MEDIEVAL IDEAS OF APOCALYPTIC MISSION

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Medieval Ideas of Apocalyptic Mission and the Early Franciscans in MexicoAuthor(s): Delno C. WestSource: The Americas, Vol. 45, No. 3 (Jan., 1989), pp. 293-313Published by: Academy of American Franciscan HistoryStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1007224

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MEDIEVAL IDEAS OF APOCALYPTICMISSIONAND THE EARLY FRANCISCANSIN MEXICO

n June 18, 1539, at Tlaxcala, New Spain, Indiansrecentlycon-vertedto Christianityperformeda pageantwrittenand directedbythe Franciscan missionaries. The play titled "The Conquest ofJerusalem" featured the final siege of the Holy City led by combinedarmies from Spain and New Spain aided by forces from France and Hun-gary. The drama unfolds with the army from New Spain, protected byangels and St. Hippolytus,showingthe most valor. Huddledto one side ofthe battlefield are the Pope and his court offering prayersfor a Christianvictory. After several attacks, each of which ends in a miracle saving theChristianarmies, the Moslems capitulateand convert to the true faith. In

the final scene, the Pope causes all the new converts to be baptizedafterwhich the Sultanand his soldiers bow beforeCharlesV andproclaimhimtobe "God's Captain" for all the earth. The pageant commemoratedtheTruce of Nice concluded on June 17, 1538, between CharlesV andFrancisI at the urgingandcoordinationof PopePaulIIIwho wantedto free CharlesV to attackthe TurksandcaptureJerusalem.Celebrating he Truce of Nicewas a naturalchoice for the friarsbecause it reflectedcommonlyheld theo-ries of apocalypticism.The pageantexhibited salient themes of the apoca-lyptic conversion of non-believersandinfidels, the recaptureof Jerusalem,and the recognitionof a "last world ruler." Toribiode Benavente(Moto-linfa), who recorded the pageant, prefacedthe dramaby prayingthat thisprophesiedvictory would soon happenand he assigned an unprecedentedrole to the peoples of the New Worldin the victory.

The first Franciscanmissionaries to Mexico inherited a rich eschatolo-gical traditionexpressedin a spiritof apocalypticconversion.2St. Francis,

* I would like to express my appreciationo Dr. Susan Deeds andDr. E. RandolphDaniel who readthis essay in an earlydraft. I am gratefulfor their commentsandsuggestions.1Toribio de Benavente(Motolinfa), Historia de los indios de Nueva Esparia(Colecci6n de Docu-mentosparala Historiade Mexico, Mexico City, 1858), pp. 87-95.2 Thirteenthandfourteenth-centuryranciscandeas of apocalypticconversion have been studiedbyE. RandolphDaniel, The Franciscan Conceptof Mission in the High MiddleAges (Lexington, 1975),pp. 26-36.

293


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294 APOCALYPTICISSIONANDFRANCISCANSwho set out to convert the Moslems in the thirteenth entury,was so sureofthe evangelicalrole for his order that he devotedChapter12 in his Rule of1223 to regulatingandpromotingmissionaryactivity. When his followerscoupledthis vocation withJoachimism,certainFranciscansbelieved them-selves a divinelyinspiredelect whose role was the renovatioof the evangel-ical life in the last age of the world. The missionaryzeal of the SeraphicSaint'sfollowersset the Orderapartas they spearheadedmissionaryactivityinto easternEurope, India, China, Africa and the immediateAtlantic is-lands. Fifteenth-centurymissionary activity to newly discovered lands inAfrica and the Atlanticislands centeredat the greatconvent, OurLady ofLa R~ibida,Spain.

Manyscholarshave beenparticularly eento declaretheexpositiveinflu-ence of the famous CalabrianAbbot Joachim of Fiore upon fifteen andsixteenthcentury SpanishFranciscans;yet, one can scarcely find a directquotation rom Joachimof Fiore's writingsin the literaryworks associatedwith the Order.An assumptionof the abbot's influencehas seduced twen-tiethcenturyscholars due to the lingeringundercurrentf Joachim'sdyna-mism of sacredhistorypresent n fifteenthandsixteenthcenturyFranciscanattitudesabout themselves and their mission to the New World.3 But onecan scarcely distinguish such an eschatology from other, more general,apocalypticexpectations n this period.

Joachimof Fiore's important ontribution o the western intellectualtra-dition was to develop a persuasiveoutline of how the historyof mankindwould evolve throughthree successive stages culminating n an age of theHoly Spiritfilled with bliss andunderstanding.The famous twelfthcenturyCalabrianabbotwas the most importantapocalypticwriter and exegete ofprophecy n the MiddleAges. His extensivewritings nspireda wide corpusof pseudo literatureby generationsof Joachitesafter his death, and a vastmodern secondary literatureof diverse opinion.4 Several central themesevolved fromthe abbot'smind, butnone so compellingto futureauthorsas

3A sampleof modern scholarshipwouldincludecautiousstatementsabouta Joachite nfluenceby R.Ricard,La "conquitespiritual"du Mexico (Paris, 1933);J. Maravall,"La Utopiapolitico-religiosadelos franciscanos n NuevaEspafia,"EstudiosAmericanos Madrid,1949)2, pp. 199-277;M. Bataillon,"Evag6lismeet millnarisme au NouveauMonde," Courantsreligieuxet humanismea la fin du xveetau ddbutde xvie sidcle in Colloquede Strasbourg Paris, 1957), pp. 25-36. A moreexplorativeJoachiteinfluenceis demonstratedby J. Phelan,TheMillennialKingdomof the Franciscans in theNew World(Berkeley& Los Angeles, 1970) and G. Baudot,Utopiae historiaen M~xico(Toulouse, 1977). Recentstudieshave advocateda majorinfluenceby the Calabrianabbot, see L. Weckmann,"Las esperanzasmilenaristasde los franciscanosde la Nueva Espafia,HistoriaMexicana(1982) 32, pp. 89-105 andA.Milhou, Coldn y su mentalidad mesidnica en el ambientefranciscanista espafiol (Valladolid, 1983).4 The standard tudy is M. Reeves, TheInfluenceof Prophecyin theLater MiddleAges: A StudyinJoachimism(Oxford, 1969). Reeves focuses on two primary hemes:the separationof genuine from


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DELNOWEST 295the meaning of history. Joachim's vision of history was developed frompatternsand symbols based on the two Testaments,each of which he di-vided into seven parallel patterns. Extending from this system of a dualprocession,he perceiveda three statusdynamicandorganizationof historyin which the salvationof the worldprogressed romcreation o an expectedage of grace in the future beforethe final Judgement.The threeages wereinterrelated s each new age received its germinationromthe fructificationof the last. The first two ages were guided by the Fatherand the Son,respectively. The ThirdAge of history, that of the Holy Spirit,he foresawas a period of peace and harmonyin which a renewed church would en-compassa reformedpeopledevoted to thecontemplative ife. Thetransitionfromthe second to the thirdage would be led by two new monasticorders,one evangelical and one contemplative.There is little evidence that Joa-chim's broadscheme of three ages had any influence upon fifteenth andsixteenthcenturyFranciscans.The one trulyJoachimistelement to be foundis the concept of the "New SpritualMen" who would convertthe world.This aspect of the Calabrianabbot's programhas its roots deep in Fran-ciscanhistory.Very earlyin theirhistory, some Franciscans,especially theSpiritualFranciscans,believed themselves to be that evangelical order ofthe ThirdAge.5

