MemoryMemoryMr. McElhaneyMr. McElhaney

PLHSPLHS

Remembering is an Active Remembering is an Active ProcessProcess

Memories can be lost and revisedMemories can be lost and revised Types of MemoryTypes of Memory

– Short Term MemoryShort Term Memory– Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory

Info that appears to be lost may still be in Info that appears to be lost may still be in memorymemory

Problems with memory:Problems with memory:– Forgetting and storage issuesForgetting and storage issues

Recovered memories are problematicRecovered memories are problematic Strategies such as Mnemonics can Strategies such as Mnemonics can

improve memoryimprove memory

BasicsBasics Definition-Definition- Memory is an active system Memory is an active system

that receives, stores and organizes, that receives, stores and organizes, alters, and recovers informationalters, and recovers information

““Memory- is learning that persists Memory- is learning that persists over time”over time”

Encoding- info is changed into usable Encoding- info is changed into usable and storable formand storable form

Deals with Encoding-Storage-RetrievalDeals with Encoding-Storage-Retrieval

Dual ProcessingDual Processing Parallel Processing- Parallel Processing- Brain processes information in many Brain processes information in many

ways simultaneously ways simultaneously Example- sights, sounds, Example- sights, sounds,

environmentenvironment

3 Part System Memory3 Part System Memory SensorySensory STM (Working)STM (Working) LTM LTM

Sensory MemorySensory Memory New info is perceived through the New info is perceived through the

sensessenses

Info is held exactly as perceived for a Info is held exactly as perceived for a few seconds (few seconds (TransducedTransduced))

Preceding short term MemoryPreceding short term Memory

All of the Senses:All of the Senses: Use Use Transduction:Transduction:

– The process of changing energy The process of changing energy (stimulus) to a form that can be (stimulus) to a form that can be processed by the nervous system-processed by the nervous system-

– For example- light to a form that can be For example- light to a form that can be recognized by the retina.recognized by the retina.

Dual System in MemoryDual System in Memory Short Term MemoryShort Term Memory Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory

Small desk and file cabinet Small desk and file cabinet conceptconcept

STM

Meaningful info storedMeaningful info storedMeaningful info storedMeaningful info storedMeaningful info stored

Meaningful info storedMeaningful info storedMeaningful info storedMeaningful info storedMeaningful info stored

Fig. 9.2 Remembering is thought to involve at least three steps. Incoming information is first held for a second or two by sensory memory. Information selected by attention is then transferred to temporary storage in short-term memory. If new information is not rapidly encoded, or rehearsed, it is forgotten. If it is transferred to long-term memory, it becomes relatively permanent, although retrieving it may be a problem. The preceding is a useful model of memory; it may not be literally true of what happens in the brain (Eysenck & Keane, 1995).

Short Term Memory 1Short Term Memory 1 Is working memoryIs working memory Includes Includes Selective attentionSelective attention Holds small amounts of info for a Holds small amounts of info for a

brief timebrief time Encoding in STM- Encoding in STM-

– memories are stored by imagesmemories are stored by images– And phonetically- by sound, words and And phonetically- by sound, words and

lettersletters

Short Term Memory 2Short Term Memory 2 Storehouse for small amounts of infoStorehouse for small amounts of info Phone numbers/shopping listsPhone numbers/shopping lists

Working memory holds info while Working memory holds info while other activities are taking place.other activities are taking place.

Is Is sensitive to interruptionsensitive to interruption + + interferenceinterference

Processing info helps Processing info helps MemoryMemory

Connecting to LTMConnecting to LTM– Linking information with previously Linking information with previously

learned information.learned information. ChunkingChunking RehearsalRehearsal Elaborative RehearsalElaborative Rehearsal

Short Term Memory 3Short Term Memory 3 Limited size = 7 “slots”/Information Limited size = 7 “slots”/Information

bitsbits Good mem = 9 bitsGood mem = 9 bits RecodingRecoding= reorganizing information= reorganizing information ChunkingChunking = form of recoding, creating = form of recoding, creating

connections/groups between info connections/groups between info Rehearsal-Rehearsal- repeating info increases repeating info increases

