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MEMORY Encoding – changes sensory input into a form or code to be processed by the memory system

Capacity – the amount of information that can be stored in memory at any given time

Duration – the length of time that information can be kept in memory

Sensory Memory – holds

information in an

unprocessed form for

fractions of a second after

the physical stimulus is no

longer present

Short Term Memory – a

limited capacity system for

storing information for short

periods

Long Term Memory – an

unlimited system for

storing information for long

periods of time

Encoding Information is encoded

visually, echoically (sounds)

and haptic (touch)

Acoustically encoded

(Baddeley)

Semantically encoded

(Baddeley)

Capacity Up to 9 items 5 to 9 items (Jacobs) Unlimited capacity

Duration Lasts about 1-2 seconds 18-30 seconds Unlimited (Bahrick et al)

Jacobs – participants read lists of words that they had to recall immediately after presentation. Jacob

gradually increased the length of these lists by one digit or umber until the participant could no longer

recall the list in serial recall. He found that on average, participants could recall 9 numbers or 7 letters.

Therefore, STM has a capacity of between 5 and 9 items

Baddeley – participant were given four sets of words to recall in order. For the STM task they had to

recall them immediately and for the LTM task, they were recalled after a larger time interval. He found

that in the STM participants made more mistakes on words that sounded alike so STM information is

encoded acoustically. In the LTM procedure, participants confused words of similar meaning, showing

information is encoded semantically

Peterson and Peterson – trigrams presented of three letters. They were recalled after a certain time

period whilst counting backwards, from a certain number, in threes. Recall falls away very quickly over

the first 20 seconds. They concluded that the duration of STM is less than 18 seconds

Trigrams are artificial things to remember and therefore may not be a good way of testing how

we remember things in everyday life

It’s possible that trigrams presented in earlier trials may have caused confusion (proactive

interference) so later trigrams are incorrectly recalled

It is possible that the loss of information was to do with capacity rather than duration. The

subsequent counting task might have displaced the trigram

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Bahrick et al – investigators tracked down392 previous graduates from a high school. They were shown

photographs from their yearbook. For each photo, participants were given a selection of names and told

to select the name that matched the person in the photograph (recognition group). Another group were

simply told to name the people without the list of names (recall group). He found that the longer the time

after graduation, the worse the identification of the photographs were. After 25 years, participants in the

name selecting condition were 80% accurate and after 47 years, were 60% accurate. However, the

people identified without name cues were less successful, with less than 20% correct recall after 47 years

Unlike other memory tests, meaningful stimulus material was used and people were tested from

memories of their own lives

It is unclear whether the drop-off in accuracy after 47 years reflects the limits of duration or

more general decline with age

The first model of memory was the Multi-store model, composed by Atkinson-Shiffrin

Describes memory as consisting of three unitary memory stores and how information is passed

from store to store

The MSM displays a stimulus input that enters the Sensory Memory store where it is stored from

1-2 seconds with a capacity of 9 items

SM stores iconic, haptic and echoic inputs and the loss of information is usually due to decay

However, when attention is paid to the stimulus, the memory is then stored in the Short Term

Memory store where it remains for 30 seconds and 5-9 items can be stored

The stimulus is stored in acoustic form and loss of items would be due to decay of information or

displacement

When rehearsal of information takes place, the information is then stored in Long Term memory

where it is encoded semantically and has both an unlimited capacity and duration. Any loss of

information would be caused by decay or retrieval failure as the right cues are not present

GOOD BAD

Displays different stores of information

which was justified by investigating Clive

Wearing, a victim of a brain infection, who

had impaired LTM although his STM was

intact

Vague way of explaining the idea of

memory as there would be more complex

aspects and the work of Tulvig shows there

are different forms of LTM, which are not

explained on the MSM

SENSORY MEMORY

visual, auditory, haptic

coding

limited capacity

very brief duration

SHORT TERM STORE

mainly acoustic encoding

limited capacity

brief duration

LONG TERM STORE

mainly semantic coding

unlimited capacity

unlimited duration

Stimulus

input Attention Rehearsal

Rehearsal loop

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There is evidence to suggest the view of

the MSM of various stores is accurate as

the work of Peterson and Peterson

showed that STM is limited in the sense of

rehearsal as information would have either

been displaced or decayed

Offers benefit to research as it influences

important further study, such as the work

of Baddeley who then went on to find the

ways in which memory is encoded in

various stores

A very simplistic representation of how

memory works and ignores factors such as

the nature of the information. Some

information is remembered in detail

without rehearsal, such as an event that is

shocking, emotional, funny etc.

Much f the evidence for the MSM comes

from artificial, laboratory studies which do

not reflect how memory may work in

everyday scenarios, therefore it isn’t very

realistic (eg. Jacobs and Baddeley)

The working model of memory was composed by Baddeley and Hitch

Evidence for the visuo-spatial sketchpad: Baddeley at al – participants were given a simple tracking task

whilst carrying out a simultaneous visual imagery task, which they had great difficulty in carrying out. This

was because the two tasks were competing for the same limited resources of the visuo-spatial sketchpad

Evidence for the phonological loop: Baddeley et al – the researchers gave visual presentations of word

lists for brief exposures and then asked participants to write them down. There was a marked superiority

for the short words, called the ‘word length effect’. They concluded the capacity of the loop is

determined by the length of time it takes to say words rather than by the number of items. This time was

estimated at 1.5-2 seconds

A representation of the various components that make up STM

Information first enters the central executive which is considered to be the most vital component

of the model and this has a limited capacity

In order to overcome this limited capacity, information is passed on to either one of the two

slave systems, depending on the nature of the information. For example, if the information is

auditory, it is passed on to the phonological loop and if it is visual, it’s passed on to the visuo-

spatial sketchpad

Within the phonological loop, there are two stores, the phonological store (a passive store acting

as the inner ear) and the articulary loop which is where information is rehearsed, making it an

active store which acts as the inner voice

Visual information is send to the visuo-spatial sketchpad which acts as the inner eye and like all

other components, has a limited capacity. This is where visual spatial information is stored and

manipulated.