Direct quotationsfrom Joachim of Fiore's genuine works are scarce inthe writingsof fifteenth and sixteenthcenturySpanishFranciscanauthors.The influence of his followers is more apparent.Interest n the Calabrianabbot was widespread by the early sixteenthcenturyas illustratedby theappearanceof Joachim'smajorworksandseveralspuriouswritingsin printfor the first time between 1516 and 1577. Joachim's own ideas becamealtered and debased, however, when other strainsof apocalypticthoughtwere added, creatinga medley of apocalypticlore from which emergedageneral feeling of anticipationthat importanteschatologicalevents wereaboutto occur.6spurious writingsand ideas of the abbot's, and the detectionand penetrationof the finer nuances ofJoachimandpseudo-Joachimhoughtandits influencethrough he sixteenthcentury.Morerecently,B.McGinn, TheCalabrianAbbot:Joachimof Fiore in theHistory of WesternThought New York, 1985),has produceda signal workby takinga fresh look at Joachim'sideas, thoroughlyexamininghis majorthemes, his apocalyptictheology of history, and his theoriesof biblical symbolismand exegesis. Seealso M. Bloomfield, "Joachimof Flora:A CriticalSurveyof his Canon,Teachings,Sources,BiographyandInfluence," Traditio(1957) 13, pp. 249-311, and his updatedbibliographic ssay, "Recent Schol-arshipon Joachimof Fioreand His Influence," in ProphecyandMillenarianism:Essays in Honour ofMarjorieReeves (London, 1980), pp. 21-52.

5 Reeves, Prophecy, pp. 191ff. and E.R. Daniel, "SpiritualityandPoverty:Angelo da ClarenoandUrbantinoda Casale," Mediaevalia et Humanistica(1973) 4, p. 96.6 See A. Castro,Aspectosdel vivirhispdnico: espiritualismo,mesianismoy actitudpersonal en lossiglos xv al xvi (Santiago,Chile, 1949), pp. 22-26, where he quotesseveralfifteenth-centuryCastilian


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296 APOCALYPTICMISSIONAND FRANCISCANSFrom the middle of the thirteenth century Abbot Joachim's thought andliterature were linked with the SpiritualFranciscans.7Leading Joachite

Spritual Franciscans and their disciples reshaped Joachim's originalteachingsand combined them with other theories to addresscontemporaryevents duringthe later Middle Ages; and by the middle of the fourteenthcentury,a mosaic of propheticsources had led the SpiritualFranciscans o abroaderapocalypticism.This new apocalypticismemphasizedevents nearthe end of time which includedthe salvationof all the world, the recaptureof Jerusalem, and the rule by a leader who would combine the powers ofboth church and state to prepare he way for Christ's secondcoming.8

PassionateJoachitessuch as PeterOlivi, Arnoldof Villanova andJean deRoquetailladewere central to this developmentandthey exercised extraor-dinaryinfluence over SpanishFranciscansand Franciscan ringe orders inthe fourteenthand fifteenthcenturies, especially the Beguines, Fraticelli,Brothersof Penitence,andmanyindividualmembersof Tertiaries.9

Using St. Francisas the model for the evangelical life outlined in theGospels, the Rule of 1223 andFrancis'Testamentas theirguides, the Spiri-tualpartywishedto reformthe vita apostolica to a strict adherence o pov-erty, humilityand renunciation.Beginningwith renewalwithin the Orderitself, it was the dreamof the Spirituals o reform he churchand the world.Joachimof Fiore's theorieslentjustificationandauthorityo theireffortsbypredictingthat the New Age would be led by new monasticcommunities.Theroots of the fifteenthcenturyObservantine eformare to be foundin thewritingsof thirteenthand fourteenthcentury SpiritualFranciscans.1otextsexpressingsuchimpulsesincludingG6mezManrique, orexample,who calls uponPrinceAlfonsoin 1468 to fulfill prophecy by conquering"the barbarousnations" in both Europe and elsewherethroughout he world.

7 Reeves, Prophecy,pp. 191ff. Morespecificallyfor thisstudy,see R. Manselli,Spiritualie Beghiniin Provenza(InstitutoStorico Italianoper il Medio Evo: StudiStorici, 31-34), Roma, 1959.8 Theideaof a powerful eaderoriginated romAngelo Clareno'scircle of SpiritualFranciscansn thethirteenth entury.It was formalized aterby PeterOlivi, Telesphonusof Cosenza,Arnoldof Villanova,and Jean de Roquetaillade,but the idea becamewidespreadandpopularizedwith the productionof the

pseudo-JoachiteLiber de Fiore and the Liberde summisPontificibus.Fora background o thisdevelop-ment, see R. Manselli, La "Lectura super Apocalypsim" de Pietro di Giovanni Olivi: Ricerchesull'escatologismo medioevale (IstitutoStorico Italianoper il Medio Evo, StudiStorici, Rome, 1955).

9 J. Perarnau,"Bibliografia teol6gica Catalana,"Analecta Sacra Terraconensia 45 (1972), pp.121ff; J.M. Pou y Marti, "Visionarios, Beguinos y FraticelosCatalanes, siglos xiii-xv," ArchivoIbero-Americano11-26 (1919-1926). Furtherevidence from Inquisitionrecordssuggest a flourishingandgrowingcircleof men concernedwitheschatologyfrom the fourteenth enturywho made extensiveuse of the Joachite sources. The trial of one FrayBernardFusterof Majorca n 1321, for example,focuseduponhis treatiseDe statibus ecclesiae secundumexpositionemApocalypsim,whichthe Inquis-itorsbelieved reliedheavily upon PeterOlivi's Postilla. Ibid., 18 (1922), p. 26.10 L. Oliger, "De Relatione nter ObservantiumQuerimonias1415) et UbertiniCasalensisquoddamScriptum,"ArchivumFranciscanumHistoricumIX (1916), p. 25ff.


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DELNO WEST 297The primarytheorists of the Spiritual Franciscans were Peter Olivi,Ubertinoda Casale andAngelo Clareno. Each was admiredby laterObser-

vantinereformers,but none perhapsso much as Olivi whose ideas enjoyedwide circulation in the fourteenth,fifteenthand sixteenth centuries. PeterOlivi's Expositio super regulam, a commentaryon the FranciscanRule of1223, and his Postilla super apocalypsimwereparticularly espectedby theObservantineswho had the Expositio super regulamprintedat Venice in1513."That PeterOlivi's Joachimist deas circulated n Spain in the fourteenthand fifteenth century can be documentedby surviving references. Abb6Vidal has detailed the influence of Olivi uponthe fourteenthcenturycircleof reformers ed by Philip of Majorca,and Pou y Martihas demonstratedthe importanceof the treatiseDe statibusecclesie secundumexpositionem

apocalypsis, which included lengthy excerpts from Olivi's Postilla in theCatalan anguage.2 Olivi's ideas also circulated hrough he writingsof hisdisciple Ubertinoda Casale's Arborvitaecrucifixae esu. Numerouscopiesof the Arbor vitae survive in Spainand it was translatednto CastilianforQueen Isabella.'13In the AbbotJoachimof Fiore'sscheme, the transition rom the second tothe thirdage of historywould include an intense missionaryeffort to con-vert all non-believers to the faith. The agents who would lead in this taskwere two future religious orders (viri spirituales). The two orders weresymbolized by Moses and Elijah, with Moses' orderbeing preachersandElijah'scontemplatives.Through ts preaching,theevangelicalorderwouldbring salvation ". ..universa multitudopopuli gentilis. . . ."14 Joachim

developedscripturalconcordsfor the viri spiritualesbased on the twelvePatriarchs n the FirstAge paralleledby the twelve Apostles in the SecondAge. Thus the ThirdAge would producea symbolic groupof twelve reli-gious designatedto leadhistorytowardthe expectedfuture.'5Peter Olivi inhis Expositiosuper regulam ncorporated oachim'sscheme intoChapter12of the FranciscanRule of 1223 by expanding St. Francis' statement on" D. Douie, The Nature and theEffect of theHeresy of theFraticelli (Manchester,1932), p. 100and

PeterOlivi, ExpositiosuperRegularam n Firmamentum riumordinum ntitulatur Venice, 1513), pt.III.12 A. Vidal, "Un ascete dusangroyal: Philipde Morque,"Revuede questionshistorique88 (1910),p. 396. Pou e Martf,"Visionarios," 18 (1922), p. 29ff.13 F. Callacy lists survivingmanuscriptsn "Les iders mystico-politiquesd'un franciscian pirituel,"Revue d'historireeccltsiestique XI (1910), pp. 721-727.14 Joachimof Fiore,ExpositioinApocalypsim Venice, 1527)f. 175 andsee Liber de ConcordiaNoviac Veteris Testamenti Venice, 1519), ff. 88'-89r.'s Liber de Concordia, ff. 21'-21', 70v, 84'-85r, andExpositio, ff. 175-176.