STM and can lead to transfer to LTMSTM and can lead to transfer to LTM

Elaborate RehearsalElaborate Rehearsal – – Linking new info to memories in LTM Linking new info to memories in LTM

will improve memorywill improve memory Elaborate = extend, think about info Elaborate = extend, think about info

as you studyas you study Ask yourself “why” why would that Ask yourself “why” why would that

be true?be true? Try to relate new ideas to your own Try to relate new ideas to your own

experiences and knowledgeexperiences and knowledge

Elaborate Rehearsal when Elaborate Rehearsal when you don’t even know you’re you don’t even know you’re

doing it.doing it. Your understanding of academic material improves and your Your understanding of academic material improves and your memory improves with the number of content interactions;memory improves with the number of content interactions;

For Example when we are in class we:For Example when we are in class we:1.1. Above all the organism needs to try to learn the stuffAbove all the organism needs to try to learn the stuff2.2. Listen (auditory interaction)Listen (auditory interaction)3.3. VisualizeVisualize4.4. Take notes (processing the visual, and auditory)Take notes (processing the visual, and auditory)5.5. Think (which is processing)Think (which is processing)6.6. Asking questions (evidence of thinking)Asking questions (evidence of thinking)7.7. Summarize (which is thinking, and engaging in the material/ Summarize (which is thinking, and engaging in the material/

also monitoring comprehension)also monitoring comprehension)8.8. Reviewing notes at home (more thinking and engaging in Reviewing notes at home (more thinking and engaging in

the material)the material)9.9. READ (tons of processing if you really read)READ (tons of processing if you really read)10.10.Discussion (shows you are thinking)Discussion (shows you are thinking)11.11.Extended writing (massive amounts of thinking)Extended writing (massive amounts of thinking)

Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory Found in theFound in the Cortex of Brain Cortex of Brain Hippocampus Hippocampus clearly associated with clearly associated with

memory (see brain map of memory)memory (see brain map of memory) permanent storehousepermanent storehouse for Memory for Memory Everything you knowEverything you know goes into LTM goes into LTM

Important + Important + Meaningful infoMeaningful info gets gets transferred to LTMtransferred to LTM

The The more you know the easier it is to add more you know the easier it is to add memorymemory

Brain Anatomy and MemoryBrain Anatomy and Memory Locations of memory is identified Locations of memory is identified

through through brain mappingbrain mapping

Experiments through Experiments through Electroconvulsive Shock Electroconvulsive Shock destroys destroys memorymemory– Mostly effects recent memoriesMostly effects recent memories– Before ConsolidationBefore Consolidation

Brain #2Brain #2 HippocampusHippocampus= closely associated with = closely associated with

LTM LTM (Thalamus is also associated with LTM)(Thalamus is also associated with LTM) Used in Used in ConsolidationConsolidation of memory of memory Known as the Known as the “Switching Station” “Switching Station”

between STM and LTMbetween STM and LTM Grows neurons that make new Grows neurons that make new

connections with in the brainconnections with in the brain Damage to hippocampus = Damage to hippocampus =

AnterogradeAnterograde amnesia= inability to store amnesia= inability to store new memories LTM new memories LTM (“50 First Dates”)(“50 First Dates”)

Brain 3Brain 3 3lbs of brain3lbs of brain Cerebral Cortex- multiple areas Cerebral Cortex- multiple areas

associated associated

Pre-Front of Cortex = Pre-Front of Cortex = EpisodicEpisodic Memory- eventsMemory- events

Back area of Cortex = Back area of Cortex = SemanticSemantic Memory- ideas Memory- ideas

Current Research: Stimulation from environment promotes new

synapses New experiences alter the functioning of existing

synapses Neurotransmitters associated in memory-

Glutamate, acetylcholine, Memory problems associated with Alzheimer’s

related to a deficiency in neurons that use acetylcholine and found in hippocampus and cortex

Drugs that increase Acetylcholine in synapses improve memory

“Formation of memories is associated with changes in synapses and strengthens and networks”

Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory EncodingEncoding = storage (LTM) stored based on = storage (LTM) stored based on

meaningmeaning Recoding/reorganizing/revision is present in Recoding/reorganizing/revision is present in

LTMLTM example- Chunking can/will work in LTMexample- Chunking can/will work in LTM Constructive ProcessingConstructive Processing = updating memory = updating memory

– Fills in the Fills in the gaps of memory with logical gaps of memory with logical conclusionsconclusions or extensions, or inferences or extensions, or inferences

