Med Florida Beukesaction Plan

MANAGING THE EFFECTS OF MULTI-GRADE TEACHING ON LEARNER

PERFORMANCE IN NAMIBIA

by

FLORIDA C G BEUKES

DISSERTATION

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS in

EDUCATION MANAGEMENT in the

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

at the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

Supervisor: Prof CF Loock Co-Supervisor: Dr P Du Plessis

JUNE 2006

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the efforts of a number of people who made this work

possible.

The support of the Namibian ministry of education is greatly appreciated and will

always be remembered. Special thanks to the University of Namibia for financial

assistance and in particular to Dr Haaveshe Nekongo-Nielsen and my colleagues

at the Centre for External Studies for their support.

I was fortunate to have Prof CF Loock as supervisor. With the assistance of

Dr Du Plessis and Lucia Viljoen they did not only provide excellent guidance, but

also motivated me throughout this study. Thank you to you all.

Lastly, thanks to God for numerous blessings, including an extremely supportive

husband, Patric and three wonderful daughters, Natania, Cindy and Cheryl who

sacrificed a lot the past couple of months. Your noble support kept me focussed.

Thanks!

To all the above mentioned: “The Lord bless you and keep you, the Lord make

his face shine upon you and be gracious to you; the Lord turn his face towards

you and give you peace” (Numbers 6:24-26).

Florida Beukes

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SYNOPSIS

Data presented in 2004 at a national conference on multi-grade teaching in

Namibia revealed some significant negative effects on achievement associated

with multi-grade instruction. In addition, the data indicated that teachers lack

management and organisational strategies for multi-grade teaching. The purpose

of this study was to explore the views and perceptions of educators on the

managing of multi-grade classes in Namibia.

Chapter one describes the background to the study, focussing on the history of

education in Namibia and the history of multi-grade education. It became clear at

this stage already that teachers need to be well trained, well resourced and hold

positive attitudes towards multi-grade teaching if children are to learn effectively

in multi-grade environments. In addition, parents should have input into

significant instructional and assessment decisions concerning their children.

The Literature survey in chapter two provides a theoretical framework on the

concept of the management of multi-grade classrooms and the need for

appropriate management and teaching skills. Effective multi-grade teaching

involves the use of a range of organisational strategies in the classroom.

Curriculum, learning materials, teacher education and assessment are necessary

components of an integrated strategy for teaching and learning. Surrounding

these strategies is the need for national policies (for curriculum, materials,

teacher education and assessment) that recognise, legitimate and support

learners and teachers in multi-grade settings.

Chapter three identified the tools and processes of conducting the study with

reference to previous and new developments in multi-grade teaching. The

assumption guiding the study is that a strong case can be made by using an

approach that combines qualitative and quantitative elements. By using different

methods at various points in the research process, the researcher could build on

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the strength of each type of data collection and minimise the weaknesses of any

single approach.

Data was therefore collected simultaneously and involved both numeric

information (on structured questionnaires) and text information (on focus group

interviews and observations) so that the final database represents both qualitative

and quantitative information. Five educational regions in Namibia were randomly

selected to participate in this study.

Literature suggests five key areas that are normally the focus of concern in multi-

grade teaching environments and should be included in any training programme.

These include classroom management, instructional strategies, curriculum,

instructional materials and community involvement. These five key areas were

also used as a conceptual framework through which the observations, focus

group interviews and questionnaires were rendered comprehensible in the

analysis and interpretation of data as discussed in chapter four.

It should be emphasised that education is inevitably underpinned by educational

philosophies whether acknowledged or not. Multi-grade teaching too has

particular philosophical bases, which emerge from the literature. Multi-grade

practices recognise that there is an overlap of abilities amongst learners but also

that levels of difficulty have to be taken into account. The philosophy of teaching

is therefore an important consideration in multi-grade teaching.

The findings of the study are discussed in chapter five. One of the most

important findings is most probably the need for a national policy that recognises,

legitimate and support learners and teachers in multi-grade settings.

The study concludes with recommendations and suggestions for further research.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

1. ORIENTATION

1.1. Background To The Study 1

1.1.1. The History Of Education In Namibia 1

1.1.2. The History Of Multi-Grade Education 4

1.2. Problem Statement 6

1.3. Aims and Objectives 8

1.4. Methodology 9

1.4.1. Literature Survey 9

1.4.2. Structured Questionnaires 10

1.4.3. Focus Group Interviews 11

1.4.4. Observations 11

1.4.5. Sampling 11

1.5. Clarification of Concepts 12

1.5.1. Multi-grade Teaching 12

1.5.2. Mono-grade Teaching 12

1.5.3. Education For All 13

1.5.4. Trained Teachers 13

1.5.5. Teaching Time 13

1.5.6. Educational Regions 13

1.5.7. Classroom Management and Discipline 14

1.5.8. Assessment 14

1.6. Ethics 15

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1.7. Planning 16

1.8. Summary 16

2. LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1. Introduction 17

2.2. Multi-grade Teaching: Concept and Status 18

2.3. International Experiences of Multi-grade Teaching 27

2.4. The status of Multi-grade Teaching in Namibia 33

2.5. Classroom Management and Orgaisation in

Multi-grade classes 35

2.5.1. The Management of Multi-grade classes

in Namibia 38

2.6. The benefits and challenges of multi-grade teaching 43

2.6.1. The Debate about Multi-grade Teaching 43

2.6.2. Benefits for Learners 50

2.6.3. Challenges for Teachers 51

2.7. Conclusion 55

2.8. Summary 59

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RESEARCH DESIGN

3.1. Introduction 61

3.1.1. Qualitative Research 61

3.1.2. Quantitative Research 61

3.2. Qualitative Research 62

3.2.1. Definition 62

3.2.2. Characteristics 62

3.2.3. Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research 63

3.2.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Qualitative Research 64

3.2.5. Focus Group Interviews 64

3.2.5.1. Hardap Region 66

(i) Classroom Management 67

(ii) Instructional Strategies 68

(iii) Curriculum 69

(iv) Instructional Materials 71

(v) Community Involvement 71

3.2.5.2. Karas Region 72



(iii) Curriculum 75



3.2.5.3. Conclusion 77

3.2.6. Observations 78

3.2.6.1. School A 79



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(iii) Curriculum 80



3.2.6.2. School B 81



(iii) Curriculum 82



3.2.6.3. School C 83



(iii) Curriculum 84



3.2.6.4. School D 85



(iii) Curriculum 86



3.2.6.5. School E 87



(iii) Curriculum 88



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3.3. Quantitative Research 89

3.3.1. Definition 89

3.3.2. Characteristics 89

3.3.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of

Quantitative Research 90

3.3.4. Reliability and Validity in Quantitative Research 90

3.3.5. Questionnaires 91

3.3.5.1. Definition 91

3.3.5.2. The structured questionnaire as an

instrument of data collection 92

3.3.5.3. Population and Sample 93

3.3.5.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of

Questionnaires 94

3.3.5.5. Data recorded of questionnaires

administered to managers in education 95

3.3.5.6. Data recorded of questionnaires

administered to multi-grade teachers 106

3.4. Summary 114

4. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 4.1. Introduction 115

4.2. Framework of data analysis – qualitative and

quantitative data 116

4.2.1. Description 116

4.2.2. Classification 117

4.2.3. Making connections and establishing relationships 118

4.3. Data analysis 118

4.3.1. Statistical Information 119

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4.3.2. Classroom Management 120

4.3.3. Instructional Strategies 122

4.3.4. Curriculum 123

4.3.5. Instructional Material 124

4.3.6. Community Involvement 124

4.3.7. The effect of Multi-grade Teaching on

Learner Performance 125

4.3.8. Conclusion 131

5. SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1. Summary 133




5.1.4. Instructional Materials 143


5.2. Findings 147

5.3. Recommendations 150




5.3.4. Instructional Materials 160


5.4. Conclusion 163

5.5. Suggestions for Further Research 165

5.5.1. National Level 165

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5.5.2. Regional level 167

5.5.3. Classroom Level 169

5.5.4. Conclusion 170

REFERENCE LIST 172

APPENDIX A: Questionnaire 184

LIST OF TABLES 1.1. Learner-teacher ratios in Namibian schools in 1988. 2

2.1. Numbers of teachers and learners, by country, in

multi-grade schools in 1959. 20

2.2. Occurrence of multi-grade schools, teachers and

learners 1980-1990. 22

2.3. International experiences of multi-grade teaching 27

2.4. Multi-grade teaching in Namibia: 2004 statistics. 33

2.5. The management of multi-grade classes in Namibia. 39

3.1. Advantages and disadvantages of focus group interviews. 65

3.2. Advantages and challenges of multi-grade teaching in the

Hardap Region, Namibia. 68

3.3. A weekly plan for a language lesson in a multi-grade class

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in the Hardap Region, Namibia. 70

3.4. Extract: Multi-grade teaching in Namibia: 2004 statistics 72

3.5. Advantages and challenges of multi-grade teaching in the

Karas Region, Namibia. 74

3.6. An example of a weekly lesson plan for a multi-grade class

in the Karas Region, Namibia. 75

3.7. Advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires 94

3.8. Data from questionnaires administered to Managers

in Education

3.8A Items associated with Classroom management 98

3.8B Items associated with instructional strategies 99

3.8C Items associated with curriculum 102

3.8D Items associated with instructional materials 104

3.8E Items associated with community involvement 105

3.9 Biographical information: Teachers in multi-grade schools 106

3.10 Data from questionnaires administered to teachers in

multi-grade schools.

