body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would

certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was

characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity

was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)

South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that

social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely

appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included

certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the

industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the

result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into

racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic

disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)

19

Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural

context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances

and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and

design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and

conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry

farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers

200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same

purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as

Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order

to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)

In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the

current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business

promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is

difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)

Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn

about the solidarity from the indigenous communities

Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense

thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society

for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday

patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to

describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that

rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down

20

which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined

anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by

modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development

together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)

When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a

sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim

described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he

believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)

In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and

look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the

present (Giddens 200614)

222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches

To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of

survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate

some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is

acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous

knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and

accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important

role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced

two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These

theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering

21

development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for

the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)

The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect

indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various

ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more

The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical

and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve

this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should

be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He

stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate

information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge

systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations

Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of

various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account

the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their

production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural

development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for

designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not

to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick

198787)

Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an

effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another

22

advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in

preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge

preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be

scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and

dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)

The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and

documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of

practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be

considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is

required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their

cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts

and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and

documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of

indigenous knowledge

Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required

attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major

drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need

for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails

to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous

knowledge especially for the marginalised poor

It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to

communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus

23

becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to

gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of

sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to

individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state

and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation

of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights

Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of

the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is

tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs

stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates

that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities

gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on

which they rely

Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still

considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge

preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to

be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous

communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for

indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge

by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge

certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the

study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and

beliefs by spending time together

24

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge

The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on

economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable

development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for

development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable

development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to

Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit

knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western

sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions

based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)

Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences

analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods

Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development

processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development

programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship

deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities

are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of

knowing

Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one

knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the

Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and

the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that

25

development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field

of women in development (Escobar199514)

Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static

unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing

reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he

explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide

the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be

conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)

Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful

seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When

it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development

although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development

used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level

Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting

something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)

Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions

manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that

technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to

development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-

economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs

to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems

26

However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to

solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing

24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development

Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its

importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level

indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food

security education natural resources management human animal and

environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key

element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival

(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for

developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous

knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local

community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic

development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and

basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World

Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-

directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it

is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when

communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most

effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs

and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most

27

especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure

indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the

process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are

concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be

appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of

wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When

properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-

centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about

their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of

crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be

used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a

state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)

Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous

knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the

Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially

Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations

Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the

United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of

documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other

international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of

indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)

28

Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in

sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries

have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In

addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local

communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of

indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)

However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in

recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries

Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order

recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital

component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy

distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being

neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it

almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems

and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making

it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp

Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)

Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and

municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report

from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous

knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for

29

stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations

were made

Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-

cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for

cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural

democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems

must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa

The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African

Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised

Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes

must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes

Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to

engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions

A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including

traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth

Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for

implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development

programmes

Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are

currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear

that they will give away their rights

Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning

Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain

categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is

30

restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or

commercialised

All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government

structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous

knowledge system policy

Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical

to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system

Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development

it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is

therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives

originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same

philosophical underpinning

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge

In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and

dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of

those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information

gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and

developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor

This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are

unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde

20089)

31

The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important

way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years

indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic

and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although

the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various

bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the

appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific

and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it

Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the

prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of

indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove

destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process

of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied

in developing countries The steps are

Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case

indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to

find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it

requires an external observer to identify it

The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of

the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is

essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge

Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because

indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature

32

It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person

to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations

modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs

Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from

disappearing

It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the

form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and

storytelling

Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the

other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments

The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the

developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally

Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and

community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals

and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for

social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement

and capabilities

Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance

development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous

knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals

within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions

that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is

33

vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national

level

According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange

of indigenous knowledge

Computers

Tape recorders

Radio

Television

Newspapers

Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras

ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities

Fax

CD-ROM

Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets

Diskettes

Social gatherings in communities

Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However

formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of

indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge

and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous

knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living

sustainably

34

To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities

there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage

teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its

wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant

skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of

indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by

(Gorjestani 2002)

In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic

Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household

incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted

to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not

properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were

destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied

gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant

increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green

manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to

reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani

2002)

In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk

and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose

by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local

farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work

35

Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200

households in 65 villages

The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce

technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training

institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous

institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned

resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the

importance of community involvement in local solutions

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation

In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or

damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is

reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the

survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)

According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300

million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and

cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of

emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic

approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for

forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap

strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure

indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local

36

communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their

knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been

involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed

their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)

In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the

South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous

people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the

unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The

indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away

from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were

destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima

amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)

A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development

of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge

System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The

programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities

to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges

Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective

governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local

knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to

Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights

methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is

37

still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western

knowledge (Ngulube 2002)

It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small

scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is

more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local

knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation

strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and

national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ

preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous

medicinal practises

It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous

knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on

indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional

medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like

malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical

companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture

of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily

on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief

Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic

needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of

Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported

out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some

38

Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and

protection of biodiversity

Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are

found in Table 21

Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa

Country Application

Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into

sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation

agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted

from generation to generation

Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The

knowledge is passed down from generation to generation

Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and

burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes

away

Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region

were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and

Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural

crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering

accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a

local language called Bambara

Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are

secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of

39

the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating

hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a

special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to

contract and to expel blood clots

South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried

mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are

inhaled through the mouth

Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the

fields to prevent soil degradation

Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of

ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease

Source Dlamini 2005

In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of

society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their

environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to

use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo

people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these

plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake

bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving

as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)

Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per

cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical

infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people

40

rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important

aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality

In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine

practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional

medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when

compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is

120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly

found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more

reasonable option for the rural people

As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances

local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts

of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional

techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally

available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation

and building on the patterns and processes of nature

In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent

of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000

to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic

practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-

billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala

20084)

41

27 Conclusion

Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people

throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of

the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were

also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous

knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable

development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the

application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa

42

CHAPTER 3

APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction

Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges

facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa

The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries

cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the

health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing

It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective

ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural

communities and future generations

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture

Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked

collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-

sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its

powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous

communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994

indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)

43

During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in

Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods

which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which

are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous

communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation

(Matenge et al 2011)

Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the

livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated

that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional

agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which

contributed towards better food security

Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology

usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately

modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South

Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous

farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel

owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural

activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga

(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start

ploughing and sowing

44

Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have

gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions

They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite

accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance

which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation

after generation

Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers

in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind

of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the

English translation

Table 31 Classification of different types of rain

Sepedi (local language) English

Pula yakgogolamooko First rain

Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail

Modupi Soft and very desirable rain

Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction

Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction

Borwa A cool rain coming from the south

Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)

Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms

and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-

million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia

45

Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in

Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the

Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people

stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)

The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for

many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-

bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of

Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly

affected during the mopane worm season

Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content

of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it

has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent

protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)

Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated

from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of

warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to

release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes

After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is

repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs

are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat

the bugs raw or cooked with porridge

46

Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed

Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they

dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still

widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried

meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo

Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is

a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa

has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of

trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary

source of income for many people

Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good

source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore

perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects

are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo

Leader Spring 2006)

Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at

the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the

Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm

and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted

resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms

valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African

47

silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the

building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)

Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but

over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability

Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they

are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof

Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a

yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)

According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000

square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it

could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is

also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for

rural people

Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is

bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)

33 Indigenous knowledge in health

In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines

was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative

therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft

Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970

48

banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of

traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their

knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al

2007208)

Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an

annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority

for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban

areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for

many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor

households

At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because

they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or

because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties

and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it

defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs

incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies

manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well

being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)

Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important

resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and

economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of

49

diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites

headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others

It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the

treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory

diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)

Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been

lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous

plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is

focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally

Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not

strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)

Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African

economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of

traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade

contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or

traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous

plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines

are still more affordable than Western medicine

It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by

Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal

plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to

50

areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented

them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects

the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the

other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that

the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent

between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male

circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences

Research Council 20091)

The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector

usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32

provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional

healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant

harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same

income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done

through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers

Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional

medicines industry of South Africa

Role player Estimated number in the business Average income

(Rand) per partaker

Traditional healer

diviner herbalist

prophets

6 8000- fulltime healers

20 0000 - include all traditional healers

in South Africa

3 8491

51

Street trader 3 000 7 941

Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do

business on the streets

7 941

Source Mander et al 2007

As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers

Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of

South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of

alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of

preservation qualification and accreditation

Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa

traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To

address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test

products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain

and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)

Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007

Province Total

Gauteng 61 465

Mpumalanga 57 524

KwaZulu-Natal 25 430

Free State 22 645

Eastern Cape 10 780

52

Limpopo 7 366

North West 5 935

Western Cape 2 600

Northern Cape 2 221

Total 185 477

Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi

2009)

Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the

daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in

South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources

including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species

are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South

Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity

Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also

make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger

200979)

Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for

food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while

26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional

which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal

properties

53

In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)

shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of

South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in

muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open

access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi

markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in

Table 34

Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo

South Africa

Scientific name Frequency of

species traded

()

Part

used

Total amount in

16 muthi shops

(kg)

Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308

Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245

Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967

Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940

Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267

Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247

Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935

Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774

Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011

The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the

Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a

54

slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education

widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the

land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional

properties of various plants in their environment

The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites

during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It

has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause

irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels

In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the

hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in

the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )

A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected

extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites

accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The

CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an

ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by

1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$

yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely

scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The

CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has

entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people

55

The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is

another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The

Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different

medicinal plants

According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million

South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700

indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also

known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species

The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a

beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other

beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel

1997)

Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not

yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different

ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have

aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as

medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush

teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people

chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people

boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it

56

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering

Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social

behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort

(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or

label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its

eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities

which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures

it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates

that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older

person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the

oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the

expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)

Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where

oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure

that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and

traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce

excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and

furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered

heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion

The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great

deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures

by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The

57

Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is

discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study

Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive

baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of

sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as

beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea

markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the

economy (Nettleton 201060)

According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets

ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that

are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa

have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain

storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with

lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)

The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to

create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable

indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective

in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its

meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous

groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings

58

Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The

challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small

amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the

cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of

this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous

knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop

indigenous crafts

35 Conclusion

South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of

poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in

order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa

have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other

communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted

preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge

can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible

healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people

having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with

indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully

explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to

promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into

the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge

policy and framework

59

CHAPTER 4

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

41 Introduction

The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a

result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities

experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South

Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has

resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and

development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard

all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted

the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New

Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge

system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished

continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)

South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual

property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some

countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding

their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology

(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on

indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free

60

education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla

200729)

Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of

indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of

indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its

preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in

many African countries (Msuya 20074)

This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of

indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property

rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes

the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge

Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen

as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever

government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla

200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is

essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities

Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some

government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key

61

ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the

participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play

an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity

reasoning of policy

Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and

recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to

realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring

about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous

knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and

exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates

the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural

communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for

indigenous knowledge

Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge

Political commitment on indigenous knowledge

Preservation of indigenous knowledge

Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge

Copyright and patent issues

Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it

Use of indigenous knowledge

Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge

In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing

protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to

62

understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are

connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the

protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and

Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the

society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or

companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical

performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo

Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people

have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over

the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property

rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at

an international level through legally binding treaties

Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a

result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while

developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is

communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult

to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-

Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)

Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative

sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft

sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and

63

eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial

benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)

Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge

Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus

on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the

preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council

2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are

in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of

Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade

Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several

countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among

themselves

Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different

agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements

were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These

include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United

Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)

TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO

agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with

trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement

The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to

64

developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities

(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access

to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard

for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise

and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe

199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the

UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty

needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the

sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights

of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural

identity (Mugabe 199925)

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy

Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a

policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999

The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and

research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory

measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the

DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and

Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on

formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge

policy

65

431 Department of Arts and Culture

The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with

encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and

tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of

Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the

Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local

As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South

Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of

social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The

policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural

diversity during apartheid

Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression

which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to

redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise

all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected

and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge

by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the

value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department

of Science and Technology 200519)

It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social

imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and

remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions

66

expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next

Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and

documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that

reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established

(Department of Trade Industry 2008)

432 Department of Trade and Industry

The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being

exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered

protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are

various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual

property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African

context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis

legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved

in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents

Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a

positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a

model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)

433 Department of Health

Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a

source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive

contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while

67

knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a

hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of

benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of

NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that

give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to

preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the

benefits

The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly

recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to

ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The

purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a

national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over

registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and

Technology 200518)

434 Department of Science and Technology

The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting

indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge

report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is

committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing

indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge

adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate

for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive

68

various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at

organisations such as the National Research Foundation

Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because

of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of

Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the

identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology

(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous

knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of

globalisation

As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos

development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions

towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of

African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different

cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One

of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of

self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must

ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a

commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture

language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)

69

Development of services provided by traditional healers

Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa

making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South

Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As

indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the

practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks

safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available

also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The

Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system

The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the

Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional

Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the

constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement

The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety

and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management

and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners

It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in

violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing

At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such

as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the

circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South

70

Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos

Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)

Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy

Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in

the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has

been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the

lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role

in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir

for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems

Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national

laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and

Development linear model of innovation

Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge

system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge

to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to

the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms

promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous

knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology

200528)

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create

new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale

71

of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is

therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge

The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable

cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South

African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing

framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures

minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous

knowledge research

Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous

knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds

wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a

good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to

innovation

Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has

contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is

adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to

appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology

sector

While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant

methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various

learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many

72

years Western context has influenced the South African education and development

policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the

educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not

only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous

knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning

The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous

knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST

enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology

strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as

specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science

and Technology 200528)

In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At

the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0

76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in

addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as

the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty

In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous

knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance

of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the

various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems

The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous

73

knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the

follows

The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed

under the DST

The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to

advise the ministers

The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge

systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights

Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional

framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous

knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced

with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the

rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play

a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information

Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the

NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the

National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual

Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous

knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from

growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an

indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges

74

the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and

bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to

organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the

project

Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of

funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of

these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and

international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding

indigenous knowledge are

To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous

communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and

technologies

Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural

industries that cater for rural areas in particular

Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to

local communities

Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous

knowledge centres studies and laboratories

Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers

and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills

In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous

knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to

75

enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative

framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued

that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by

their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in

terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights

As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of

understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no

function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently

using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents

neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and

geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of

indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and

socially achieved

While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is

important there is a time limit to ownership

Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy

for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous

knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos

indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous

knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local

communities

76

Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge

systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge

holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge

systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)

The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will

serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge

systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to

promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to

develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to

provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training

for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and

Technology 200530)

In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective

mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems

practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous

knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved

and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to

conduct and develop indigenous knowledge

However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous

knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available

regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this

77

study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library

service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department

of Science and Technology 200533)

Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community

information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes

community participation in empowering the community through preservation

However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore

libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment

Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record

and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous

and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one

person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law

Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of

indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording

using technology instruments such as video recording and others

At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including

abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from

the past The next chapter will focus more on this

It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its

ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners

78

Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure

that it is successfully preserved

Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local

communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current

policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and

there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems

Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights

while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective

policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain

their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against

indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal

The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous

knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the

policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must

legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms

recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of

rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort

has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of

indigenous knowledge

79

54 Conclusion

After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that

government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous

knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The

implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of

indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge

in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous

communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge

collectively

80

CHAPTER 5

MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

51 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from

getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous

knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is

also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices

(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)

The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep

alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through

specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by

keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on

passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp

Miruka 200990)

It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous

knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into

contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community

development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)

81

This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums

libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established

and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge

52 Indigenous knowledge centres

A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading

national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in

1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and

universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which

new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered

The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of

South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal

medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous

knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent

applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for

Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health

benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)

82

The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised

database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants

remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard

materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology

plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous

knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

Communication 2007)

The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous

knowledge centres should follow to include

Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect

document and distribute information on various components of indigenous

knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment

and so forth

Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable

methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap

and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor

Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary

research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including

knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence

on indigenous knowledge systems

Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres

should be promoted

83

Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical

assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge

53 Museums

Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language

culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable

resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous

knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public

money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage

of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of

Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online

2012)

The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of

indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs

with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the

mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people

It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with

human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal

plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial

(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their

consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)

84

In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the

public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as

their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San

peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also

accessible to the public

However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from

the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry

Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include

rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections

Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an

alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and

protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations

In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked

However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that

every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for

museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in

the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a

Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South

African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as

a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England

85

According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large

buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display

throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both

inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris

displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a

ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie

Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial

Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African

History Online 20111)

Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics

and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at

Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study

collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South

Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a

new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online

20111)

54 Laboratories

Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in

various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many

more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for

researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in

line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development

86

The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and

Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In

2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF

of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for

the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource

development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity

to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55

million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of

research equipment (Cherry 20101)

The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces

innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been

involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from

indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge

that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new

herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in

collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles

were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant

Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the

custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of

indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together

87

towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa

(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

55 Libraries

Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional

cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have

generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving

indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals

to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection

organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)

Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have

positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21

and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed

that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks

and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation

of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)

Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly

and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important

process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs

different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species

The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and

Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have

established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which

88

commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the

foundation of indigenous knowledge systems

According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous

Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and

teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous

knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific

areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including

languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green

magazine 2010)

Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local

communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations

(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express

knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends

libraries and archives to do the following

It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and

disseminates indigenous knowledge resources

Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research

and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society

The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be

involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to

understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the

indigenous knowledge system

89

Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to

indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people

56 Knowledge management model

When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is

important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge

Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by

indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities

(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be

preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if

indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become

static and redundant

The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems

store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by

going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology

music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving

indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to

be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a

good opportunity to refine it and renew it

Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge

systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated

90

in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing

retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of

individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the

community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the

first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models

are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can

also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the

Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports

libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa

needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa

is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural

collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In

this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture

will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that

comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube

amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it

should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the

indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture

91

Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated

with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which

have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe

Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to

create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product

development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because

the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous

knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model

promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural

values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit

knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The

process entails four different modes of conversion

Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with

converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to

show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together

In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous

knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work

experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and

teamwork (Hong 2010)

92

Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and

internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)

The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of

tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an

organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and

other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit

understanding

The third process called the combination process is the type where members

combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop

strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)

Socialisation

Empathising

Externalisation

Articulating

Embodying

Internalisation

Connecting

Combination

Tacit knowledge

Explicit

knowledge

Tacit

knowledge

Explicit knowledge

Tacit knowledge

93

If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such

knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the

community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of

common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively

creates a sharing atmosphere

Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the

embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of

self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge

through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental

assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo

The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word

which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed

together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and

a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the

knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge

management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the

knowledge management processes

There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba

and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are

94

Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences

beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is

particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things

especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is

built (socialisation)

Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared

converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images

symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit

(Externalisation)

Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing

knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for

growth and development

Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit

knowledge

According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the

inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his

colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets

to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of

knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a

negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities

Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten

principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp

95

Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge

management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The

principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes

and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is

based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter

The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective

management requires investment of other assets

Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and

technology in complementary ways

Knowledge management requires knowledge managers

It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their

knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which

will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the

Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in

formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on

knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

96

57 Conclusion

This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South

Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management

provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and

in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries

and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that

government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local

needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded

access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and

other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering

with communities

The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous

knowledge system in South Africa

97

CHAPTER 6

CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN

SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction

The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing

requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction

(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that

concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge

Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the

discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring

the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu

20084)

This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and

preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we

can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path

to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous

knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the

next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several

challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge

Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution

and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives

98

62 Challenges of management and preservation

621 Lack of taxonomists

Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet

Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of

organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the

variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four

tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem

diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are

as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen

as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)

There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new

and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification

classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be

preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific

names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have

always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species

that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)

Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has

encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy

positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it

can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000

botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)

99

stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous

knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology

and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge

(Raphesu 20085)

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions

Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for

agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the

usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)

The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-

economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance

of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that

explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer

Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution

in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This

has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger

generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South

African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique

indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has

made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was

reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access

100

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities

The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it

difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous

knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different

parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor

indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge

is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and

information centres

National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous

knowledge

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of

individuals

Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the

profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in

particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products

for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was

tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an

individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and

documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not

want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for

knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)