– ((Pseudo MemoriesPseudo Memories are false memories) are false memories)– Relates to how we can sometimes not know the Relates to how we can sometimes not know the

source of some memoriessource of some memories

Organization of Info in LTMOrganization of Info in LTM Patterns of AssociationPatterns of Association = memory structure = memory structure Examples: rules, images, symbols, Examples: rules, images, symbols,

similarities, formal meaning, personal similarities, formal meaning, personal meaningmeaning

Network ModelNetwork Model (or schema) (or schema)– Associations of new of linked ideasAssociations of new of linked ideas– We make organization based on linked We make organization based on linked

meaningsmeanings

Memory AidsMemory Aids Chunking infoChunking info= try to link 2-3 or = try to link 2-3 or

more facts into larger chunks and more facts into larger chunks and your memory will improveyour memory will improve

Key to memory is to find meaningKey to memory is to find meaning Always think about how you feel Always think about how you feel

about thingsabout things

Fig. 9.7 Fig. 9.7 In the model shown here, long-term memory is divided into In the model shown here, long-term memory is divided into procedural memory (learned actions and skills) and declarative procedural memory (learned actions and skills) and declarative memory (stored facts). Declarative memories can be either semantic memory (stored facts). Declarative memories can be either semantic (impersonal knowledge) or episodic (personal experiences associated (impersonal knowledge) or episodic (personal experiences associated with specific times and places).with specific times and places).

Types of LTM = skill and Types of LTM = skill and factfact

Procedural- Procedural- SkillSkill Conditioned Conditioned

ResponseResponse Learned ActionsLearned Actions AutomaticAutomatic Lower brain-Lower brain-

cerebellumcerebellum Typing and Driving Typing and Driving

ActionsActions

Types of MemoryTypes of Memory Episodic MemoryEpisodic Memory= =

experiencesexperiences AutobiographicAutobiographic

– When we access we When we access we re-experiencere-experience

Most easily Most easily forgotten LTMforgotten LTM

Iconic MemoryIconic Memory Echoic MemoryEchoic Memory

Declarative-Declarative- Facts Facts Names, faces, Names, faces,

dates, words, ideasdates, words, ideas Expressed in words Expressed in words

and symbolsand symbols Semantic MemorySemantic Memory Encyclopedia of Encyclopedia of

basic knowledgebasic knowledge You don’t forgetYou don’t forget

Memory FormationMemory Formation Consolidation-Consolidation- the forming of LTM the forming of LTM

memorymemory Takes Takes time to movetime to move info from STM to info from STM to

LTMLTM

MeaningMeaning is key is key

Models of Memory Why do some

stimuli leave no more than a fleeting impression and others remain in memory forever? (see chart Pg. 244)

5 models or explanations for how memory works

1.1. Information Information ProcessingProcessing

2.2. Levels of ProcessingLevels of Processing3.3. Transfer Transfer

Appropriate Appropriate ProcessingProcessing

4.4. Parallel Distributed Parallel Distributed ProcessingProcessing

5.5. Multiple Memory Multiple Memory SystemSystem

Re-integrativeRe-integrative Memories Memories Memories in LTMMemories in LTM Can be triggered by cuesCan be triggered by cues CuesCues (associations/clues) always (associations/clues) always

enhance memories enhance memories TriggeredTriggered memoriesmemories are cues to are cues to

other connected memories other connected memories Pictures, smells, songs, soundsPictures, smells, songs, soundsCue-Dependent ForgettingCue-Dependent Forgetting

Stimuli associated with memory are Stimuli associated with memory are missingmissing

Memory Tasks- LTMMemory Tasks- LTMRecallRecallDirect Direct Retrieval of Retrieval of InfoInfoWho-WhatWho-WhatFactsFacts

RecognitionRecognitionPrevious Previous learned info is learned info is correctly correctly identifiedidentifiedMC testsMC testsAccurate for Accurate for visualsvisuals

RelearningRelearningReviewing Reviewing previously previously exposed exposed to/learned to/learned infoinfo25% greater 25% greater proficiencyproficiencyReview Review helps we Re-helps we Re-learn faster.learn faster.

Serial Position EffectSerial Position Effect STMSTM Being able to memorize the beginning and end of Being able to memorize the beginning and end of

a lista list But not the middleBut not the middle Why?- Why?- The end- interference, STM has limited capacityThe end- interference, STM has limited capacity Primacy Effect- first 2-3 words on list recall is

good Probability of recall decreases for words in the

middle of the list and then rises dramatically Recency Effect- easier to recall end of list

because first are in STM rehearsal helps the last are close in STM.