3.10A Items associated with Classroom management 109

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3.10B Items associated with instructional strategies 110

3.10C Items associated with curriculum 112

3.10D Items associated with instructional materials 113

3.10E Items associated with community involvement 114

4.1. Data from focus group discussions and interviews. 121

4.2. Extract from analysis of questionnaires administered

to teachers on the degree of teacher stress. 126

4.3. Cross tabulation on experience of multi-grade teachers. 127

4.4. Extract: Data on the number of teachers who had

training on multi-grade instruction. 128

4.5. Data on the availability of specialised materials

for multi-grade teachers. 128

4.6. Data on the training needs of multi-grade teachers. 131

5. Integration of the curriculum for environmental education. 156

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1. Map of the educational regions in Namibia. 14

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3.1. Seat plan for a multi-grade class in the

Hardap region, Namibia. 67

3.2. Seat plan for a multi-grade class in the

Karas region, Namibia. 73

3.3. Flash cards for a multi-grade class. 76

5.1. Whole-class planning form. 140

5.2. Language activities in a self-instructional guide 1. 145

5.3. Language activities in a self-instructional guide 2. 146

5.4. Seat plan for a multi-grade class. 151

5.5. A framework for improving the multi-grade curriculum. 159

1

CHAPTER 1

ORIENTATION 1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.1.1 The History of Education in Namibia

Prior to Namibia’s independence in 1990, the education system was

characterised by acute disparities, inequities and tensions (MEC, 1993:19).

Some schools had highly qualified teachers, extensive equipment and relatively

small classes. At the same time, other schools had teachers who had limited

training and classrooms that were overcrowded and poorly equipped. At

Independence, the new Ministry of Education faced the formidable problem of

how to address this unfortunate heritage.

The period after 1990 highlighted the demand to “redress the unequal allocation

and social disadvantages in education” (MEC, 1993:21). The five major goals of

education, namely access, equity, equality, democracy and lifelong learning

called for the rationalisation of the then eleven ethnic education authorities into

one, non-racial education system. The Government started with a fundamental

promise to expand and improve schools and to extend education activities

beyond the school walls. Confronting that promise was the unexpressed demand

for access to the education system and too little time to develop detailed plans

before the new system had to begin functioning (MEC, 1993:30).

Namibia also came to Independence with several different systems for preparing

teachers. Within the country, teacher education was inadequate in both quality

and quantity. In 1980, there were a total of 12 525 teachers in the country. Of

these, 29% were professionally unqualified and only 25% had attained a

2

Standard 10 plus professional qualifications (Cohen, 1994:165). Fifty four

percent of the total teaching force was in the Caprivi, Kavango and Owambo

regions. Of these teachers, only seven percent had qualifications higher than

Standard 10, while 30% had qualifications lower than Standard 8 (Cohen,

1994:164).

The 1988 statistics of the South West Africa Department of Economic Affairs

indicates the disparities between ethnic groups in the ratio of learners to qualified

teachers (Table1.1).

Table 1.1 Learner-teacher ratios in Namibian schools in 1988

Ethnic Group

Learner: Qualified Teacher (Std 10 + teacher training)

Caprivian

85:1

Coloured

35:1

Damara

78:1

Herero

176:1

Kavango

306:1

Nama

61:1

Ovambo

207:1

Rehoboth Baster

36:1

Tswana

34:1

White

14:1

(Source: Adapted from South West Africa Department of Economic Affairs, 1988:39-49).

Table 1.1 clearly indicates the great need and the limited human resources.

Education is an expensive exercise though and if we measure efficiency in terms

of learners per teacher that would indeed be so. After all, if a teacher’s salary is

3

the same whether the class has 40 or 100 learners, then it is more efficient to

have the larger class. However, if having large classes of 100 learners, means

that little or no learning takes place, then increasing class size to that level is very

insufficient.

Effective learning, however, is more than simply gathering and memorising

information and requires teachers who are not only competent in their subjects,

but who can also respond creatively to new situations. Choosing effective inputs

is the first step toward improving learning, but managing them well at school level

is also necessary (Lockheed, 1991:40).

The objective of each primary school should be to increase the number and

quality of its graduates by increasing the probability that learners will stay in

school and be promoted to the next grade level on time. Teaching quality and

teaching time are therefore key determinants of academic achievement.

Teaching time is largely determined by teacher motivation, while the fundamental

prerequisites for proficient teaching are:

(i) knowledge of the subjects to be taught, of the skills to be developed,

and of the curricula arrangements;

(ii) knowledge of general and subject-specific methods for teaching and for

evaluating student learning; and

(iii) knowledge of human development.

Yet the teaching force in many developing countries is neither motivated nor

trained. Most prospective teachers lack adequate general academic preparation,

both new and experienced teachers lack many pedagogical skills, and motivation

and professional commitment to teaching is low (Lockheed, 1991:90).

4

The challenge in Namibia was even more daunting. Not only had the

Government to recruit new teachers and upgrade the skills of those serving, but

also helped them learn to use those skills in radically changed settings. For

Education for All to become a reality, teachers had to develop new visions, new

understandings and new commitments. In addition, for schools to change,

teachers must become both agents and facilitators of change. One of the most

overwhelming changes was most probably the creation for multi-grade classes.

1.1.2. The History of Multi-grade Education Multi-grade teaching occurs within a graded system of education when a single

class contains two or more learner grade levels. It is contrasted with the usual

pattern of classroom organisation in graded systems where a single classroom

contains learners of only one grade level. In many graded systems, age and

grade are congruent, so a grade is also equivalent to a particular age group of

learners. There are three important reasons why multi-grade teaching may occur

in both developed and developing countries.

First, multi-grade teaching is often associated with “small” schools in remote and

sparsely populated areas. In such schools, there may be only one, two or three

teachers, yet they offer a complete cycle of primary education. If that cycle

consists of eight grade levels, then each of these teachers must deal with multi-

grade classes.

Second, multi-grade teaching is also common in larger urban and suburban

schools. In some countries, it is a response to uneven learner enrolment where

schools combine grade levels to make up class sizes.

Thirdly, multi-grade teaching may be a deliberate response to educational

problems. Several commentators take the view that multi-grade classes are

potentially a cost effective way of providing education in difficult to reach areas.

5

Although rural, small schools may combine grades to save money in the guise of

the “un-graded classroom”, multi-grade organisation has also been a feature of

urban and suburban districts (Miller, 1991:6). In the 1960s and 1970s, “open

education” and individualised instruction became influential curriculum and

instructional models. Such models were commonly implemented with multi-grade

classrooms. Energised by developmental theories of learning, a large influx in

federal money, and learner-centred models of instruction, open education

became a major education innovation. As a result, multi-grade classrooms

received new attention (Miller, 1991:7).

Multi-grade teaching has actually been around for a very long time; much longer

than the graded classroom. The early Jews developed schools for boys from

ages six to thirteen and taught them in synagogues.

In ancient Greece, young boys, ages 7-18 were taught together to receive

physical and mental training. In medieval trade guilds, learners studied with their

teachers until they were ready to be on their own. Some would finish their

apprenticeship soon, while others may take longer. Each was however

considered as good as the artisan who taught them. In the monasteries of the

1500s, a sixteen year old and a six year old were likely to be seated side by side

in the same class (Longstreet & Shane, 1993:58).

The earliest American schools were multi-aged. They included all children of the

village, from ages 6 to 16. Even the rural schoolrooms of 25 to 50 years ago

contained learners of a wide variety of ages with just one teacher (Moen, 1999:5).

In much of Africa, a major rationale for multi-grade education is probably its

potential to increase access to the full cycle of primary education in areas where

this is currently not available. Multi-grade classes were created in Namibia to

give children living in isolated areas access to a school located in or near a

village and to obtain higher returns from the school system by changing the

6

learner/teacher ratio to a more equitable and affordable national ratio of 35

learners per teacher.