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298 APOCALYPTICISSIONANDFRANCISCANSmissionaryactivities to include an expectationof the salvationof the worldduringthe final days of the Second Age.16

Arnold of Villanova became the primaryconduitfor SpiritualFranciscanJoachimism in Spain.17 He had become personallyacquaintedwith PeterOlivi while both were teachersat Montpellierat the turn of the fourteenthcentury,and as courtphysicianat Arag6n,he was particularly espected.'"His apocalyptictreatisescontaina sense of imminenteschatologicaleventsand a renewal of the Churchby God's chosen elect, the SpiritualFran-ciscans, as well as the rule by "one pastorand one shepherd.""' His trea-tises, written in both Latin and Catalan,were condemnedin 1316 by theInquisitionat Tarragona,but his eschatologicalthoughthad alreadymadeits markupon Spanishthinkers.A redefinedJoachimismwas most eloquently presented n the fourteenthcenturyby Jean de Roquetaillade.20He concludedthat a world leader wouldrise up (in this case an angelic pope) and cause the immediateconversionofall Jews and infidels. The thirdstep in his eschatologyenvisioned the mil-lenniumbeginningwithpoliticalpowertransferredo Jerusalem rom which

the remnantsof a dissolving FranciscanOrder(the Elect) would carrytheGospel to the rest of the world.The developing apocalypticthought representedby Arnold of Villanovaand Jean de Roquetailladegreatlyinfluencedtwo importantSpanishwritersof the fourteenthandearlyfifteenth centuries: he FranciscanPrince,Peterof Arag6n(son of JamesII of Arag6n)andFrayFranciscExamenis.21After a distinguishedcareer at the royal court, Peter enteredthe Fran-

ciscan Order ollowing his wife's death n 1358. FrayPeter'sanalysisof thelast times not only relied on Jean de Roquetaillade,butuponthe thirteenth

16 Olivi, Expositiosuper Regularam,ff. 123'-124r.17Pou y Marti, "Visionarios" 11 (1919), pp. 168ff.18 R. Manselli, "Arnaldo da Villenova, diplomatic, medico, teologo e riformatiorereligioso alle

soglie del sec. xiv," HumanitasVIII (Brescia, 1953), p. 269.19R. Manselli, "La religiosithdi ArnaldodaVillanova,"Bulletinodell'IstitutoStoricoItalianoper ilMedioEvo 63 (1951), p. 59. Manselli's article containslarge excerptsfrom Villanova's texts.2o The most authoritative tudyof the life and thoughtof Jean de Roquetaillades by J. Bignami-Odier, Etudessur Jean de Roquetaillade(Johannesde Rupescissa)(Paris, 1952).21H. Lee & M. Reeves, Summula eu Breviloquium uperConcordianovi et veteri Testamenti withtext editedby H. Lee & G. Silano, forthcoming,Universityof TorontoPress),p. 155 in the typescript.Iwish to thankDr. Lee forpermission o use this materialon which I have reliedheavilyconcerningFrayPeter and Fray FranciscExamenis. A most useful account of the life and bibliographyof FrancescExamenis has been completed recently by J. Webster, "Nuevas aportacionesa los estudios Exa-minanos--FranciscExamenis,OFM: su familia y su vida," Archivo Ibero-AmericanoXXXIX (1979),pp. 429-438.


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DELNOWEST 299century pseudo-Joachim work, Super Hieremiam.22 He outlined an imme-diate future in which the king of Arag6n would conquer all of Spain andthen attack the Moslems, over whom he would be victorious and fromwhom he would recapture Jerusalem. A fifteen year reign of peace andtranquility would follow at the close of which the final Antichrist wouldappear.

Fray Francisc Examenis was a more classical Joachite who loosely fol-lowed Joachim's chronological patterns of three and seven.23 In the sixthera of the second age, he anticipated a princeps mundi (appearing to bepious but in fact he would be evil) who would be mighty on the sea, con-quer many islands and subjugate many nations. This princeps mundi wouldconquer all Christendom and Jerusalem before revealing himself as the lastvestige in a series of antichrists before the final Antichrist. Examenis'works were popular throughout the fifteenth century, being copied as late as1477.

During the latter part of the fifteenth century, Franciscan houses in Spainunderwent extensive reform which brought the Order there under the con-trol of the Observantine party. The Observantine movement began in Spainaround 1390 as a protest against nonfeasance in the Order. Just as the dissi-dents in fringe orders before them, its promoters wished to observe exactlythe Rule of St. Francis as approved by Pope Honorius III in 1223. Theirinspiration was drawn from the Spiritual Franciscans whose links to theJoachite movement were well established.24

Franciscan fringe orders had existed in Spain from the earliest years; andaccording to Inquisition records, individuals and groups within them whoheld apocalyptic beliefs were frequently labeled as "Joachite."25 Groupssuch as the Beguines and Fraticelli typified the desire of many to live thesimple life which they believed to have been taught by St. Francis. Theirpersistence in following a rigorous observance of the Rule of 1223 eventu-ally led to major reform by the late fifteenth century which had direct influ-ence upon New World Franciscan missionaries. The most austere way oflife was followed and encouraged by such diverse characters as Cardinal

22 In 1377 he wroteExposici6 de la visiddamuntvita in which he copiouslycites Jeande Roquetail-ladeand the pseudo-Joachim uperHieremiam.ThesuperHieremiamwas written n theearlythirteenthcenturyandbecame an instantsuccess due to its oppositionto the EmperorFrederick I. Its popularitywas retainedto the point thatit was the first of the Joachimist iteraturepublished, even before Joa-chim's genuine works, at Venice in 1516.23His majorworkswereApparatusde triplicistatu mundi and Vida de Jesuchrist.Reeves, Prophecy, pp. 229-330.25 Pou y Marti, "Visionarios" 18 (1922), p. 25.


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300 APOCALYPTICISSIONANDFRANCISCANSXimenes, FrayJuanof Guadalupe, eaderof the Discalced movement andreformerof the Franciscanhouses in Extremadura,and Fray John Perez,Guardianof SantaMariade La R~ibida.

Reforms toward a stricterobservanceof the Rule of 1223 spread amongscattered Franciscanconvents after 1390, but the appointmentof FrancisXimenes de Cisneros as Provincial or the Castile Province in 1492 intensi-fied the reformmovement which ended in the dominationby the Observan-tine branchof the Order n Spain. As both Provincialfor the FriarsMinorand as Queen Isabella'sconfessor, Ximenes immediately nitiatedchangesthroughoutCastile. In 1495, he was elevated to the archbishopric f Toledowhich made him Primateof all Spain and Chancellorof Spain. Using hisnew position, he extended his reforms to all Franciscanconvents. He un-doubtedlyexceededhis legal rightsin suppressing he Conventualbranchofthe Order,but his own piety and intentionswere held in high reputation.