Implicit and Explicit Implicit and Explicit MemoriesMemoriesImplicit MemoriesImplicit Memories

We are not aware We are not aware UnconsciousUnconsciousPrimingPriming Giving a person Giving a person

limited cueslimited cues Info previously Info previously

learned is reflected learned is reflected in cued responsesin cued responses

Related to implicit Related to implicit memorymemory

Sub-consciousSub-conscious

Explicit MemoriesExplicit Memories Recall is usedRecall is used Conscious Conscious

memoriesmemories Trying to Trying to

rememberremember

ForgettingForgetting Encoding Failure:Encoding Failure: When a memory was never When a memory was never

formed in the first placeformed in the first place

Memory Traces:Memory Traces: Physical changes in nerve Physical changes in nerve cells or brain activity that occur when cells or brain activity that occur when memories are storedmemories are stored

Memory Decay:Memory Decay: When memory traces become When memory traces become weaker; fading or weakening of memoriesweaker; fading or weakening of memories

Disuse:Disuse: Theory that memory traces weaken Theory that memory traces weaken when memories are not used or retrieved when memories are not used or retrieved

Activity for Fri: Bring books or Activity for Fri: Bring books or Definition of these termsDefinition of these terms

State Dependent Learning (Remembering) Context Dependent Learning (Remembering) Interference (Forgetting) Decay (Forgetting) Proactive Interference (Forgetting) Retroactive Interference (Forgetting) Positive Transference (Remembering) Negative Transference (Forgetting) Repression (unconscious) Suppression (conscious)

Why do we forget? The Role of Decay and Interference:

Decay- the gradual (over time) disappearance of the mental representation of a stimulus (wears out) especially in STM

Interference- a process through which either the storage or retrieval of information is impaired by the presence or other information. (STM forgetting too)

Might occur because one piece of information might interfere with other pieces of info (displaces) pushing it out of memory. (rehearsal prevents displacement STM)

Or, one piece of info makes storage or recall more difficult.

LTM- two types of interference: Retroactive interference- learning of new info interferes

with recall of old info Proactive Interference- old info interferes with learning

or remembering new info.

RememberingRemembering Context Dependent Memory:

– “People remember more of what they learned when conditions during recall match encoding”

– Why? We tend to encode features of the environment in which the learning occurred and these features may later serve as retrieval cues.

State Dependent Memory: A person’s internal state can aid or hamper retrieval

(mood) Positive-recall is easier when positive mood occurs

during encoding

Positive and Negative Positive and Negative TransferenceTransference

Positive Transference Mastery of one task aids mastery of a

second task   Knowledge and skill in one adds to

another

Negative Transference (language) Skills developed in one situation conflict

with those required to master a new task

Repression and SuppressionRepression and Suppression Repression (unconscious) Memory motivated by forgetting Forgetting painful troubling or embarrassing memories Held out of consciousness Sensitive to emotional events Use repression to protect themselves from threatening

thoughts   Suppression (conscious) An active conscious attempt to put something out of

mind We actively avoid remembering upsetting information Painful upsetting event avoided suppression could be

repression

AmnesiaAmnesiaRetrograde (before) AmnesiaRetrograde (before) Amnesia Forgetting events that Forgetting events that

occur before an injury or occur before an injury or traumatrauma

Korsakoffs Syndrome Korsakoff's syndromeKorsakoff's syndrome

(also called (also called Korsakoff's Korsakoff's dementiadementia, is a , is a neurological disorder neurological disorder caused by a lack of caused by a lack of thiamine (vitamin B1) in in the the brain. Its onset is . Its onset is linked to chronic alcohol linked to chronic alcohol abuse and/or severe abuse and/or severe malnutrition.malnutrition.

Anterograde- AmnesiaAnterograde- Amnesia ““50 First Dates”50 First Dates” Forgetting invents that Forgetting invents that

follow an injuryfollow an injury “These patients are also

able to keep information temporarily in working memory, which depends on the activity of dopamine neurons in the prefrontal cortex. So the hippocampus is crucial in the formation of new episodic memoires, but implicit memory, procedural memory, and working memory appear to be governed by other regions of the brain.”