Statistics presented at a national conference in August 2004 in Swakopmund,

Namibia, indicated that 31, 7% of 1150 schools, 17 113 learners and about 600

teachers are affected by multi-grade instruction (IECD, 2004:8).

The research problem will now be discussed, bearing the above-mentioned in

mind.

1.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT For children to learn effectively in multi-grade environments, teachers need to be

well trained, well resourced and hold positive attitudes towards multi-grade

teaching. However, many teachers in multi-grade schools are either untrained or

trained in single grade pedagogy. Their knowledge of teaching methods is based

on whole-class and small group instruction. These small groups are often formed

on the basis of ability or achievement levels.

Veenman (1995:379) concluded in his research that there were no significant

differences between multi-grade and single grade classes in cognitive or

achievement effects. Subsequently, Mason and Burns (1996:311) challenged

Veenman’s conclusions, claiming that multi-grade classes have at least a small

negative effect on achievement, as well as teacher motivation.

In common with those in many other locations, Mulchany (1993:28) found that the

concerns of multi-grade teachers in Newfoundland and Labrador received little

attention. He suggests that this may be due partly to their being considered as a

temporary anomaly, and partly to the belief that a multi-grade classroom is

essentially the same as a single-grade classroom, and needs no special

attention. However, parents, teachers and learners all dislike multi-grade

7

classrooms and Mulchany argues that this is a consequence of a lack of concern

for the pedagogical and curricular attention to their particular demands. He also

calls for effective training of teachers to deal with multi-grade classrooms and for

modified or distinctive curricula responsive to multi-grade organisation.

Analysis from data presented in 2004 at a national conference on multi-grade

teaching in Namibia revealed some significant negative effects on achievement

associated with multi-grade instruction (IECD, 2004:9). In addition, the data

clearly indicated that, in Namibia:

(i) teachers lack management and organisational strategies for multi-

grade teaching,

(ii) there is a direct relationship between increased class size and the

quality of teaching, and

(iii) there is a total lack of support to multi-grade teaching.

Against the background of the above discussion, the research problems are

highlighted by the following questions:

(i) How can multi-grade classes be managed effectively?

(ii) How can the minimum resources that are available be managed

to produce better quality results in multi-grade schools?

(iii) What are the levels of achievement / performance of learners in multi-

grade classes?

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(iv) How can the parents be involved more actively and effectively in the

education of the learners to improve the academic performance in

multi-grade classes?

Having discussed the research problems, the aim of this research will now be

explained.

1.3. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The general aim of this study is to explore educators’ views and perceptions on

managing multi-grade classes in Namibia.

In order to accomplish this aim, the following specific objectives need to be

achieved:

1.3.1. To investigate how multi-grade teaching is managed in Namibia.

1.3.2. To explore the perceptions of teachers on the management of multi-

grade classes in Namibia.

1.3.3. To describe the effect of multi-grade teaching on learner

performance.

1.3.4. To make recommendations on teacher training and preparation for

the effective management of multi-grade teaching.

The methods that will be use to collect data will be discussed next.

9

1.4. METHODOLOGY Recognising that all methods have limitations, researchers felt that biases

inherent in any single method could neutralise or cancel the biases of other

methods. Triangulating data sources, a means of seeking convergence across

qualitative and quantitative methods, were born (Creswell, 2003:15). As a result,

a more comprehensive analysis of the research problem can be provided.

Alternatively, the results from one method can help develop or inform the other

method.

A quantitative approach employs strategies of inquiry such as surveys and

experiments and collects data on predetermined instruments that yield statistical

data (Cresswell, 2003:18). Alternatively, a qualitative approach collects open-

ended emerging data with the primary intent of developing themes from the data.

In this study, data will be collected simultaneously and will involve both numeric

information (on structured questionnaires) and text information (on focus group

interviews and observations) so that the final database represents both

quantitative and qualitative information.

In addition, past work should be reviewed as a signpost into subsequent work,

the latter building upon and extending the former. A careful examination of major

studies may suggest a number of directions worth pursuing in order to help

interpret prior findings to choose between alternative explanations.

The following explains how the methods will be used to collect data:

1.4.1. Literature survey

All social research has relevant literature and no research takes place in a

vacuum (Keith, 1989: 42). The literature is an extremely valuable resource and an

10

important store house of knowledge and thinking about a topic or area. It includes

previous research reports and their findings, theories and reflections about any

other documentary material (Keith, 1989: 43).

A literature study is aimed at contributing towards a clever understanding of the

nature and the meaning of the problem that has been identified (De Vos &

Fouche, 1998: 64). A literature study is essential in the sense that,

(i) it may disclose whether someone has already performed essentially

the same research

(ii) it provides a substantially better insight into the dimensions and

complexity of the problem

(iii) it equips the investigator with a complete and thorough justification for

the subsequent steps, as well as with a sense of the importance of the

understanding (De Vos & Fouche, 1998: 65).

A literature survey provides a framework for establishing the importance of the

study, as well as a benchmark for comparing the results with other findings

(Cresswell, 1994:21). In this study, the literature survey will be used to determine

other people’s perceptions on multi-grade teaching, take advantage of what is

already known and to build upon the knowledge of others.

1.4.2. Structured questionnaires

A structured questionnaire will be compiled using the literature survey as basis.

The respondents will be given a choice of predetermined responses from which

they chose the answer that best describes their views on multi-grade teaching.

The answers are standard and can be compared from person to person.

11

1.4.3. Focus group interviews

Focused group interviews will be used since the attitudes and opinions of many

educators are desired. More data can be collected from the group as they focus

on the topic in a short period of time. The researcher hopes that, by discussing

the issue of multi-grade instruction, some agreement on the management of

multi-grade classes can be reached. The interviews will involve unstructured and

generally open-ended questions that are few in number and according to

Cresswell (2003:188) intend to elicit views and opinions from the participants.

1.4.4. Observations

During observations in qualitative research, the researcher takes field notes on

the behaviour and activities of individuals at the research site (Cresswll,

2003:189). The purpose of observations in this study is to give the researcher

direct, first-hand experiences with the phenomena under study. The researcher

will observe without participating and record information as it is revealed. Bogdan

and Biklen (1982:74) describe data collection during observations as “the

mainstay of qualitative research and a written account of what the researcher

hears, sees, experiences and thinks in the course of collecting and reflecting on

the data”.

1.4.5. Sampling

The qualitative approach uses small, information-rich samples selected

purposefully to allow the researcher to focus in depth on issues important to the

study (Lincoln and Guba, 1985:201). Convenience sampling saves time, money

and effort, but at the expense of information and credibility (Cresswell, 1998:118).

Multi-grade schools are common in isolated, rural areas; therefore the researcher

12

will concentrate on rural schools in the Hardap, Karas, Khomas, Erongo and

Otjizondjupa Educational Regions in Namibia.

1.5. CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS 1.5.1. Multi-grade Teaching

Multi-grade teaching refers to the teaching of more than one grade in the same

classroom. A multitude of terms has been used, sometimes confusingly, in

literature pertaining to multi-grade teaching, like mixed-age grouping, multi-age

classes, family grouping, non-graded or un-graded education, and continuous

progress model (Katz, 1995:11). For consistency and clarity, the term multi-

grade teaching will be used throughout this study.

1.5.2. Mono-grade teaching

Most systems of education worldwide are predicated on the notion that learners

enter, progress through and exit from ‘grades’ alongside a group of peers.

Learners who fail to be promoted from grade to grade become grade repeaters

and join a group of learners in the previous grade. Grades correspond closely

with the age of the learner and usually comprise learners who share birthdays

within one calendar year. In systems where, for various reasons, the age of entry

of learners varies by more than one year, learners move through the system with

peers who entered the first grade within the same calendar year. Each grade

group comprises one or more classes of learners, depending on the number of

learners. A single teacher usually teaches each class at any given time.

13

1.5.3. Education for All

“Education for All” is a policy document, which translates the Namibian

philosophy on education into concrete government policies. In addition,

Education for All in Namibia means expanded access, the elimination of

inequalities and fair treatment throughout the education system, improved quality

of instruction and learning and learning about democracy by practicing it (MEC,

1993:44).

1.5.4. Trained Teachers

In Namibia, basic foreign qualifications are not recognised by the Ministry of

Education as a first qualification. Teachers are evaluated as “trained” when they

have completed the Basic Education Teachers Diploma (BETD) offered by the

Colleges of Education for school leavers and by the National Institute for

Educational Development (NIED) for un- or under qualified practicing teachers.

1.5.5. Teaching Time

Teaching time in Namibia is 40 minutes per lesson for primary and secondary

learners.