SpanishFranciscan ibrarieshave not been adequatelysurveyedfor theirJoachiteor otherpropheticholdings.26 The typical Franciscanconvent li-braryformeda nucleus of books related to preaching:Bibles, Bible com-mentariesand exegeses, homiletical works, postils, florilegia and exem-plorum.27 It is true thatone tenet of the SpiritualFranciscaneachingcalledfor only smallconvent libraries o meet minimalrequirementsorpreachingwithoutcorruptingvows of poverty. After the fifteenthcenturyin Spain,however, at the encouragementof CardinalXimenes, most convents fol-lowing a strict observance of the Rule of St. Francis had large bookholdingsanyway.

Copies of Joachimof Fiore's Liber de Concordianovi et veteris Testa-menti survivein Spainand therearecopies of the so-calledpopeprophecies(Liberde summisPontificibus), the spuriousRevelacions de S. Francesc,the Liber de ProvincialibusPresagiis and the majorworks of the above-mentioned Joachite Franciscans.28 Numerous compilations of prophetictexts were collated in the later Middle Ages throughoutEurope.29Spain,with its victories againstthe Moors, its Inquisitionagainstheretics, its ex-

26 A model survey of Catalonia has been made by Pere Borigas i Balaguer, "Profecies Catalanes delssegles xiv-xv: Assaig bibliogrific," Butllet( de la Biblioteca de Catalunya 6 (1920-1932), pp.3-49.Balaguer limits his lists to holdings in Catalonia, Madrid, Barcelona and Carpentras.

27 J. Lenhart, History of Franciscan Libraries in the Middle Ages (Washington, D.C., 1954), p. 182.28 Besides Balaguer, "Profecies Catalanes," see F. Russo, Bibliografia Gioachimita (Firenze, 1954),

pp. 16, 20, 44, 53, 156. Other lists are found in E.R. Daniel, Abbot Joachim of Fiore, Liber deConcordia Novi ac Veteris Testamenti (American Philosophical Society, Transactions 73, Philadelphia,1983), p. 11, and Reeves, Prophecy, pp. 511-540.

29 Balaguer, "Profecies Catalanes," lists several such as the Refundicio compendiada de la summaconcordiae Veteris et Novi Testamenti di Joachim, p. 26.


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DELNO WEST 301pulsion of the Jews, and its nationalisticaspirationsexpressedby unifica-tion of the kingdomsof the Iberianpeninsula, naturally urned o prophetictexts to seek eschatologicalexplanations or its successes. A clearexampleof this trend was the production n the mid-fourteenth enturyof the Sum-mula sue Breviloquiumsuper Concordia novi et VeterisTestamenti. Thisimportantmanuscript,well larded withfigurae, concord charts and popeprophecies, was composed between 1351-1355 and frequentlyrecopiedatleast until 1488.

TheBreviloquiumwas a synthesisof Joachite houghtcontainingpartsofJoachim'sLiber de Concordia Novi et VeterisTestamenti,excerpts fromother genuine writings by the CalabrianAbbot, plus pseudo-JoachiteandJoachite literature.The evidence points to significantfamiliaritywith theworks of PeterOlivi, Arnoldof Villanova andJean de Roquetailladeby theauthor.Accordingto HaroldLee and MarjorieReeves, who have made athoroughstudyof this text, theBreviloquiumwas a "revisedJoachimism ofit the times."30The authorof the Breviloquiumsaw the rise of Cataloniaand Arag6n

undera "novus Zorobabel" as representativeof the fourthbeast and theeleventh kingdomfrom the seed of the eagle (Rome). He would recaptureJerusalem and usher in a period of "silence" during which the templewould be rebuilt.31This "novus Zorobabel"would be the final power ofrighteousness:a priest-kingwho wouldjoin Churchand state to bring peaceandjustice, convert the Jews and infidels, and gatherall "the sheep to-getherunderone shepherd."32Perhapsthe most influentialand important reatise for the laic commu-

nity, but one which touchedthe religiouscommunitytoo, was a commen-taryon St. Johnand St. Isidoresent to all the nobles of Castile in 1486 byDon RodrigoPonce de Le6n. This commentary,distributedwith the king'spermissionand blessing, identifiedKing Ferdinandas the New David andthe reincarnation f the last worldemperorwho supposedlyhadbeen asleepfor several centuries.33The invention of printingincreased the distributionof prophetictexts30 Lee & Reeves, Breviloquium,p. 1 (typescript).3' Ibid., p. 218 (typescript).Drs. Lee and Reeves interpret his as closely following Joachim ofFiore's symbolismwhich used the ascent of Zorobabel o Jerusalem o typifytheushering n of theNewAge.32 Ibid., p. 226 (typescript).33Historia de los hechos de Don Rodrigo Ponce de Ledn, Marqudsde Cddiz (Colecci6nde docu-mentosin6ditospara a historiade Espaiia,Madrid,1893)t. 106, pp. 247-248. Forthe medieval idea ofthe sleepingemperorreturned o life, see Reeves, Prophecy,pp. 332-346.


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302 APOCALYPTICISSIONANDFRANCISCANSthroughoutEurope.It becamepopular o publishanthologiesof prophecyaswell as the texts of importantpropheticwriters.An exampleof such antho-logies in Spainwas the compilationof apocalypticalwritingsmade by thepublishinghouse of PabloHurus n 1495 or 1496 at Zaragoza.The collec-tion includedmiscellaneous sermons andtreatiseswhichdiscussed contem-porarypropheticthemes and two importantapocalyptictexts:MartinMar-tinez de Ampi~s,Librodel Antecristo(writtenc. 1493) and the olderEpis-tolas de Rabi Samuel.34Ampi~s had summarizedeschatological writings,old andnew, concludingthat the worldstrugglebetweenthe forces of An-tichrist (backed by Jews and Moslems) and Christendomwas imminent.This war would result in Christianvictory led by the Spanishmonarch,arapidconversion of all the world, and a golden age of life andknowledgewhereall Scripturalmeaningwould be revealed.35

The circulationof apocalypticwritings and their popularitycoincidedwith the desire for a fundamental edemption n the FranciscanOrderandindeed the entire ChristianChurchin Spain. The ProtestantReformation,comingon the heels of the discoveryof the New World,added more fuel tothe apocalypticfires alreadyburning n Spain. It was natural o believe thatthese constellationsof events were connectedandthat Christ's Churchwasdestined to survive in the unspoilt,uncorruptedands discoveredin 1492.

ChristopherColumbus'attractiono prophetic nterpretationf events setthe stage for New Worldeschatology, andhis close ties to the Franciscanorderplacedhim withintheir circle of mysticism.36He came to the conclu-sion that his discoveries were providentialand partof a broader schemewhich would lead to a final series of historicalevents includingthe recap-ture of Jerusalem,the rebuildingof the temple, and the salvation of allJews, infidels andpagans. On two occasions, in his third ournaland in aletter to Pope AlexanderVI in 1502, he stated thathe had seen the site ofthe Gardenof Eden. Furthermore,eflectingon his discoveries,he wrotetothe tutorof PrinceJohn of Spainto explainthe significanceof October12,1492:

Godmademe the messenger f the New Heavenandthe New Earthof

34refer to the Burgoseditionof 1497 held by the BibliothequeNationalin Paris(R6s. D. 6201).35 Ibid., chap. xxvii.36 Columbus'close association with the FranciscanOrdercannot be ignoredas it placedhim in thecenter of apocalypticenthusiastsof the late fifteenthcentury.On this asssociationandthe possibilityofhis membershipn the ThirdOrderof St. Francis,see Milhou,Col6n, pp. 42-43, andJ. Gill Fernandez,"Los franciscanosy Col6n," Actas del I CongresoInternacionalsobreLos Franciscanosen el NuevoMundo(Madrid, 1987), p. 101.