101

63 Conclusion

Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels

the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of

proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals

and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges

facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa

Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of

indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to

promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the

potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing

information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much

more

The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the

study

102

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction

This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to

different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as

for future research on the subject

72 Conclusion

The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge

preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the

theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available

in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of

preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main

findings are

The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in

different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and

traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several

fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-

economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because

the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this

103

knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast

growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research

activities etc

In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available

to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries

museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible

mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present

libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model

thus their services currently only caters for the elite

Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National

Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition

only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities

Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous

knowledge studies

Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more

attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is

crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is

a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which

was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In

addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the

needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for

104

policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and

initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation

72 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this

study makes the following recommendations

Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social

interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure

that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to

generation

Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow

of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such

as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage

and share their indigenous knowledge

To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories

and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information

are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All

bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and

databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will

achieve sustainable development

105

All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have

indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be

obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information

centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in

the preservation of indigenous knowledge

Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation

and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous

knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement

of traditional healers but should include farmers and others

There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC

and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in

facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not

only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual

Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in

order for various indigenous species to be preserved

It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels

are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and

documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder

such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute

the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful

106

Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it

was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time

and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the

geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the

researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would

have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation

and its importance as a development tool

107

REFERENCES

ADACHI Y 2010 Examination of knowledge Nonakarsquos theory in terms of

linguistic framework team Minutes of the Ministry of International Policy of

YamanashiYamanashi Prefectural University 6 21-33

AGRAWAL A 1995Dismantling the divide between the indigenous and

scientific knowledge108 Cowley RD Oxford OX4 1JFUKJournal of

Development and Change 26 413-439

AGRAWAL A 1996 Indigenous and scientific knowledge some critical

comments Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor3(3) 33-41

AKINDE TA 2008 Indigenous knowledge dissemination and use a discuss

Samaru Journal of Information Studies 8(2) 8-11

ALTIERI MA amp MERRICK LC 1987 In situ Conservation of crop genetic

resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems New York

Botanical Garden and Springer Economic Botany 41(1) 86-96

BERCKMOES LH 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge in South

AfricaResearch and Communication Division Directorate Cultural

Cooperation Education and Research Ministry of Foreign Affairs The Hague

BINNEMAN J 1999 Mummified human remains from the Kouga Mountains

Eastern CapeThe Digging Stick 16(2) 1-12

BLACK J 1993 Development Jujitsu looking on the bright sideStudies in

Comparative International Development 28(1) 71-79

BURCH S 2007 Knowledge sharing for rural development challenges

experiences and methods Latin American Information Agency ALAI

108

Available from httpalainetorgpublicaknowledgetss20inglespdf

[Accessed 12022012]

CLARKSON L MORRISETTE V amp REGALLET G 1992Our responsibility

to the seventh generation Indigenous people and sustainable development

International Institute for Sustainable Development Winnipegp1-92

CHABALALA H 2008 African Traditional Medicines The role of indigenous

knowledge systems in bioprospecting and product development in South

Africa National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems Department of

Science and Technology South Africa

CHERRY M 2010 National Research Foundation gets R250 million boost

from government while PHD numbers fall South African Journal of Science

106(1112) 1

CHIKONZO A 2006The potential of information and communication

technologies in collecting preserving and disseminating indigenous

knowledge in Africa The International Information and Library Review

38132-138

CONSIDE OXFORD DICTIONARY 2002 South Africa Cape Town Oxford

University Press

COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

COMMUNICATION 2007 Annual report 20078 CSIRScienceScope 2(1)

1-56

DAHLBERG AC amp TRYGGER SB 2009 Indigenous Medicine and primary

health care The importance of lay knowledge and use of medicinal plants in

rural South Africa Human Ecology 37 79-94

DANIELS G1994 Resource centres a challenge for us all The Cape

Librarian 38(1) 34-35

x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CSIR - Council of Science and Industrial Research

IFLA - International Federation of Library Associations

IK - Indigenous Knowledge

LINKS -- Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems

NGO - Non Governmental Organisation

NIKSO - National Indigenous knowledge Systems Office

REDD - Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation

UNDP - United Nation Development Program

UNESCO ndash United Nations cultural scientific organisations

SECI - Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination

UNEP - United Nations Environmental Programmes

FAO - Food Agricultural Organisational

WHO - World Health Organisation

UNCHR - United Nations Commission on Human Rights

SIDS - Small Island Developing States

THPA - Traditional Healer Practitioner Act

WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organisation

DST - Department of Science and Technology

DTI - Department of trade and industry

HSRC - Human Science Research Council

NEPAD - New Partnership for Africarsquos Development

xi

Abstract

Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people

through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at

reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular

emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of

a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and

the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge

promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and

document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for

decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources

management human animal and environmental health and other important activities

at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the

agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also

discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified

as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a

national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property

rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The

challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa

include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination

and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals

This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous

knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in

the country with particular emphasis on its preservation

1

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation

The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers

group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the

UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them

having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe

1998244)

Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism

was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign

colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking

control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the

colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics

and culture which regroup most of indigenous people

According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the

practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced

upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to

show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for

some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the

Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot

2

belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research

study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an

impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous

people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in

common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)

It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of

years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous

knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science

world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the

academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by

governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies

Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given

society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local

people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This

knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories

symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)

According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination

of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical

educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates

to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including

those used in liberation struggles

3

Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that

is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the

environment across cultures and geographical spaces

Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the

concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is

because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since

there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They

represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and

classification systems (Sithole 2007117)

Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms

such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural

people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although

certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the

purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo

are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts

of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the

preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of

indigenous knowledge

Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world

The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include

4

Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this

knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs

rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those

communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from

one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment

and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and

libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their

communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being

dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment

Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is

referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed

outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as

tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily

codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner

since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in

Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit

knowledge into explicit knowledge further

Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to

generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many

more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be

acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge

of what to eat

5

Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining

characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in

the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the

society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived

by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case

Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different

categories

(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa

is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a

multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up

about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of

black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural

resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous

people have always relied on their environment for survival

The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to

deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to

time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has

largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200812)

6

It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has

caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The

challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge

especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of

traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the

important aspects for sustainable resources

The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to

development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the

very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse

species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when

the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western

knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an

epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local

and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a

result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)

Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields

such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices

gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by

word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be

lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to

South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a

societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)

7

Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from

international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies

such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International

Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete

attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial

activities and development projects

Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management

objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both

knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little

indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places

of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge

serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of

the population as should be the case

There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is

the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information

plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is

also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs

to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by

authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)

Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos

minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though

8

most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to

explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden

the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and

generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important

for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool

This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving

indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of

material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals

Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly

designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According

to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of

their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and

access to them was aligned along racial lines

Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to

libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers

Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of

local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in

black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be

inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi

200562)

Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of

apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national

9

transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the

process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel

development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels

199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on

the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous

knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive

studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies

This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous

knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in

transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and

frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of

indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving

such information when needed

This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the

storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes

The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource

for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western

sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp

Lwoga 2007124)

10

12 Problem statement

Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due

to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a

result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies

which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is

argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer

quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances

where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental

Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and

younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To

avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent

need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few

instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are

either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)

Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous

knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for

preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will

adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South

Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that

serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos

indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo

11

(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as

well as in transferring it to future generations

13 Aims and objectives

Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect

encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution

this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and

methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were

pursued

to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with

specific focus on South Africa

to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge

systems and

to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of

indigenous knowledge in South Africa

14 Research questions

To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were

answered

Why is indigenous knowledge important

What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

12

What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa

Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South

Africa

What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems

face in South Africa

15 Study methodology

The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data

which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books

articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A

source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as

official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources

data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information

was then analysed in order to answer the research questions

151 Study Design

This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data

Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available

(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another

investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is

limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that

heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of

13

the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the

phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and

preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area

16 Chapter layout

The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11

Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study

Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter

Chapter 1

General introduction

This chapter starts with an overview of

indigenous knowledge in perspective It also

covers the problem statement the aim of the

study its research objectives and research

questions

Chapter 2

Theoretical framework

and literature review

This chapter presents the theoretical

framework of indigenous knowledge and

critically reviews the literature relating to

indigenous knowledge

Chapter 3

Application of

Indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter outlines the indigenous

knowledge found in South Africa and it

presents the existing of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as

agriculture health and culture in South Africa

Chapter 4

Indigenous knowledge

policy the South

This chapter provides the national policies

available for preserving and protecting

14

African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa

Chapter 5

Preservation of

indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter identifies the methods of

preserving indigenous knowledge used in

South Africa and the knowledge management

model that assists in preserving and managing

knowledge

Chapter 6 Challenges and

constrains of

indigenous knowledge

In this chapter the challenges and constraints

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are

discussed

Chapter7 Conclusion and

recommendation

Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion

limitations and recommendations

17 Conclusion

This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South

Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of

documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the

concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both

local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation

and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the

documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently

not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is

disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific

objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter

explains the theoretical framework of the study

15

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the

development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In

addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is

seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to

provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A

problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are

unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind

scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on

developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing

other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous

knowledge is important

Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous

farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse

geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations

crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous

knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most

local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable

resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore

16

considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development

processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch

20075)

This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for

development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed

by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different

scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable

development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this

chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries

The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from

harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently

introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that

indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development

22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study

According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of

statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept

that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among

variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and

reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)

Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation

to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving

17

attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of

resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ

and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed

221 Social theory

Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how

aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the

economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what

makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the

society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material

and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with

morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He

further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting

it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity

of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)

Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of

solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since

individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were

held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He

was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a

society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies

individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar

18

activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens

200613)

According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are

characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and

similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the

form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and

collective conscience (Giddens 200613)

Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which

arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and

they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the

body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would

certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was

characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity

was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)

South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that

social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely

appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included

certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the

industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the

result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into

racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic

disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)

19

Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural

context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances

and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and

design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and

conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry

farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers

200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same

purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as

Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order

to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)

In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the

current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business

promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is

difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)

Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn

about the solidarity from the indigenous communities

Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense

thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society

for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday

patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to

describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that

rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down

20

which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined

anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by

modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development

together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)

When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a

sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim

described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he

believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)

In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and

look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the

present (Giddens 200614)

222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches

To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of

survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate

some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is

acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous

knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and

accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important

role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced

two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These

theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering

21

development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for

the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)

The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect

indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various

ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more

The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical

and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve

this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should

be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He

stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate

information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge

systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations

Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of

various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account

the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their

production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural

development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for

designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not

to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick

198787)

Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an

effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another

22

advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in

preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge

preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be

scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and

dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)

The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and

documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of

practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be

considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is

required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their

cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts

and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and

documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of

indigenous knowledge

Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required

attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major

drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need

for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails

to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous

knowledge especially for the marginalised poor

It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to

communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus

23

becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to

gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of

sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to

individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state

and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation

of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights

Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of

the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is

tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs

stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates

that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities

gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on

which they rely

Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still

considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge

preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to

be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous

communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for

indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge

by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge

certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the

study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and

beliefs by spending time together

24

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge

The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on

economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable

development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for

development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable

development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to

Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit

knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western

sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions

based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)

Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences

analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods

Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development

processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development

programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship

deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities

are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of

knowing

Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one

knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the

Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and

the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that

25

development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field

of women in development (Escobar199514)

Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static

unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing

reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he

explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide

the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be

conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)

Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful

seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When

it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development

although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development

used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level

Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting

something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)

Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions

manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that

technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to

development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-

economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs

to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems

26

However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to

solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing

24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development

Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its

importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level

indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food

security education natural resources management human animal and

environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key

element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival

(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for

developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous

knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local

community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic

development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and

basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World

Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-

directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it

is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when

communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most

effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs

and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most

27

especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure

indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the

process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are

concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be

appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of

wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When

properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-

centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about

their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of

crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be

used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a

state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)

Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous

knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the

Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially

Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations

Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the

United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of

documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other

international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of

indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)

28

Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in

sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries

have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In

addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local

communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of

indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)

However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in

recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries

Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order

recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital

component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy

distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being

neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it

almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems

and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making

it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp

Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)

Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and

municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report

from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous

knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for

29

stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations

were made

Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-

cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for

cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural

democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems

must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa

The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African

Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised

Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes

must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes

Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to

engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions

A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including

traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth

Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for

implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development

programmes

Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are

currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear

that they will give away their rights

Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning

Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain

categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is

30

restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or

commercialised

All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government

structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous

knowledge system policy

Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical

to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system

Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development

it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is

therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives

originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same

philosophical underpinning

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge

In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and

dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of

those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information

gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and

developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor

This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are

unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde

20089)

31

The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important

way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years

indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic

and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although

the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various

bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the

appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific

and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it

Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the

prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of

indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove

destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process

of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied

in developing countries The steps are

Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case

indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to

find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it

requires an external observer to identify it

The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of

the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is

essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge

Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because

indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature

32

It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person

to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations

modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs

Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from

disappearing

It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the

form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and

storytelling

Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the

other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments

The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the

developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally

Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and

community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals

and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for

social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement

and capabilities

Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance

development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous

knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals

within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions

that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is

33

vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national

level

According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange

of indigenous knowledge

Computers

Tape recorders

Radio

Television

Newspapers

Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras

ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities

Fax

CD-ROM

Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets

Diskettes

Social gatherings in communities

Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However

formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of

indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge

and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous

knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living

sustainably

34

To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities

there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage

teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its

wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant

skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of

indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by

(Gorjestani 2002)

In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic

Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household

incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted

to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not

properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were

destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied

gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant

increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green

manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to

reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani

2002)

In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk

and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose

by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local

farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work

35

Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200

households in 65 villages

The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce

technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training

institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous

institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned

resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the

importance of community involvement in local solutions

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation

In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or

damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is

reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the

survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)

According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300

million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and

cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of

emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic

approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for

forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap

strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure

indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local

36

communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their

knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been

involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed

their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)

In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the

South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous

people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the

unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The

indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away

from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were

destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima

amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)

A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development

of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge

System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The

programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities

to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges

Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective

governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local

knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to

Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights

methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is

37

still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western

knowledge (Ngulube 2002)

It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small

scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is

more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local

knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation

strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and

national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ

preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous

medicinal practises

It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous

knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on

indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional

medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like

malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical

companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture

of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily

on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief

Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic

needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of

Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported

out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some

38

Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and

protection of biodiversity

Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are

found in Table 21

Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa

Country Application

Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into

sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation

agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted

from generation to generation

Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The

knowledge is passed down from generation to generation

Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and

burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes

away

Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region

were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and

Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural

crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering

accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a

local language called Bambara

Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are

secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of

39

the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating

hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a

special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to

contract and to expel blood clots

South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried

mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are

inhaled through the mouth

Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the

fields to prevent soil degradation

Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of

ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease

Source Dlamini 2005

In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of

society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their

environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to

use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo

people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these

plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake

bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving

as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)

Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per

cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical

infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people

40

rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important

aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality

In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine

practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional

medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when

compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is

120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly

found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more

reasonable option for the rural people

As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances

local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts

of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional

techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally

available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation

and building on the patterns and processes of nature

In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent

of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000

to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic

practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-

billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala

20084)

41

27 Conclusion

Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people

throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of

the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were

also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous

knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable

development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the

application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa

42

CHAPTER 3

APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction

Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges

facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa

The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries

cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the

health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing

It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective

ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural

communities and future generations

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture

Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked

collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-

sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its

powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous

communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994

indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)

43

During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in

Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods

which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which

are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous

communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation

(Matenge et al 2011)

Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the

livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated

that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional

agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which

contributed towards better food security

Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology

usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately

modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South

Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous

farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel

owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural

activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga

(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start

ploughing and sowing

44

Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have

gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions

They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite

accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance

which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation

after generation

Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers

in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind

of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the

English translation

Table 31 Classification of different types of rain

Sepedi (local language) English

Pula yakgogolamooko First rain

Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail

Modupi Soft and very desirable rain

Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction

Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction

Borwa A cool rain coming from the south

Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)

Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms

and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-

million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia

45

Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in

Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the

Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people

stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)

The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for

many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-

bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of

Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly

affected during the mopane worm season

Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content

of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it

has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent

protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)

Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated

from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of

warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to

release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes

After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is

repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs

are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat

the bugs raw or cooked with porridge

46

Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed

Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they

dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still

widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried

meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo

Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is

a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa

has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of

trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary

source of income for many people

Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good

source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore

perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects

are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo

Leader Spring 2006)

Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at

the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the

Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm

and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted

resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms

valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African

47

silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the

building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)

Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but

over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability

Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they

are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof

Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a

yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)

According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000

square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it

could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is

also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for

rural people

Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is

bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)

33 Indigenous knowledge in health

In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines

was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative

therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft

Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970

48

banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of

traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their

knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al

2007208)

Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an

annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority

for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban

areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for

many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor

households

At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because

they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or

because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties

and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it

defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs

incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies

manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well

being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)

Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important

resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and

economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of

49

diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites

headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others

It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the

treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory

diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)

Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been

lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous

plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is

focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally

Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not

strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)

Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African

economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of

traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade

contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or

traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous

plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines

are still more affordable than Western medicine

It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by

Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal

plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to

50

areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented

them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects

the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the

other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that

the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent

between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male

circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences

Research Council 20091)

The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector

usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32

provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional

healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant

harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same

income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done

through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers

Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional

medicines industry of South Africa

Role player Estimated number in the business Average income

(Rand) per partaker

Traditional healer

diviner herbalist

prophets

6 8000- fulltime healers

20 0000 - include all traditional healers

in South Africa

3 8491

51

Street trader 3 000 7 941

Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do

business on the streets

7 941

Source Mander et al 2007

As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers

Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of

South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of

alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of

preservation qualification and accreditation

Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa

traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To

address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test

products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain

and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)

Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007

Province Total

Gauteng 61 465

Mpumalanga 57 524

KwaZulu-Natal 25 430

Free State 22 645

Eastern Cape 10 780

52

Limpopo 7 366

North West 5 935

Western Cape 2 600

Northern Cape 2 221

Total 185 477

Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi

2009)

Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the

daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in

South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources

including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species

are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South

Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity

Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also

make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger

200979)

Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for

food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while

26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional

which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal

properties

53

In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)

shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of

South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in

muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open

access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi

markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in

Table 34

Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo

South Africa

Scientific name Frequency of

species traded

()

Part

used

Total amount in

16 muthi shops

(kg)

Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308

Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245

Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967

Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940

Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267

Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247

Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935

Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774

Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011

The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the

Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a

54

slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education

widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the

land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional

properties of various plants in their environment

The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites

during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It

has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause

irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels

In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the

hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in

the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )

A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected

extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites

accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The

CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an

ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by

1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$

yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely

scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The

CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has

entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people

55

The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is

another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The

Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different

medicinal plants

According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million

South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700

indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also

known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species

The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a

beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other

beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel

1997)

Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not

yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different

ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have

aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as

medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush

teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people

chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people

boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it

56

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering

Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social

behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort

(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or

label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its

eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities

which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures

it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates

that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older

person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the

oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the

expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)

Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where

oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure

that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and

traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce

excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and

furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered

heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion

The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great

deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures

by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The

57

Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is

discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study

Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive

baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of

sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as

beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea

markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the

economy (Nettleton 201060)

According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets

ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that

are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa

have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain

storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with

lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)

The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to

create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable

indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective

in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its

meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous

groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings

58

Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The

challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small

amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the

cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of

this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous

knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop

indigenous crafts

35 Conclusion

South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of

poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in

order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa

have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other

communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted

preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge

can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible

healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people

having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with

indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully

explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to

promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into

the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge

policy and framework

59

CHAPTER 4

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

41 Introduction

The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a

result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities

experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South

Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has

resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and

development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard

all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted

the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New

Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge

system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished

continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)

South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual

property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some

countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding

their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology

(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on

indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free

60

education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla

200729)

Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of

indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of

indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its

preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in

many African countries (Msuya 20074)