1.5.6. Educational Regions

A great deal of work is required in schools and communities to improve the

education system and to upgrade the quality of schools. To achieve that, and to

maximise local contributions to the education system, both responsibility and

authority were decentralised. Namibia is currently divided into thirteen

educational regions, as shown in the map below.

14

Key:

1. Caprivi 2. Erongo 3. Hardap 4. Karas 5. Kavango 6. Khomas 7. Kunene 8. Ohangwena 9. Omaheke 10. Omusati 11. Oshana 12. Oshikoto 13. Otjozondjupa

Figure 1.1. Educational regions in Namibia Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regions_of_Namibia"

1.5.7. Classroom Management and Discipline

For the purpose of this study classroom management and discipline will include

classroom schedules and routines that promote clear, predictable instructional

patterns.

1.5.8. Assessment

The main purpose of assessment in Basic Education will be to develop a reliable

picture of each individual learner’s progress and level of achievement in relation

to minimum competencies specified in subject syllabi.

Assessment has a formative role and should:

(i) motivate learners to extend their knowledge and skills and to

establish sound values;

15

(ii) promote good study habits;

(iii) help build a positive and realistic self image; and

(iv) improve teaching methods and learning materials.

1.6. ETHICS 1.6.1. The purpose and procedure of the study will be made known to all

Participants.

1.6.2. Participants will have the right to participate voluntarily and withdraw at

any time.

1.6.3. All participants’ anonymity shall be guaranteed.

1.6.4. The research findings will be made known to the participants.

1.6.5. The researcher will ensure clear communication in order to avoid any

misconceptions.

1.6.6. The researcher will ensure that permission is granted from the Ministry of

Education in Namibia to conduct this study.

16

1.7. PLANNING

The following is an outline of the study to be pursued:

Chapter 1: The problem statement and methodology

Chapter 2: The literature survey

Chapter 3: The research methods

Chapter 4: Analysis and interpretation of data

Chapter 5: Summary, Findings and Recommendations

1.8. SUMMARY This chapter highlighted the background to the study. The research problem was

put into context with regard to multi-grade teaching. For children to learn

effectively in multi-grade environments, teachers need to be well trained, well

resourced and hold positive attitudes towards multi-grade teaching. In addition,

parents should have input into significant instructional and assessment decisions

concerning their children.

The next chapter will focus on the literature survey in order to fill in gaps and

extend previous studies. The literature survey will also provide a framework for

establishing the importance of the study as well as a benchmark for comparing

the results of the study with other findings.

17

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY 2.1. INTRODUCTION

Multi-grade classrooms utilise an organisational structure in which learners of

different ages (at least a two year span), and ability levels are grouped together,

without dividing them or the curriculum into steps labelled by grade designation

(Gaustad, 1994:4).

The adequate implementation of a multi-grade approach to education however

extends beyond simply mixing learners of different grades together. The multi-

grade classroom is labour intensive and requires more planning, collaboration

and professional development than the conventional graded classroom

(Cushman, 1993:26; Gaustad, 1995:3; Miller, 1994:17).

Sufficient planning time must be available to meet the needs of both teacher and

learner. Insufficient planning, staff development, materials, support and

assessment procedures will have an impact on the success of the multi-grade

program (Fox, 1997:17; Miller, 1994:19; Nye, 1995:12). However, many

teachers, administrators and parents continue to question the optimal learning

opportunities that multi-grade teaching claim to offer.

The aim of this study is to explore teachers’ views on managing multi-grade

classes in Namibia in order to determine what effect multi-grade instruction has

on learner performance and what kind of preparation or training is needed to

manage a multi-grade classroom effectively.

18

This chapter aims at reviewing literature on related studies all over the world and

is organised in the following manner:

2.2 Multi-grade teaching: Concept and status

2.3. International Experiences of Multi-grade teaching

2.4. The status of Multi-grade teaching in Namibia

2.5. Classroom Management and Organisation in Multi-grade

classes

2.6. The benefits and challenges of Multi-grade teaching

2.7. Conclusion

2.8. Summary

2.2. MULTI-GRADE TEACHING: CONCEPT AND STATUS Multi-grade classes can be defined as an organisational structure in which

teachers instruct learners from two or more grades for most or all of the school

day. These unusual structures, embedded within a graded system of schooling,

have resulted from imbalanced or inadequate enrolments (Knight, 1983:11; Miller,

1989:103).

The multi-grade classroom has traditionally been an important and necessary

organisational pattern of education in the United States, notes Miller (1993:32).

Multi-grade education dates back to the one-room schools that were the norm in

the United States until they were phased out in the early part of the1900’s

(Cohen, 1989:14; Miller, 1993:32).

19

Minimal learner enrolment necessitated the arrangement and economics helped

the multi-grade configuration, in which small agricultural communities required the

aid of children during planting and harvest. Furthermore, teachers and facilities

were scarce and expensive; formal education was not generally perceived as

necessary for day-to-day existence and survival (Daniel, 1995:148).

The multi-grade reality has characterised hundreds of thousands of schools

throughout the twentieth century. The United Nations Educational Scientific and

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) collected the following data on the extent of

multi-grade teaching in 1959 (table 2.1).

20

Table 2.1: Numbers of teachers and learners, by country, in multi-grade schools

in 1959.

COUNTRY

Teachers in Primary Schools

Teachers in Multi-grade classes

% Teachers in multi-grade classes

Learners in Primary Schools

Learners in multi-grade classes

% Learners in multi-grade classes

Afghanistan

2 818

606

21.5

123 117

26 761

21.7

Albania

6 110

1 194

19.5

174 332

37 400

21.5

Australia

36 724

3 262

8.9

1 203 949

71 938

6

Austria

16 401

967

5.9

611 710

24 905

4.1

Bulgaria

22 011

1 132

5.1

1 000 000

26 000

2.6

Chile

21 468

1 141

5.3

726 763

62 676

8.6

Denmark

14 146

673

4.8

357 334

21 636

6.1

Ethiopia

3 100

129

4.2

141 777

9 144

6.4

France

218 488

43 490

19.9

6 840 000

1 017 400

14.9

Hungary

56 449

171

0.3

1 314 432

3 428

0.3

India

710 139

116 263

16.4

26 964 808

4 221 601

15.7

Iran

27 716

3 627

13.1

978 810

133 161

13.6

Italy

184 724

11 617

6.3

4 704 168

210 616

4.5

Netherlands

42 104

76

0.2

1 476 492

1 200

0.1

Nicaragua

3 770

1 487

39.4

162 783

62 887

32.5

Norway

16 081

468

2.9

439 000

4 144

0.9

U.S.S.R

162 400

22 300

13.7

2 949 600

442 000

15

Vietnam

17 819

1 169

6.6

1 001 767

76 679

7.7

(Source: International Bureau of Education, UNESCO, 1961. Cited in Little 1995:6)

21

Table 2.1 indicates the large number and proportion of teachers who were

teaching in multi-grade schools in the late 1950s - some 21% in Afghanistan,

19% in Albania, 19% in France, 16% in India and 39% in Nicaragua. Comparable

data for the late 1980s and early 1990s could not be found. Data on multi-grade

teachers and schools do not appear to be collected systematically by national

and international agencies.

Table 2.2 synthesises available information from a wide variety of sources on the

current status of multi-grade teaching. It expresses the occurrence of multi-grade

teaching in different countries in the years of which the most recent data is

available.

22

Table 2.2: Occurrence of Multi-grade schools, teachers and learners 1980-1990.

Country

Year

Schools with MG classes

Teachers who teach MG

Learners in MG classes

Australia

1988

40%

China

1986

12%

Cook Islands

1990

50%

Fiji

1990

50%

25%

28%

France

1987/8

22%

India

1986

61%

Kiribati

1990

60%

50%

Korea

1980s

2%

Malaysia

1980s

950

Marshall Islands

1990

90%

60%

Mexico

1980s

22%

Philippines

1980s

8%

Scotland

1981

2.5%

Peru

1988

39%

Sweden

1987/8

35%

Wales

1976

30%

Zambia

1984

26%

(Sources: NCERT 1992; Tovar 1989; Welsh Office 1978; Scottish Education

Department 1981; GOP 1993; Collingwood 1991; APEID 1989; Abhayadewa 1989;

Veenman et al 1989; Pratt 1986; Thomas and Shaw 1992.)

23

Table 2.2 suggests that in Peru the percentage of multi-grade schools in 1988

was almost 40%. These schools were located in rural areas, predominantly in

the Andean and Amazon regions of the country (Little, 2005:11). It seems that

multi-grade classes are common in rural areas of industrialised countries. In

Australia 40% of schools have multi-grade classes. The comparable figure for

France is 22% and Sweden 35%.