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DELNOWEST 303which He spoke in theApocalypse by St. John, afterhavingtold of it by themouthof Isaiah;andHe showed me whereto find it.37Columbus so firmly believed that his discovery was the fulfillment ofprophecythathe devotedthe monthsbetween his thirdand fourthvoyage tocompilingthe Libro de las profecias in which he, togetherwith his friendand fellow Italian,Fray GasparGorritio,broughttogetherrelevantScrip-tures and Biblical commentariesto prove his strongconviction. He evencomposed a chronologyin his treatisein which he calculated that the se-quences he outlined would happenwithinthe next 155 years. Historiogra-phicallyandeschatologically,the discoveryof the New Worldwas seen by

him and othersas an event whichrankedwith theCreationand with Christ'sIncarnation nd Passion.38The confusion over what exactly Columbushad discovered led some ofhis contemporariesto believe that western Christianitywould soon belinked with mythicalorientalChristianity. f he hadtrulylanded n a partofthe fareast, thenit was assumedthathe would come intocontactwith thoseChristian ommunities irstformedby the ApostleThomas. JaimeFerrerde

Blanes, the Catalanjeweler, geographer, astrologer and advisor to theSpanishmonarchs,wrote to Columbuson August5, 1495, to give the Ad-miral geological tips for finding gold during his third voyage. But Ferrercould not resist commenting on the apocalyptical significance of Columbus'discoveries andmission:.. .Divine Providence sent the great Thomas from Occident to Orient topreach in India our holy catholic faith, and you were sent in the oppositedirection. . .and thus will be accomplishedthe supremepredictionthat thewhole world shall be underone shepherdandone law. .. .39

Columbus declared that the discoveries he had made were the unidenti-fied Biblical lands of Tarshish,Cathyr,andOphir.4 To him it was impor-

37 Racolta di documenti e studipubblicatidella R. CommissioneColombianaper quartocentenariodella scopeda dell' America C6sarde Lollis, ed. (Scrittidi Colombo, Roma, 1894) II, pt. 1, p. 66.Journal,p. 38, Letter to AlexanderVI, p. 165.38 ChristopherColumbus, Libro de las profecias (Racolta Colombina, II, pt. 1), p. 81. FranciscoL6pez de G6mara,Chaplainto HernfinCort6sand whose history was one of the most popularNew

Worldaccounts,proclaimed he discoverythe "greatestevent since the creationof the worldexcept forthe birthanddeath of ourSavior. That is why theycall it the New World."Hispanic Victrix,Primeraysegundaparte de la historiageneral de las Indias (Bibliotecade AutoresEspafioles,Madrid,1852) t.22, p. 156. Banned n Spain by King PhilipII, theHistoria, nevertheless,was publishedseveral times inItalian,French,Englishand Latin from 1556 to 1605.39Fora copy of thislettersee J.B. Thacher,ChristopherColumbus:His Life,His Work,His Remains(KrausReprint,New York, 1967) II, p. 369.4 Columbus,Profecias, p. 105.


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304 APOCALYPTICISSION ND FRANCISCANStant that action be taken immediately. In a letter accompanying the Libro delas profecias addressed to Ferdinand and Isabella (dated 1502 or 1503), heurged the monarchs to note key passages in Matthew, Mark and Luke,which he interpretedas a commandfor the Gospel to be preachedto theIndians.41

In the Libro de las profecias, Columbushad plannedto summarizehiseschatological thoughtsin a lengthy epocalypticpoem but he died beforefinishing the task. Attributinghis beliefs to Scripturalpassages, prophets,andexegetes of prophecy,he developedbasic themesin which the Spanishmonarchywas calledby Godto convertthe newly foundpaganpeoples andto recaptureJerusalemandMt. Zion.42 Columbus'primary criptural efer-ences were the Psalms and the apocryphalEsdras;his favoritenon-Biblicalauthorswere PeterD'Ailly, selected ChurchFathers,and well known medi-eval theologians.He also gives creditto thepseudo-Methodius,the Sybils,Merlinand to Joachimof Fiore.

The influenceof PeterD'Ailly's Imago mundihas long been recognizedas one of Columbus'chief sourcesfor ideas aboutcosmography.A recentstudy of Columbus' use of Peter D'Ailly's Opuscula demonstratestheequally important oleof D'Ailly's otherwritingswhichwere moreorientedtoward prophetic interpretation: ". . .D'Ailly in Imago mundi and in theOpuscula providedColumbuswith summariesof contemporary nowledgeaboutthe physicalcosmos and aboutthatcosmos' eschatology."43

The Admiral'sstudiesof PeterD'Ailly's texts andhis knowledgeof thepseudo- Methodiusled him to conclude that a victoriousmonarchwoulddefeat the Moslem andinitiate a periodof tranquility.44 hisperiodof bliss

41Ibid., p. 80. The native populationof the lands he had found he said were "unclothed, wellformed, unarmedand not practicingidolatry,but prepared o believe in one God as creator." Thispristine mage becameengraved n the Europeanmindwhen it was publishedby PeterMartyrn his DeOrbeNovo. See also R. Romeo, La scopertaAmericananella coscienze italiana del Cinquecento Cic-ciardi, 1954), p. 72. The idea of the noble savagewas quicklytransmitted y Columbus,PeterMartyr,and Amerigo Vespucio. An excellent study is by G. Chinard,L'Amdrique t le rave exotiquedans lalittiratureFrangaise au xvii et xviii sidcles (Paris, 1934). To the early Franciscanmissionaries,thesedescriptionswere encouragingas they pictureda people already living in Gospel simplicity ready toreceive the message of salvation.42 Columbus, Profecias, p. 148.

43P. Watts, "Prophecyand Discovery:On the SpiritualOriginsof ChristopherColumbus' 'Enter-prise of the Indies'," AmericanHistoricalReview90 (1985), p. 92.

44 The standard tudyof thepseudo-Methodiuss still E. Sackur,SibyllinischeTexteu. Forschungen.Pseudo-MethodiusAdso u. die triburtinischeSibylle (Halle, 1898), see especially pp. 53-56. Thepseudo-Methodiusext was writtenin the ByzantineEmpireduringthe seventhcenturyandprintedatCologne in 1475 and again by SebastianBrant in 1498. Modern scholarshipby P. Alexander, M.Reeves and B. McGinn has shown that the historyof propheticthoughtfrom the late Middle Ages


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DELNOWEST 305would be shortlived when the "gates of the north" wouldbe opened andthose people shutout in ancient times by Alexanderthe Greatwould floodin. The monarchwouldflee to Jerusalemwhere he would diejust beforetheAntichrist would appear. After a brief reign by Antichrist,Christwouldtriumphantly eturn.The astrologyof PeterD'Ailly and Roger Bacon (in-corporated nto Imago Mundi) indicatedto Columbus that the stars weremoving into properposition for these events to occur, which explains hisurgency in proposingthat the SpanishmonarchscaptureJerusalem.45 Theselection of the Spanish monarchyto captureJerusalemwas not withoutlegal basis either. The title, "Patronof the Holy Places," originallyinher-ited by King PedroIV had been retainedby the house of Arag6n.