This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of

indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property

rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes

the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge

Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen

as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever

government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla

200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is

essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities

Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some

government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key

61

ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the

participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play

an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity

reasoning of policy

Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and

recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to

realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring

about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous

knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and

exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates

the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural

communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for

indigenous knowledge

Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge

Political commitment on indigenous knowledge

Preservation of indigenous knowledge

Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge

Copyright and patent issues

Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it

Use of indigenous knowledge

Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge

In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing

protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to

62

understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are

connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the

protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and

Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the

society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or

companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical

performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo

Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people

have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over

the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property

rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at

an international level through legally binding treaties

Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a

result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while

developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is

communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult

to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-

Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)

Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative

sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft

sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and

63

eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial

benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)

Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge

Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus

on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the

preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council

2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are

in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of

Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade

Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several

countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among

themselves

Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different

agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements

were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These

include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United

Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)

TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO

agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with

trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement

The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to

64

developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities

(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access

to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard

for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise

and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe

199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the

UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty

needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the

sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights

of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural

identity (Mugabe 199925)

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy

Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a

policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999

The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and

research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory

measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the

DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and

Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on

formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge

policy

65

431 Department of Arts and Culture

The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with

encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and

tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of

Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the

Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local

As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South

Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of

social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The

policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural

diversity during apartheid

Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression

which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to

redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise

all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected

and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge

by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the

value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department

of Science and Technology 200519)

It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social

imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and

remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions

66

expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next

Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and

documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that

reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established

(Department of Trade Industry 2008)

432 Department of Trade and Industry

The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being

exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered

protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are

various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual

property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African

context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis

legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved

in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents

Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a

positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a

model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)

433 Department of Health

Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a

source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive

contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while

67

knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a

hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of

benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of

NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that

give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to

preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the

benefits

The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly

recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to

ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The

purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a

national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over

registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and

Technology 200518)

434 Department of Science and Technology

The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting

indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge

report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is

committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing

indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge

adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate

for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive

68

various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at

organisations such as the National Research Foundation

Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because

of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of

Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the

identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology

(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous

knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of

globalisation

As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos

development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions

towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of

African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different

cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One

of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of

self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must

ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a

commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture

language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)

69

Development of services provided by traditional healers

Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa

making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South

Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As

indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the

practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks

safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available

also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The

Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system

The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the

Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional

Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the

constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement

The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety

and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management

and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners

It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in

violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing

At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such

as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the

circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South

70

Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos

Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)

Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy

Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in

the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has

been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the

lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role

in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir

for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems

Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national

laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and

Development linear model of innovation

Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge

system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge

to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to

the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms

promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous

knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology

200528)

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create

new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale

71

of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is

therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge

The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable

cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South

African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing

framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures

minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous

knowledge research

Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous

knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds

wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a

good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to

innovation

Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has

contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is

adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to

appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology

sector

While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant

methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various

learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many

72

years Western context has influenced the South African education and development

policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the

educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not

only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous

knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning

The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous

knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST

enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology

strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as

specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science

and Technology 200528)

In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At

the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0

76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in

addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as

the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty

In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous

knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance

of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the

various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems

The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous

73

knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the

follows

The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed

under the DST

The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to

advise the ministers

The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge

systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights

Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional

framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous

knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced

with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the

rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play

a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information

Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the

NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the

National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual

Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous

knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from

growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an

indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges

74

the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and

bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to

organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the

project

Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of

funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of

these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and

international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding

indigenous knowledge are

To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous

communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and

technologies

Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural

industries that cater for rural areas in particular

Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to

local communities

Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous

knowledge centres studies and laboratories

Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers

and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills

In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous

knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to

75

enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative

framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued

that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by

their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in

terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights

As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of

understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no

function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently

using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents

neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and

geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of

indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and

socially achieved

While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is

important there is a time limit to ownership

Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy

for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous

knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos

indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous

knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local

communities

76

Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge

systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge

holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge

systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)

The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will

serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge

systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to

promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to

develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to

provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training

for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and

Technology 200530)

In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective

mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems

practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous

knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved

and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to

conduct and develop indigenous knowledge

However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous

knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available

regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this

77

study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library

service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department

of Science and Technology 200533)

Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community

information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes

community participation in empowering the community through preservation

However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore

libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment

Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record

and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous

and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one

person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law

Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of

indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording

using technology instruments such as video recording and others

At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including

abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from

the past The next chapter will focus more on this

It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its

ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners

78

Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure

that it is successfully preserved

Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local

communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current

policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and

there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems

Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights

while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective

policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain

their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against

indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal

The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous

knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the

policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must

legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms

recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of

rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort

has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of

indigenous knowledge

79

54 Conclusion

After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that

government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous

knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The

implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of

indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge

in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous

communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge

collectively

80

CHAPTER 5

MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

51 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from

getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous

knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is

also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices

(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)

The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep

alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through

specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by

keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on

passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp

Miruka 200990)

It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous

knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into

contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community

development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)

81

This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums

libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established

and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge

52 Indigenous knowledge centres

A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading

national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in

1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and

universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which

new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered

The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of

South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal

medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous

knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent

applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for

Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health

benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)

82

The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised

database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants

remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard

materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology

plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous

knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

Communication 2007)

The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous

knowledge centres should follow to include

Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect

document and distribute information on various components of indigenous

knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment

and so forth

Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable

methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap

and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor

Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary

research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including

knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence

on indigenous knowledge systems

Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres

should be promoted

83

Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical

assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge

53 Museums

Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language

culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable

resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous

knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public

money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage

of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of

Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online

2012)

The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of

indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs

with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the

mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people

It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with

human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal

plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial

(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their

consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)

84

In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the

public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as

their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San

peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also

accessible to the public

However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from

the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry

Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include

rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections

Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an

alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and

protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations

In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked

However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that

every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for

museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in

the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a

Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South

African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as

a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England

85

According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large

buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display

throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both

inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris

displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a

ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie

Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial

Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African

History Online 20111)

Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics

and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at

Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study

collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South

Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a

new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online

20111)

54 Laboratories

Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in

various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many

more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for

researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in

line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development

86

The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and

Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In

2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF

of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for

the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource

development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity

to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55

million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of

research equipment (Cherry 20101)

The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces

innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been

involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from

indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge

that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new

herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in

collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles

were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant

Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the

custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of

indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together

87

towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa

(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

55 Libraries

Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional

cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have

generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving

indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals

to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection

organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)

Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have

positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21

and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed

that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks

and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation

of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)

Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly

and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important

process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs

different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species

The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and

Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have

established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which

88

commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the

foundation of indigenous knowledge systems

According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous

Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and

teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous

knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific

areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including

languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green

magazine 2010)

Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local

communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations

(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express

knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends

libraries and archives to do the following

It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and

disseminates indigenous knowledge resources

Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research

and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society

The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be

involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to

understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the

indigenous knowledge system

89

Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to

indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people

56 Knowledge management model

When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is

important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge

Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by

indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities

(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be

preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if

indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become

static and redundant

The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems

store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by

going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology

music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving

indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to

be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a

good opportunity to refine it and renew it

Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge

systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated

90

in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing

retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of

individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the

community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the

first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models

are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can

also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the

Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports

libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa

needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa

is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural

collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In

this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture

will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that

comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube

amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it

should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the

indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture

91

Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated

with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which

have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe

Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to

create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product

development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because

the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous

knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model

promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural

values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit

knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The

process entails four different modes of conversion

Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with

converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to

show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together

In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous

knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work

experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and

teamwork (Hong 2010)

92

Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and

internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)

The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of

tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an

organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and

other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit

understanding

The third process called the combination process is the type where members

combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop

strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)

Socialisation

Empathising

Externalisation

Articulating

Embodying

Internalisation

Connecting

Combination

Tacit knowledge

Explicit

knowledge

Tacit

knowledge

Explicit knowledge

Tacit knowledge

93

If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such

knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the

community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of

common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively

creates a sharing atmosphere

Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the

embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of

self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge

through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental

assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo

The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word

which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed

together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and

a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the

knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge

management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the

knowledge management processes

There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba

and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are

94

Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences

beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is

particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things

especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is

built (socialisation)

Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared

converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images

symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit

(Externalisation)

Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing

knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for

growth and development

Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit

knowledge

According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the

inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his

colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets

to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of

knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a

negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities

Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten

principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp

95

Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge

management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The

principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes

and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is

based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter

The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective

management requires investment of other assets

Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and

technology in complementary ways

Knowledge management requires knowledge managers

It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their

knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which

will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the

Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in

formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on

knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

96

57 Conclusion

This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South

Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management

provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and

in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries

and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that

government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local

needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded

access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and

other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering

with communities

The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous

knowledge system in South Africa

97

CHAPTER 6

CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN

SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction

The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing

requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction

(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that

concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge

Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the

discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring

the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu

20084)

This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and

preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we

can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path

to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous

knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the

next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several

challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge

Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution

and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives

98

62 Challenges of management and preservation

621 Lack of taxonomists

Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet

Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of

organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the

variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four

tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem

diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are

as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen

as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)

There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new

and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification

classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be

preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific

names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have

always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species

that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)

Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has

encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy

positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it

can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000

botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)

99

stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous

knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology

and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge

(Raphesu 20085)

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions

Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for

agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the

usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)

The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-

economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance

of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that

explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer

Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution

in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This

has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger

generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South

African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique

indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has

made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was

reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access

100

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities

The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it

difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous

knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different

parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor

indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge

is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and

information centres

National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous

knowledge

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of

individuals

Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the

profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in

particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products

for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was

tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an

individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and

documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not

want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for

knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)

101

63 Conclusion

Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels

the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of

proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals

and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges

facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa

Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of

indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to

promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the

potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing

information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much

more

The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the

study

102

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction

This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to

different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as

for future research on the subject

72 Conclusion

The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge

preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the

theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available

in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of

preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main

findings are

The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in

different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and

traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several

fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-

economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because

the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this

103

knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast

growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research

activities etc

In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available

to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries

museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible

mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present

libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model

thus their services currently only caters for the elite

Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National

Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition

only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities

Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous

knowledge studies

Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more

attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is

crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is

a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which

was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In

addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the

needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for

104

policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and

initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation

72 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this

study makes the following recommendations

Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social

interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure

that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to

generation

Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow

of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such

as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage

and share their indigenous knowledge

To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories

and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information

are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All

bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and

databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will

achieve sustainable development

105

All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have

indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be

obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information

centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in

the preservation of indigenous knowledge

Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation

and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous

knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement

of traditional healers but should include farmers and others

There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC

and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in

facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not

only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual

Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in

order for various indigenous species to be preserved

It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels

are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and

documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder

such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute

the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful

106

Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it

was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time

and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the

geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the

researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would

have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation

and its importance as a development tool

107

REFERENCES

ADACHI Y 2010 Examination of knowledge Nonakarsquos theory in terms of

linguistic framework team Minutes of the Ministry of International Policy of

YamanashiYamanashi Prefectural University 6 21-33

AGRAWAL A 1995Dismantling the divide between the indigenous and

scientific knowledge108 Cowley RD Oxford OX4 1JFUKJournal of

Development and Change 26 413-439

AGRAWAL A 1996 Indigenous and scientific knowledge some critical

comments Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor3(3) 33-41

AKINDE TA 2008 Indigenous knowledge dissemination and use a discuss

Samaru Journal of Information Studies 8(2) 8-11

ALTIERI MA amp MERRICK LC 1987 In situ Conservation of crop genetic

resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems New York

Botanical Garden and Springer Economic Botany 41(1) 86-96

BERCKMOES LH 2008Protecting indigenous knowledge in South

AfricaResearch and Communication Division Directorate Cultural

Cooperation Education and Research Ministry of Foreign Affairs The Hague

BINNEMAN J 1999 Mummified human remains from the Kouga Mountains

Eastern CapeThe Digging Stick 16(2) 1-12

BLACK J 1993 Development Jujitsu looking on the bright sideStudies in

Comparative International Development 28(1) 71-79

BURCH S 2007 Knowledge sharing for rural development challenges

experiences and methods Latin American Information Agency ALAI

108

Available from httpalainetorgpublicaknowledgetss20inglespdf

[Accessed 12022012]

CLARKSON L MORRISETTE V amp REGALLET G 1992Our responsibility

to the seventh generation Indigenous people and sustainable development

International Institute for Sustainable Development Winnipegp1-92

CHABALALA H 2008 African Traditional Medicines The role of indigenous

knowledge systems in bioprospecting and product development in South

Africa National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems Department of

Science and Technology South Africa

CHERRY M 2010 National Research Foundation gets R250 million boost

from government while PHD numbers fall South African Journal of Science

106(1112) 1

CHIKONZO A 2006The potential of information and communication

technologies in collecting preserving and disseminating indigenous

knowledge in Africa The International Information and Library Review

38132-138

CONSIDE OXFORD DICTIONARY 2002 South Africa Cape Town Oxford

University Press

COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

COMMUNICATION 2007 Annual report 20078 CSIRScienceScope 2(1)

1-56

DAHLBERG AC amp TRYGGER SB 2009 Indigenous Medicine and primary

health care The importance of lay knowledge and use of medicinal plants in

rural South Africa Human Ecology 37 79-94

DANIELS G1994 Resource centres a challenge for us all The Cape

Librarian 38(1) 34-35

xi

Abstract

Indigenous knowledge is the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people

through accumulation of formal and informal experiences as well as intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture This study was aimed at

reviewing the current indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa with particular

emphasis on its preservation and as a tool for development The study made use of

a desktop research approach The social theory of Emile Durkheim social theory and

the ex-situ approach guided the study in describing that indigenous knowledge

promotes solidarity within the local communities as a result it is essential to store and

document it The findings reveal that indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for

decision-making that pertains to food security education natural resources

management human animal and environmental health and other important activities

at local and national levels The application of indigenous knowledge in the

agricultural health cultural and engineering sub-sectors of South Africa is also

discussed In South Africa museums libraries and laboratories have been identified

as mediums for indigenous knowledge preservation Although South Africa has a

national policy on indigenous knowledge the focus is more on intellectual property

rights rather than on documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge The

challenges in managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in South Africa

include the lack of qualified taxonomists the lack of proper research co-ordination

and the exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of individuals

This study provides some recommendations for effective preservation of indigenous

knowledge in South Africa It also provides an overview of indigenous knowledge in

the country with particular emphasis on its preservation

1

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

11 Background and motivation

The use of the term lsquoindigenousrsquo was popularised in 1979 by the Robert Chambers

group from the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex in the

UK The group consisted of anthropologists and geographers with some of them

having been involved in voluntary services in cross-cultural analysis (Sillitoe

1998244)

Colonists used to refer to African communities as indigenous people Colonialism

was a policy through which a nation maintained or extended its control over foreign

colonies for example from the 1800s many European countries started taking

control of countries in Africa and governed them as their colonies As part of the

colonisation process in Africa there was a restructuring of bureaucracy linguistics

and culture which regroup most of indigenous people

According to Clarkson et al (199210) colonial ideologies had an influence on the

practices and perceptions of indigenous knowledge Colonial relationship was forced

upon the indigenous people for the past hundred years with the reason of seeking to

show the superiority of their Western customs and developments Moreover for

some indigenous people it has led to the destruction of spirit as they enter into the

Western world and remain there despite the fact they were reminded that they donrsquot

2

belong to it It is therefore important to take colonialism into account in a research

study of indigenous knowledge since it is the most influential factor that had an

impact on the practices of indigenous knowledge It is believed that indigenous

people throughout the world have experienced colonialism and they have much in

common in this regard (Clarkson et al 199210)

It is also believed that indigenous people have occupied the land for thousands of

years before contact with colonialists (Clarkson et al 199210) Indigenous

knowledge has always existed but has been discredited especially in the science

world However today there is an increased interest in indigenous knowledge in the

academic business worlds and a more important role has been allocated to it by

governments non-governmental organisations and development agencies

Indigenous knowledge is defined as local knowledge that is unique to a given

society It is referred to as the systematic body of knowledge acquired by local

people through accumulation of formal and informal experiences and intimate

understanding of the environment in a given culture (Hagar 2004338) This

knowledge could be disseminated and preserved through various family histories

symbols rituals dances poetry and other systems (Hagar 2004338)

According to Hoppers (200529) an indigenous knowledge system is a combination

of knowledge that encompasses technology social economic philosophical

educational legal and governmental systems It is the form of knowledge that relates

to the technological social institutional and scientific and development including

those used in liberation struggles

3

Ngulube and Lwoga (2007118) describe indigenous knowledge as knowledge that

is born out of the environment and is a result of the indigenous people relating to the

environment across cultures and geographical spaces

Although many definitions have been put forward for indigenous knowledge the

concept is still evolving and a definitive description is yet to be found This is

because the concept of indigenous knowledge is interpreted in various ways since

there are many diverse groups of indigenous people throughout the world They

represent a variety of cultures and languages and have different naming and

classification systems (Sithole 2007117)

Various researchers use the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo interchangeably with terms

such as lsquolocal knowledgersquo lsquoecological knowledgersquo lsquocommunity knowledgersquo lsquorural

people knowledgersquo lsquotraditional knowledgersquo lsquofolk knowledgersquo and so forth Although

certain distinctions can be made these terms often refer to the same thing For the

purpose of this study the terms lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and lsquotraditional knowledgersquo

are used These terms are a way of describing the completeness or essential parts

of the development process of local communities which serve as a guide in the

preservation of indigenous knowledge and understanding of the concept of

indigenous knowledge

Some scholars have described indigenous knowledge as understanding the world

The features of indigenous knowledge have been proposed to include

4

Indigenous knowledge is locally bound to a specific area meaning that this

knowledge is traditionally rooted in certain rural community practices beliefs

rituals and experiences and is generated by the indigenous people in those

communities Therefore indigenous knowledge cannot be easily transferred from

one place to another since it is deeply embedded locally at a certain environment

and within a certain culture Whereas it is essential for information centres and

libraries to store and document indigenous knowledge according to their

communities If indigenous knowledge is transferred it faces the risk of being

dislocated and changing as it may respond negatively to a different environment

Indigenous knowledge is a non-formal knowledge (Mpofu amp Miruka 200985) It is

referred to as a large body of knowledge and skills that has been developed

outside the formal education system Indigenous knowledge is also referred to as

tacit knowledge because it is internalised in a person therefore it is not easily

codified and written down It is knowledge that can be made explicit by the owner

since it resides in a personrsquos mind This concept is discussed in more detail in

Chapter five which presents a strategy that deals with the transformation of tacit

knowledge into explicit knowledge further

Indigenous knowledge is developed and transmitted orally from generation to

generation through imitation in the form of songs rituals languages and many

more It is generally not documented (World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

Indigenous knowledge is experimental rather than theoretical knowledge It can be

acquired through education training and experiments for example the knowledge

of what to eat

5

Indigenous knowledge is learned through repetition which is a defining

characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added Repetition helps in

the retention and reinforcement of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is dynamic and adaptive As a result it changes as the

society changes socially economically culturally and so forth It is often perceived

by external observers as being somewhat static but this is not the case

Indigenous knowledge is holistic in nature and it cannot be separated into different

categories

(World Bank (1998) Msuya 20073)

According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (200812) South Africa

is one of the most diverse countries in Africa with various indigenous tribes It has a

multiracial and multi-ethnic population with the majority black Africans making up

about 79 of the 5059 million population (Statistic South Africa 20116) Most of

black Africans live in rural communities South Africa has a rich variety of natural

resources diverse cultures climatic regions and landscapes and its indigenous

people have always relied on their environment for survival

The majority South Africarsquos indigenous people have devised specific strategies to

deal with natural disasters and food shortages that occur in their lives from time to

time Since colonialism was introduced into the country traditional knowledge has

largely lost its value and has been relegated to the informal sector (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200812)

6

It has been suggested that the denial of space resources and recognition has

caused indigenous knowledge to be systematically erased (Hoppers 200530) The

challenge is that not much attention has been given to indigenous knowledge

especially in the African context where it has long been ignored Very little of

traditional knowledge is used while on the other hand it is seen as one of the

important aspects for sustainable resources

The lack of respect for other peoplersquos knowledge is considered as a barrier to

development Shiva (19939) argues that the dominant knowledge also destroys the

very conditions for local alternatives to exist and destroys the conditions for diverse

species to exist In other words it means local knowledge tends to disappear when

the dominant system is present Furthermore Shiva (19939) mentions that Western

knowledge is viewed as universal knowledge but it is not universal in an

epistemological sense Unfortunately peoplersquos knowledge or voices that are local

and indigenous to a particular area are deemed to face development needs as a

result that they are deviated from their norm (Escobar 199521)