Multi-grade teaching is probably more common than we realise or care to admit.

However, the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory in the United States

found that many teachers in multi-grade environments are either untrained or

trained in the mono-grade pedagogy; have few, if any, teaching/learning

resources; and regard the multi-grade classroom as a poor relation to the better-

resourced single grade classrooms found in large, urban schools and staffed by

trained teachers.

Multi-grade teaching arises in one or more of the following conditions:

(i) Schools in areas of low population density where schools are widely

scattered and inaccessible and enrolments low. Schools may have only

one or two teachers responsible for all grades.

(ii) Schools that comprise a cluster of classrooms spread across in different

locations, in which some classes are multi-grade for the same reasons as

(i), and some are mono-grade. Some teachers within the same school will

spend most of their time with multi-grade classes, some with mono-grade

classes.

(iii) Schools in areas of where the learner and teacher numbers are declining,

and where previously there was mono-graded teaching.

24

(iv) Schools in areas of population growth and school expansion, where

enrolments in the expanding upper grades remain small and teacher

numbers few.

(v) Schools in areas where parents send their children to more popular

schools within reasonable travel distance, leading to a decline in the

potential population of students and teachers in the less popular school.

(vi) Schools in which the number of learners admitted to a class exceed official

norms on class size, necessitating the combination of some learners from

one class grade with learners from another grade.

(vii) Mobile schools in which one or more teacher moves with nomadic learners

spanning a wide range of ages and grades.

(viii) Schools in which teacher absenteeism is high and supplementary teacher

arrangements are non-effectual or non-existent.

(ix) A school in which the official number of teachers deployed is sufficient to

support mono-grade teaching but where the actual number deployed is

less (for a variety of reasons).

(x) Schools in which learners are organised in multi-grade rather than mono-

grade groups, for pedagogic reasons, often as part of a more general

curriculum and pedagogic reform of the education system

Condition (x) underlines a distinction between multi-grade teaching that arises

through necessity and choice. Conditions (i – ix) above arise through necessity.

The necessity arises from the characteristics of learners (i – vii) or teachers (viii –

ix). Condition (x) is of a different nature altogether and reflects a choice made by

policymakers and/or teachers about how to change and improve the quality of

pedagogy.

25

Descriptions of multi-grade teaching settings often fail to indicate whether they

have arisen through necessity or choice. This is unfortunate since the conditions

that give rise to learning and teaching in multi-grade settings will themselves have

an impact on the quality of the teaching and learning. For example, if the

numbers of learners per class group is very large and teacher numbers few,

parents’ and teacher demands will, understandably be for more teachers. In such

conditions it is unlikely that a multi-grade pedagogy will be effective since it is not

the pedagogy of choice. If, however, a multi-grade pedagogy has been chosen

by the teachers of a school, in consultation with parents, and if the class size is

perceived to be ‘reasonable’, then the quality of teaching and learning within the

classroom are likely to be more effective.

Classroom teachers vents concerns about multi-grade teaching since this

environment requires more planning and monitoring than a mono-grade

classroom (Grant, 1993:17). In a significant finding concerning teachers

assigned to teach in a classroom whose structure they did not choose, and were

not prepared to teach, 40% of the respondents felt ill prepared for multi-grade

teaching and received no training to deal with the situation (Veenman, 1995:321).

The result of untrained and inappropriately trained teachers, as well as the lack of

appropriate teaching and learning materials, is that learners in multi-grade

classrooms spend much of their time learning material they already know or sit

idle and boxed (Wolff & Garcia, 2001:6).

Hale (1999:21) is of the opinion that the multi-grade classroom exists for the

benefit of the learner, not student numbers or school finances. According to Hale

a teacher is often confronted with a class with widely diversified strengths,

weaknesses, interests and abilities. It is not beneficial to give these learners all

the same work. They need to experience suitable activities for their capabilities.

26

According to Thomas and Shaw (1992:36) multi-grade schools is a cost-effective

way of providing a complete educational cycle in sparsely populated areas and

for maintaining services in areas with declining populations. If properly

implemented, multi-grade schools can offer considerable scope for reducing unit

costs while maintaining or even improving quality. It seems, however, that the

knowledge required for effective multi-grade teaching is rendered illegitimate by

those with a responsibility for training and supporting teachers in their work.

Table 2.3 in the second part of this chapter summarises the experiences of a few

countries on multi-grade teaching around the world.

27

2.3. INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES OF MULTI-GRADE TEACHING

Table 2.3.: International Experiences of Multi-grade Teaching

EXPERIENCES

SUCCESSES

CHALLENGES

BANGKOK

Multi-grade teaching is seen

as an appropriate

methodology for delivering

quality instruction and

learning.

The Second International

Multi-grade Teaching

Conference in Bangkok

(2004) concluded that

multi-grade teaching has

been in practice for

centuries, yet as a modern

teaching/learning

methodology, it has

remained relatively

neglected.

BARNWELL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, ALPHARETTA, GEORGIA

Multi-grade teaching was

effectively introduced with

120 learners, using a unit or

theme approach.

The units vary from one

to six weeks and

provide learning

activities for all areas of

the curriculum (Wall;

1994:69).

BRAZIL Increase efficiency through

class size increases

(Harbison, 1992:202)

Segregating by

achievement level had

no effect on teaching or

learning

28

EXPERIENCES

SUCCESSES

CHALLENGES

BREIDABLIK ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, USA Building trust relationships

becomes the means in

which teachers and learners

accommodate diversity and

celebrate different learning

styles as resources, rather

than detriments to academic

achievement (Hoffman;

2003:19).

Learners were more

interested in their work.

BUCKMAN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, PORTLAND, OREGON

Learners spend three years

in one class.

Teachers are of the

opinion that “this is one

classroom with lots of

different learning styles

and developmental

levels and it’s our job to

see where the learners

are and help them

move

forward”(Johnson,1998:

11)

Teachers need training.

FINLAND

Multi-grade classes created

for demographic reasons

(Laukkanen, 1978:9)

The production of

suitable instructional

materials.

29

EXPERIENCES

SUCCESSES

CHALLENGES

ETHIOPIA Small multi-grade schools

situated close to parents’

homes play an important

role in ensuring that all

children get the opportunity

to receive full primary

education (Leka, 1999:17).

IICBA1 helped with the

improvement of

textbooks to make

them more interactive

for learner-controlled

learning.

Teachers require additional

training as well as basic

resources to enable them

to cope with learners of

different ages and at

different levels of

achievement

GAMBIA

Multi-grade teaching is

viewed as an effective

strategy to expand access

through efficient use of

existing facilities.

Only two grades are

combined and the

combined class should

not exceed 40 learners

(Gambia Education

Policy; 2004-2015: 46).

Teachers require training

in multi-grade teaching

strategies.

GYANDOOT, DHAR DISTICT

Most rural primary schools

function with only one or two

teachers.

After implemented

class monitors as

academic assistants to

teachers, there was an

increase of 19,5% in

the overall competency

attainment rate for all

subjects

(Gyandoot.net:4.06/05).

1 International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa

30

EXPERIENCES

SUCCESSES

CHALLENGES

INDIA

Multi-grade teaching is a

normal situation rather than

an exceptional one.

Teachers are compelled to

stick to grades that specify

how much each learner is

expected to learn in a year,

with no scope for enabling

individual and varying

paces of learning (Shukla,

1999:2)

KENTUCKY

Teams of teachers are

responsible for learners for

multiple years. Programmes

are based on a constructivist

philosophy (Molentyre;

1999:47)

Learners’ reading

And writing scores

improved.

It is hard work on the

teachers’ part.

LABRADOR Teachers in rural schools

attempted one of three

approaches, teaching each

grade separately, cover the

different grade specific

curricula in alternative years

or cover the prescribed

objectives and content for

the two or three years by

linking them thematically

(Mulcahy; 1993:25).

31

EXPERIENCES

SUCCESSES

CHALLENGES

MACK ELEMENTARY, BELLEVUE CHRISTIAN SCHOOL, WASHINGTON

Multi-grade classes were

introduced to save money.

One of the challenges of

managing a multi-grade

class is the task of

ensuring every learner

receives the entire

prescribed curriculum

regardless of how the

learner moves through the

grades (Ribera; 1999: 8)

MADANG INTERNATIONAL, PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Physical environments foster

and support collaboration.

Use a diverse range of

resources and offer

learners a multiplicity of

authentic learning tasks

(Hales; 2004:8)

According to Shukla

(1999:2) the major difficulty

confronting teachers is that

they are compelled to stick

to grades that specify how

much each learner is

expected to learn in a year,

with no scope for enabling

individual and varying

paces of learning.