There is a two way flow between the central executive and its two slave systems

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GOOD BAD

Explains individual differences in working

memory, as a person may have one store

that is stronger than the other

Displays the stores as having a limited

capacity which we know is the case as

Baddeley’s investigation concluded that it

takes longer to say long words so things

are often forgotten, showing the

phonological store has a time limited

capacity of what can be said in 1.5-2

seconds

It explains how we are able to perform two

different cognitive tasks simultaneously, as

shown by Baddeley, who then concluded

that this was because there is more than

one store within STM

Does not show how the central executive

works, which is considered to be the most

vital component of the whole model,

making this a major weakness of the

model

The model does not show how information

is drawn from long term memory and how

information is sent back to LTM

It doesn’t explain, or account for, how we

are able to perform certain tasks that are

not deemed possible by the working

memory model, such as doing two

auditory tasks (talking and listening to

music) which are done regularly in

everyday life

EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY Eyewitness testimony is the report of what has happened in a crime or event by someone who has seen

or witnessed it

Bartlett claimed that people do not store an exact replica of events but weave in elements of existing

knowledge/schemas

Leading questions are questions phrased in such a way as to prompt a particular type of answer. For

example, ‘did you see THE broken headlight’ rather than ‘a broken headlight’. The question implies that

there was definitely a broken headlight. Someone may be affected by a leading question if they are

stressed when being interviewed, their age, and other factors

Loftus and Palmer showed participant a video of a car crash. They asked a critical question to the

participants ‘how fast were the cars going when they; Smashed/collided/hit/bumped etc. The verb used

influenced the estimate of speed, ‘smashed’ being the highest. This verb also influenced the likelihood

that people would say that they had seen broken glass. There was no broken glass

Loftus and Zanni showed participants another car crash video. They asked participants one of two

questions ‘did you see THE broken headlight’ and ‘did you see A broken headlight’. Even though there

wasn’t a broken headlight, those in the ‘the’ condition 17% reported seeing a broken headlight, showing

that some people were misled, but most people weren’t (83% of people)

Loftus another car accident video. In this study, misleading information was added during questioning,

involving a non-existent barn. They were then asked ‘how fast was the car going when it passed the BARN

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on the country road?’ 17% of the experimental group reported seeing the barn, although this is only a

minority

Small sample size

However the video is not like a real life experience and therefore lacks ecological validity, the

participants would be paying more attention to the video than a road in a real life situation

Lacks the emotion and other factors linked to a live event

There are no consequences for the participants

The study was based off students and therefore lacks population validity – the findings are not

generalizable to other age groups

There were forced choice answers, no ‘unsure’ answer

Reduced remand characteristics by not telling the participants which question was the critical

question

Factors affecting eyewitness testimony (EWT):

Misleading information/leading questions – could prompt a certain response to a question

depending on the phrasing of the question

Anxiety – anxiety impairs the ability to encode and retrieve information. Yerkes-Dodson law -

When anxiety is either low or high, performance was worse. At medium arousal, optimum

performance. Anxiety is good to an extent

Age – as people get older, their memory gets worse therefore, they cannot recall information

with as much detail. The same applies to young children, they may not understand consequences

Consequences (Foster et al showed that eyewitness testimony was better if they knew that

someone could be convicted)

Loftus – participants sat outside a laboratory and overheard a conversation they though was real. There

were two conditions:

Amiable discussion and a man with greasy hands and a pen came out the lab

Heated argument and a man with a knife covered in blood came out of the lab (creates

anxiety)

Participants were given 50 photos and asked to identify the man. Those who witnessed the man holding

the pen accurately identified the person 49% of the time whereas those who witnessed the man with the

blood stained hands were successful only 33% of the time. Those in the peaceful condition were

significantly more able to do this. Loftus said this was due to ‘weapon focus’ which is where the

participants’ attention was drawn more to the weapon which caused anxiety and fear, so the scene can

be recalled accurately but peripheral details diminish

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Christianson and Hubinette found that in real life situations involving stress, level of recall can be

accurate, detailed and long-lasting. 110 witnesses of a real life robbery were surveyed. Some were

bystanders and some were victims. Victims showed more detailed and accurate recall than the

bystanders as anxiety could have caused a more vivid memory

Age affecting EWT:

Poole and Lindsay – children 3-8 years saw a science demonstration. They were read a story afterwards

containing information about the science demonstration and novel information. When questioned, it was

found they had incorporated the novel information into their memory of the demonstration. When asked

to source monitor, only the older children revised their accounts. Suggests children can be misled by

post-event information

Gordon and Schaaf – found children were more likely to give an inaccurate answer if the question was

more complex

Cohen and Falkner – showed a silent film clip of a kidnapping. After 10 minutes, participants were either

given an accurate or inaccurate written summary. The older adults (average 70 years) were more likely to

be influenced by the incorrect information than the younger adults (average 35 years)

Strategies for memory improvement: Method of Loci

COGNITIVE INTERVIEW Geiselman et al developed the cognitive interview to gain more accurate detail from eyewitnesses. They

developed four principles to enhance accurate recall:

Context reinstatement (CR) Recall the scene, thoughts, feelings, preceding

events, at the time (cue to jog the memory)