From the beginningColumbuswas concernedwith the conversion of thepeoples he had discovered. As early as his second voyage he had takenalonghis friendFrayJohnP6rez,theGuardian f LaR~ibida, s anobserverand other Franciscans o begin mission activity.46The friarsquickly builtconventsat SantoDomingoandConcepci6nde la Vega;andin 1504, PopeAlexanderVI appointeda Franciscan,FrayGarciade Padilla,the first NewWorldbishop.47ScatteredFranciscanmissionscontinuedbut none were toosuccessful in convertingthe Indianpeoples fromtheir native beliefs.Columbus'close associationwith the Orderof Friars Minor stimulated

his spirituality,andhis Librode lasprofeciasreflected atefifteenthcenturyeschatologicalideas which promotedapocalypticmission andthe recaptureof Jerusalem.ConsequentlyColumbusbelievedthatan all out effort shouldbe made, organizedandpromotedby the monarchsof Spain.Despite Columbus' insistentplea that the Spanishmonarchs akeup theirprophesiedrole in unfoldingworldevents, it was not Columbuswho finally

developedas the major heme the idea of a finalempire.Thegeneraltheme of thelast worldempirewasbased on the book of Daniel in the Old Testament,the pseudo-Methodius,and selected patternsfromJoachitethought.This theorydevelopeda succession of worldkingdomsculminating n the messianicfifth monarchy. P. Alexander, "Byzantium and the Migrationof LiteraryWorks and Motifs: TheLegendof the Last WorldEmperor,"Medievalia et Humanistica ns 2 (1971), pp. 47-82; M. Reeves,Prophecy,pp. 295ff.; B. McGinn, Visionsof theEnd:ApocalypticTraditions n theMiddleAges (NewYork, 1979), pp. 33-35, 43-45, 184-187, 275-285. The popularityof this theme in Spainis seen clearlyin the works of several sixteenth-and seventeenth-centurywriterssuch as Matinsde Paz and Juan dePalafox. These two and othersasserted hat such a kingdomwouldbe raisedup in the New World underSpanish leadershipaccordingto J. Jover, "Sobre los conceptos de monarqufay naci6n en el pensa-mientopolitico espafioldel siglo xvii," Cuadernosde Historia de Espafia(Buenos Aires, 1950), p. 37.45Columbus,Profecias, p. 81 andp. 108.* H. Lippens, "De Fr. Ioannede la Deules, missionarioAmericae(1493-1510)," ArchivumFranci-scanumHistoricum XXVII (1934), p. 70.

47 L. Canedo, "Primeros intentos de evangelizaci6nfranciscanaen Tierra Firma 1508-1553," Ar-chivumFranciscanumHistoricum L (1957), pp. 99-100.


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306 APOCALYPTIC MISSION AND FRANCISCANSconvinced the Spanishrulers o action. Itwas HernoinCort6swho persuadedKing CharlesV to make a majorcommitmentto spreadthe Gospel to theNew World Indians.Cort6swas a sincerely pious man who was perceivedas subjugatinghe New World in preparationor the Gospel message. Inhisdescriptionof Cort6s'piety, Ger6nimode Mendieta used the typology ofthe New Moses who had openedthe lands in the New World for mission-ariesto initiate a new Christendom.48

The missionariessentin responseto Cort6s'plearecognizedthepotentialfor a new churchin a new land. Martinde Valencia, Motolinia,Ger6nimode Mendietaand others were sent from the reformedObservantine onventsof Spainand soughtto create a monasticspiritualchurchbasedon the vitaapostolica - a dreamof the Franciscanssince the thirteenth entury.Men-dieta, in the Preface letter to his Historia eclesidstica indiana, picturedEurope ost to the forces of Luther ust when the New Worldwas opened bythe new Moses so that a reformedchurch,loyal to thepope and one like theApostolicAge, could be established.49

Cort6s'fourth etterto CharlesV contains a lengthy appealfor thekingtosend missionaries, specifically Mendicants, to spreadthe Gospel in thelands he had taken for the crown.5?He specifically requestedFranciscanand Dominican friars so that the Indians would be taughtChristianitybybothword andexamplewithout the embellishmentsand less pious ways ofthe secular clergy. CharlesV responded favorably by appointingthe re-spectedFranciscanProvincialof San Gabriel,FrayMartinde Valencia, tolead a party of twelve Franciscansto the New World.51The party waschosen from the provinceof Extremadura,Cort6s'home and a noted centerfor Franciscanreformwith an unusuallystrictemphasisuponausterityandpoverty. Amid extraordinary eremony, Fray Martinand his companionswere commissioned by the missionary-mindedMinister-Generalof theFriars Minor in person, Fray Franciscode los Angeles (Quinofies)on 25January1524.

The symbolismof sendingtwelve brothersof the Orderwas noticed byeveryone. A majormissionary hrust nto the New World had been also thedreamof Franciscode los Angeles who hadplannedto lead a missionthere

48Phelan,MillennialKingdom, p. 29.49Ibid.50F. McNutt,Lettersof Cortis (New York & London, 1908)II, pp. 213-217. Actuallyon August30,1523, threeFranciscanshadalreadyarrived n Mexico led by Peterof Ghent,a relativeof CharlesV, but

they were workingon their own without official recognition.5' Onlyeleven sailed. FrayMartinde la Corufiahad been sent to theSpanishcourtand failed to returnon time to catchthe ship. He was, nevertheless,officially listed as belongingto the group.


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DELNO WEST 307himself before being called to Church administration. According to Moto-linia, Franciscode los Angeles related his vision in privateto FrayMartinusing vegetation symbolism of harvesting"spiritualfruits" from the ex-pected mission.52

The intense wording of the Minister-General's"Obedience" issued tothese friarsreflected Franciscode los Angeles' interestand called attentionto the eschatologicalurgencyof theirmission in what he called "these lastdays."Among the continuouscares and affairswhich daily presentthemselves tome andoccupy my mind, this one presses, worriesand afflicts me firstof all,as to how with all thecunningof my bowels andcontinualsighs of my heart,Imight labor with the apostolic man and fatherof ours, St. Francis, towardliberatingandsnatchingawayfrom the maw of thedragon he souls redeemedwith the most preciousblood of our Lord Jesus Christ,deceived by Satanicwiles. . .For, indeed, the bountyof the EternalFatherchose the same sera-phic standard-bearerf Christto exalt the glory of His nameandprocure hesalvation of souls, and to forestall the ruin whichthreatenedhe Church...

andcontinuing,But now that hedayis farspentandpassingaway,which s theeleventhhour of whichthe the Gospel speaks, you arecalledby the head of the familyto go forthinto His vineyard;not hired for a price like the others, but ratherlike truesons of such a father...

and finally,To you, therefore,O sons, with the last end of the world at hand. ..takingup the victorious contest of the heavenly Victor, you preach by word andwork.. .hurrydown now to the active life.53

In this same vein, the Minister-Generalommandedthem in his "Instruc-tions," which are a list of practicalandadministrative oints,

And thereforeat presentI do not send more thanone superiorandtwelvecompanions,because this was the numberwhich Christtook in His companyto carryout the conversion of the world. And St. Francis,ourfather,did thesame for announcing he Gospel.54

s2 Motolinia, Historia, p. 155. In the concord tables of the Breviloquium, the author clearly chose theFriars Minor as the order of New Men selected to fulfill the prophetic role in the salvation of the world.Joachim of Fiore used various types in his schemata to symbolize the new orders of men. Besides Mosesand Elijah, Joachim also used Elijah and Elisha (Liber de Concordia, f. 68') and Joseph and St. John theEvangelist (Expositio in Apocalypsim, ff. 22 and 204). In the Breviloquium, Joseph is identified as theOrder of St. Francis in the concords, Summula seu Breviloquium super Concordia novi et veteri Testa-menti (British Library, Eg. 1150), f. 16r.