MARYVILLE MIDDLE SCHOOL Teachers, teacher

assistants, learners and

technology with an

integrated learning system

make this multi-grade

programme successful. (http://www.ci.maryville.tn.us)

Focus is on the needs

of individual learners

32

EXPERIENCES

SUCCESSES

CHALLENGES

NEW ZEALAND

A large number of multi-

grade classes exists in New

Zealand (Ewing, 1970:54)

Preparation for

teachers in multi-grade

schools has been part

of the teacher-training

programme for a long

time.

SRI LANKA Use multi-grade strategies in

all grades, even where there

is one teacher per grade

(Abhayadeva, 1989:44)

A wide range of

competencies in

language and

mathematics.

Include multi-grade

teaching strategies in both

initial and in-service

teacher education.

SWEDEN Multi-grade classes were

formed for educational

reasons, rather than

because of learner or

resource shortages

(Malmros, 1984:176).

Teachers expressed an

interest in multi-grade

approaches

ZAMBIA Multi-grade classes were

created as a way of

extending full primary

education opportunities to

sparsely populated areas

(Lungwangwa, 1989:47).

Improved achievement,

reduced attrition rates

and a more positive

attitude among

learners.

The multi-grade approach

is demanding for teachers

33

From the discussion in table 2.3 above one can conclude that multi-grade schools

are probably the most neglected part of the education system and generally have

untrained teachers. It is clear that a strong need exists for training in how to work

effectively in multi-grade schools to improve learning. Most teachers have been

trained to work in mono-grade classrooms. Their knowledge of teaching is based

on whole-class instruction and small-group instruction. Working in multi-grade

schools requires serious, ongoing teacher training and a commitment to hard

work.

While the goals of education remain intact, the means of achieving these goals

are changing. Rather than simply applying curricula and instructional strategies

of the mono-grade classroom, teachers have to be knowledgeable about

alternative teaching and learning strategies while taking advantage of the

features of the multi-grade classroom.

Teachers, as they remain in the same classroom for more than one year, become

better acquainted with learners and can adapt individualised instruction. They

must, however, be trained in delivering an integrated curriculum that applies to

learners at different developmental stages (Stone; 1996:21). If educational

outputs are not reduced by multi-grade instruction, the system can be a cost-

effective way of increasing primary coverage in rural areas (McEwan; 1993:12).

As in most other countries, the largest number of multi-grade schools in Namibia

is found in the far remote areas of the Country and has generally un- or under-

qualified teachers. The status of multi-grade teaching in Namibia will be

discussed next.

2.4. THE STATUS OF MULTI-GRADE TEACHING IN NAMIBIA The following table, table 2.3, summarises the statistical information on multi-

grade teaching in Namibia as presented by the Regional Directors and Inspectors

34

of Education at a national Conference on Multi-grade Teaching in Namibia in

September 2004:

Table 2.4: Multi-grade teaching in Namibia: 2004 Statistics.

REGION 2 Schools In Region

M/G3 Schools

Learners In Region

Learners In M/G classes

Teachers In Region

Teachers In M/G Classes

Karas

41

22

12 038

3 484

348

108

Hardap

42

22

12 503

1 784

397

±110

Kunene

52

18 + 27 units4

14 624

3 128

554

86

Ohangwena

222

25

Caprivi

94

42

1 953

Oshana

129

21

53 009

1 032

1700

23

Erongo

57

6

24 396

354

844

12

Otjozondjupa

59

14

±1 199

±41

Omaheke

43

5

±500

Khomas

81

8

±85 000

439

1733

17

Kavango

330

185

±3000

5

Source: IECD Multi-grade Conference Document, Swakopmund, Namibia, September2004.

2 Refer to Educational Regions 3 Multi-grade Schools 4 Refer to Mobile School Units with large classes. 5 No information available to fill the grey areas.

35

The figures clearly indicate that 31, 7% of 1150 schools, 17 113 learners and

about 600 teachers are affected by multi-grade instruction (IECD, 2004:8).

Despite the national ratio of 35 learners per teacher, some multi-grade schools

have up to 100 learners in one class (IECD, 2004:21). Multi-grade teaching was

addressed in Namibia in the Kavango and Caprivi Regions in 2003 for the first

time. Teachers however still question the effectiveness of multi-grade instruction.

It must be understood that multi-grade classes are not likely to disappear. In

Namibia, it is not an experiment or an educational trend, but a necessity imposed

in part by economic, political and geographic conditions. In many areas, if

parents choose not to place their child in a multi-grade class, the child will remain

uneducated.

There are many rewards for teaching in the multi-grade classroom, but there are

challenges, too. Instruction and classroom organisation and management are

complex and demanding. A teacher cannot ignore developmental differences in

learners, nor be ill prepared for a day’s instruction. Demands on teacher time

require well-developed organisational skills, as will be discussed in the next

section.

2.5. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATION IN MULTI-GRADE CLASSES

Placing learners of varying ages together within one classroom does not

automatically bring about success (Lodish, 1992:17). The qualities of the learning

experiences that occur, as well as the classroom environment, play a

fundamental role in the outcomes of multi-age classrooms (Lodish, 1992:17).

Teachers need to re-examine the strategies that they are using, often opting to

incorporate new methods within their daily teachings. Every aspect of planning in

the multi-grade classroom is geared toward strategies that teach and encourage

learners towards a high level of independence (Daniel and Terry, 1995: 31).

36

Using a process approach to teaching, moving from all-knowing to a facilitator of

learning, integrating areas of the curriculum, as well as ensuring flexible grouping

within the classroom are four pertinent strategies that require consideration within

a multi-grade classroom.

Stone (1994:103) suggests that successful multi-grade teachers are sometimes

required to shift their philosophical view of how to teach children. A multi-grade

classroom requires educators to see the learners as individuals on a continuum

of learning (Stone, 1994:103). She adds that the learner, then, moves as the

focus of the teaching/learning experience, not the curriculum itself. Those who

attempt to teach grade-specific curriculum to multiple grades within a class may

become bewildered and desire the return to a mono-grade classroom (Stone,

1994:107).

Stone (1994:109) continues to note that a key teaching strategy for prospering

within a multi-grade setting is to use a process approach to teaching. She adds

that individual learners are treated as unique persons with varying developmental

and learning rates and styles. The focus, then, moves from teaching discrete

skills in a prescribed curriculum to developing social skills and investigating broad

academic subjects that reflect a developmental process. Teachers must work

conscientiously in designing open-ended, divergent experiences in preparation

for the vast range of developmental abilities (Gaustad, 1995:98; Stone,

1994:105). Learners, then, learn to read and write by becoming actively and

meaningfully involved in these contexts.

Within a multi-grade classroom, teachers often choose to integrate the curriculum

creating a holistic approach for the process of learning (Daniel and Terry,

1995:12; Gorrell, 1998:90; Mackey, Johnson, and Wood, 1995:33; Stone,

1994:105; Wall, 1994:70). Themes are often selected with, and often by, the

learners, and curriculum areas are taught through these all-encompassing

themes (Bingham et al., 1995:34; Stone, 1994:105).

37

In addition to being considered a very sophisticated approach to learning,

thematic studies are much broader and often take longer for learners to intricately

investigate and explore. Once the curriculum is cleverly integrated within themes,

learners, regardless of age and ability, can work together in cooperative groups,

as well as individually. Removing the traditional, rigid boundaries of a graded

structuring of instructional time enhances creativity of teachers who are

empowered to develop curriculum innovations and teach to each learner’s

individual rate of learning (Mackey, Johnson, and Wood, 1995:50).

Pro-social behaviours, including sharing, taking turns, and helping are more

apparent within multi-grade classes (Katz et al., 1993:22; Stone, 1998:106).

These behaviours facilitate interaction within a group structure and encourage

socialisation. Learners who have opportunities to help and learn from one another

promote the desired feeling that differences are the norm and not the exception,

thus creating a tremendous self-esteem boost to all learners. Also, because of

the natural structure of a multi-grade classroom, teachers are more likely to ask

learners to help one another, than in mono-grade classes (McClellan and Kinsey,

1997:12). Katz, et al.(1993:66) add that with the increase of cooperative

behaviours, discipline issues, that are often inherent within competitive situations,

are often considerably reduced.

Very poor communities cannot make the best use of the educational opportunities

provided unless other factors in the environment - especially poverty and health -

are also addressed at the same time. Multi-grade teaching can help to address

poverty through training teachers who are multi-skilled persons with enhanced

competencies in health promotion, agriculture and micro finance. Such teachers

would clearly meet the perceived needs of the parents and learners who

repeatedly said they wanted schools to teach about taking care of health,

improved methods of farming and how to manage the finances of small families.