Indigenous knowledge is shared through experience and is used in various fields

such as agriculture health horticulture and so forth Experiences and practices

gained by indigenous people are mostly passed from one generation to another by

word of mouth as a result unless it is formally preserved and managed it may be

lost forever It has been argued that indigenous knowledge is one of the keys to

South Africarsquos sustainable development hence its preservation could serve as a

societal memory for the nation (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117)

7

Agrawal (1995415) states that although there is widespread enquiries from

international and national institutions about indigenous knowledge funding agencies

such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) International

Development Research Centre (IDRC) United Nations Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Bank are yet to make concrete

attempts to incorporate issues connected to indigenous knowledge in their financial

activities and development projects

Davenport et al (199845) emphasise in one of their knowledge management

objectives that it is important to create a knowledge repository that stores both

knowledge and information in documentary form In South Africa very little

indigenous knowledge is stored in libraries museums laboratories and other places

of preservation Because of this lack of proper storage most of this knowledge

serves only a relatively small proportion of the population instead of the majority of

the population as should be the case

There is a general belief that access to information rather than labour or capital is

the key factor in production and knowledge generation It is opined that information

plays an important part in national economies in the modern society and that it is

also an essential capital (Kargbo 200671) Knowledge is seen as a tool that needs

to be captured and stored so that at a later stage it can be accessed and retrieved by

authorised users (Davenport et al 199845)

Davenport et al (199845) further explain this knowledge as residing in peoplersquos

minds most of which has not been structured (referred to as tacit knowledge) though

8

most organisations normally used community-based discussions to transfer tacit to

explicit knowledge Nonetheless knowledge repositories accelerates and broaden

the knowledge sharing that happens through socialization of newcomer and

generations of stories within communities (Davenport et al 199845) It is important

for organisations to acknowledge indigenous knowledge as a development tool

This study suggests that a library is the essential depository for preserving

indigenous knowledge A library is supposed to be a place where collections of

material and objects are stored to be accessed by communities and individuals

Unfortunately libraries in South Africa and other African countries were mainly

designed to serve the colonial interest stocking books of foreign content According

to Witbooi (200562) public libraries in South Africa have followed the tradition of

their colonial master (Britain) where the libraries were unevenly distributed and

access to them was aligned along racial lines

Although libraries have been opened to all South Africans since the 1980s access to

libraries is still a challenge to many due to geographical and economic barriers

Because of South Africarsquos legacy of apartheid created or separated the identities of

local black people and making them outsiders in their own country Library facilities in

black townships informal settlements and rural communities were reported to be

inferior compared to those for white townships and some urban areas (Witbooi

200562)

Although much transformation has taken place in South Africa since the demise of

apartheid many libraries are yet not fully transformed For a whole national

9

transformation process libraries which are the resource centres should be part of the

process Resource centres are important because they are required for the parallel

development of different ways of working thinking and organising (Daniels

199435) Despite the fact that the new South Africa has an agenda that is based on

the building of a post-apartheid democratic social order that recognises indigenous

knowledge as a vital component of restructuring there is still a lack of inclusive

studies and an imbalance of provision of resources regarding policies

This study proposes the need for proper documentation and storage of indigenous

knowledge to avoid its loss either through forgetfulness or lack of interest in

transmission by recipients It is also vital to have appropriate policies and

frameworks to serve as guidelines to organisations regarding the preservation of

indigenous knowledge This will assist local communities with an interest in retrieving

such information when needed

This study was guided by the ex-situ preservation approach that advocates the

storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge for development processes

The ex-situ preservation strategy views indigenous knowledge as a critical resource

for which a similar tool that is applied for the documentation and storage of western

sciences can be used for the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Ngulube amp

Lwoga 2007124)

10

12 Problem statement

Indigenous knowledge in the sub Southern Africa is currently fading away rapidly due

to variety of reasons (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007117) Nevertheless this is mainly a

result of modern societies preferring scientific knowledge linked to technologies

which are perceived to provide quicker solutions to new problems Although it is

argued in some quarters that indigenous knowledge is abundant but cannot offer

quick solutions to problems there is a lack of recorded information and in instances

where it does exist difficulties are still experienced in accessing it (United Nations

Environmental Programme 200813) In addition United Nations Environmental

Programme (200813) observes that indigenous knowledge is disappearing and

younger generations are unwilling to use it alongside with modern knowledge To

avoid the problem of indigenous knowledge becoming extinct there is an urgent

need to find a way of documenting and storing it It is argued that in the few

instances where such information is documented and stored such methods are

either insufficient of inefficient (United Nations Environmental Programme 200813)

Since rapid changes in local communities are leading to the loss of indigenous

knowledge and very little indigenous knowledge has been captured and recorded for

preservation in South Africa it is crucial to explore various methods that will

adequately preserve and provide access to it (Stilwell 2007) While libraries in South

Africa are currently well-stocked with foreign and local textbooks and literature that

serve a limited audience there are few resources that reflect South Africarsquos

indigenous knowledge systems (Witbooi 200562) According to Chikonzo

11

(2006134) cultural continuity lies in the preservation of indigenous knowledge as

well as in transferring it to future generations

13 Aims and objectives

Since indigenous knowledge plays a critical role in creating mutual respect

encouraging local participation and building partnerships for joint problem solution

this study is aimed at reviewing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa and

methods of preserving it To achieve this aim the following specific objectives were

pursued

to identify the existing indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

to explore various methods of preserving indigenous knowledge systems with

specific focus on South Africa

to assess the policies that are currently in place regarding indigenous knowledge

systems and

to evaluate the current constraints and challenges faced in the preservation of

indigenous knowledge in South Africa

14 Research questions

To address the specific objectives of the study the following research questions were

answered

Why is indigenous knowledge important

What are indigenous knowledge systems in South Africa

12

What are the past and present methods of preserving indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa

Which policies on indigenous knowledge systems are currently in place in South

Africa

What are the challenges and constraints that indigenous knowledge systems

face in South Africa

15 Study methodology

The study made use of the desktop research approach It relied on secondary data

which consisted of information gathered by researchers and recorded in books

articles and journals Data was also gathered from secondary historical facts A

source of information was reviewed in broad categories of public documents such as

official statistics government policies periodical publications internet resources

data archives and books based on indigenous knowledge All relevant information

was then analysed in order to answer the research questions

151 Study Design

This study used a phenomenological approach with the use of secondary data

Secondary data is defined as a vast range of material that is already available

(Langley 199943)Moreover it is information that was produced by another

investigator and is easily demonstrated (Langley 199943)In this case data is

limited the researcher works with what exist not what the researcher wish that

heshe would have been collected It was decided to use this approach because of

13

the breadth of data available that enables the researcher to understand the

phenomena of the study since little is known about the documentation and

preservation of indigenous knowledge in the study area

16 Chapter layout

The division of chapters in this study is shown in Table 11

Table 11 Layout of chapters for the study

Chapter Chapter title Synopsis of chapter

Chapter 1

General introduction

This chapter starts with an overview of

indigenous knowledge in perspective It also

covers the problem statement the aim of the

study its research objectives and research

questions

Chapter 2

Theoretical framework

and literature review

This chapter presents the theoretical

framework of indigenous knowledge and

critically reviews the literature relating to

indigenous knowledge

Chapter 3

Application of

Indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter outlines the indigenous

knowledge found in South Africa and it

presents the existing of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as

agriculture health and culture in South Africa

Chapter 4

Indigenous knowledge

policy the South

This chapter provides the national policies

available for preserving and protecting

14

African context indigenous knowledge in South Africa

Chapter 5

Preservation of

indigenous knowledge

in South Africa

This chapter identifies the methods of

preserving indigenous knowledge used in

South Africa and the knowledge management

model that assists in preserving and managing

knowledge

Chapter 6 Challenges and

constrains of

indigenous knowledge

In this chapter the challenges and constraints

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa are

discussed

Chapter7 Conclusion and

recommendation

Lastly chapter 7 presents the conclusion

limitations and recommendations

17 Conclusion

This chapter provides a brief overview of indigenous knowledge systems in South

Africa The origin of the term lsquoindigenous knowledgersquo and the current method of

documenting and preserving it in South Africa are also discussed It embraces the

concept that indigenous knowledge plays a pivotal role in the enhancement of both

local and national development as well as sustainable growth its documentation

and preservation for future generations are important The chapter argues that the

documentation and preservation of indigenous knowledge in South Africa is currently

not given adequate priority at the national level hence the knowledge is

disappearing at an alarming rate The aims of the research and its specific

objectives as well as the research questions are also discussed The next chapter

explains the theoretical framework of the study

15

CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge is seen by many as a tool for the promotion of the

development of rural communities in many parts of the world (World Bank 1998)In

addition indigenous knowledge play an important role in the lives of the poor it is

seen as the main asset to invest in the struggle for the survival to produce food to

provide for shelter or achieve control of their own lives (World Bank 1998) A

problem arises when scholars policy makers and development practitioners are

unwilling to give recognition to indigenous knowledge This study aims to remind

scholars policy makers and development practitioners that they cannot focus on

developing certain areas and leave other areas underdeveloped Before introducing

other aspects on the study it is therefore important to understand why indigenous

knowledge is important

Indigenous knowledge helps to improve the livelihood of the poor Many indigenous

farmers across the globe have developed a broad knowledge across diverse

geographic locations these include various methods for medicinal preparations

crafts pest control fertilisation and a many more (Burch 20075) Indigenous

knowledge is an inexpensive and readily available source of knowledge for most

local communities It is socially desirable economically affordable a sustainable

resource and much more (Sithole 2007118) Indigenous knowledge is therefore

16

considered an instrument that brings about coherence and promotes development

processes regarding education health agricultural science and technology (Burch

20075)

This chapter focuses on the importance of indigenous knowledge more especially for

development initiatives The chapter first presents a description of theories followed

by a discussion of challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge from different

scholars Furthermore it presents indigenous knowledge as a tool for sustainable

development and process of exchanging indigenous knowledge The end of this

chapter provides the applications of indigenous knowledge from various countries

The study considers the fact that it is crucial to protect indigenous knowledge from

harm and from being lost to future generations The last section subsequently

introduces the need to preserve indigenous knowledge by also indicating that

indigenous knowledge is an engine to sustainable development

22 Theoretical and conceptual frameworks of the study

According to McBurney (199444) theory is defined as a statement or set of

statements about relationships among variables that include at least one concept

that is not directly observed but it is necessary to explain relationship among

variables Theories are important in serving as guides to the shaping of facts and

reduce complexity while suggesting generalising ability (McBurney 199445)

Historically human thinking and knowledge have been passed down from generation

to generation for thousands of years Today indigenous knowledge is receiving

17

attention because it offers hope for the improvement of mismanagement of

resources around the world In this section the social theories as well as the ex-situ

and in-situ preservation approaches are discussed

221 Social theory

Emile Durkheim a French sociologist focussed on social facts explaining how

aspects of social life are shaped by individual actions such as the state of the

economy religion and traditional culture Common practice or moral rule is what

makes people act in a unified manner and also serves the common interest of the

society According to Durkheim there are two kinds of social facts namely material

and immaterial His interest was in the study of the immaterial which deals with

morality collective conscience collective representation and social current He

further indicated that social and moral solidarity kept society together thus protecting

it from moral decline In addition he held that solidarity changed with the complexity

of the society (George amp Goodman 2003357 Giddens 200613)

Regarding the division of labour Durkheim held that there were two types of

solidarities namely mechanical and organic solidarity He argued that since

individuals in a society specialised in different types of work modern societies were

held by labour division that enabled individuals to be dependent on one another He

was particularly concerned about the impact of labour division on individuals in a

society He held that in a society where division of labour was minimal what unifies

individuals was mechanical solidarity hence all individuals were involved in similar

18

activities and responsibilities thus building a strong collective conscience (Giddens

200613)

According to Durkheim traditional cultures with a low division of labour are

characterised by mechanical solidarity and is grounded to in the agreement and

similarity of beliefs On the other hand in a society with high labour division the

form of solidarity that exists is an organic one which weakens togetherness and

collective conscience (Giddens 200613)

Organic solidarity is a social integration that operates in the modern society which

arises from peoplersquos economic interdependence People perform different duties and

they have different principles and interest For example people are organs in the

body where they serve different functions and without these organs the body would

certainly die Durkheim concluded that a society with mechanical solidarity was

characterised by laws that were repressive while a society with organic solidarity

was characterised by restitutive laws (George amp Goodman 2003 357)

South Africa has for centuries been the centre of political climate that ensured that

social groups were hierarchically graded and some cultural heritage were not freely

appreciated for example with the regard to indigenous food the processing included

certain techniques and the indigenous food start to disappear due to the

industrialisation and neglect (Department of Arts and Culture 200913) As the

result one of the main challenges is lack of social cohesion which manifested into

racism xenophobia corruption lack of ethics and the growing of socio-economic

disparities (Department of Arts and Culture 200913)

19

Indigenous knowledge helps to build community solidarity through the cultural

context surrounding the practice of this knowledge It includes songs rituals dances

and fashion It also includes technologies that range from garment weaving and

design medicinal knowledge (pharmacology obstetrics) food preservation and

conservation as well as agricultural practices ndash ranging from animal husbandry

farming and irrigation to fisheries metallurgy astronomy and others (Hoppers

200530)Different indigenous communities around South Africa they all serve same

purposes do same things and act collectively for example indigenous craft such as

Zulu basket weave have been developed in a number of collective endeavor in order

to support the rural poor (Nettleton 201060)

In the recent years the designs of institutions for collective actions are only for the

current generation while the future generations are compromised Big business

promote environmental abuse and this problem can cause individual threats and is

difficult adapt to the position solidarity to solve such problems (Nettleton 201061)

Members of the society especially in the developed countries have much to learn

about the solidarity from the indigenous communities

Durkheimrsquos critique of modern society is that the modern world is hasty and intense

thus leading to many major social difficulties In addition he criticises modern society

for being disruptive to traditional lifestyle morals religious beliefs and everyday

patterns without providing clear new values He introduced the concept of anomie to

describe a condition of deregulation that was developing in society This meant that

rules regarding how people should behave towards each other were breaking down

20

which led to people not knowing what to expect from one another Simply defined

anomie is a state where norms are confused unclear or not present provoked by

modern social life leading to a feeling of aimlessness or despair Development

together with the notion of industrialisation accelerates anomie (Giddens 200613)

When work becomes a routine and repetitive task for employees they start to lose a

sense of being productive and become less committed to the organisation Durkheim

described the social factor employee as a fundamental of suicidal behaviour and he

believed that modern societies needed to reinforce social norms (Giddens 200613)

In this regard individuals should not only look at the present and forget the past and

look at the economic development but should always consider the past in the

present (Giddens 200614)

222 Ex-situ and in-situ preservation approaches

To keep indigenous knowledge alive there is a need for the implementation of

survival strategies In this study the critical ex-situ approach is suggested to alleviate

some challenges of indigenous knowledge as well as ensuring such knowledge is

acknowledged and kept alive The study strongly argues that although indigenous

knowledge faces many challenges in terms of preservation management and

accessibility to local communities and future generations it still plays an important

role in local and national development Several indigenous theorists have introduced

two conservation approaches for the preservation of indigenous knowledge These

theorists believe in the utilitarian value of indigenous knowledge in furthering

21

development The ex-situ conservation strategy is particularly seen to be suited for

the preservation of indigenous knowledge (Gorjestani 2002)

The ex-situ conservation approach is viewed as a recovery plan since it can protect

indigenous knowledge from fading away This approach can be applied in various

ways such as in research banking of plants environmental control and many more

The approach is recommended because of its convenience it is also less technical

and less complicated hence easy to understand (Agrawal 1996 35) To achieve

this Ulluwishewa (1993) suggested that national and local resource centres should

be established and should act as warehouses for indigenous knowledge He

stressed that the indigenous knowledge resource centres should facilitate

information collection and dissemination promote comparison with global knowledge

systems and serve as transmission points between ecological locations

Regarding the ecological and agricultural sector there is a risk of extinction of

various genetic varieties Although some development projects that take into account

the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems succeed in sustaining their

production because they rely on the diversity of genetic plants Agricultural

development efforts on indigenous knowledge technology can provide guidelines for

designs of cropping systems that allows low income farmers producing cash crop not

to be totally dependent on the external inputs and seed supplies (Altieri and Merrick

198787)

Proponents of the ex-situ preservation method have therefore advocated it as an

effective means for the preservation of genetic varieties (Hamilton 1994) Another

22

advantage of the ex-situ preservation method is that the same instruments used in

preserving scientific knowledge are also used for indigenous knowledge

preservation To achieve this however development practitioners need to be

scientifically trained in methods such as cataloguing documenting storage and

dissemination through publication (Agrawal1995 430 Maxted amp Kell 2010)

The Department of Arts and Culture indicates that (200931) storage and

documentation of indigenous knowledge could assist on the safeguarding of

practices and cultural heritage for the future coming generations which can be

considered as a positive part of their identity and promote social cohesion It is

required for the South African indigenous communities to continue to practice their

cultural practices with countless support from their government (Department of Arts

and Culture 200931) Once again it is essential to pay attention to the storage and

documentation of knowledge as it could prevent the danger of the disappearance of

indigenous knowledge

Currently most international and national archives are yet to pay the required

attention to indigenous knowledge as a veritable source of information A major

drawback of the ex-situ preservation strategy is that although it advocates the need

for the storage of indigenous knowledge in national and international archives it fails

to address the balance of power and control between Western and indigenous

knowledge especially for the marginalised poor

It is argued that the in-situ preservation approach focuses mainly in giving rights to

communities particularly the patent rights and helps to control their royalties thus

23

becoming the monopoly holder of the knowledge making it difficult for outsiders to

gain access Another disadvantage of the in-situ preservation approach is the lack of

sufficient tools and resources for individuals to protect their knowledge This leads to

individuals easily giving up their knowledge to the challenge of a hegemonic state

and the market economy (Agrawal 199638 Maxted amp Kell 2010) The preservation

of indigenous knowledge is linked to the protection of intellectual property rights

Whereby the legal right is attached to the information that is arrives from the mind of

the person which can be applied to make a product Intellectual property right is

tangible when are taken in a form of written document such as paintings designs

stories recording of music and many more Besides Agrawal (1995432) indicates

that is it impossible for in situ strategy to do well without indigenous communities

gaining control over the use of lands in which they reside and the resources on

which they rely

Despite the drawbacks mentioned above the ex-situ preservation approach is still

considered to be most suited preservation approach for indigenous knowledge

preservation and is likely to fail The in-situ preservation approach is considered to

be unproductive unlikely and unattainable (Agrawal 1995431) The indigenous

communities need to exercise control over their own knowledge it important for

indigenous holders to play a part in the storing and documenting of their knowledge

by ensure that it transferred to the younger people However their knowledge

certainly cannot be stored in the archive if the elders disappear Chapter five of the

study elaborates more about the process where people share their experiences and

beliefs by spending time together

24

23 Challenges in accepting indigenous knowledge

The rhetoric of development has gone through several stages from the focus on

economic growth and growth on equity to participatory development and sustainable

development (Black 199375) Indigenous knowledge is seen as a neglected tool for

development while it is now recognised as an important tool for sustainable

development Western knowledge has been the dominant knowledge according to

Western scientific literature while traditional knowledge is referred to as tacit

knowledge that is hard to articulate in terms of formal knowledge However Western

sciences are brought up to analyse development problems and to offer solutions

based on scientific methods (Escobar 1995)

Escobar (199513) indicates that during the colonial period Western sciences

analysed further problems and offered solutions based on scientific methods

Therefore colonialists separated indigenous knowledge from development

processes In addition Escobar (199514) explains that rural development

programmes which are implemented in a country by a World Bank sponsorship

deepens the Western knowledge influence Cultures and groups in rural communities

are characterised by specific rules and values but most importantly by ways of

knowing

Escobar (199514) further indicates that development has relied entirely on one

knowledge system namely the modern Western knowledge The dominance of the

Western knowledge system has dictated oppression marginalisation exploitation and

the disqualification of other knowledge systems It was found in the 1970s that

25

development bypassed women This discovery has recently led to growth in the field

of women in development (Escobar199514)

Sillitoe (1998247) criticises traditional knowledge stating that it was static

unchanging and difficult to sustain He states that is fluid and constantly changing

reflecting renegotiation between people and their environments Furthermore he

explains that observations abstracts and empirical measurements normally guide

the Western knowledge for hypotheses to be tested and for research to be

conducted (Sillitoe 1998247)

Reij and Toulmin (1996) argue that indigenous knowledge systems might be useful

seen as complementary to existing formal knowledge but not as a competitor When

it comes to development traditional knowledge can be attractive to development

although it is getting increasingly acknowledged and widely accepted Development

used to focus on a top-down approach but now focuses on the grassroots level

Unfortunately some African governments seem to be embarrassed about supporting

something that is considered to be unscientific (ReijampToulmin 1996)

Thrupp (1989) argues that the lack of respect for other knowledge traditions

manifested by many Western scientists and underpinned by the assumptions that

technological superiority implies answers to all difficulties is a considerable barrier to

development To ignore other peoplersquos knowledge could lead to failure of socio-

economic development Traditional knowledge is essential for development it needs

to be gathered properly documented and integrated with other knowledge systems

26

However there are certain developmental problems that Western sciences fail to

solve while the rate of poverty in rural areas is generally increasing

24 Indigenous knowledge system as a tool for sustainable development

Indigenous knowledge is considered to be a tool for sustainable development and its

importance in this regard cannot be over emphasised At the community level

indigenous knowledge is a vital basis for making decisions that pertains to food

security education natural resources management human animal and

environmental health and other important activities It is the main asset and key

element of the social capital of the poor and an integral part of their quest for survival