Report everything (RI) Report every detail possible even if it seems trivial

Recall in reverse order (RO) Report the episode in several different orders,

moving back and forth in time

Recall from changed perspective (CP) Describe the episode as it would have been seen

from different viewpoints, not just your own

RE and CR are generally most effective

How a standard interview differs:

Witnesses were often interrupted and not allowed to talk freely which broke concentration of

the witnesses and encouraged short answers with less detail

Witnesses were bombarded with a series of brief, direct and close-ended questions aimed to

elicit facts

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Asked lots of questions quickly due to a time limit so witnesses feel stressed/under pressure

therefore not delivering in so much detail

ATTACHMENT Attachment is an emotional, reciprocal bond between an infant and its care giver. This is shown by

distress on separation and pleasure on reunion

We form attachments because:

We are highly dependent after birth

They are not mobile and require a high level of care

Ensure survival by keeping the mother close by to the child

Schaffer and Emerson – ‘Glasgow babies’. Attachment formed at 6-8 months as the infants showed

separation distress at about this time. Fear of strangers followed about a month later. After this, most

babies went on to form multiple attachments with people they saw regularly such as grandparents and

siblings

Klaus and Kennell – the mothers with extended contact with their babies showed more soothing

behaviour, kept a closer proximity and gazed more at their children than the routine group. We can

conclude that mothers form a closer bond with the baby in the sensitive period straight after birth ---

Adapted childcare practice as hospitals now keep mother and child together. There are more men at

births so they develop bonds with each other

Imprinting the young of many animal species would follow the first moving object they encounter, called

imprinting, explored by Lorenz when exploring the behaviour of goslings after hatching. This behaviour

was shown more strongly in a ‘critical period’

The learning theory of attachment says that:

Attachment is a learned behaviour

Attachment is based primarily on the satisfaction of the baby’s primary drive for food, therefore

attachment is with the person who feels it (‘cupboard love’)

Can be learned by operant and classical conditioning

Attachment can be socially learned where the infant observes the behaviour of the caregiver and

imitates it

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING

This is learning by association. The milk is

an UCS that provides a UCR of relief from

hunger and pleasure in the infant when

The infant learn that a consequence of

crying when it is hungry is food and

cuddles

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he/she is fed

This response does not have to be learned

The infant associates the person who

feeds them (neutral stimulus) with food

Soon the person on their own becomes a

conditioned stimulus and the infant shoes

the conditioned response of pleasure and

relied whenever the feeder is around. They

show this in the form of attachment

behaviours

The infant will then repeat this behaviour

since the food and cuddles provide

positive reinforcement

The crying creates discomfort in the

caregiver

The caregiver gains negative

reinforcement (stopping the unpleasant

crying) by providing food and cuddles so

will repeat this behaviour

Schaffer and Emerson found that 39% of infants didn’t form an attachment with the person that carries

out the physical care such as the feeding and the changing. Attachments were more likely with those who

played with them and were more sensitive to the child’s needs

Harlow – conducted research on baby monkeys and found that food is not the main factor in attachment

and that comfort is more important. He found that the baby monkeys spent more time with the cloth

mother with no food than the wire mother with food and ran to the cloth mother when afraid, indicating

it has some sort of attachment with it. May be difficult to generalise to humans

Bowlby’s theory of attachment:

An evolutionary theory

Human babies have an innate tendency to establish a reciprocal bond with their caregiver, to aid

survival

Babies possess innate characteristics that encourages the caregiver to look after them – social

releasers

Monotropy – infants form an attachment to one primary caregiver, usually the biological mother

Attachment takes place during a critical period or not at all, before 3 years of age

As a result of the relationship, the infant develops an internal working model, a schema about

itself and relationships (the way you are treated by the special person affects how you see

yourself)

This schema provides a template for later relationships – continuity hypothesis

Supporting this theory is Harlow’s monkeys and research into the Efe tribe which found that each child

had formed a main attachment with their mother even though various other women within the tribe had

fed the infant

Koluchova goes against this as 7 year old twins were beat and locked in cellars but after being taken to a

foster home, excellent gains were made and the children are cognitively able. Also, according to the

continuity hypothesis and internal working model, people with poor pasts who have made no firm

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attachments will then go on to have poor relationships, low self-esteem problems, which is not always

the case

LEARNING THEORY BOWLBY’S THEORY

We are born as ‘blank slates’ so

attachment is a learned behaviour

Not a time period

Can form any attachment

Reliant on food and food is primary re-

enforcement

Contains social releasers eg. crying

States that attachment is an innate

response

Contains a critical period

Involves monotropy

Depends on responding sensitivity to the

baby’s needs

Contains social releasers eg. crying

Hazan and Shaver support the view of the internal working model. They conducted a questionnaire in the

local North American paper, the Rocky Mountain. They found that there was a strong relationship

between childhood attachment type an adulthood attachment type. Although, some people did change

as they grew older

Mary Ainsworth and Bell studied infants to determine the nature of attachment behaviours and styles of

attachment in 1-2 year olds. Ainsworth developed an experimental procedure in order to observe the

variety of attachment forms exhibited between mothers and infants. The behaviour of the infants was

observed in various circumstances, such as when alone with the mother, and when alone with a stranger.