53 The Oroz Codex (A. Chavez, ed. and trans., Academy of American Franciscan History, Wash-ington, D.C., 1972), Appendix, pp. 348-350.4 Ibid., p. 357.


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308 APOCALYPTICMISSIONAND FRANCISCANSTo further mphasizetheir mission Franscisode los Angeles namedthe newCustos, the "Custodyof the Holy Gospel."

Motolinia, a memberof the groupand its chief chronicler,emphasizedthe missionarycommandof St. Francis foundin Chapter12 of the Rule of1223.55The new missionaries raveledslowly to theirassignment, stoppingfrequently n the islands beforeproceeding o Mexico. Eitherby accidentorby design, they landedon the shore of Mexico May 12 duringthe Vigil ofPentecost. Thus the Franciscanmission to Mexico paralleled n time andsymbol thatof the twelve Apostles.

Sent off as the "new Apostles" these twelve friars were receivedacrossthe ocean in the same manner.When the new missionariesarrived,HernminCort6s ed a largeentourageof officials out to meet them, dismounted, ookoff his hat, knelt and kissed the hem of FrayMartin'srobe.Almost immedi-ately, these men scattered n twos and fours to preachthe Gospel by wordandexampleas instructedcenturiesbeforeby St. Francis.

We know thatFrayMartinde Valencia, while he was Provincial at SanGabrielin Extremadura,was a follower of the well known Franciscanre-former,Juan de Guadalupe.FrayJuande Guadalupehad introduced xten-sive reformsat the five convents in Extremaduran orderto reestablish heideal of strict observanceof the Rule of 1223. The Discalcedreformpartyof Juande Guadalupe ikely had been touchedby the growing eschatolo-gical thoughtof the fifteenth and sixteenthcenturies.Fray Martinde Va-lencia lived underFrayJuande Guadalupe'sdirection or severalmonthstoachieve extremepovertyand an austere ife. Eventually,he establishedhisown friaryat SantaMaria del Berrocalbased on a literalfollowing of St.Francis' Rule of 1223. SantaMariadel Berrocal aterwas incorporatedntothe Custodyof San Gabriel.

Motoliniapresents an interestingaccount of ProvincialMartin de Va-lencia. To him FrayMartinachieveda remarkablemitation of the life ofSt. Francis.He records thatupon finishinghis novitiate,FrayMartin,fol-lowing the thirteenth-century xample of St. Francis, appearedbefore hisfamily and friendsin Valencia, strippedoff his clothes and renouncedhisworldlyrelationsandgoods. FrayMartin,we aretold, frequentlywent intoecstasy and rapture,especially whenever he meditated on the cross andpassionof Christ.In the middleof a sermon,his body would go rigid andhis fellow friarswould have to carryhim back to his cell. Motoliniasoughtto underlineFray Martin'spiety and tells us, for example, how Martin

ss Motolinia, Historia, p. 156.


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DELNOWEST 309always traveledbarefooted(the symbol of Discalcedpoverty) regardlessofhis age, health or the weather. The chroniclerdescribes Fray Martinasbeinghappiestwhen he retreatedo his hermitageat Amaquemecano med-itate. On at least one occasion his deep contemplationwas rewarded atAmaquemecanby visitations from St. Francis and St. Anthonywho con-soled him.

Earlyin his career,FrayMartinhad a vision whichhe laterunderstoodastheNew Worldmission. In 1510or 1511, during heAdventseason, he wasreflectingon Psalm 58 which he believed prophesied he conversionof allunbelievers. He asked, "When will this be? When will this prophecybefilled. . .we are alreadyin the afternoon,at the end of our days, and theworld's final era." Later n the same week while readingfromthe prophetIsaiahto the assembledbrothers,he entered nto a stateof ecstasyandsaw avision of vast multitudesbeing convertedand baptised.Overcomeby thissight, he began to shout over and over, "Praise be Jesus Christ!" Theassembled friarsbelieving him to have gone mad, locked him in his cellwhere he remained n ecstasy most of the day andprayedto be chosen topreach and convert all heathen. Laterin the New World, he relatedthisvision to Motolinia, who recordedit, and declared:"Now I see fulfilledwhat the Lordshowed me in his spirit."56Fray Martinand his brothershad come from Franciscanhouses whichhadundergonea reform withina reform. Thatis, they as discalcedor bare-footed friars,followed an even stricteradherence o the Rule of 1223 thandid other Observantinehouses. Their austerityfrequentlyled to ecstasy,visions and heights of contemplativebliss possible only throughextreme

meditation and denial of the body. Now these friarswere in a new worlduntouchedby the corruptionof the old. Here dreams of "renovatioeccle-siae" could become a realtiythrough he "Iglesia indiana."57In a pristineland, among a noble receptive people, apocalyptichopes could flourish.Motolinia wrote an idealized account of the native populationin his His-toria de los indios de la Nueva EspaTiawhere he picturedthem as naturalpractitionersof Franciscanapostolicpoverty. Because he believed the In-dian characterclosely resembledthat believed to have been the nature ofChristiansduring the apostolic age of the Church, and because they re-ceived the Gospel message so anxiously, he believed theirconversionhadeschatologicalsignificance:

s6 Ibid., pp. 102-103, 151-152.s7The relationshipof the Iglesia indiana to Europeanconcepts of utopia has been studiedby G.Baudot, Utople, see especially pp. 83-84.


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310 APOCALYPTICISSIONANDFRANCISCANSEverywhereon thisroundearththe name of God mustbe glorified,praisedand extolled, andjust as the name of God flourishedat the beginningof theChurchn the East whichs thebeginningf theearth) o now,attheend ofthecenturies,t must lourishn the West(which s theend of theearth).58

Motoliniahad also been a member of the Discalced Reform movementled by Fray Juan of Guadalupewhile he was living at the Custody ofPiedad. In his Historia, he exhibits an intense devotionto St. Francis andthe ideal of poverty.His devotion is best demonstratedn the name he tookupon his arrivalin the New World. Shortly after landing in Mexico, hechanged his name from Toribio de Benavente to "Motolinia" because"Motolinia"was Tlaxcalan or "poorone." Motoliniaheldvariousofficesrisingto Provincial. He becamean experton the Indians and in his chron-icle exhorted the king of Spainto hurrythe missionaryprocess so thathemight rightfully assume his role as the leader of Christ's worldwidekingdom."59er6nimo de Mendietareached similarconclusions abouthowthe Spanishking had been given uncommonpowerson earth with the con-currentobligationto carryout missionaryworkin the New Worldbecausethe "world is in its eleventhhour."60

By 1539, the missionaryeffort was showing greatsuccess. It has beenestimated that Indian conversions could be counted into the thousands,other religious ordershad joined with the Franciscansin the missionaryeffort, schools had been organized,and an organizedChurchhad been im-posed upon New Spain.61The play performedat Tlaxcalamade sense fornow was the time to initiateinterestin the second stage of the apocalypticexpectation - the conquestof Jerusalem.Indeed,Motoliniacouldvery wellhave authored he play himself and caused its performance.