Sleep + MemorySleep + Memory Sleep improves brains Sleep improves brains

ability to remember ability to remember infoinfo

Important for memory Important for memory consolidationconsolidation

Increases procedural Increases procedural memorymemory

During sleep- During sleep- Short term memories Short term memories

in Hippocampus and in Hippocampus and are then transferred to are then transferred to long term storage in long term storage in Neo-CortexNeo-Cortex

90 minute nap 90 minute nap helps speed up helps speed up learning learning

Naps helpNaps help

Using your brain Using your brain reduces risk of reduces risk of Alzheimer’s Alzheimer’s (crosswords)(crosswords)

FalseFalse Memories Memories Repressed MemoriesRepressed Memories Many traumatic events Many traumatic events

retained in the retained in the unconscious mind which unconscious mind which affects conscious affects conscious thoughts feelings and thoughts feelings and behavior no conscious behavior no conscious memory.memory.

1-4 girls are molested1-4 girls are molested When people say they When people say they

have recovered have recovered memories it is probably memories it is probably true, but still is a problem true, but still is a problem for false memories.for false memories.

Spontaneous Spontaneous Recovery (study Recovery (study said)said)

37% of time 37% of time spontaneous spontaneous recovery memories recovery memories were corroboratedwere corroborated

Memories recovered Memories recovered in Therapy were not in Therapy were not corroborated – corroborated – should be seen should be seen cautiouslycautiously

Memory SupportsMemory Supports Making Notes- write things downMaking Notes- write things down PreventsPrevents info from info from slippingslipping out of short out of short

term memory before you can term memory before you can reviewreview it it and and storestore it more it more permanentlypermanently

Mnemonics “strategies for placing information into an organized context in order to remember it”

To Improve MemoryTo Improve Memory Training to improve memory Use chanting Association Memory Strategy is Mnemonics

Basic Principles– Use mental pictures– Make things meaningful– Make info Familiar- connect to what you already

know– Mental associations- more outrageous = easy to

remember

Memory Aides Memory Aides Recitation Summarize aloud while you learn You practice retrieving information While reading stop and try to reinforce by re-

stating info

Elaborate Rehearsal Emotion aides memoryEmotion aides memory

Method of Loci: remembering through visualization of location and associations- Use the location like a map as mental picture.

Guidelines for Effective Studying

Relate new info to knowledge already stored.   Organize The Information: Create an outline or overall context for learning Repetition- (rehearsal) not necessarily works well for LTM

(but on a limited basis)   Distributed Practice- Spread out learning over time Use Elaborative Rehearsal Self-Testing: Practice retrieving information you want to remember Address main points from memory Flashcards

Reading A Textbook: What do successful students do?

Monitor understanding Re-read difficult sections Deep level processing

– think about each new topic in relation to other material Helps organize material

Lecture Notes: Take notes on the important ideas Use your own words to express ideas Think about what is being said, draw

connections with other matieral Review the lecture note and fill in

missing details Summarize major points

PQ4R (strategy) Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, Review All designed to increase the depth of processing Preview: Skim the chapter- look at headings, bold face,

italicized words. Get a general idea of what is in the chapter and how it is organized (review the entire chapter then, more closely the individual sections)

Question: before reading each section ask yourself what content will be covered and what information you should be getting from it.

Read: and think about the material, monitor understanding. Are you able to answers earlier questions?

Reflect: as you read think of your own examples, create visual representations of the content; Ask yourself what the material means; consider how each section relates to other sections in the chapter and other content in the book

Recite: at the end of each section, recite the major points out loud; be active… put the ideas in your own words (a form of self testing)

Review: at the end of the chapter, review all the material, review how the material is organized

Basics: from Idiots Guide to Psych: Memory

Our memory doesn’t mind very well—it often misremembers, forgets, and makes mistakes.

  The three mental operations required for memory are encoding (putting

information in), storage (filing it away), and retrieval (finding it); forgetting is a failure in one of these areas.

  Mnemonics are very effective memory aids that help us store information

in a way that enables us to easily recall it later on. And the use of written reminders and other memory strategies can be especially useful for the elderly, who have more problems remembering recent events.

  Sleep is believed to be actively involved in consolidating memory,

especially procedural memories.   Mental and physical exercise can slow the impact of degenerative

neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer’s.   False memories can fool us and professionals as well; although not likely,

it is possible to remember serious childhood trauma that never that never happened. As far as forgetting traumatic things that did happen, the truth is still up in the air. However, the vast majority of people remember ongoing traumatic events.