Ainsworth and Bell suggested that behaviour in the strange situation classification was determined by

behaviour of the primary caregiver (mother)

Behaviour of the different attachment types in the Strange Situation:

Insecure avoidant Secure Insecure resistant

Exploration behaviour –

when mother in room

Explores the room and

toys

Uses the mother as a

safe base to explore the

environment

Infant explores little

Separation anxiety –

mother leaves the

room

No signs of distress Upset and distressed Intense distress

Reunion behaviour –

when mother returns

Shows little interest Happy and comforted Rejects mother when

she returns –

ambivalent behaviour

Stranger anxiety –

alone with stranger

Rejects strangers

attempt at comfort

Avoided when alone,

accepting when the

mother is present

Comfortable with the

stranger and continues

to play normally

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Mothers behaviour

towards infant

May ignore infant and

not sit and play with the

child

Plays with the child May ignore infant

sometimes and play

other times

Internal working model

(Bowlby)

May have low self-

esteem so see

themselves unworthy of

love, independent

Positive view of

themselves and

relationships

Extremely low self-

esteem, difficulty

trusting people and

desperate for love

% of infants in the

study

15 70 15

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

Valuable research tool

Although artificial, it is like a playgroup

situation --> more ecological validity

Good reliability as it achieves consistent

results eg. A study conducted in Germany

by Wartner et al found 78% of children

were classified in the same way at 1 and 6

years

Easily replicable

Re-test reliability, when tested, it was

found that 100% of babies who were

classed as secure at 18 months were still

secure at 6 years of age

The original SS did not inclue the fourth

type of attachment, insecure –

disorganised, which was added as a type D

in 1990. When the mother returns, the

child is confused over whether to

approach or avoid her

Difficult to generalise – was conducted on

100 middle class American families

Puts the infants under distress and

stressful situation, for example, Takahashi

in Japan, SS had to be stopped due to

stress being imposed on infant

Results depend on the part of the world –

in Germany, children are encouraged to be

independent and in Israel, children rarely

see strangers

Temperament hypothesis – relationship between early attachment and later relationships was nothing to

do with type of attachments formed. Kagan believed it was due to the temperament of the child instead

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg – carried out a meta-analysis of studies carried out in 8 different

counties using Ainsworth’s SS to measure in different cultures (within and between). Over 2000 babies

were studied and classified as being attachment type A, B or C. They found that Type B (secure

attachment) was the most common attachment type. The area of lowest proportion of secure infants was

in China. The highest was in GB and Sweden. The intra-cultural variation (within cultures) was nearly 1.5

times the cross-cultural variation. This showed that children within each country or culture are not

brought up in exactly the same way

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Over half of the studies were carried out in the US, 27 of 32 in individualist countries and only 5

in collectivist countries which makes the results less representative

The SS was developed in the US and therefore Goldberg argued that we can only made valid

interpretations of the SS in cross cultural studies if we understand child-rearing in those cultures

Ainsworth:

Mothers who were sensitive to their infants needs were more likely to produce babies who were

securely attached

Mothers less sensitive or responsive to their babies, who ignored them, were more likely to have

insecurely attached infants

De Wolff et al found that there was a weak positive correlation between sensitivity and

attachment – generally more supportive care givers have more strongly attached babies

Factors affecting attachment types:

Maternal sensitivity

Emotional availability of the main caregiver

Infant temperament

A culture is a society or group with its own rules, laws, social norms and customs. An individualist culture

places importance on the individual, independence and personal achievements, eg. The UK, US, Germany

(in Germany there are higher levels of avoidant infants which may reflect the independent culture)

In Japan, children are rarely left alone by their mothers so find the SS very distressing (Takahashi et al has

to stop the SS because it was too distressing for infants) and appear resistant. In Israel, they are very

distressed by seeing a stranger as this is rate – in Israel, many live in a Kibbutz

Disruption is when the bond between the infant and the primary caregiver is disrupted due to separation,

for example if the mother dies

Robertsons’ case study of John – short term effects of separation. John was 17 months old and placed in

a residential nursery whilst his mother went into hospital to have a baby. Many children in this position

show signs of short term disruption, characterised by three stages (PDD):

1. Protest – the child screams, cries and protests angrily when the parent leaves. Try to cling to

the parent and escape others when they try to pick the infant up

2. Despair – the child’s angry protest begins to subside and they appear calmer but still upset.

Refuse others attempts at comfort and seem withdrawn and uninterested in anything

3. Detachment – if the separation continues, the child may begin to engage with other people

again. Likely to reject the caregiver when they return and show signs of anger

Separation from the caregiver can lead to adverse short-term effects

Disruption can also create long-term effects – separation anxiety:

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Clinginess – cling on when parent tries to leave them (clingy in anticipation of separation)

Detachment – detached from caregiver, refusing cuddles/hugs

Demanding – more demanding, eg. Wanting more attention

Bowlby et al – the Sanatorium study – hospitalisation is not a problem if bond disruption is kept to a

minimum. For example, the parent visits the child regularly when they are hospitalised. All children in the

study were under 4 and tit was found that there was little difference in development between them and

their peers

Bowlby said that a warm intimate relationship with the mother was needed for a child to form good

relationships. He proposed that separation from the primary caregiver would result in social, emotional

and behavioural problems. He also claimed that the deprivation of attachment was likely to lead to

juvenile delinquency and could lead to affectionless psychopathy

Bowlby’s juvenile thieves study. Studied 88 children referred to his clinic – 44 thieves and 44 non thieves.