(Gorjestani 2002) For a true global knowledge to be realistic there is a need for

developing countries to act as both contributors and users of knowledge Indigenous

knowledge is therefore an integral part of the development process of any local

community Although capital is vital to sustainable social and economic

development the first step to mobilising such capital is building on the local and

basic component of the countryrsquos knowledge which is indigenous knowledge (World

Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

It is moreover argued by Gorjestani (2002) that any true knowledge must be double-

directional When knowledge flows only from the rich economies to the poor ones it

is likely to be met with resentment Knowledge transfer can only be successful when

communities are assisted in adapting knowledge to local conditions Also it is most

effective to share knowledge with the poor by soliciting knowledge about their needs

and circumstances It is therefore important for developmental activities most

27

especially those that are aimed towards benefiting the poor directly to ensure

indigenous knowledge is considered in the design and implementation stages of the

process (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002) Since development processes are

concerned with wealth creation through the market or economic systems it will be

appropriate to mention that indigenous knowledge is valuable to the creation of

wealth (World Bank 1998 Gorjestani 2002)

Moreover indigenous knowledge is an invaluable resource for development When

properly combined with modern know-how it can be a basis for sustainable people-

centred development For example since rural people are very knowledgeable about

their environment and its effect on their daily activities they know what varieties of

crops to plant when to sow and weed which plants are poisonous and which can be

used for medicine how to cure diseases and how to maintain their environment in a

state of equilibrium (Kothari 2007)

Today there is an increasing awareness about the importance of indigenous

knowledge For example the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development the

Convention on Biological Diversity the International Labour Organisation (especially

Convention 169) the the World Health Organisation (WHO) the United Nations

Cultural Scientific Organisation (UNESCO) the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) the

United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) and a number of

documents that come out of various summits on sustainable development and other

international instruments organisations and forums have stressed the importance of

indigenous knowledge in sustainable development (Kothari 2007)

28

Owing to the growing recognition of the role that indigenous knowledge plays in

sustainable development and the continued fear of its erosion several countries

have adopted policies frameworks and programme to recognise and promote it In

addition various international agencies NGOs and indigenous and local

communities have also initiated a number of measures to curb the erosion of

indigenous knowledge (Kothari 2007)

However despite the acknowledgement that indigenous knowledge has received in

recent years it is yet to receive the required attention in many African countries

Although South Africarsquos agenda for building a post-apartheid democratic social order

recognises indigenous knowledge systems and technology as an integral and vital

component of the process of reconstruction and redress there is still an unhealthy

distortion and trivialisation of indigenous knowledge This may be due to it being

neglected by the apartheid ideology of the Nationalist Government hence making it

almost impossible for Western science to appreciate indigenous knowledge systems

and values Proper storage and documentation of indigenous knowledge and making

it available for easy accessibility is yet to be given the necessary attention (Raza amp

Du Plessis 2001 Gbenda 2010)

Several attempts have been made in South Africa both at national provincial and

municipal levels to enhance indigenous knowledge systems According to a report

from South Africarsquos Gauteng Provincial Government (2009) on indigenous

knowledge systems following a discussion at a provincial policy workshop for

29

stakeholders held in Johannesburg on 5 June 2009 the following recommendations

were made

Indigenous knowledge system policy must embrace the dynamics of socio-

cultural plurality While it is recognised that the province is a melting pot for

cultures indigenous knowledge system policy must promote cultural

democracycultural equity and multiculturalism Indigenous knowledge systems

must also recognise knowledge brought in from outside South Africa

The diversity of religious practices in urban areas which include African

Pentecostal churches initiation schools should be recognised

Traditional congregational venues under trees in open spaces and in the bushes

must be incorporated in current and future urban design programmes

Centres of knowledge must be resuscitated and must be set up with a view to

engaging elderly people to teach and promote traditions

A calendar of cultural events should be prepared for the province including

traditional performances traditional food fairs storytelling and so forth

Municipalities are important stakeholders as they will be responsible for

implementing indigenous knowledge system policy and development

programmes

Infrastructure for intellectual property rights should be set up Practitioners are

currently not willing to share their knowledge and products because they fear

that they will give away their rights

Libraries must develop capacity as repositories of indigenous knowledge

Indigenous knowledge systems must influence urban planning

Indigenous knowledge systems policy must recognise that there are certain

categories of knowledge that are esoteric whose transmission and use is

30

restricted to specific individuals and therefore cannot be made public or

commercialised

All stakeholders including traditional authorities institutions and government

structures must be involved in the preparation of the provincial indigenous

knowledge system policy

Family education for early childhood development must be recognised as critical

to the nurturing of indigenous knowledge system

Given the vital role that indigenous knowledge systems play in national development

it is necessary to create synergies between governments at the various levels It is

therefore important to ensure that no matter where the level of such initiatives

originates from indigenous knowledge system policies should share the same

philosophical underpinning

25 Process of exchanging indigenous knowledge

In the past three decade there has been an increase in the accessibility and

dissemination of information electronically Despite this increase a vast majority of

those in developing countries still lack access to vital information This information

gap also known as the digital divide has continued to widen between developing and

developed countries and within countries as well as between the rich and the poor

This gap in information transmission reveals that the poor and less privileged are

unable to access resources and services that could improve their lives (Akinde

20089)

31

The integration of indigenous knowledge into development processes is an important

way of exchanging information among communities In the past few years

indigenous knowledge has been recognised as an important element of economic

and social development most especially at the community and rural levels Although

the significance of indigenous knowledge is now well taken on board by various

bodies and international organisations there are still concerns regarding the

appropriate mechanism for the promotion of such knowledge by infusing scientific

and modern knowledge without underpinning the basic characteristics that defines it

Since modern knowledge is founded on science and technology hence giving it the

prowess to unravel and transform the surrounding system the exposure of

indigenous knowledge to such scientific and technological rigours can prove

destructive (Yokakul et al 2011) According to the World Bank (19987) the process

of exchanging indigenous knowledge involves six steps which are normally applied

in developing countries The steps are

Indigenous knowledge needs to be recognised and identified In some case

indigenous knowledge is blended with technologies or cultural values only to

find that it is difficult to recognise indigenous knowledge in which case it

requires an external observer to identify it

The validation of indigenous knowledge is vital This involves the assessing of

the significance reliability relevance and the effectiveness As a result it is

essential to acknowledge indigenous knowledge

Documentation and recording are the most important challenge because

indigenous knowledge it is sticky by nature

32

It is tacit knowledge that is exchanged through communication from one person

to the other It is essential to consider traditional methods but in some situations

modern instruments need to be applied such as drawings charts and graphs

Documentation is another means of protecting indigenous knowledge from

disappearing

It is necessary for indigenous knowledge to be stored Storage can be in the

form of text documents or in electronic format such as tapes videos films and

storytelling

Transferring of indigenous knowledge involves moving it from one place to the

other It is regarded as a test of seeing if it will work in other environments

The dissemination of indigenous knowledge to wider communities adds to the

developmental process which promotes indigenous knowledge globally

Due to the shift in development thinking and practice towards people and

community-centred programmes there is a need for the involvement of individuals

and communities to make decisions that concern them This creates avenues for

social change and empowerment and also stimulates their awareness involvement

and capabilities

Various mediums of communication and exchange of information can enhance

development by encouraging dialogue and debate Exchange of indigenous

knowledge can promote changes in behaviours and attitudes and help individuals

within a community to identify sustainable development opportunities and solutions

that are within their reach (FAO 1999) The exchange of indigenous knowledge is

33

vital for meaningful development and productivity both at the local and national

level

According to Akinde (200810) the following are suggested toolkits for the exchange

of indigenous knowledge

Computers

Tape recorders

Radio

Television

Newspapers

Cameras for example camcorders and video cameras

ICTs via Internet e-mails and other facilities

Fax

CD-ROM

Printed materials and documents for example posters and pamphlets

Diskettes

Social gatherings in communities

Indigenous people have a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably However

formal education systems have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of

indigenous knowledge and ways of learning replacing them with abstract knowledge

and academic ways of learning Today there is a grave risk that much indigenous

knowledge is being lost and along with it valuable knowledge about ways of living

sustainably

34

To help bring the benefits of indigenous knowledge to societies and communities

there is a need for its integration into education Proper integration will encourage

teachers and students to develop enhanced respect for local cultures along with its

wisdom and ethics and providing ways of teaching and learning locally relevant

skills and knowledge (UNESCO 2010) A case of the successful integration of

indigenous knowledge with Western education in India has been reported by

(Gorjestani 2002)

In India the World Bank supported the Sodic Lands Reclamation project The Sodic

Lands Reclamation Project was established by local farmers to increase household

incomes The project is normally referred to as a self-help group that was promoted

to support the mechanism for agriculture activities Because the Sodic soils were not

properly managed for irrigation purpose 50 percent of paddy and wheat crops were

destroyed Through the combination of local and modern knowledge farmers applied

gypsum As a result of the application of gypsum to the soil there was a significant

increase in the fertility of the soil thus resulting in the production of multi crops green

manure crop rotation and composting by the farmers They were also able to

reclaim over 68 000 hectares of land belonging to 247 000 families (Gorjestani

2002)

In addition the farmers controlled brown plant hoppers with neem extract rice husk

and green manure After five years paddy and wheat yields as well as incomes rose

by 60 percent With the support of the World Bank the farmers created a local

farmersrsquo school to incorporate these practices in curriculum and outreach work

35

Today farmers receive training and advice with the training reaching over 7 200

households in 65 villages

The recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge did not only produce

technical and economic results but also helped to create a farmer-owned training

institution with an enormous outreach This shows that technology and indigenous

institutions can increase the efficiency of development programmes as locally owned

resources are properly managed by the locals This case study highlights the

importance of community involvement in local solutions

26 Indigenous knowledge and adaptation

In periods when resources are scarce when climate change threatens lives or

damages the environment when soil degradation takes place and donor funding is

reduced indigenous knowledge is the key element that contributes towards the

survival of developing countriesrsquo economies (Ngulube 2002)

According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) there are about 300

million indigenous people in the world representing more than 4 000 languages and

cultures During 1992 the World Conference on Indigenous Peoples the reduction of

emissions from deforestation and forest degradation was identified as a strategic

approach to combat climate change The approach is aimed at creating value for

forests and provides a means of protecting them The approach which is a cheap

strategy for combating climate change is designed to generate revenue secure

indigenous landlivelihoods and maintain the culture of forest-dependent local

36

communities For the strategy to work indigenous people are required to share their

knowledge since they have been coping with local climate change and have been

involved in agricultural practices through which they have protected and managed

their environments for decades (Nakashima amp Roue 2002)

In December 2004 the Indian Ocean tsunami struck the coast of Indonesia in the

South East of Asia up to the East coast of Africa which is dominated by indigenous

people Many people including tourists were attracted to the shoreline by the

unusual spectacle of fish flopping on the beach caused by the sea withdrawal The

indigenous people all knew that they had to head inland quickly and stayed away

from the coast to avoid the destructive force of the sea Although their villages were

destroyed about 80 000 Simeulue people survived and only seven died (Nakashima

amp Roue 2002 UNESCO 2010)

A medium-term programme that focuses on implementing sustainable development

of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Local and Indigenous Knowledge

System (LINKS) programme was subsequently established by UNESCO The

programmes focussed on many areas including support for indigenous communities

to cope with environmental cultural and socio-economic challenges

Although Africa is endowed with lots of natural resources the respective

governments are unable to meet the basic needs of the people In this regard local

knowledge can be a relevant and useful tool for rural development According to

Ngulube despite the challenge of issues such as intellectual property rights

methodology making local knowledge accessible and formats of preservation it is

37

still vital for indigenous knowledge to be developed as systematically as western

knowledge (Ngulube 2002)

It is reported that in Sub-Saharan Africa the local knowledge practices of small

scale farmer represents 70 per cent to 90 per cent of agricultural producers which is

more than 60 per cent of the population while 90 per cent of fisherman rely on local

knowledge (Nakashima amp Roue 2002) It is recommended the ex-situ preservation

strategy which deals with documentation isolation and storage of international and

national archives should be implemented as a preservation strategy The ex-situ

preservation strategy has been implemented in Kenya regarding indigenous

medicinal practises

It is reported that 80per cent of the world population depends on indigenous

knowledge to meet their medicinal and healthcare needs while 50per cent rely on

indigenous knowledge for food supply In most African countries traditional

medicines are believed to have the medicinal properties to treat diseases like

malaria diabetes cancer and HIVAIDS (Nyumba 2006) Some pharmaceutical

companies have been active in exploiting indigenous knowledge for the manufacture

of their medicines (Nyumba 2006) In some Asian countries individuals rely heavily

on traditional food while traditional medicines serve as part of their cultural belief

Owing to high population density traditional food helps them to provide the basic

needs of the people In China for example over 2 4 billion Unites State Dollars of

Chinese medicines are sold and over 400 million United State Dollars were exported

out of the country (Elujoba et al 2005) There are also measures in place in some

38

Asian countries where indigenous knowledge is implemented in the preservation and

protection of biodiversity

Some examples of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa and their application are

found in Table 21

Table 21 Examples of indigenous knowledge application in Africa

Country Application

Angola Angolans use sugar cane to quench thirst It is also processed into

sugar and sugar cane wine using ldquoBagasserdquo as the fermentation

agent The winemaking process is an ancestral practice transmitted

from generation to generation

Botswana Natural materials are used to produce baskets and pottery The

knowledge is passed down from generation to generation

Lesotho To relieve a headache the bark of a peach tree is peeled and

burned the patient then inhales the smoke and the headache goes

away

Mali The southern part of Mali is well known as a cotton growing region

were education levels are low In the villages of Koutiala and

Bougouni the local communities are marketing their agricultural

crops managing farm credit and reinvesting by mastering

accounting Their administration systems developed directly in a

local language called Bambara

Nigeria During the first four weeks after birth the mother and child are

secluded and the mother is relieved of duties the grandmother of

39

the newborn cares them for The new mother is fed a stimulating

hot soup made of dried fish meat yams a lot of pepper and a

special herbal seasoning called ldquoudahrdquo which helps the uterus to

contract and to expel blood clots

South Africa ldquoIntumardquo is a round green fruit used to relieve toothache A dried

mealie is squeezed into the fruit and then lit and the infusions are

inhaled through the mouth

Swaziland Swazis use kraal manure poultry litter and swinersquos waste in the

fields to prevent soil degradation

Uganda Indigenous knowledge is being applied for cultural management of

ldquomatokerdquo crops to reduce harmful effects of the ldquoSigatokardquo disease

Source Dlamini 2005

In the Nyanza Province of Kenya the Luo people from the Western Nilotic cluster of

society are dominant They have sound knowledge of medicinal plants found in their

environment such as plants used in the treatment of snakebites which they prefer to

use rather than seeking help from a medical doctor It has been reported that the Luo

people use 24 different plants to treat snakebites In some case the leaves of these

plants are crushed and rubbed on fresh snake bites while in other cases the snake

bite victim chews the leaves of the plant and swallows the juice with the roots serving

as snake bite antidotes (Owuor et al 2005130)

Studies have shown that the Luo people use 73 per cent leaf preparations 19 per

cent bark preparations and 8 per cent of juice Due to the lack of adequate medical

infrastructure in the area a lack of anti-serum and high medical fees the Luo people

40

rely on the local healers for treatment (Owuor et al 2005131) This is an important

aspect of their livelihoods which helps them to reduce mortality

In Uganda there is a huge difference between the ratio of traditional medicine

practitioners and allopathic practitioners to the population The ratio of traditional

medicines practitioners to the population ranges from 1200 to 1400 when

compared with the ratio of allopathic practitioners to the population which is

120000 Since the allopathic practitioners are unevenly distributed and mostly

found in the cities and urban areas traditional medicine is found to be a more

reasonable option for the rural people

As indicated by Grenier (1998) development efforts that ignore local circumstances

local technologies and local systems of knowledge have wasted enormous amounts

of time and resources Compared with many modern technologies traditional

techniques have been tried and tested and found to be effective inexpensive locally

available and culturally appropriate and in many cases based on the preservation

and building on the patterns and processes of nature

In South Africa there are over 24 000 indigenous plants which represent 10 per cent

of all higher plants in the world Statistics South Africa (2008) indicate that 200 000

to 300 000 South Africans consult traditional healers prior to visiting allopathic

practitioners The traditional medicines market in South Africa is turning into a multi-

billion rand industry that can contribute to the growth of the economy (Chabalala

20084)

41

27 Conclusion

Indigenous knowledge provides basic survival strategies for millions of people

throughout the world This chapter presented the theoretical basis and approach of

the study The role of indigenous knowledge in development and adaptation were

also discussed It is worth noting that the acknowledgement of indigenous

knowledge systems to empower local communities and achieve sustainable

development cannot be over-emphasised The next chapter discusses the

application of indigenous knowledge in South Africa

42

CHAPTER 3

APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN SOUTH AFRICA

31 Introduction

Today there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge owing to the challenges

facing the world This chapter aims to discover the types of indigenous knowledge

available in different sectors such as agriculture health and culture in South Africa

The agricultural practice of indigenous knowledge includes farming and fisheries

cultural practices include songs and dancing rituals language and fashion in the

health sector indigenous knowledge includes the use of medicinal plants for healing

It is important for South Africans to expand their development by finding effective

ways of preserving indigenous knowledge where it will accessible to rural

communities and future generations

32 Indigenous knowledge in agriculture

Families of indigenous communities have always engaged in farming and worked

collectively to grow and harvest crops such as wheat and maize It has been a self-

sustaining life that existed for many decades but the system of apartheid with its

powers and structures led to poverty among many South African indigenous

communities When a new democratic government came into power in 1994

indigenous farming methods were recognised again Matenge et al (2011)

43

During the past decades there has been a growing interest in farming particularly in

Third World countries However many farmers use unsustainable farming methods

which lead to poor soil quality soil erosion over-harvesting and deforestation which

are aggravated by low rainfall and climate change Elders in the indigenous

communities are more knowledgeable about farming than the younger generation

(Matenge et al 2011)

Matenge et al (2011) declared that indigenous foods contribute a great deal to the

livelihood self-reliance and well-being of local communities They further indicated

that modern methods of agriculture has led to the marginalisation of traditional

agriculture methods that ensured a wide variety of indigenous foods which

contributed towards better food security

Modern agriculture has not fully benefited traditional farmers in terms of technology

usage and non-variety seedsTraditional farmers used to save their own seeds lately

modern agriculture makes them rely on expensive seeds from the market In South

Africarsquos Limpopo province local farmers have a broader understanding of indigenous

farming (Magoro amp Masoga 2005414) The local farmers are reported to excel

owing to their knowledge about the weather Before the start of any agricultural

activities they begin with rainmaking rites According to Magoro and Masoga

(2005419) rainmaking rituals are performed by the chief or leader before they start

ploughing and sowing

44

Through many years of experience and living off the land indigenous farmers have

gained a great deal of practical knowledge about the soil and weather conditions

They have therefore learned to predict the possibility of rain or drought quite

accurately This has helped them to prepare for weather conditions in advance

which explains how they have managed to reach sustainability in farming generation

after generation

Table 31 shows the different types of rain that are classified by indigenous farmers

in the village of Magatle The left-hand column shows the name of the particular kind

of rain in Sepedi which is the local language while the right-hand column shows the

English translation

Table 31 Classification of different types of rain

Sepedi (local language) English

Pula yakgogolamooko First rain

Pula yasefako Heavy rain accompanied by hail

Modupi Soft and very desirable rain

Matlakadibe Thunder hail from the south-west direction

Letsota Rain coming from the north-west direction

Borwa A cool rain coming from the south

Source Magoro and Masoga (2005419)

Another area of indigenous knowledge in agriculture is the use of mopane worms

and stink-bugs as a traditional source of food Mopane worms are harvested in multi-

million rand industries in Southern Africa countries such as Botswana Zambia

45

Namibia and South Africa In South Africa mopane worms are mainly found in

Limpopo where rural households usually harvest them as part of their diet In the

Thohoyandou area of Limpopo which is mainly inhabited by the Vha-Venda people

stink-bugs and mopane worms are traditional delicacies (Teffo et al 2007 434)

The sale of stink-bugs and mopane worms provides a valuable source of income for

many rural households in Limpopo The insects such as the highly-consumed stink-

bug which is called thongolifha are sold at the informal open markets of

Thohoyandou Teffo et al (2007434) pointed out that the sale of beef is badly

affected during the mopane worm season

Thogolifha is the stink bug that has a protein content of 36 per cent and a fat content

of 51 per cent Although the stink-bug provides a relatively good source of protein it

has a lower protein content than the mopane worm which has a 635 per cent

protein content (Teffo et al 2007 434)

Stink-bugs are harvested during the winter months The dead bugs are separated

from the live bugs and the live bugs are placed in a bucket with a small amount of

warm water and stirred with a wooden spoon The warm water causes the bugs to

release their defensive smell which is so strong that it can hurt a personrsquos eyes