Teachers, however, lack the necessary training and support to be innovative and

creative with the local resources at hand. Training needs to relate to the needs of

teachers in the classrooms and the contextual constraints and resources, which

38

they face in their everyday work. It also needs to link theory with practice to allow

trainees to learn from their own experiences, and from their own trial and error.

The most highly qualified teachers are selected for training that means that the

weakest teachers, who need most help, are least likely to receive it. Organising

in-service training will support them in dealing with real issues.

Multi-grade teaching is seen as producing children who are independent learners

and who learn actively and in collaboration with each other through group work.

To encourage children to become independent and active learners, teachers

need to understand and practice this approach to learning themselves and be

collaborative, innovative and flexible teachers.

Consequently multi-grade teaching implies more than a set of skills for classroom

management. It also implies learning and practising a new approach to teaching

and learning, and new relationships within the classroom and between teachers

and trainers.

2.5.1. The management of multi-grade classes in Namibia

In Namibia, the vast majority of multi-grade schools and classrooms are under-

resourced and often lack not only support materials but also basic infrastructure

(walls and weatherproof roofs). The teachers are generally negative about multi-

grade schools and in the absence of training or guidelines, have more frustrations

than pleasure in teaching. Teachers need to be able to utilise locally available

resources rather than wait for government to provide published or manufactured

items. This involves recognising the resources that exist: the material resources,

the human resources and teachers' own resources. Training in using local

resources and making low cost materials needs to start at the pre-service stage.

Table 2.4 indicates how multi-grade classes are managed in Namibia.

Since more time should be spent in organising and planning for instruction in a

multi-grade classroom, extra material and strategies must be developed so that

39

the learners will be meaningfully engaged. The teacher cannot be everywhere or

with each learner simultaneously, therefore, shares instructional responsibilities

with the learners. A context of clear rules and routines make such shared

responsibility productive.

Table 2.5 The Management of Multi-grade classes in Namibia

ERONGO

REGION

Grades combined: 1&2; 3 & 4; 5 & 6 & 7

Teachers attend to one group at a time, which means

teaching time is divided among the two or three groups. No

special attention is given to any learner. In addition to

grades, two languages are also taught in the same class in

one of the schools. The teaching of non-examinations

subjects is neglected.

KUNENE

REGION

Grades combined: 2&3; 4 & 5; 6 & 7

Enrol grade one learners every other year. Timetable is

flexible because of the inconsistent attendance of learners.

The school feeding programme secures attendance in many

schools. Teachers seldom complete the curriculum for a

grade in one calendar year, especially when dealing with the

mobile school units.

OSHANA

REGION

Grades combined: 1 – 4; 2 & 3; 1 & 2; 5 & 6

All learners are taught the same content. Assessment differs

for different grades, although difficult to plan. Teachers focus

on mastering of the most basic competencies.

40

KARAS

REGION

Grades combined: 1 & 2; 3 & 4; 5 & 6 & 7

Teaching time is divided among the groups. In some schools

themes are taught with different assessment activities.

OTJOZOND

JUPA

REGION

Grades combined: 1 – 3; 1 & 2; 2 & 3; 3 & 4; 5 & 6

The majority of learners in multi-grade classes are from the

Ju│’hoansi and !khung San communities. These learners

move with their parents from one place to the other and

attend school irregularly. Teachers focus on mastering of the

most basic competencies and seldom complete the

curriculum per grade in one calendar year.

OHANG

WENA

REGION

Grades combined: 1 & 2 & 3; 1 & 2; 2 & 3; 3 & 4

Teachers see effective teaching as impossible. In some

cases the curriculum of the two or three grades is spread over

the two or three years, while other teachers teach one group

while the others are busy with self-activities.

HARDAP

REGION

Grades combined: 1 – 3; 4 & 5; 6 & 7

Subjects like Religious Education and Physical Education are

taught to the bigger group. Teachers try not to combine

groups for Mathematics and Science subjects. In most cases,

themes are taught to the whole class, but assessment tasks

are set on developmental levels.

KAVANGO

REGION

Grades combined: 1 & 2; 1 – 3; 1 – 4

Grade groups are taught separately, in some cases 3 – 4

groups in one class. Teaching time is divided among the

groups, which means that in a class of 4 grade groups, each

group will have the teacher’s attention for 10 minutes only.

41

CAPRIVI

REGION

Grades combined: 1 & 2; 3 & 4; 5 & 6 & 7

All learners are taught the same content. Assessment differs

for different grades, although difficult to plan. Teachers focus

on mastering of the most basic competencies.

KHOMAS

REGION

Grades combined: 1 & 2; 3 & 4; 5 & 6; 5 – 7

In some cases the curriculum of the two or three grades is

spread over the two or three years, while other teachers

teach one group while the others are busy with self-activities.

OMAHEKE

REGION

Grades combined: 1 & 2; 3 & 4; 5 & 6 & 7

Teachers attend to one group at a time, which means

teaching time is divided among the two or three groups. No

special attention is given to any learner. The teaching of non-

examinations subjects is neglected.

(Source: Institute for Education Career Development, Multi-grade Teaching Conference

Document, 2004)

From the discussion in table 2.4 one can conclude the following:

(i) There are no clear guidelines for the combination of grades.

(ii) Mother tongue influences grouping (Learners in grades 1 – 3 are taught in

their mother tongue)

(iii) Learner attendance many times is inconsistent.

(iv) Time management in multi-grade classes is very difficult.

(v) Teachers lack classroom management skills.

42

Teaching in multi-grade settings requires more preparation on the part of the

teacher. It is difficult to maintain track of the needs of learners of more than one

grade. No wonder multi-grade teaching is generally seen as a major problem.

The skills needed to teach well in the multi-grade and the mono-grade classroom

appears to be quite similar. The differences between the two sorts of classrooms

may be more a product of socialisation and expectation than fact. Clearly, if a

teacher in either sort of classroom fails to addresses differences among learners,

the effectiveness of instruction suffers. Likewise, teachers are harmed when they

have not been adequately prepared to teach learners with varying ages and

abilities, no matter what sort of classroom they work in (Miller, 1991:3).

The quality of teaching and the nature of teaching strategies in multi-grade

classes are critical issues. Where there is agreement in the literature that greater

demands are placed on teachers in multi-grade as opposed to mono-grade

teaching (Veenman, 1995:331; Veenman, 1996:98; Veenman & Raemaekers,

1995:112; Mason & Burns, 1996:310; Mason & Doepner, 1998:163), there is no

agreement about whether this affects the quality of teaching.

Unfortunately, in most studies of multi-grade classes the teaching strategies used

are not described and as a result poorly understood.

One can however conclude from previous studies that teachers lack relevant

training, appropriate resource materials, time for individual attention and

remediation, and must cope with parental concerns about the effects of multi-

grade placement.

Teachers entering into a multi-grade classroom for the first time need to have an

awareness of exactly what can beneficially be gained from teaching multi-grade

classes. Similarly, a central understanding of the many hurdles that one is up

against with regards to literature and past research is critical. It is only when

teachers have this knowledge, that they have a means to overcome these

challenges and take full advantage of the benefits of multi-grade teaching.

43

The next section will focus on the benefits and challenges of multi-grade

teaching.

2.5. THE BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES OF MULTI-GRADE TEACHING

2.6.1. The debate about multi-grade teaching

The debate about multi-grade classrooms focuses on two areas: benefits or harm

to learners’ academic and social development, and teachers’ capacity to teach

effectively while managing more than one grade level. Of these two, more

attention in the research has been given to the effects on learners. Veenman

(1995:332; 1996:17) argues that there is no empirical evidence for the

assumption that student learning may suffer in multi-grade classrooms. Mason

and Burns (1996:313) challenged Veenman and suggest that he may simply be

wrong. The debate articulated in these papers provides the best consideration of

this issue from the available literature.

Veenman’s 1995 paper reviewed 56 studies from 12 countries. Veenman

examined the findings of these studies to compare cognitive and non-cognitive

effects between multi-grade and mono-grade classrooms. The cognitive focus

included subject-area breakdowns, while the non-cognitive focus considered

personal and social adjustment, self-concept, attitudes towards school, and

motivation. For cognitive effects, the study considered:

(i) Nine matched studies (where mono- and multi-grade classrooms that

appeared comparable were the subjects of the study).

(ii) Sixteen random sample studies, in which the effects of mono- and multi-

grade could be isolated and compared from a larger body of data.

44

(iii) Thirteen studies where mono- and multi-grade classes were compared but

with no evidence of compatibility in areas such as learner academic levels.