He then evaluated their early life experiences. Bowlby found that 16 of the thieves and 0 of the non-

thieves were categorised as emotional psychopaths. 86% of the affectionless psychopaths experienced

early and prolonged separations from their mothers. This shows a link between early separations and

later social and emotional maladjustment

Evidence is correlational therefore we can only say that separation/deprivation and affectionless

psychopathy are linked, not that one factor caused the other

Study was conducted on boys and is therefore non-generalisable to females so lacks population

validity

The data on separation was retrospective and may not be reliable. Parents may not have

correctly recalled separations during infancy, or under or over estimate frequency

Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis stated that psychological care for the child experiencing a

disruption of bond was absolutely vital

Privation is the lack of attachment. When a child has not had the opportunity to form an attachment with

a caregiver

Koluchova Czech twins. They were starved and beaten, locked up in wardrobes and the cellar from 18

months old. At 7, they had no speech, were scared of people and had poor health. They were later

adopted and made a complete recovery and showed no ill effects of the early privation, either

psychologically or cognitively

In contrast to this: Curtiss studied Genie who had been kept in isolation, bound to her potty chair. She

was starved and was eventually found at the age of 13. She had no speech and could barely walk. Despite

being placed with psychologists and foster carers attempting to rehabilitate her, Genie never reached

average intelligence, speech or social readjustment

Institutionalisation is the term used when children are not raised in a family, but in an orphanage or

children’s home. Such children may not have the opportunity to form one-to-one attachments but

relationships with a variety of staff. This could lead to behavioural patterns such as disinhibited

attachment (attention seeking to adults)

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Hodges and Tizard investigated the effects of early privation on social and emotional development and to

test the maternal deprivation hypothesis. The participants were 65 children, 24 of which were adopted,

15 returned to their natural homes and the rest remained in the institution. The adopted children had

closer attachments to their parents and good family relationships. This wasn’t the case for the restored

children. Both groups of children were likely to seek adult attention and approval, and both groups were

less successful in peer relationships

Was a longitudinal study and participant attrition was a problem. 65 children were originally in

the sample but only 51 were studied at age 8. Those who continue may not be representative

The study involves a very sensitive area of family relationships so researchers must respond in a

sensitive, non-judgemental way during the interview and not place children or families under

pressure

A range of research methods were used (questionnaire, interviews, self-reports)

Study was socially sensitive – can affect participants – which could ultimately lead to self-fulfilling

prophesy

Rutter et al compared Romanian orphans adopted by UK families with UK-born adoptees. At age 6, Rutter

found evidence of disinhibited attachment in the children who were adopted at a later stage, suggesting

that disinhibited attachments are more likely in children who have experienced longer periods in

institutions. When followed up at age 11, Rutter found the disinhibited behaviour pattern had persisted

in many of the 83 Romanian adoptees showing mild or marked disinhibited attachment. 54% of children

still showed this when followed up 5 years later, showing institutionalisation has a long term effect on

attachment. There were also cognitive effects on the children, many of whom were seeking help from

mental health services or special educational services

Research was made rich and detailed by use of various interviews and observations to see

whether children made inappropriate physical contact

Participant attrition

Difficult to obtain information about the quality of care in many of the Romanian institutions.

This makes it difficult to assess the extent of privation in the early environments of the children

in the study

Researchers need to be sensitive to the needs of both the children and the adoptive families.

Freedom to withdraw from the study was an important procedure

We don’t know what condition each child was in, number to each cot, nutrition etc.

Effects of institutionalisation Why?

Malnourished, underweight, unhealthy Lack of food and unsanitary conditions

Relationship problems Lack of emotional care

Lack of emotional care Disinhibited attachment (attention seeking from

adults and a lack of selectivity in relationships)

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Less cognitively ale – lower IQ Lack of stimulation/toys/social interaction

Emotional/social effects Cognitive effects Physical effects

Disinhibited attachments Low IQ – little stimulation Malnourished

Difficulty forming relationships Poor communication skills, eg.

language

Underweight

Behavioural problems, eg.

Reactive attachment disorder

Poor health, eg. Hepatitis or AIDS

Dontas et al said that it is important for children in institutions to be able to develop attachments to staff

at the normal age between 7 and 8 months of age. This was based off his study where he found that

adopted children who had a specific carer had adjusted well and had good peer relations – not showing

any of the apparent effects of institutionalisation

Differing outcomes of children depending on:

Experiences of child when put into care

Age of child when removed from privation – children removed from privation when still young

tend to make better developmental progress, both cognitively and emotionally than those who

have experienced privation for longer

Quality of care afterwards – children are likely to do better when placed in a loving and

supportive environment as the need the opportunity to form a one-to-one attachment with an

adult who gives them sufficient attention

DAYCARE Daycare is daytime care for preschool children outside their home (not 24 hrs!!!)

There are two main types; centre based care (eg. Nurseries) and home based care (eg. Child minders)

Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis suggests that separation from the primary caregiver will result

in behavioural problems if substitute emotional care is not provided. But if separations are managed with

sensitivity and care, there will be no behavioural problems so the quality and quantity of day care will

both have an impact

High quality daycare:

Given independence, able to play on their own with peers

Being able to mix with older peers to develop language skills

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Getting lots of attention from their caregiver

Toys to stimulate the children, allowing them to develop cognitively

Clarke-Stewart et al compared children in centre based and home based care and found the most

competent children had high quality care (lots of attention in home care and independence in centre

based). High quantities of daycare resulted in higher social competence for the homecare group bot

lower social competence in the centre based (as children get tired during the day, and it is noisy. Home

based more relaxing)

Campbell et al found that children who spent long days in day care under age of 3.5 were less socially

competent whilst those who attended more days but had shorter days were more socially competent

(they’re all tired more aggressive less time with mother)

Campbell’s conclusions were supported by Field: teens who had been in full time day care were rated as

more attractive, popular, having higher self-esteem and less aggression. Shows the positive, long term

effects of day care on social development and peer relationships

Factors to do with child Factors to do with daycare

Intelligence Staff turnover

Gender Staff-to-child ratio

Age Number of children there

Attachment type Number of children in each group

Behavioural problems Facilities available

RESEARCH METHODS Null hypothesis – no difference in ___ between ___ and ___

Directional hypothesis – more words will be recalled by participants in ___ condition compared

to ___ condition (specific)

Non-directional hypothesis – there will be a difference between number of words recalled by

participants in ___ condition compared to ___ condition (non-specific)