After a while warm water is added again and the insects are rinsed The process is

repeated three times after which the insects are boiled The heads of the dead bugs

are removed and the abdomen is squeezed using an index finger Most people eat

the bugs raw or cooked with porridge

46

Mopane worms are usually boiled in salt water and dried before they are consumed

Because indigenous people didnrsquot have fridges to store their food in the past they

dried mopane worms and beef in the sun This knowledge and technique is still

widely used today and is also popular among white South Africans who call the dried

meat biltong Indigenous people traditionally called dried beef meat ldquosegwapardquo

Adequate food is essential for the development of a nation However food security is

a problem in most rural communities Illgner and Nel (2000339) point out that Africa

has the lowest intake of animal protein per capita per day in the world In terms of

trade and income the harvesting and sale of insects is an important secondary

source of income for many people

Indigenous people have eaten insects for many years they are not only a good

source of protein but readily available in the natural environment and are therefore

perfect source of nutrition for poor communities For the Vha-Venda people insects

are part of their traditional diet and many prefer insects above meat (Limpopo

Leader Spring 2006)

Professor Dirk Wessels Director of Research Development and Administration at

the University of Limpopo explains that it is important for the countries of the

Southern African Development Community (SADC) to manage their mopane worm

and woodland reserves He points out that the mopane tree is a multi-faceted

resource ldquoApart from the huge nutritional value to be derived from the worms

valuable traditional medicines are taken from the leaves roots and barks the African

47

silk worm also thrives on the foliage and the timber is used extensively in the

building of huts kraals and palisadesrdquo (Limpopo Leader Spring 2006)

Mopane worms provide a valuable source of income for many rural communities but

over-harvesting has become widespread and is a threat to its sustainability

Commercial harvesting is a major threat as millions are taken to cities where they

are sold for much more than those sold at the local markets According to Prof

Wessels ldquoThe mopane worm trade is estimated to turn over close to R200 million a

yearrdquo (Limpopo Leader 2006)

According to the Limpopo Leader (2006) the SADC region has more than 500 000

square kilometres of mopane woodlands and with good management techniques it

could contribute to the food security of SADCrsquos more than 120 million people It is

also estimated that trading in mopane worms provides more that 10 000 jobs for

rural people

Another plant used as a nutritional beverage by the Vha-Venda people of Limpopo is

bush tea (Limpopo Leader 2006)

33 Indigenous knowledge in health

In South Africa during the apartheid era the development of traditional medicines

was for bidden In 1953 the Medical Association of South Africa stated alternative

therapies as illegal and unscientific The association developed the Witchcraft

Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970

48

banned traditional healers from practising their trade Today the hold back of

traditional medicines is contested the traditional communities demand their

knowledge to be contributed in the public health care system (Hassim et al

2007208)

Although the South Africa budget allocation for the health sector increases on an

annual basis there are still inadequate medical facilities in most rural areas Priority

for the improvement of medical facilities is usually given to urban and semi-urban

areas with large populations Rural people have made use of traditional medicine for

many years and it has been an important part of primary healthcare for poor

households

At times rural people make use of traditional medicines or medicinal plants because

they have no choice or they do did not have access to health care service or

because they believe in their own knowledge The WHO recognises these difficulties

and advised that providing definition for traditional medicine is necessary therefore it

defines it as different health practices approaches knowledge and beliefs

incorporating plants animals and mineral based medicines spiritual therapies

manual methods and exercises applied singularly or in combination to maintain well

being as well as to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hassim et a 2007208)

Dahlberg and Trygger (200979) point out that medicinal plant are an important

resource which many African people depend on for physical social cultural and

economic well-being Medicinal plants are used for the treatment of a wide variety of

49

diseases including stomach ache constipation diarrhoea vomiting snake bites

headaches malaria cuts and bruises skin diseases and many others

It is reported that some tribes in Nigeria use medicinal plants effectively for the

treatment of tuberculosis lung diseases of bacterial origin and other respiratory

diseases (Ofukwu et al 200825)

Ofukwu et al (200825) argue that the best of our indigenous knowledge has been

lost and there are no efforts to systematically identify and document the indigenous

plants In South Africa the harvesting of medicinal plants by indigenous people is

focused on trading the plants in the urban areas where they do not occur naturally

Unfortunately this is not sustainable because the preservation measures are not

strongly applied (Dahlberg amp Trygger 200980)

Traditional medicine in South Africa generates millions of Rand in the South African

economy According to Mander et al (2007192) it is estimated that the industry of

traditional medicines in South Africa reaches 27 million consumers and the trade

contributes R29 billion to the national economy In South Africa many chemists or

traditional shops that sell traditional medicines experience a shortage of indigenous

plants While this has led to a price increase in traditional medicines such medicines

are still more affordable than Western medicine

It has been known that traditional medicine is species orientated As indicated by

Magoro (200854) traditional healers face problems in terms accessing medicinal

plants due to the establishment of nature reserves and private owned farms next to

50

areas such as Marble hall Roedtan and Mdlala The nature reserves prevented

them from accessing land previously owned by their forefathers This problem affects

the traditional healers not to have choices available to sustain their practices On the

other hand the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) (20091) reports that

the use of traditional healers has decreased over the past 13 years by 0 1 per cent

between the range of 36 per cent and 126 per cent in South Africa Traditional male

circumcision decreased from 319 per cent to 248 per cent (Human Sciences

Research Council 20091)

The mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done through the informal sector

usually in the streets of cities and towns Mander et al (2007192) Table 32

provides a list of the different types of informal players in the market Most traditional

healers earn more money from trading in plants than the street traders and plant

harvesters Therefore both the plant harvester and street traders received the same

income This indicates the mainstream trade of traditional medicines are done

through the informal sector commonly by traditional healers

Table 32 Type and number of informal sector players in the traditional

medicines industry of South Africa

Role player Estimated number in the business Average income

(Rand) per partaker

Traditional healer

diviner herbalist

prophets

6 8000- fulltime healers

20 0000 - include all traditional healers

in South Africa

3 8491

51

Street trader 3 000 7 941

Plant harvester 6 3000 - a lot of harvesters do

business on the streets

7 941

Source Mander et al 2007

As revealed in the Table 33 South Africa has a total of 185 477 traditional healers

Due to this rising number of traditional healers it is vital that the government of

South Africa and other countries around the world support and promote the use of

alternative medicines Adequate support should be provided through the provision of

preservation qualification and accreditation

Because traditional healers are yet to be given full rights to practice in South Africa

traditional medicine is yet to be fully integrated in the national healthcare system To

address this it is also vital for the South African Medicine Control Council to test

products before acceptance and such products should undergo testing to ascertain

and validate their contents (Galeni et al 2007181)

Table 33 Number of traditional healers in South Africa in 2007

Province Total

Gauteng 61 465

Mpumalanga 57 524

KwaZulu-Natal 25 430

Free State 22 645

Eastern Cape 10 780

52

Limpopo 7 366

North West 5 935

Western Cape 2 600

Northern Cape 2 221

Total 185 477

Source Indigenous Health Care System University of KwaZulu-Natal (Ndhlalambi

2009)

Also South Africa has a rich variety of plants which play an important role in the

daily lives of many rural communities The eight most traded medicinal plants in

South Africa are listed in Table 34 The country also has plenty of natural resources

including minerals like gold and platinum Although an estimated 700 plants species

are traded for medicinal purpose in South Africa most rural households in South

Africa use medicinal plants for self-medication which can be a threat to biodiversity

Studies have shown that medicinal plants not only have health benefits but also

make a contribution to the economy (Dold amp Cocks 2002589 Dahlberg ampTrygger

200979)

Dlamini et al (2010) have reported that of the 101 plant species that are used for

food 65 are leaves roots and stems which are cooked and eaten as relishes while

26 species are collected as fruits and nuts All these plants are highly nutritional

which can prevent malnutrition and some of the plants also have medicinal

properties

53

In a study by Moeng amp Potgieter (2011) on the role of muthi (traditional medicine)

shops and street vendors in the trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province of

South Africa approximately 231 medicinal plants were observed to be traded in

muthi shops and by street vendors with roots being the most preferred item Open

access communal land was observed to be the main supply source for muthi

markets The eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in that study are listed in

Table 34

Table 34 Eight most frequently traded medicinal plants in the Limpopo

South Africa

Scientific name Frequency of

species traded

()

Part

used

Total amount in

16 muthi shops

(kg)

Hypoxisobtusa 100 Roots 2308

Siphonochilusaethiopicus 81 Roots 245

Drimiasanquinea 75 Roots 1967

Eucomispallidiflora 63 Roots 940

Alepideaamatymbica 50 Roots 267

Helichrysumkraussii 50 Leaves 247

Securidacalongipendunculata 50 Roots 935

Kirkiawilmsii 44 Roots 1774

Source Moeng and Potgieter 2011

The hoodia plant which was originally used by the San people who live in the

Kalahari region of South Africa is now widely used in Western medicine mainly as a

54

slimming aid The San is an indigenous community with limited formal education

widespread unemployment and a lack of proper health facilities They live off the

land and have thus become highly familiar with the medicinal and nutritional

properties of various plants in their environment

The hoodia plant has been used by the San for many years to control their appetites

during hunting expeditions when little food was available (Maharaj et al 20071) It

has also been reported that theplant enhances a personrsquos mood and doesnrsquot cause

irritation or weakness It is furthermore known to enhance energy levels

In 1937 the Dutch ethno-biologist Dr R Marloth wrote a paper about the useof the

hoodia plantand alerted the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)

about this plant used by the San people in 1980The CSIR became very interested in

the hoodia plant and patented it in 1995 (Maharaj et al 2007 )

A CSIR scientist studied the biological effects of the hoodia plant He injected

extracts from the plant into small animals and observed that they lost their appetites

accompanied by weight loss with no clear toxic effect (Maharaj et al 20071) The

CSIR recognises the importance of the plant for the economy It is regarded as an

ingredient for weight management medication that can reduce daily food intake by

1 000 calories Therefore its market value has reached more than 3 billion US$

yearly (World Intellectual Property Organisation 20081) The plant is extremely

scarce and it is difficult to cultivate Fortunately most countries have patented it The

CSIR has entered recognising that this is valuable indigenous knowledge and has

entered into a benefit sharing agreement with the San people

55

The use of bush tea by the Vha-Venda people of South Africarsquos Limpopo province is

another example of indigenous knowledge benefiting indigenous communities The

Vha-Venda people are reported to have a remarkable knowledge of the different

medicinal plants

According to Swanepoel (1997) there are still between 12 million and 15 million

South Africans who depend on traditional herbal medicine and as many as 700

indigenous species are found in South Africa Bush tea or herbal tea as it is also

known is a beverage that is prepared from the leaves of the Asteraceae species

The dried or fresh leaves are boiled and the extract is drunk with sugar as a

beverage However bush tea is also a multi-purpose medicinal tea Unlike other

beverages such as coffee and black tea bush tea is caffeine-free (Swanepoel

1997)

Bush tea which is found in Muhuyu village in the Vhembe district of Limpopo is not

yet recognised in the commercial markets although it is consumed by many different

ethnic groups It has been available for many years and is believed to have

aphrodisiac properties An extract from the soaked roots and leaves is used as

medicine (Van Wyk amp Gerick 2000) It is reported that some ethnic groups use bush

teas to treat throat infections coughs and loss of voice The Lobedu and Zulu people

chew the leaves and swallow the juice as a cough remedy while the Basotho people

boil the leaves and after making shallow cuts though their skin they bath in it

56

34 Indigenous knowledge in culture and engineering

Culture is the everyday life of people it is understood as the totality of social

behaviour patterns arts beliefs institutions and all creations of human effort

(Hoppers 200529) Language is a symbolic aspect of cultures that categorise or

label certain groups of people South Africa is known for its cultural diversity and its

eleven official languages Foreign cultures have drawn into many local communities

which weakened their own cultures specifically language In most European cultures

it is normal when one person talks to another to look them in the eye which indicates

that the person is telling the truth In most African cultures however looking an older

person straight in the eye is disrespectful During both colonialism and apartheid the

oppressors aggressively promoted their cultures languages and ways of life at the

expense of the African culturersquo (Motsaathebe 2011115)

Under the apartheid government the diversity between ethnic groups where

oppressed and divided so that they could be easily controlled moreover it made sure

that there was no equal practices and promotion of arts language rituals and

traditional knowledge in different social groups Indigenous people used to produce

excellent products from wood such as knives flutes baskets house roofing and

furniture Unfortunately under the apartheid government their production suffered

heavily and they experienced a lack of social cohesion

The new democratic government which came into power in 1994 has put a great

deal of effort into redressing this imbalance and reaffirming all South African cultures

by giving them recognition through promoting indigenous arts and cultural The

57

Department of Arts and Culture introduced the living heritage policy which is

discussed in more detail in Chapter four of this study

Indigenous Zulu weave baskets are considered to be among the most attractive

baskets in the world Historically most African baskets were made in a wide range of

sizes as vessels for various foodstuffs from grain and vegetables to liquids such as

beer Today the baskets are doing remarkably well commercially and at flea

markets all over South Africa thus making an important contribution towards the

economy (Nettleton 201060)

According to Nettleton (201060) the Zulu people made a large variety of baskets

ranging from small beer pot covers (imbenge) among many others to baskets that

are big enough for an adult person to fit in Other indigenous groups in South Africa

have also made and used baskets traditionally The Pedi people made woven grain

storage (seshego) baskets while the Vha-Venda and Tsonga produced baskets with

lids for serving or keeping food (Nettleton 201060)

The San and the Khoi groups did not historically have the indigenous knowledge to

create baskets they were the agriculturalists who kept cattle and had considerable

indigenous knowledge about plants (Nettleton 201061) Therefore the perspective

in which indigenous knowledge is preserved is exceptionally important to its

meaning The symbolic meanings of crafts vary greatly between different indigenous

groups it can for example have different historical religious or social meanings

58

Today the main supporters of woven baskets are tourists and interior designers The

challenge is that there is a huge gap regarding benefits baskets are bought for small

amounts of money from the indigenous people and sold at very high prices in the

cities to tourists Unfortunately the original crafts people do not receive a fair share of

this profit Policy makers should address such challenges faced by indigenous

knowledge holders and come up with more effective policies to promote and develop

indigenous crafts

35 Conclusion

South Africa is rich in indigenous resources that play an important role in the lives of

poor communities in rural areas Various kinds of knowledge need to be preserved in

order for sustainable development to take place Indigenous groups in South Africa

have a lot of valuable experience and knowledge from which various other

communities can learn Their indigenous knowledge needs to be promoted

preserved and documented to prevent it from fading away Indigenous knowledge

can play an important role in ensuring food security affordable and accessible

healthcare and the promotion of cultural identity Instead of indigenous people

having to depend on the availability of Western food they are enriched with

indigenous food from their own environments Western science has not fully

explored the different dimensions of indigenous knowledge It is not appropriate to

promote development without bringing peoplersquos basic needs and peoplersquos voices into

the equation The next chapter discusses the South African indigenous knowledge

policy and framework

59

CHAPTER 4

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE POLICY THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

41 Introduction

The South African national policy on indigenous knowledge was established as a

result of the historical imbalances during apartheid Indigenous communities

experienced severe oppression during this period Indigenous knowledge in South

Africa together with its practitioners were oppressed and marginalised This has

resulted to the exclusion of indigenous knowledge from the government policies and

development strategies The new government created a national policy as the regard

all governments department spear headed national language policy and promoted

the copyright of music and many more The African Renaissance and the New

Partnership for Africarsquos Development (NEPAD) identified indigenous knowledge

system as a vital body of knowledge that should be treasured and cherished

continental wide (Sebitosi 200872)

South Africa has endorsed many international agreements relating to intellectual

property rights and is therefore obliged to follow appropriate standards Some

countries such as Brazil and India have made significant improvements regarding

their policies on traditional knowledge The Department of Science and Technology

(DST) has also collaborated with other government departments to develop protect

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The interdepartmental relations on

indigenous policy has given rise to granting indigenous knowledge holders free

60

education and training in the development of their knowledge (Monngakgotla

200729)

Many countries have developed intellectual property rights to prevent the abuse of

indigenous knowledge However some countries focus more on the protection of

indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights rather than on its

preservation National indigenous knowledge policies are crucial in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge Unfortunately it still remains a challenge in

many African countries (Msuya 20074)

This chapter explains the most prominent concepts regarding the protection of

indigenous knowledge The connection between policy and intellectual property

rights with indigenous knowledge were also explained Also this chapter describes

the role of government departments in formulating an indigenous knowledge policy

42 Policy intellectual property and indigenous knowledge

Policy plays a major role in providing frameworks of objectives and goals It is seen

as a compass that gives direction when lost Policy is defined as whatever

government decides to do or not to do regarding specific matters (Monngakgotla

200729) In the preparation and formulation of indigenous knowledge policies it is

essential for governments to engage actively with indigenous communities

Owing to the complex dynamics of policy process and engagement some

government policies are not clear from a local community perspective The key

61

ingredient of any successful policy formulation and implementation involves the

participation of a range of stakeholders (Monngakgotla 200729) Stakeholders play

an important role in motivating the policy while motivation influences the capacity

reasoning of policy

Monngakgotla (200930) points out that when policy framework ensures and

recognises indigenous knowledge as valuable knowledge it enables communities to

realise that they hold valuable knowledge In this regard countries should bring

about public policy for the governance of indigenous knowledge Indigenous

knowledge in South Africa has faced a lack of appreciation misrepresentation and

exploitation from commercial and pharmaceutical industries It therefore illustrates

the need for government to protect and preserve indigenous knowledge in rural

communities Msuya (20077) states the appropriate policies each country needs for

indigenous knowledge

Governmental appreciation of indigenous knowledge

Political commitment on indigenous knowledge

Preservation of indigenous knowledge

Statement on protection of indigenous knowledge

Copyright and patent issues

Cross-border indigenous knowledge and how to share it

Use of indigenous knowledge

Distribution of benefits accrued from indigenous knowledge

In terms of putting ownership in the right hands and ensuring equitable sharing

protection is associated with intellectual property rights There is a need to

62

understand what is meant by intellectual property rights and how these rights are

connected to indigenous knowledge This is because most policies focus on the

protection of indigenous knowledge The South African Department of Science and

Technology (200528) indicated thatrdquo Intellectual property rights are awarded by the

society through governments and mandated international bodies to individuals or

companies over their creative endeavours evidenced in their inventions musical

performance symbols names images and designs used for commercialsrdquo

Berckmoes (2008) defines intellectual property rights as the legal provision people

have over their creative endeavours The right owner is given an exclusive right over

the use of his or her creation or discovery for a certain time Intellectual property

rights contain patents copyrights trademarks and trade secrets they are codified at

an international level through legally binding treaties

Most developing countries experience exploitation of indigenous knowledge As a

result most developed countries have the highest patents of 95 per cent while

developing countriesrsquo patents are lower than 5 per cent Indigenous knowledge is

communally owned and transferred from one generation to the other and it is difficult

to protect it by using the tools of Intellectual Property Rights as required by Trade-

Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Right (HRSC 2011)

Indigenous knowledge has been exploited for decades It is explained in a negative

sense that indigenous people around the world have stated that their arts craft

sciences literature medicines music and heritage are the subject of research and

63

eventual commercial exploitation by others while they are not given financial

benefits respect and official recognition (Berckmoes 2008)

Intellectual property rights are seen as a tool for protecting indigenous knowledge

Although various countries have adopted the intellectual property systems to focus

on the needs of indigenous knowledge only a few have placed emphasis on the

preservation indigenous knowledge systems (Human Science Research Council

2011) It has been established that South Africarsquos indigenous knowledge policies are

in line and feasible under international agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of

Intellectual Property Right (TRIP) which was established by the World Trade

Organisation (WTO) Treaties establish rights and obligations among several

countries In addition countries enter into this agreement to reduce barriers among

themselves

Before proceeding further it is necessary to name and explain duties of different

agreements for indigenous knowledge Several types of international agreements

were set up to address issues of indigenous knowledge around the world These

include TRIP the UNrsquos Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United

Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (UDRIP) (Mugabe 199925)

TRIP was one of the contested agreements during the General Agreement on Tariffs

and Trade (GATT) in 1994 (Mugabe 199925) TRIP was signed under the WTO

agreement which according to most developing countries was not aligned with

trade This resulted in few developing countries being in favour of the agreement

The argument was not addressed during the negotiations It was a disadvantage to

64

developing countries because of their limited resources to enhance their capabilities

(Mugabe 199925) The Word Trade Organisation uses TRIP to obtain easy access

to many international markets This international agreement sets the global standard

for domestic intellectual property rules TRIP requires all its members to recognise

and enforce minimum standards of intellectual property rights protection (Mugabe

199925) The first international treaty to recognise indigenous knowledge was the

UNrsquos CBD One of its objectives was to reduce the loss of biodiversity This treaty

needs countries like South Africa to protect indigenous knowledge and promote the

sustainable use of biological resources The UDRIP is a treaty recognising the rights

of marginalised indigenous communities in order for them to gain their cultural

identity (Mugabe 199925)

43 Role of government departments in indigenous knowledge policy

Both the Department of Arts and Culture and Science and Technology formulated a

policy on indigenous knowledge systems which was tabled in Parliament in 1999

The interdepartmental task team experienced a complex process of consultation and

research which took longer than was anticipated The Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Policy was adopted by Cabinet in November 2004 The policy regulatory

measures are spread across a range of governmental departments such as the

DST the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) the Department of Trade and