Althoughhe was not a Franciscan,Jos6 de Acosta summarized he earlyeschatological mpulseof the Franciscanmissionarys'view of theirworkinHistoria naturaly moral de las Indias. Acosta likens the passage to theNew Worldby FrayMartinandhis brothers o Noah's arkguardedby anangel.62In chapter 15, he elaboratelyoutlinedhow the discovery of the

58 Motolinia,Historia, p. 194.9 Ibid., pp. 144-146. Vasco de Quirogabelieved that the Indianchurchreflectedthe church of theapostlesandthatthe age in which he was writing(1535) was the "golden age of the New World." Seehis "Informaci6nen derechodel licenciado Quiroga, sobrealgunasProvisionesdel Consejode Indias

(1535)," Colecciknde documentosndditosrelativosal descubrimiento, onquistay organizaciknde lasantiguas posesiones espaiiolas de America y Occeania (J. Pacheco, ed., Madrid, 1868) IX, pp.490-491.

6 Ger6nimode Mendieta,Vidasfranciscanas(J. Iguiniz, ed., Mexico City, 1945), p. 182.61 C. Braden,ReligiousAspectsof the Conquestof Mexico (Durham,1930), p. 226-227.62 JOs6de Acosta,Historianaturaly moralde las Indias(Fondode CulturaEcon6mica,Mexico City,1950), p. 45.


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DELNOWEST 311New World had been prophesiedby both IsaiahandObadiah.Spainis in-terpretedas the spiritualJerusalem o whomGod had shown a new worldtosave. Acosta was so anxious to incorporatehe New World nto the spiritualhistory of Christendom,that he wrote a separatetreatise,De temporibusnovissimis in 1592. De temporibusnovissimis was an attemptto work outGod's redemptive history throughthe use of concordantprophecies. Hisemphasis, in this treatise, on the original twelve missionaries sent toMexico has overtones of Joachimof Fiore's twelve spiritual eaders whowould usherin the New Age.63

Not everyone viewed the American Indian as the naturalpossessor of anaturereminiscentof those Christiansn the ApostolicChurch.Many ques-tioned whetherthe Indianscould be consideredhumanand if they even hada soul since no reference was made to them in Scriptureor in the ancientclassics. The gist of their argumentwas that the Indians were sub-humanand thus legally andmorally subjectto exploitation.It was duringdebates over the human and naturalrights of the nativepopulation of the New World that a common interest in eschatology

touched the scholars of the sixteenthcentury.The suddendiscoveryof sucha large, unknownpopulationposed importantquestionsto churchmenandto laymen of the day which caused a rushto search the Scriptures or an-swers. Ideally, the exegetes hoped to find an announcementof the dis-covery amongthe Old Testamentprophetsor in the New TestamentApoca-lypse.64

Many arguedthatthe Indianshad to be descendedfromthe lost ten tribesof Israel, who, accordingto the ApocryphalEsdras,Chapter4, would re-turn at the end of time. This theory, of course, not only strengthened helegal position of the native population, it fed new fuel to the glowingembers of apocalypticismas it made them God's people revealedneartheend of time whose salvationwouldherald heconsummationof history.Theexploration of Yucatin offered visible proof to back up this seductivethesis. Yucatin sounded too much like the mysterious Biblical land of"Jortan" and its natives' religious practicesincorporated everal Jewish-like rituals such as circumcision and Christiansymbols such as the crossandpaintedicons which resembledChrist,Mary,andthe Trinity.65

63 Jos6 de Acosta, De temporibusnovissimis(boundafter De Christorevelato, Lugduni, 1592), pp.342ff.64 The search to explain the originof the nativepopulationsof the New World has continued to thetwentiethcenturywith scholarsat one time or anotheradvocatingnearly every ancientpeople, real orimagined,known to history.Fora fascinatingaccount of this search,see L. Huddleston,Origins of theAmericanIndian:European Concepts, 1492-1929) (Austin, Texas, 1965).65 Bernardinode Sahagtin,Historia de las cosas de NuevaEspaisa (Mexico, 1956), p. 359.


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312 APOCALYTrrIC ISSIONAND FRANCISCANSAnothernon-Franciscan,GregorioGarcia,wrote the most scholarlyac-count of the Hebreworiginof the AmericanIndianandtied theirdestinyto

the Orderof the Friars Minor. Compiling an impressive list of sourceswhich included the thinking of the past century, authoritiesof ancientscience fromGreeceandRome, Scripture, he ChurchFathers,and contem-porarytheologians, he produced n 1607 the lengthyOrigende los Indiosdel Nuevo Mundoe Indias Occidentales.66He arrangedhis studyinto threebroadareas:a general political historyof the New World beforeColumbus,the originsof the Indians,and thepossibilityof anApostolicmissionbeforethe arrivalof the Franciscans.

The latter discussion of the possibility of an Apostolic mission to theAmericas was an importantone due to the confusionsurroundinghe Azteclegend of Quetzalc6atl. This legend had led some to believe that St.Thomas had preachedthe Gospel to the Indians centuriesbefore, but thatover such a long period of time outside the mainstreamof Christianity,Thomas' message had been debased.'67Within the context of pure spiritualthinking, this could have happenedas God could have caused angels totransport he apostle to the New World. Many Indianreligious practiceswere suspiciouslysimilar to Christianity.If St. Thomas had delivered theGospel message to the New World, then contemporary ndian ritualsandbeliefs indicatedthe extent to which the message haddeteriorated.Garciaconcluded, however, that such was not the case. No apostlehadcarried the Gospel to the Indians from the early church. Instead,he said,God had saved this missionfor the spiritualsons of the Apostles, the Fran-ciscanOrder.68Motoliniahadalreadyarrivedat the same conclusion a half-

centuryearlier. Basedon firmlyheldeschatologicalbeliefs, he exhibitedaneven clearerunderstanding f an apocalypticrole for the Franciscans or hemaintainedthat when the seraphicangel appearedto St. Francis on Mt.Alverna, it told him thathis order wouldbringthe Gospel to the people ofthe New World. Motoliniaprobablygot this prophecyfrom the so-calledRevelacionsde SantFrancesc which describedsupposedrevelations to theSeraphicSaintwhile he meditatedon Mt. Alverna.69

66 GregorioGarcia,Origende los Indios de el Nuevo Mundoe Indias Occidentales(Madrid,1729).67 G6ngora, Studies, p. 218, believes that the seed of the St. Thomas egendis to be foundamongthefirstvoyages to Brazilby the Portuguesewho had come into contact with the St. Thomaslegendearlierin India. See also Enriqueda Gandfa.Historia criticade los mitosde la Conquistade Amdrica BuenosAires, 1929), p. 228, who claimsthatfirst mentionof this was in 1510 whenexplorersreportedhattheyhad foundthe "remaindersof St. Thomas."

68Garcia,Origende los Indios, p. 262 andp. 325.69Motolinia,Historia, p. 146. For a descriptionof this prophecysee Balaguer, "Profecies Cata-lanes," p. 35.


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DELNOWEST 313Spanish Franciscanapocalypticismin the Age of Discovery reflectedlong held views of renovatio ecclesiae mixed with contemporaryapoca-

lyptic thinkingwhich producedan urgencyfor action amongthe mission-aries. Although mystical and apocalyptical, such thinking infiltrated themost learned and skepticalminds of the times. It was a laymanandjurist,Juan de Sol6rzanoPereira,who stated the apocalypticFranciscanpositionmost eloquently.In his Politica Indiana, written n 1648, he wrote:Spain as saviors and announcersof the Gospel will become mastersof thecities of the West which are those of the New World. . .and thus, once theGospel has been preachedthroughout he world, the Day of Judgementwill

come.. .70

Northern Arizona UniversityFlagstaff, Arizona DELNOC. WEST

70 Juan de Sol6rzanoPereira,Politica Indiana(Madrid,1648), I, v-vi, p. 29a.

Documents

MEDIEVAL IDEAS OF APOCALYPTIC MISSION