IV – what you change

DV – what you measure

Repeated measures design

Same participants used in each condition

Order effects can be controlled through

counterbalancing

Demand characteristics – use a single blind

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technique (participants don’t know the

aims of the study or the condition they’re

in)

Independent groups design

Participants randomly allocated to one or another

condition

Participants must be randomly allocated to

each of the conditions

Behavioural categories include ‘hitting, punching, shouting, pinching’ etc

Participant observation Observer acts as part of the group being watched

Non-participant observation Experimenter does not become part of the group

being observed

Naturalistic observation Observations take place in a natural setting

Controlled observation Observations take place where some variables are

controlled and manipulated by the experimenter

Structured observation Categories are predetermined and observations

are either made at regular time intervals or

whenever the behaviour is displayed – analysis

tends to be quantitative

Unstructured observation Observer records everything that happens –

analysis tends to be qualitative

Content analysis Researchers observe a secondary source, such as a

magazine, diary, video and tally each time an event

occurs

STRESS Stress is defined as an imbalance between perceived demands on an individual and their perceived

coping resources

A stressor is anything in the environment that causes stress

Acute stressors are short term stressors, such as parenthood

A life event is a rarely occurring, major occurrence that requires significant readjustment, such as the

death of a spouse

Daily hassles are everyday small events that cause stress, such as missing a bus

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Does stress lead to immunosuppression?:

Kiecolt-Glaser et al – took blood samples from 25 first year medical students one month before their final

exams and during exams. Their life events and loneliness were also measured with a questionnaire.

Found NK cell activity was reduced when students were under acute high stress, compared to before

exams under lower stress. It was most reduced in those reporting higher levels of life events and

loneliness, suggesting stress supressed the immune system, which in turn leaves them venerable to

illness

Has high ecological validity as exams are a natural source of stress that people of our generation

encounter annually

Supported by further studies which found that Alzheimer’s carers who were subject to chronic

stress, took longer for a punch wound to heal in comparison to the control group

Low population validity as not everyone is a medical student therefore they may encounter a

different form of stress

Sample size is very small – at 25

Kiecolt-Glaser et al – carers of Alzheimer’s patients and a control group received a punch biopsy. The

wounds of the Alzheimer’s carers took longer to heal suggesting that chronic stress leads to

immunosuppression

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Cohen et al – 394 participants completed a questionnaire on the number of stressful life events they had

experienced in the previous year. They also rated their degree of stress and level of negative emotions

such as depression. The scores were combined to form a stress index, before participants were exposed

to the common cold virus. They found that 82% became infected with the virus, indicating their immune

system had been oppressed.

Supported by Evans and Edgerton who found that the probability of developing a cold was

significantly correlated to negative events in proceeding days

The study did measure health outcomes (the development of a clinical cold) which shows a

relationship between stress and illness

People may over-exaggerate their degrees and personal ratings of the stress they encounter or

their life events

Study has high ecological validity as it takes into account natural sources of stress and doesn’t

impose any unnecessary stress on participants

Sources of stress:

Holmes and Rahe devised the SRRS (social readjustment rating scale) to measure the amount of life

events that people had experienced as they believed that life changes were a major contributing factor

towards the development of stress-related illness. Life events are big occurrences that require a great

deal of readjustment and are therefore considered to be stressful. Each life event is given an LCU (life

change unit) which is a value indicating how much readjustment the event required. They found that a

score of 150+ increased the chance of developing a stress-related illness by 30% and a score of 300+

increased chances by 50%

Strengths Weaknesses

Was the first detailed attempt to measure

the amount of stress in people’s lives,

which became the foundation of other

scoring methods (such as the life events

scale which was constructed by Sarason et

al)

Shows the relationship between stress and

life changes as the higher the individual’s

LCU score, the higher the probability of

developing stress-related illnesses (30%

increase in a score of 150+ and a 50% in a

score above 300+)

Supported by Rahe et al who found a

+0.228 correlation between LCU scores

and illness scores

Some events are irrelevant to some

people, for example a change in church

activities. Some significant events are not

on the list, such as the death of a pet

which may cause a person some degree of

stress

There may be demand characteristics as

people don’t want to show how much

stress they’re under as they’re maybe

ashamed, which is made easier as it is a

self report

The SRRS is culturally biased. Was

developed in the USA so may not be

applicable to other countries or eras. The

life events regarding ‘personal

achievement’ would be most amplified in

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Easy to measure individualist countries

Retrospective data may be unreliable

Some events are not clearly explained,

such as a change in a personal habits,

which are open to interpretation

Rahe et al – 2,500 male US navy personnel filled in the SRRS for the previous six months. The men were

then followed up over their seven month tour of duty. All stress related illnesses were recorded and

rated for number and severity, producing an overall illness score. There was a positive correlation of

+0.118 between LCU scores and illness scores. It was concluded that there is a relationship between life

events and the development of stress-related illness. As the correlation was low however, other factors

must be involved

There was a lack of informed consent as the navy personnel were not aware that their illnesses

were being recorded, which is an ethical criticism of the study

The study is androcentric and therefore cannot be generalised to females. The findings of the

study also can’t be generalised outside of the US or to non-navy personnel

There was a relatively low correlation but it is statistically significant (other factors are involved)

The navy personnel completed a retrospective SRRS which isn’t completely reliable as they may

forget some details from the questionnaire

Workplace stress:

Environmental stressors:

Noise – high noise levels are stressful because it can be unpleasant. Moreover, it can also affect

concentration which would affect workers ability to their job, leading to frustration.