Industry (DTI) and the Department of Health All participating departments agreed on

formulating indigenous knowledge legislation regarding the indigenous knowledge

policy

65

431 Department of Arts and Culture

The DAC drafted the national policy to promote living heritage dealing with

encouraging the development of indigenous knowledge by separating intangible and

tangible heritage and the legacy of the unequal knowledge systems (Department of

Science and Technology 200518)The policy mandate is in line with the

Constitution and the different levels of government ndash national provincial and local

As indicated by the Department of Science and Technology (200518) South

Africarsquos living heritage policy is focused on two important aspects ndash the building of

social cohesion and safeguarding valuable resources for coming generations The

policy of living the heritage was developed because of a lack of appreciating cultural

diversity during apartheid

Because most indigenous communities in South Africa lived under oppression

which prohibited them to practise their identities it is essential for the department to

redress the issue by encouraging and making clear the policies in order to recognise

all knowledge systems The value of traditional knowledge needs to be protected

and preserved The state plays a vital role to help recognise indigenous knowledge

by ensuring that there are processes to document indigenous knowledge so that the

value of indigenous knowledge can be preserved for local communities (Department

of Science and Technology 200519)

It is clear that the constitution of living the heritage redresses the previous social

imbalances in South Africa and guides the community to practise who they are and

remember their past experiences Community practices include following traditions

66

expressions skills and knowledge transferred from one generation to the next

Chapter four of the draft heritage policy illustrates the need for identification and

documentation This is crucial to ensure that knowledge is preserved so that

reservoirs of information and knowledge on living the heritage can be established

(Department of Trade Industry 2008)

432 Department of Trade and Industry

The DTI drafted a policy framework for protecting indigenous knowledge from being

exploited by commercialisation and other nations The department considered

protection through intellectual property systems Although it is noted that there are

various ways of protecting indigenous knowledge systems such as using intellectual

property sui generis legislation database and registers in the South African

context an intellectual property system is particularly preferred while the sui generis

legislation is still under review The Department of Trade and Industry was involved

in the legislation amendments of patents since 1978 and its content Patents

Amendments Act of 2005 is being used by the World Trade Organisation and to a

positive extent by Word Intellectual Property Organisation which is regarded as a

model for legislation (Department of Trade Industry 2008)

433 Department of Health

Traditional medicine plays an enormous role in the South African economy as a

source of income through trade with other countries Despite the positive

contributions traditional medicine is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry while

67

knowledge holders are not benefiting from this for example CSIR commercialised a

hoodia pharmaceutical product without the San peoplersquos consent or their sharing of

benefits deriving from the patent and commercialisation with the involvement of

NGOs the San people and the CSIR negotiated their benefit sharing agreement that

give the San a share of royalties deriving from sales Therefore there is a need to

preserve indigenous knowledge and to ensure that they have rights to share in the

benefits

The Department of Health developed a national drug policy which strongly

recommends the safeguarding of traditional medicine The aim of the policy is to

ensure that traditional medicine is incorporated into the national health system The

purpose is to create a close working relationship with traditional healers establish a

national reference centre for traditional medicine and provide control over

registration training and practice of traditional healers (Department of Science and

Technology 200518)

434 Department of Science and Technology

The DST is seen as the senior advisor for all other departments for drafting

indigenous policy In addition the advisory committee of indigenous knowledge

report to the DST The indigenous policy starts by illustrating that South Africa is

committed to promoting recognising protecting affirming and developing

indigenous knowledge systems Its intention is to ensure that indigenous knowledge

adds to the social and economic development of the country The DSTrsquos mandate

for drafting the policy is to support the research into traditional medicine and drive

68

various other aspects concerned with indigenous knowledge systems at

organisations such as the National Research Foundation

Chapter one of the policy document stipulates how South Africa should affirm

recognise and promote indigenous knowledge The main reason for this is because

of the racial segregation South Africa went through during apartheid (Department of

Science and Technology 200528) The Department of Arts and Culture is the

identified driver of this process The Department of Science and Technology

(200528) pointed out that chapter one follows the main South African indigenous

knowledge policy that includes the affirmation of African cultural values in the face of

globalisation

As a result in South Africa cultural identity is a crucial aspect in the countryrsquos

development In todayrsquos world it is vital to look at globalisation and its contributions

towards humanity and culture Globalisation is blamed for the disappearance of

African culture by increasing the mobility of people forcing people from different

cultures to live and work together exploiting the poor as well as modernisation One

of the good things about globalisation is that it awards indigenous people the right of

self-determination In terms of the Constitution South African policy makers must

ensure that these rights are provided In terms of section 185 of the Constitution a

commission must be established to promote and protect the rights to culture

language and religion Legislation mandating the commission was signed in 2002

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)

69

Development of services provided by traditional healers

Traditional medicine is the most inexpensive health-care product in South Africa

making it available to even the poorest of the poor Traditional healers in South

Africa take part in building and shaping the health-care system of the country As

indicated by the World Health Organisation (WHO) there vital issues affect the

practise of traditional medicine such as national policy regulatory frameworks

safety quality crucial extension and access of making traditional medicine available

also ensuring appropriateness and cost-effectiveness of traditional medicine The

Department of Health has overall accountability of the health-care system

The South African government through the Department of Health has endorsed the

Traditional Health Practitioners Act in 2007 Its aim is to bring about the Traditional

Health Practitioners Council (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Before the Traditional Health Practitioner Act is passed it must firstly comply with the

constitutions of South Africa in order to smooth the progress of public involvement

The Act is established to set up a framework that will guarantee the quality safety

and effectiveness of traditional healthcare service and providing the management

and control in excess of registration and training of traditional health practitioners

It is criticised that the regulating of traditional health practices may be harmful in

violating the human right and body autonomy such as initiation and virginity testing

At present there are some laws that deal with the initiation and virginity testing such

as the Limpopo Circumcision Schools Act 6 of 1996 which regulate and control the

circumcision schools all over the Limpopo province Although every child in South

70

Africa is given a right to refuse the circumcision and virginity testing by the Childrenrsquos

Act 38 of 2005 (Hassim et a 2007208)

Contribution of the indigenous knowledge to the economy

Innovation in indigenous knowledge is seen as a valuable part of fighting poverty in

the long run and can contribute significantly towards the economy However it has

been criticised that it cannot produce much macro-economic growth because of the

lack of incentives Nevertheless indigenous knowledge still plays an important role

in sustainable livelihoods of South Africans and it has great potential as a reservoir

for creativity although it is not fully considered in the modern knowledge systems

Knowledge creators such as research institutes universities and national

laboratories often separate traditional productions on the basis on Research and

Development linear model of innovation

Government has recommended programme based on an indigenous knowledge

system in its Extended Public Works Programme which uses indigenous knowledge

to eradicate poverty In the case where indigenous knowledge should contribute to

the economy it should regard factors such as the creation of incentive mechanisms

promotion of indigenous knowledge for sustainability and promoting indigenous

knowledge as employment generators (Department of Science and Technology

200528)

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems

Aligning indigenous knowledge with other knowledge systems can help to create

new products and new ways of doing things According the policy document the sale

71

of drugs based on traditional medicine amounts to over US $32 billion per year It is

therefore clear that South Africa cannot overlook indigenous knowledge

The policy document further states that there are key elements that bring favourable

cooperation between South African indigenous knowledge systems and the South

African national system of innovation which allows for a legal benefits-sharing

framework the formulation of a formal record system legislation that ensures

minimum standards of information and a material transfer agreement of indigenous

knowledge research

Chapter two of the indigenous policy illustrates the need to integrate indigenous

knowledge systems into national education systems Indigenous knowledge holds

wisdom and therefore interacts with other knowledge systems to flourish and is a

good attempt to promote lifelong learning The new way of doing things leads to

innovation

Incidentally in some countries such as Japan and India indigenous knowledge has

contributed successfully to innovation systems Where indigenous knowledge is

adopted into the education system a new curriculum has to be developed to

appreciate the role of indigenous knowledge mainly in the science and technology

sector

While Western knowledge is dominant indigenous knowledge requires relevant

methods and methodologies for transferring indigenous knowledge in various

learning contexts (Department of Science and Technology 200528) For many

72

years Western context has influenced the South African education and development

policies therefore South Africa should involve the indigenous knowledge into the

educational system The National Qualification Framework should ensure that not

only schools or institutions of higher learning are targeted but that indigenous

knowledge is also applied in other forms of learning

The Department of Education should take steps to begin phasing in indigenous

knowledge into the curriculum and relevant accreditation framework The DST

enables socio-economic development embedding the science and technology

strategy within a larger drive towards achieving a national system of innovation as

specified in the White Paper on Science and Technology (Department of Science

and Technology 200528)

In 2002 Parliament approved the National Research and Development Strategy At

the time the national research and development expenditure was approximately 0

76 per cent of GDP Approximately half of the investment comes from public funds

(Department of Science and Technology 200528)This initiative might assist in

addressing local problems effectively and bring solutions to current issues such as

the HIV and AIDS pandemic as well as alleviate poverty

In chapter three various governmental departments have taken indigenous

knowledge as their focus area of development This section presents the importance

of governance and administration The DST has taken the role to bring together the

various departments to ensure cohesion in terms of indigenous knowledge systems

The DST provides a guideline to ensure that sustainable development of indigenous

73

knowledge is achieved The legislative framework was developed by the DST as the

follows

The National Office on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (NOIKS) as formed

under the DST

The advisory committee on indigenous knowledge systems was formed to

advise the ministers

The DST administers the legislation of protecting indigenous knowledge

systems through the sui generis intellectual property rights

Chapter four of the indigenous knowledge policy describes the institutional

framework and that it was established to manage the handling of indigenous

knowledge in various government departments Today many countries are faced

with the challenge of protecting their indigenous knowledge Institutions make the

rules whereas individuals and organisations follow the rules These institutions play

a significant role in society by shaping behaviours and providing information

Chapter four of the policy document describes the institutional framework of the

NOIKS its functions and executions its advisory committee mandate as well as the

National Council on Innovation and the Capacitate Companies and Intellectual

Property Registration Office (CIPRO) in administering the registration of indigenous

knowledge by its holders (Department of Science and Technology 200528)

Chapter five explains that a lack of funding prevents indigenous knowledge from

growing flourishing and developing It is therefore crucial for the policy to propose an

indigenous knowledge system fund National Research Funds (NRF) acknowledges

74

the importance of indigenous knowledge by providing funds for projects and

bursaries for indigenous knowledge These projects help local communities to

organise themselves and participate in the implementation and evaluation of the

project

Government along with its agencies are expected to be the primary source of

funding for indigenous knowledge systems in the developing and reinforcement of

these systems In addition funding is expected to come from the private sector and

international structures According to this chapter the objectives of funding

indigenous knowledge are

To assist in supporting institutions that are involved in helping indigenous

communities in terms of their practises innovations biological resources and

technologies

Grants and incentives should be given to small industries and agricultural

industries that cater for rural areas in particular

Fund innovative programmes and programmes that provide opportunities to

local communities

Give funding to institutions that implement initiatives for developing indigenous

knowledge centres studies and laboratories

Provide funding for local people who are in the small markets small farmers

and using different markets to promote indigenous products and skills

In chapter six the DST is responsible for coordinating national indigenous

knowledge policies from various governmental departments South Africa seeks to

75

enhance socio-economic development by aligning its policy and legislative

framework with international and national imperatives Monngakgotla (2007) argued

that some developing countries still follow intellectual property laws established by

their former colonial rulers South Africa however has signed a TRIP agreement in

terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge through intellectual property rights

As a result some developing countries face challenges such as a lack of

understanding intellectual property rights while some developed mechanisms do no

function In terms of the protection of indigenous knowledge South Africa is currently

using the system of intellectual property rights which includes trademarks patents

neighbouring rights copyrights designs integrated circuits plant bleeder rights and

geographical indications The DST is focusing deeper on the protection of

indigenous knowledge making sure that indigenous knowledge is economically and

socially achieved

While granting ownership and benefits by means of intellectual property rights is

important there is a time limit to ownership

Some countries such as India have developed a database as a protection strategy

for indigenous medicine Although outsiders exploited this it placed indigenous

knowledge in the public domain This prevented outsiders from patenting Indiarsquos

indigenous knowledge The database supports managing information on indigenous

knowledge It is crucial for South Africa to develop a better mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge for the coming generation and for it to be accessible by local

communities

76

Chapter seven describes education and training in terms of indigenous knowledge

systems and how these play an effective role to ensure that indigenous knowledge

holders are able to make decisions plan and manage indigenous knowledge

systems (Department of Science and Technology 200530)

The development of human resource capabilities particularly in rural areas will

serve as a tool for innovative ideas for commercialising indigenous knowledge

systems In this regard it is necessary for the indigenous knowledge policy to

promote the accreditation of indigenous knowledge holders ldquoThe DST will need to

develop partnerships with the Department of Education and Labour in order to

provide indigenous knowledge holders and practitioners with education and training

for the development of human resource capacityrdquo (Department of Science and

Technology 200530)

In chapter eight of the indigenous policy the importance of libraries as an effective

mechanism for preserving documenting and using indigenous knowledge systems

practices and resources is explained Libraries play a crucial role in indigenous

knowledge by ensuring that indigenous knowledge systems are reached retrieved

and protected This chapter presents various mechanisms that can be applied to

conduct and develop indigenous knowledge

However databases museums oral forms of indigenous knowledge indigenous

knowledge laboratories and indigenous knowledge centres are regarded as available

regulating mechanisms for indigenous knowledge systems Chapter three of this

77

study draws the attention to why the library is the best mechanism for preserving

indigenous knowledge Chapter eight presents three guidelines for a new library

service model highlighted in the indigenous knowledge policy document (Department

of Science and Technology 200533)

Libraries are required to provide access to indigenous and local community

information based on their identified needs Ultimately the model establishes

community participation in empowering the community through preservation

However many communities have different traditional knowledge therefore

libraries should cater for their needs according to their environment

Libraries are required to give indigenous communities the opportunity to record

and share their history practices culture and languages with both indigenous

and non-indigenous people Indigenous knowledge is orally passed from one

person to another through storey telling songs rituals and even law

Libraries must apply the use of technology to support the development of

indigenous knowledge in local communities Libraries can assist with recording

using technology instruments such as video recording and others

At present indigenous knowledge in South Africa faces several challenges including

abuse by foreign companies pharmaceutical industries and misrepresentation from

the past The next chapter will focus more on this

It will be problematic for indigenous knowledge to be stored in libraries while its

ownership does not belong to the practitioners and indigenous knowledge owners

78

Intellectual property right is adequate to protect indigenous knowledge and to ensure

that it is successfully preserved

Government does not have sufficient time to take indigenous knowledge to local

communities because of the challenges indigenous knowledge faces The current

policies seem inadequate to support the preservation of indigenous knowledge and

there are very few systematic ways to preserve indigenous knowledge systems

Unfortunately too much attention is given to addressing intellectual property rights

while documentation and storage of indigenous knowledge is lacking Effective

policies are needed to address the needs of indigenous people in order to sustain

their livelihoods If government wants to manage and overcome the fight against

indigenous knowledge challenges libraries and information centres would be ideal

The next logic step for government is to focus on the preservation of indigenous

knowledge and implement the new service model it suggested in chapter eight of the

policy document Domfeh (2007) argues it is important to note that countries must

legitimatise and validate indigenous knowledge systems on their own terms

recognise the preservation of indigenous knowledge systems in the development of

rural communities and harness skills and cultures for the good of all Not much effort

has been put in encouraging the right mechanisms to support the preservation of

indigenous knowledge

79

54 Conclusion

After giving a description about the South African policy it was found that

government departments have taken on a bigger role in developing indigenous

knowledge policy for the purposes of economic growth and social development The

implementation of library service models is important for the preservation of

indigenous knowledge which will allow communities to manage their own knowledge

in an economical and sustainable manner Policies should allow indigenous

communities to participate in the preservation and protection of their knowledge

collectively

80

CHAPTER 5

MEDIUMS OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE PRESERVATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

51 Introduction

Indigenous knowledge should be preserved in modern settings to prevent it from

getting lost to future generations Although it is important to preserve indigenous

knowledge for future generations and to keep it alive to prosper in the long run it is

also vital for the older generation to inspire the young with their indigenous practices

(Mpofu amp Miruka 200990)

The Concise Oxford Dictionary (2002923) outline the term preserve as lsquoto keep

alive to keep safe from harm or injuryrsquo Preserving indigenous knowledge through

specific methods will help communities to continue their culture and traditions by

keeping their knowledge alive History has it that survival of civilizations is based on

passing on knowledge and skills which enable the continuity of the legacy (Mpofu amp

Miruka 200990)

It is argued that an accurate and proper channel of preservation of indigenous

knowledge could help both indigenous and non-indigenous people to enter into

contracts and agreements that will strengthen their ability for community

development and sustainable livelihood (Nakata amp Langton 2005188)

81

This chapter explores the various methods of preservation of indigenous knowledge

systems in South Africa Indigenous knowledge could be preserved in museums

libraries laboratories and cultural centre Knowledge centres can also be established

and developed to preserve indigenous knowledge

52 Indigenous knowledge centres

A general indigenous knowledge centre is found at the Council for Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR) The CSIR which is located in Pretoria is a leading

national research centre in South Africa It was formed by an act of Parliament in

1945 and works closely with government departments research institutes and

universities The CSIR concentrates on the innovation of products through which

new research areas that are suitable to the knowledge economy are discovered

The indigenous knowledge centre at the CSIR focuses on the transformation of

South African traditional medicines into processed and scientifically validated herbal

medicines Traditional healers currently provide the CSIR scientists with indigenous

knowledge to fuel their research which ultimately allows the filing of patent

applications and ensures that indigenous people are not exploited (Council for

Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

CSIR archives materials for South Africarsquo edible indigenous plants which are health

benefiting and conducted through literature survey (Dlamini et al 20105)

82

The overall objective of the centre is to ensure the development of a specialised

database to capture and safeguard indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants

remedies In addition to the databases laboratories are also used to safeguard

materials This ensures that materials in digital formats remain active Technology

plays a significant role in facilitating the collection and capturing of the indigenous

knowledge information (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

Communication 2007)

The South African indigenous knowledge policy proposed activities which indigenous

knowledge centres should follow to include

Indigenous knowledge centres such as the one at CSIR need to collect

document and distribute information on various components of indigenous

knowledge such as indigenous knowledge in agriculture health the environment

and so forth

Indigenous knowledge centres should develop cost-effective and reliable

methodologies for recording indigenous knowledge The knowledge is cheap

and readily available especially for the poorest of the poor

Indigenous knowledge centres should manage and organise interdisciplinary

research on indigenous knowledge systems All stakeholders including

knowledge holders deserve to get education and training about any emergence

on indigenous knowledge systems

Both regionally and nationally established indigenous knowledge system centres

should be promoted

83

Together they should help in the formulation of policies and design of technical

assistance programmes based on indigenous knowledge

53 Museums

Our nationrsquos heritage defines who we are and this starts from the spoken language

culture beliefs and music Indigenous knowledge is South Africarsquos most valuable

resource for its culture and heritage According to the South African indigenous

knowledge policy there are almost 400 museums in South Africa that receives public

money South African museums under the apartheid regime focused on the heritage

of the white ruling classes such as the Voortrekker Monument and the Castle of

Good Hope in Cape Town (Edwards et al 2006 South African History Online

2012)

The role of these museums is to encourage and foster public awareness of

indigenous knowledge systems Binneman (19991) state that 40 flat stone slabs

with San paintings were found in the Southern and Eastern Cape coast and in the

mountains The stones were referred to as cover stones for burial of the San people

It was indicated that the stones which were discovered in 1970 were recovered with

human bones which were covered with large quantities of leaves of a medicinal

plant called boophone (ldquogifbolrdquo) that helped to preserve the skin tissue after burial

(Binneman 19991) After consulting the local communities and obtaining their

consent the remains were transported to the Albany Museum (Binneman 19991)

84

In the Natal Drakensberg Park 500 San rock paintings are open for viewing by the

public Today the San people are still attached to the rocks they honour them as

their only link and cultural identity from the past It is therefore important that the San

peoplersquos cultural symbols are preserved in the museum while they are also

accessible to the public

However it would be unfair to the San people if they did not receive any benefit from

the tourism sector for their contribution to the industry

Unfortunately most museums do not preserve indigenous material that include

rituals songs and dances but are rather in favour of object-centred collections

Since museums are vital sources of history exhibitions in museums can be an

alternative way of preserving such non-object centred cultural legacies and

protecting indigenous resources for the coming generations

In the past the practices and customs of indigenous people were largely overlooked

However today it is receiving increasingly more recognition In view of the fact that

every cultural group values its own unique culture and customs it is important for

museums not to portray any of them negatively Unfortunately this has happened in

the past due to ignorance and insensitivity A case in point is Saartjie Baartman a

Khoisan woman who was negatively portrayed by museums in Europe (South

African History Online 20111) Saartjie Baartman who was born in 1789 worked as

a slave for a shiprsquos doctor called William Dunlop who travelled with her to England