Uncontrollable noise is particularly stressful (Glass et al)

Temperature – extremes of temperature are stressful – if the workplace is too hot or too cold, it

feels unpleasant. High temperatures can lead to frustration and aggression (Halpern)

Lighting – must be appropriate for individuals to work effectively. Having access to natural

daylight improves employee satisfaction, as does having a view of nature (Leather et al)

Physical factors:

Workload – having too much or too little to do in allocated time (Dewe). If workload is too great,

it could impact on the workers work-life balance as they may need to stay at work late or take

work home, potentially impacting on relaxation time, family life, and relationships

Lack of control/decision latitude – Karasek claimed the most stressful jobs involve high

demand/workload and low control, whereas low demand/workload and high control jobs are the

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least stressful. Workers may lack control over deadlines, work may be set with short notice, lack

control over organising meetings etc

Johansson et al investigated whether work stressors, such as repetitiveness, machine-paced work and

high levels of responsibility increase stress-related illness. The researchers identified a high risk group of

14 finishers in a Swedish sawmill who finished off wood at the last stage of timber processing. The work

was machine paced, isolated, repetitive but highly skilled, and their productivity determined wages for

the entire factory. The 14 finishers were compared to a low-risk group of 10 cleaners whose work was

more varied, self-paced and allowed for socialising with other workers (control group). Levels of stress

related hormones (adrenaline and nor-adrenaline) were measured on work days and rest days. Records

were kept of stress-related illness and absenteeism.

The high risk group of 14 finishers secreted more stress hormones on wok days than rest days, and higher

than the control group. The finishers also showed significantly higher rates of stress-related illnesses,

such as headache, and higher levels of absenteeism than the cleaners.

It was concluded that a combination of work-stressors – especially repetitiveness, machine paced work

and high levels of responsibility leads to stress-related illness and absenteeism. These work stressors

must be reduced to reduce illness and absenteeism in their workforce e.g. introducing variety

Very small sample size and the findings are not generalizable beyond this factory setting

Individual differences are not controlled – certain people who are venerable to stress (e.g. those

exhibiting Type A behaviour) are attracted to high risk, demanding jobs, such as finishing in a

sawmill

The study does not identify which of the various work stressors may have the biggest impact

Marmot et al found that participants with low job control were 4 times more likely to die of a heart

attack than those with high job control or develop other stress-related illnesses (such as gastrointestinal

disorders) as low job control is associated with high stress. Among British civil servants, as job control

decreases, illness increases (negative correlation). Giving employees more freedom and control may

decrease stress-related illness, increasing the productivity and efficiency of the workforce

Correlational study therefore cannot establish cause and effect

Differences between high control and low control jobs vary massively – how much money is

earned, amount of social contact, how interesting their job is – so we don’t know which of these

factors is most closely associated with heart disease

Type A behaviour: Competitive – always orientated towards achievement, plays to win

Time driven – always working to deadlines

Hostile – easily angered, easily irritated and impatient

Type B behaviour: Non-competitive – happy not to win

Relaxed – happy doing nothing

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Not hostile – patient, good tempered

Type X behaviour: Displays signs of both type A and type B behaviour

A Type A person would be more likely to suffer from CHD because: hostility stress more adrenaline

and nor-adrenaline produced raised heart rate and blood pressure increased risk of developing

atherosclerosis

Rosenman et al claimed that people who showed type A behaviour were more likely to develop coronary

heart disease than type B’s. 3200 US men were interviewed then categorised as having either a type A or

type B personality. They were followed for 8.5 years. 257 of the 3200 men had heart attack and 69% of

these were type A personality. This was significant even where obesity and smoking were controlled for.

It was concluded that type A behaviour makes people more venerable to developing CHD

The study lacks population validity as it was carried out on men and is therefore not

generalizable to females or people outside of the US

Correlational research - can’t establish cause and effect as other factors may come into play

Doesn’t account for genetic predispositions which increase the participant’s chances of

developing CHD

Research is inconclusive as around half of studies into personality factors and risk of developing

CHD failed to find a link

Longitudinal study - participant attrition

Kobasa claimed that people who have a hardy personality are more protected from stress. They showed

the following characteristics:

Control – felt they were in control of their own life, wasn’t down to fate

Commitment – involved in the world and people around them, e.g. in clubs

Challenge – saw life changes as challenges to be overcome, not problems

Kobasa did a prospective study (looking forwards in time). He rated participants for the presence of

hardiness, exercise and social support and later looked at psychological and physical illness. He found

that those with hardiness had lower levels than illness and hardiness had most effect than exercise and

social support. All 3 factors acted additively to improve resistance to stress

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Stress management:

Stage 1 – conceptualisation

Clients relive stressful situations and analyse different features of the situation to gain a

greater understanding of the nature of stress and their reactions to it

Stress-inoculation training (SIT) – a form of CBT attempting to

use existing coping skills to increase an individual’s ability to cope

Stage 2 – skills training

Clients are taught specific strategies for coping with stressful situations. These may include

relaxation techniques, increased control and social skills

Stage 3 – real life application

The client goes out into the real world and puts their training to the test. The ability to cope

then becomes self-sustaining

Hardiness training – assesses how much stress a person is experiencing and

teaches them to cope with stress, seek social support and relax

Stage 1 – focusing

Clients are trained to spot signs of stress, such as muscle tension. This allows them to

recognise stressful situations and identify sources of stress

Stage 2 – reliving stressful encounters

Clients analyse how recent stressful situations were resolved, giving them an insight into their

current coping strategies

Stage 3 – self-improvement

Clients take on challenges that they can cope with before moving on to more complex

problems

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Drugs

Benzodiazepines (BZs) are often used for the

short term relief of severe anxiety

Beta Blockers are used in the treatment of

high blood pressure

How they

work

1. BZs work by enhancing the

actions of GABA, a

neurotransmitter

2. GABA has a quietening effect on

the brain

3. The brains output of excitatory

neurotransmitters is reduced

and the person feels calmer

4. BZs also reduce any increased

serotonin activity which could

lead to anxiety

1. Beta blockers reduce the activity of

adrenaline and nor-adrenaline which

prepare the body for the ‘fight or

flight’ response

2. By blocking sympathetic arousal,

beta blockers slow the heart rate

and lessens the force at which the

heart contracts

3. This results in a fall in blood pressure

and less stress on the heart

4. Person feels calmer and less anxious

Strengths BZs are effective in the treatment of

various anxiety disorders, they work

rapidly and are low in toxicity

Can be prescribed immediately so

are a rapid form of intervention in

acute stress-related conditions

Beta blockers can benefit patients

with certain serious heart

conditions, increasing patients’

survival

Can be prescribed immediately so

are a rapid form of intervention in

acute stress-related conditions

Weakness

es

BZs are prescribed for acute stress

related reactions (e.g bereavement).

Although they provide temporary

relief, they can prevent normal

psychological adjustment to such

trauma

BZs are potentially addictive: both

psychological and physical

dependence can result

Have side effects – beta blockers can

cause dizziness, sleep problems and

decreased sexual ability in men

Some studies have found an

increased risk of developing diabetes

in people who take beta blockers

Biofeedback

Electrodes are attached to the patients’ skin. This can be consciously or unconsciously done

They send information to a monitoring box, translating information onto a computer screen. Heart rate,

brain activity etc. can be measured

The therapist leads the patient to do relaxation techniques, such as deep breaths. The results of this will

be shown on the computer screen. Through trial and error, the patient will learn to identify physical and

mental techniques that bring about physical changes, such as lowered blood pressure

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SOCIAL INFLUENCE

Types of conformity:

Compliance: a person conforms publically but does not change their private beliefs. It is as a

result of normative influence whereby people conform in public to fit in and be liked. This is a

temporary change

Internalisation: a person conforms publically and changes their private beliefs. As a result of

informational influence where people change their beliefs in order to be right. Permanent

change

Sherif’s Autokinetic Effect – Sherif wanted to see whether participants conformed in an ambiguous

situation. In a darkened room, participants were asked to estimate how far and in what direction a small

stationary light source moved. They were tested one at a time, personal norm, and then in groups of

three. When participants with different norms were put together, a group norm emerged. This is

evidence of informational influence, whereby people conform to be correct

The IV was manipulated therefore cause and effect can be established

It was a highly controlled laboratory experiment and lacks ecological validity as it was an artificial

situation

There was no correct answer therefore participants were bound to look to others

Asch investigated whether people comply with the majority in a non-ambiguous situation. 123 male

students were sat with confederates in groups of 7 to 9 around a table and the student was positioned

next to last to be asked the question (only 1 in the group is a genuine participant). The researcher asked

which line, A, B, C, matched the standard line (all lines were of different lengths). The confederates gave

wrong answers on 12 of 18 trials (critical trails) so it wasn’t very obvious. Asch interviewed participants

afterwards.

74% conformed at least once, 5% conformed on all critical trials, 25% of participants remained

completely independent and gave correct answers on all 12 critical trials. After interviewing participants,

They will then repeat successful activities to reduce bodily arousal

Social influence: when an individual’s behaviour is affected by other people

Conformity: a change in behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure (majority

influence)

Minority influence: when an individual or a small group influences a larger group to change their

attitudes or behaviour

Obedience: carrying out an action as a result of an order from an authority figure

Social change: when the norms of society as a whole are changed

Independent behaviour: when an individual does not respond to group norms

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Ashe found that participants conformed because they began to doubt their own judgement or did not

wish to stand out from the rest of the group

There was deception as participants were not aware that confederates were present and they

were told the study was about perception, rather than conformity so lack of informed consent

was also an issue

IV was manipulated in Ashe’s many variations so cause and effect can be established

The answers were very obvious therefore any incorrect answers from the participants were

down to conformity

The study is androcentric so findings are not generalizable to females (lacks population validity)

although Eagly carried out the study on females and found they were more conforming

Lacks ecological validity as the study took place in an artificial situation

Ashe’s variations:

Crutchfield investigated whether conformity pressures operated in a non-face-to-face situation. He

followed several military US males for a number of days. They were placed in individual booths which

displayed others’ answers to tasks, which was rigged. He conducted tasks similar to that of Ashe and

others, e.g. ‘which shape is bigger?’ He also asked them some opinion questions, for example, ‘are you a

good leader?’ He found similar conformity in the Ashe like tasks and 46% conformity in the shape tasks.

Those who conformed has lower confidence, less leadership ability, less ego strength, lower intelligence

compared to the non-conformers

Looks at personality factors affecting conformity unlike Ashe’s study

Androcentric – can’t be generalised to females and other cultures so lacks population validity

Was an artificial study and therefore lacks ecological validity. For example, the booth setting is

not how conformity would operate in a real life scenario

Variation % compared to original study Explanation

No confederates 98% correct responses Answer is obvious

Test difficulty increased Higher conformity Participants more unsure,

informational influence higher

Written response Lower conformity Participants less concerned about

fitting in so conform less

Only one confederate 3% of participants conformed 3 confederates is optimum

conformity at 37%. When there are

lots of confederates, conformity

drops as participants are more

suspicious

Gaining a partner 8.7% conformity Normative conformity lowers

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The participants were military men so may be more conforming that the average person. Also,

they were on a training course at the time which may be a contributing factor to levels of

conformity although the general population may not be this conforming so it lacks population

validity

Was deception involved as the participants were unaware that the answers that they were being

shown were rigged