85

According to South African History Online (20111) Saartjie had unusually large

buttocks which were a strange sight for Europeans Dunlop put her on display

throughout Europe as an example of a freak to prove that black people were both

inferior and different When she died in 1816 the Musee de lHomme in Paris

displayed some of her remains until as late as 1985 Eventually on 3 May 2002 at a

ceremony attended by many representatives of the Khoikhoi people Saartjie

Baartman was welcomed back to South Africa where she was given a proper burial

Her final resting place is in the Eastern Cape where she was born (South African

History Online 20111)

Some scholars like Edwards et al (2006) have opined that postmodernist politics

and post-colonialism are beginning to change traditional ways of conservation at

Western museums Today indigenous people are seen visiting museums to study

collections to gained knowledge about lost practices Although the practices of South

Africarsquos indigenous people were largely overlooked in the past museums now offer a

new perspective on the countryrsquos indigenous people (South African History Online

20111)

54 Laboratories

Laboratories serve as places for experiments and research work They can exist in

various forms medical labs media labs public health labs computer labs and many

more They provide suitable working conditions and advanced equipment for

researchers In the new democratic South Africa laboratories have transformed in

line with the countryrsquos socio-economic development

86

The National Research Fund (NRF) together with the Department of Science and

Technology initiated the South Africa National Research Equipment Programme In

2010 the Minister of Science and Technology made a budget allocation to the NRF

of R250 million for the year 2010 to 2011 The funds were allocated specifically for

the National Research Equipment Programme (R50 million) human resource

development initiatives (R100 million) and for the provision of broadband connectivity

to rural universities under the South African National Research Network (R55

million) A sum of R50 million was made available to the NRF for the procurement of

research equipment (Cherry 20101)

The CSIR is the one of South Africarsquos leading research organisation that produces

innovative products through research The CSIR has among other projects been

involved in innovative research to validate anti-malaria compounds derived from

indigenous plants (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

Traditional healers have provided scientists at the CSIR with indigenous knowledge

that has stimulated research and has lead to the discovery and development of new

herbal remedies The development of mosquito-repellent candles by the CSIR in

collaboration with traditional healers is an example of this cooperation The candles

were developedby using essential oil extracted from an indigenous plant

Lippiajavanica (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication

2007)

The CSIR has also hosted an informative seminar to acknowledge with the

custodians of indigenous knowledge and other stakeholders the role and value of

indigenous knowledge to science One of the main objectives was to work together

87

towards a common goal to provide social and economic benefit to South Africa

(Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Communication 2007)

55 Libraries

Because most libraries in South Africa stock mostly Western material traditional

cultural expressions of indigenous people are less prominent Libraries have

generally not given adequate attention to the local communities in preserving

indigenous knowledge It is very important for libraries and information professionals

to consider the provision of resources and expertise in terms of collection

organisation storage and retrieval of indigenous knowledge (Stevens 200829)

Indigenous knowledge campaigners and indigenous knowledge movements have

positively contributed to multilateral agreements across the globe such as Agenda 21

and many more Agenda 21 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed

that international agreements national laws and policies were important frameworks

and tools that libraries should be equipped with in order to deliver on documentation

of indigenous knowledge (Sithole 2007118)

Sithole (2007118) states that the process of documenting can be laborious costly

and time consuming as well as disappointing at times However it is an important

process in the preservation of indigenous knowledge because the world needs

different kinds of knowledge systems and a diversity of species

The University of Limpopo in collaboration with the Department of Science and

Technology the North-West University and the University and Vha-Venda have

established a four-year Bachelor Degree in Indigenous Knowledge Systems which

88

commenced in 2011 The degree teaches learners to appreciate and understand the

foundation of indigenous knowledge systems

According to the magazine Simply Green (2010) the Bachelor of Indigenous

Knowledge Systems is a degree that streamlines all aspects of local knowledge and

teaches them as a consolidated curriculum It allows students to study indigenous

knowledge as local ways of knowing and innovating and to specialise in specific

areas of indigenous knowledge like health agriculture arts and culture (including

languages) science and technology and their management (Simply Green

magazine 2010)

Indigenous knowledge stored in libraries can be easily accessed by local

communities free of charge The International Federation of Library Associations

(IFLA) (20101) states that humans have fundamental rights to access and express

knowledge To ensure the continued preservation of knowledge IFLA recommends

libraries and archives to do the following

It is important for libraries to implement programmes to collect preserve and

disseminates indigenous knowledge resources

Libraries should promote information resources that will support the research

and learning of indigenous knowledge which is important for modern society

The knowledge holder particularly the elders and communities should be

involved in the production of resources and the teaching of children to be able to

understand traditional knowledge in its historical context associated with the

indigenous knowledge system

89

Libraries should promote the value and importance of indigenous knowledge to

indigenous people as well as and the non-indigenous people

56 Knowledge management model

When determining the preservation of indigenous knowledge of a community it is

important involve the communities in the formation and diffusion of their knowledge

Projects to preserve indigenous knowledge communities should be driven by

indigenous communities and serve as an immediate benefit to the communities

(Stevens 200829) There is a need for indigenous knowledge systems to be

preserved without alienating indigenous people from their knowledge However if

indigenous knowledge is kept in database without being renewed it may become

static and redundant

The SECI model provides a better way to codify indigenous knowledge systems

store it in the databases and also allow the collector to renew the knowledge by

going back to the local communities to promote its preservation through technology

music dances artefacts and storytelling (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007) Preserving

indigenous knowledge through artefacts means that it is unlikely for the knowledge to

be static and redundant Therefore it will remain within the community they have a

good opportunity to refine it and renew it

Storytelling is a foundation of memory and learning (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Storytelling is one of the important sites of the explication of indigenous knowledge

systems they are a vehicle for transmitting indigenous knowledge to be resuscitated

90

in schools and in the community so that the future generation are not disadvantaged

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Knowledge management is defined as a process of creating organising capturing

retrieving distributing storing and coordinating experiences and practices of

individuals within a community and making knowledge available to everyone in the

community to improve the communityrsquo performance Knowledge creation is seen the

first step in the knowledge management process Knowledge management models

are usually adapted by organisations and business for various purposes and can

also be adapted in local communities (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

Many libraries are challenged with a lack of proper management Although the

Socialisation Externalisation Internalisation Combination (SECI) model supports

libraries in the preservation of indigenous knowledge country like South Africa

needs to adopt foreign systems that will be suitable for local conditions South Africa

is seen as a country with diverse indigenous communities with strong cultural

collectiveness that facilitates the strong personal tie among the South Africans In

this regard knowledge creation can be strengthened by different culture each culture

will have various ways to create and support a knowledge creation processes that

comes from their cultural inheritance and indigenous knowledge practices (Ngulube

amp Lwoga 2007) Therefore for South Africa to advance in the knowledge economy it

should learn to adapt world best practices regarding knowledge management to the

indigenous practices that will be effective in its culture

91

Ngulube amp Lwoga (2007120) indicate that knowledge management is associated

with formal organisations such as universities schools banks and law firms which

have structure missions and goals to which members of the organisation subscribe

Nonaka established the SECI model in 1991 He managed to think out of the box to

create vibrant processes for the creation of knowledge and formulated a new product

development processes (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007)

It is important that the transfer of knowledge management is done with care because

the tacit foundation might differ from culture and culture In South Africa indigenous

knowledge relies heavily on the communication of tacit knowledge The model

promotes tacit understanding and social interaction which are embedded in cultural

values of collectivism It also involves interaction between the tacit and the explicit

knowledge which is known as the knowledge creation spiral in the SECI model The

process entails four different modes of conversion

Figure 41 explains the first mode of dimension which is socialisation that deals with

converting tacit to explicit knowledge The process takes place where people have to

show the desire for sharing experiences and beliefs and by spending time together

In terms of the library staff members need to work together with the indigenous

knowledge holder and establish a strong feeling through the collaborative work

experiences and socialisation processes which will allow for participation and

teamwork (Hong 2010)

92

Fig 51 Diagrammatic representation of the socialisation externalisation and

internalisation combination model (Source Adachi 2010)

The second mode of dimension called externalisation deals with the conversion of

tacit knowledge to an explicit form Hong (20108) states that members of an

organisation and community can benefit from explanatory power of metaphors and

other symbolic devices to articulate their personal thoughts and implicit

understanding

The third process called the combination process is the type where members

combine and process different explicit knowledge They are required to develop

strong motivation for speaking and sharing what they know with others (Hong 2010)

Socialisation

Empathising

Externalisation

Articulating

Embodying

Internalisation

Connecting

Combination

Tacit knowledge

Explicit

knowledge

Tacit

knowledge

Explicit knowledge

Tacit knowledge

93

If member donrsquot share the source of knowledge because of personal gains such

knowledge will disappear and there will be destruction of social harmony in the

community Knowledge should belong to the community as a whole in a sense of

common fate and collective identity for the influence of doing things collectively

creates a sharing atmosphere

Hong (2010) indicates Fig 41 as the last process of internalisation deals with the

embodying of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge which entails a process of

self-reflexivity as a result of members allowing a new understanding to emerge

through a continuous evaluation and examination of their own fundamental

assumptions and current ways of doings thingsrsquo

The knowledge management of assets is guided by the Ba lsquoBarsquo is a Japanese word

which means place or platform (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) It was developed

together with the SECI model of knowledge creation Ba creates energy quality and

a place to create and convert tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge along the

knowledge spiral In this process we learn about social networks in knowledge

management showing that social relationships and structures are important in the

knowledge management processes

There are four conversion processes for developing knowledge that take place in Ba

and they correspond with the SECI model from Nonaka Toyama and Konno in 2000

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) They are

94

Originating Ba a place where individuals are able to share their experiences

beliefs attitudes feelings mental models between themselves and others It is

particularly described as a centre where you learn and understand new things

especially tacit knowledge which is difficult to share Most importantly trust is

built (socialisation)

Dialoguing Ba a space where individualsrsquo mental models and skills are shared

converted into common terms and articulated as concepts through images

symbols and language A pace where tacit knowledge is made explicit

(Externalisation)

Systematising Ba a virtual space that facilitates the recombination of existing

knowledge and it is a stage where a state of art is created that is essential for

growth and development

Exercising Ba a space where explicit knowledge is converted into tacit

knowledge

According to Ngulube and Lwoga (2007120) the knowledge assets determine the

inputs and the outputs of the knowledge-creating process Nonaka and his

colleagues also state that an organisation has to map its stock of knowledge assets

to manage knowledge creation and exploitation in a more significant manner

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) If the knowledge holders donrsquot share their source of

knowledge this will have a negative effect on the development of knowledge and a

negative effect on the social cohesion of the communities

Mapping may be linked with the knowledge management principles there are ten

principles which were developed by Davernport (1998) According to Ngulube amp

95

Lwoga (2007120) it is essential for organisations to decide upon knowledge

management principles that will assist in leading their creation of knowledge The

principles assist in guiding the implementation of knowledge management processes

and can help the communities create and institutionalise a knowledge culture that is

based on values and practices (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Out of ten principles only four are selected because they are relevant to this chapter

The principles are (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

Knowledge management is expensive knowledge is an asset but effective

management requires investment of other assets

Effective management of knowledge requires hybrid solutions of people and

technology in complementary ways

Knowledge management requires knowledge managers

It is obvious that local communities would like to manage and preserve their

knowledge but must first determine the knowledge management principles which

will guide them in the implementation of the knowledge management processes

(Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007123) The South African government through the

Department of Science and Technology has started taking the initiative in

formulating policies on the various indigenous knowledge aspects based on

knowledge management principles (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120)

96

57 Conclusion

This chapter identified some of the mechanisms that are currently employed in South

Africa for the preservation of indigenous knowledge Knowledge management

provide strategies to get the right knowledge to the right people at the right time and

in the right format (Ngulube amp Lwoga 2007120) Increasing knowledge in libraries

and other institutions could boost research and development It is vital that

government policies are geared towards supporting institutions that serve local

needs Library services are essential since they provide documented and recorded

access to the information Lastly this chapter presented a model which libraries and

other resource centre can use in to collect and manage knowledge by partnering

with communities

The next chapter gives an insight to the challenges of the preservation of indigenous

knowledge system in South Africa

97

CHAPTER 6

CHALLENGES OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM PRESERVATION IN

SOUTH AFRICA

61 Introduction

The creation of knowledge in these recent years is complex therefore sharing

requires diverse tools for translation and a two way communications and interaction

(Raphesu 20084) The possible extinction of indigenous knowledge is the fact that

concentration has been to its direct value while ignoring the non cash knowledge

Most attempts have been made to research medicinal plants that will lead to the

discovery of medicine that can be used by pharmaceutical companies and ignoring

the area such as cultural dances rituals languages and many more (Raphesu

20084)

This chapter we learn that the challenges faced in the management and

preservation of indigenous knowledge can cause problems in our societies but we

can also learn from these challenges These challenges can guide us in a right path

to achieve sustainable development As mentioned earlier much indigenous

knowledge is not put in writing and is transferred orally from one generation to the

next and is therefore subject to inaccuracy Therefore South Africa faces several

challenges regarding the management and preservation of indigenous knowledge

Addressing these challenges could help build partnership for joint problem solution

and appreciation of indigenous knowledge in all development initiatives

98

62 Challenges of management and preservation

621 Lack of taxonomists

Monitoring and identification of biological diversity is safeguarding life in our planet

Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living organisms measured at all level of

organisation from genetic through species to higher taxonomic tiers including the

variety of habitats and ecosystems (Fabbro 2000) Biodiversity is categorised in four

tiers such as genetic diversity species richness landscape diversity and ecosystem

diversity The biggest challenge is that there is a huge number of living species are

as yet undescribed On the other hand humans with their cultural diversity are seen

as an integral component of ecosystems (Fabbro 2000)

There is the lack of professionals such as taxonomists to identify and classify new

and emerging species to science (Raphesu 20085) Without proper identification

classification and differentiation it would be difficult for indigenous knowledge to be

preserved Taxonomists can classify indigenous species by giving them scientific

names (Oluwayomi 199225) Most pharmaceutical industries in South Africa have

always experienced a lack of good taxonomists to help classify indigenous species

that could contribute to the field of innovative medicine (Raphesu 20085)

Indonesia has gone as far as developing studies in taxonomy while Australia has

encouraged the development of taxonomists by establishing permanent taxonomy

positionsIn India indigenous taxonomic knowledge is remarkable in the sense that it

can identify 350 plants and species Similarly in the Philippines more than 1000

botanical terms are in use (Nakashima amp Roue 2002314) Chabalala (20086)

99

stated that South Africa has taken a route to introducing a degree in indigenous

knowledge This initiative was taken by the Department of Science and Technology

and the South African Qualification Authority for students to gain more knowledge

(Raphesu 20085)

622 Fast-growing socio-economic conditions

Many South Africans in rural communities still depend on indigenous knowledge for

agriculture and health for example indigenous knowledge in terms of healing the

usage of Rooibos tea is to ease digestion (Raphesu 20083)

The fast growth of the natural environments coupled with fast-growing socio-

economic conditions (urbanisation globalisation) has resulted in the disappearance

of indigenous knowledge (Raphesu 20085) Globalisation is a popular term that

explains the movement of people and how networks bring people closer

Globalisation has negative and positive effects some people criticise its contribution

in the exploitation of the poor as a threat to other peoplersquos culture and traditions This

has made it difficult for the other generations to pass local knowledge to the younger

generation As indicated by Raphesu (20085) the poor coordination of South

African experts in indigenous knowledge has led to poor documentation of unique

indigenous knowledge Among others the lack of easy access to technology has

made documentation difficult According to Raphesu (20086) in 2001 it was

reported only about 415 million Africans have Internet access

100

623 Lack of proper coordination of research activities

The lack of coordination of research activities in indigenous knowledge makes it

difficult for institutions to cope with the demands of preservation of indigenous

knowledge (Raphesu 20086) A good coordination framework can help different

parties share practices and lessons on indigenous knowledge and monitor

indigenous knowledge In some countries documentation of indigenous knowledge

is not coordinated particularly in libraries non-government organisation and

information centres

National policies could help to ensure that related institutions are involved in the

documentation of indigenous knowledge The National Indigenous Knowledge

Systems Office (NIKSO) in South Africa plays a role in the protection of indigenous

knowledge

624 Exploitative nature of multinational companies and selfishness of

individuals

Some companies make millions through indigenous knowledge but do not share the

profits with the knowledge holders Pharmaceutical companies with huge markets in

particular send freelancers to accumulate indigenous knowledge for their products

for their own economic benefit only Before the Intellectual Property Right Bill was

tabled in parliament the protection of indigenous knowledge was carried out on an

individual basis The individualistic system makes effective preservation and

documentation difficult Because of selfish interests some indigenous holders do not

want to share their knowledge with communities thus making it difficult for

knowledge to be shared (Oluwayomi 199225)

101

63 Conclusion

Despite the need for preserving indigenous knowledge at national and local levels

the lack of qualified taxonomists fast-growing socio-economic conditions the lack of

proper coordination of research activities and the exploitative nature of multinationals

and the selfish attitude of individuals were identified as some of the challenges

facing indigenous knowledge preservation South Africa

Nowadays there are still many unresolved issues that slow down the promotion of

indigenous knowledge Although there are many things that people can do to

promote indigenous knowledge while government and aid agencies have the

potential to speed up the process through providing documentation producing

information results and access to space such as libraries database and so much

more

The next chapter focuses on the general conclusion and recommendations of the

study

102

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

71 Introduction

This chapter presents a conclusion of the study and makes recommendations to

different stakeholders in respect of indigenous knowledge preservation as well as

for future research on the subject

72 Conclusion

The main aim of the study was to explore the concept of indigenous knowledge

preservation in South Africa The rationale of this discussion was to unpack both the

theoretical and conceptual aspects of indigenous knowledge preservation available

in South Africa From a literature perspective the study discussed the importance of

preservation of indigenous knowledge as a tool for development The study main

findings are

The study established that there are various forms of indigenous knowledge in

different communities all over South Africa All communities have rich cultural and

traditional histories In South Africa indigenous knowledge is found in several

fields ndash health agriculture culture and many more which contribute to the socio-

economic development of the country One of the key findings was that because

the preservation of indigenous knowledge is not fully addressed access to this

103

knowledge is somehow limited Some of the challenges are due to the fast

growth of socio-economic conditions the lack of coordination of research

activities etc

In addition although no a great deal of indigenous knowledge is readily available

to the public only the educated know about its existence The study libraries

museums laboratories and information centres are regarded as possible

mediums of indigenous knowledge preservation in South Africa At present

libraries and information services in South Africa are built on a Western model

thus their services currently only caters for the elite

Although there are many study bursaries available provided by the National

Research Foundation very few students are aware of their existence In addition

only a handful of these students are interested in picking up such opportunities

Besides only a few universities have taken the initiative of providing indigenous

knowledge studies

Lastly the indigenous knowledge policy and framework in South Africa puts more

attention on protection than on preservation Although intellectual property right is

crucial it does not generate enough support for indigenous knowledge as there is

a time limit attached to it In South Africa indigenous knowledge policy which

was established by several government departments lacks collaborations In

addition policy makers do not explain the policy message In order to meet the

needs of the marginalised and non-marginalised communities it is vital for

104

policies to address the challenges of indigenous knowledge preservation and

initiate appropriate mechanisms for implementation

72 Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study and literature on indigenous knowledge this

study makes the following recommendations

Librarians researchers and information professionals should create social

interactions by conducting local indigenous knowledge surveys This will ensure

that indigenous knowledge is documented while passed on from generation to

generation

Communityndashbased resource centres such as libraries need to enhance the flow

of indigenous knowledge by strengthening the capacities of local authorities such

as community workers teachers and nurses as mediators to support to manage

and share their indigenous knowledge

To enhance access to indigenous knowledge museums libraries laboratories

and information centres should ensure that indigenous knowledge information

are properly indexed and abstracted for easy access by local communities All

bibliographic systems on indigenous knowledge should be compiled and

databases should be created to ensure successful preservation which will

achieve sustainable development

105

All indigenous knowledge preservation centres should ensure that they have

indigenous knowledge collection development policies Information needs to be

obtained by using the SCEI model This will guide libraries and other information

centres in the collection transfer of knowledge especially rural communities in

the preservation of indigenous knowledge

Policymakers should construct a coherent policy framework on the preservation

and management of indigenous knowledge which will engage all the indigenous

knowledge holders and other stakeholders by not only focussing on engagement

of traditional healers but should include farmers and others

There is a need for numerous government departments such as the DST DAC

and others to work together and focus on preserving indigenous knowledge in

facilities such as libraries that are close to rural communities They should not

only focus on the promotion of indigenous knowledge through Intellectual

Property but should ensure that they provide bursaries for studies in taxonomy in

order for various indigenous species to be preserved

It is important that supportive efforts at national regional and international levels

are spear headed by NIKSO for indigenous knowledge to be stored and

documented at local communities However if it is costly therefore stakeholder

such as development agencies government and businesses should contribute

the resources and time to make such initiative fruitful

106

Although the study cannot be said to be exhaustive because of its desktop nature it

was found to be suitable for the study to use desktop research due to limited time

and insufficient funds In the regard secondary data is not collected in the

geographic area study wanted the researcher works with data that exist not what the

researcher wish would have been collected For further research field data would

have give more to support the findings in literature the study has given an overview

of indigenous knowledge in South Africa with particular emphasis on its preservation

and its importance as a development tool

107

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