For non-cognitive effects, seventeen studies were reviewed.

In reporting his findings, Veenman separates 45 multi-grade classes

(administrative device to cope with uneven class size/falling enrolment) and 11

multi-age classes (deliberate grouping of learners of different ages for

educational reasons). Of the 45 multi-grade classes, no consistent differences in

achievement were found with respect to reading, mathematics, language, or

composite scores. Of the studies looking at overall achievement, 28 of 38 found

no overall effects. In four studies, significant and positive effects were found

favoring multi-grade classes, and six studies favored mono-grade classes.

Of the seventeen studies reviewed for non-cognitive effects, five of these

reported significant non-cognitive differences in favor of multi-grade classes, but

these did not translate into higher achievement, and in general there were no

significant differences between mono- and multi-grade classes.

Veenman (1996:21) identifies four factors that he believes are the reasons for

minimal differences in learning between mono- and multi-grade classes:

(i) Grouping alone is unlikely to influence outcomes, as organisational

factors are less important than instructional practices.

(ii) Conscious criteria may be used in selecting learners, so that learners,

who can work independently and have fewer behavioural difficulties,

may be selected.

45

(iii) Teachers receive no additional training for multi-grade teaching, and

may be negative about teaching multi-grade classes. (This implies that

with such training, learners in multi-grade classes would perform better

than those in mono-grade classes, and has been interpreted by Mason

and Burns to infer bias in favour of multi-grade arrangements.)

(iv) If teaching multi-grade classes involves more preparation time and a

greater workload for teachers, teachers use most of their energy

ensuring their learners achieve at a level they would manage in a

mono-grade class.

Veenman (1996:34) also reported findings linked to:

(i) Optimal class size, with 20-25 reported as preferable for multi-grade

classes, and with one study (Gayfer, 1991:11) reporting significantly

higher achievement scores for Grade 6 learners in mono-grade classes

larger than 26 students when compared to similarly sized multi-grade

classes.

(ii) Optimal combinations of grade levels, with considerable uncertainty

about which combinations work best, as there exists minimal research

into this area.

(iii) Reported positive learner achievement effects from combining grades

within one subject area, usually reading (Gutierrez and Slavin,

1992:17).

46

(iv) Six key variables identified by Miller (1991:11) for successful multi-

grade teaching: classroom organisation, classroom management and

discipline, instructional organisation and curriculum, instructional

delivery and grouping, self-directed learning and peer tutoring.

The Mason and Burns (1996) paper argues that while multi-grade classes are

good for some learners, they are potentially difficult for most, and increase

teacher stress. While they do not dispute Veenman’s findings that there are no

significant differences in achievement between learners in mono- and multi-grade

classrooms, they challenge both the interpretation and explanation of his findings.

Multi-grade classrooms, they argue, are selectively formed and offer lower quality

instruction than mono-grade classes.

Selection is likely to increase learner achievement, while lower quality instruction

is likely to reduce it. They argue that the two cancel each other out, thereby

causing no achievement differences. In contrast, they state that Veenman claims

no selection bias and no difference in the quality of instruction, leading to no

achievement differences.

Mason and Burns (1996:320) find evidence in the literature that:

"Principals, in an effort to reduce the burden on multi-grade teachers,

place more able, more independent, and more co-operative learners in

multi-grade classes."

They argue that by selectively placing such learners in multi-grade classrooms, a

negative effect on achievement is likely in any mono-grade classroom in the

same school, as these classes must necessarily contain comparatively less able,

less independent, and less co-operative learners.

If same-school mono-grade learners’ achievement scores were compared with

the multi-grade classes in that school in a research project, the findings of the

47

research would therefore reflect this. Mason and Burns believe that comparisons

could be best made (but rarely are) between two sets of learners who are

randomly placed in both mono- and multi-grade classrooms, rather than randomly

selecting from learners who are selectively placed (as they claim is more

common in the research).

The claim of selection was challenged by Veenman (1996:97) in a paper

responding to Mason and Burns, in which he stated that selection of the nature

indicated by Mason and Burns was only found in four of fifty-one studies.

The second key argument made by Mason and Burns (1996:314) focuses on the

quality of instruction, which they claim is lower in multi-grade classrooms. Their

case is not that teachers in such classes are inferior, but that the demanding

nature of multi-grade teaching reduces the quality of instruction.

They identify two areas in which demands are greater: increased workload (more

preparation/grouped instruction/teaching time) and more complex class

organisation (less instructional time, less individual attention, and greater

management demands). They claim that:

“teachers are therefore faced with delivering two different curricula to

learners of twice the age range in the same amount of time – factors which

make these two structures drastically different…. The two curricula that are

part and parcel of these classes require more preparation, more grouped

instruction, and more teaching time on the part of the teachers…. Teacher

stress is exacerbated, and curriculum coverage and adaptive assistance

are diminished, with negative outcomes." Mason and Burns (1996:316)

Veenman acknowledges the increased stress on teachers in multi-grade

classrooms in his 1996 response, where he shared findings from interviews with

teachers in Holland:

48

"Interview data showed the teachers in the multi-grade classes to be less

satisfied with their jobs than their counterparts in mono-grade classes as a

result of the heavy teaching load and demands for classroom

management." Veenman (1996:98)

Mason and Burns (1996:318) argue that the data concerning teacher satisfaction

indicate that extra support appear necessary to effectively manage multi-grade

classrooms:

"… teachers will require considerable support and will need to expend

considerable effort to obtain rewards from these classrooms. Lacking such

support, most teachers find multi-grade classes to be difficult classroom

environments to manage, and they cope with the two grade levels and

curricula as best they can." (page 47)

Both sides of this debate have something to offer, though Veenman’s evidence is

more substantial, with a very wide-ranging international review of the literature on

this issue. His views are supported by research completed after his review, in

particular the work of Trusty and Beckenstein (1996) and Gorrell (1998). Both

Veenman and Mason and Burns essentially agree that there are no significant

differences in learners’ academic achievement. They also agree that the teaching

load is heavier in multi-grade classes, causing reduced satisfaction and increased

stress for teachers.

A report by Gomulchuk and Piland (1995:78) found that rural elementary teachers

in northern British Columbia were more positive in their attitudes towards multi-

grade classrooms than were urban teachers. This result perhaps links more to

the sustaining of community in such areas than to the pedagogical and

organisational issues discussed by most of the researchers on this subject.

The Australian study by Russell, Rowe, and Hill (1998:76) provides evidence of

significant and negative differences in terms of learner achievement caused by

49

the single variable of learners being in multi-grade classrooms. They found some

significant negative effects on achievement associated with multi-grade classes,

and some non-significant effects. However, different results were found in two

different years of data collection, and between literacy and numeracy. In one

year, the data collected for learner progress in literacy revealed, among other

things, a strong, direct negative effect of being in a multi-grade class. The

following year’s data again showed negative effects, but these were not

significant. Differences in mathematics showed negative effects for multi-grade

classrooms, but these were not statistically significant.

In the research conducted by Russell et al (1998:80), teachers and administrators

identified nine contextual factors that were seen to have the power to worsen or

moderate the level of difficulty in multi-grade classrooms, and were:

(i) The choice of teacher, teacher ability, and teacher skills in

organisation and planning.

(i i) Class size.

(i i i) Balance in size of year-level sub-groups.

(iv) Number of learners with challenging behavioural problems.

(v) Range of learner abilities, achievement, and styles of learning,

especially independence.

(vi) Arrangements for learners to mix with their year-level peers in other

classes for activities such as sports and excursions.

(vi i) Organisation of a two-year curriculum, so that learners do not miss

out on curriculum coverage.

(vi i i) Time taken to deal with additional parent pressure.

(ix) Additional time and pressure from the demands of ongoing school-

level changes.

Successful learning depends on a range of pedagogical and organisational

factors within different classroom, school, and community contexts, all of which

exist within the wider context of district or provincial policies. The promotion or

50

consideration of any single variable or program should always be made with local

factors and contexts in mind. Veenman (1996:100) provided a useful caution:

"The purpose of my review was not to encourage policy makers and

practitioners to adopt the multi-graded form of classroom organisation

more frequently. Policymakers and practitioners should always proceed

with caution in the application of research findings, and should not base

policy decisions on research findings alone."

2.6.2. Benefits for learners

In addition, several studies focus on teachers’ perceptions of the benefits for

learners of learning in multi-grade settings. A UNESCO/APEID study (1989:5)

collated perceptions about the benefits of multi-grade teaching from educators in

twelve countries in the Asia and Pacific Region. These included:

(i) Learners develop self-study skills.

(ii) Learners cooperate across age groups, resulting in collective ethics,

concern and responsibility.

(iii) Learners help each other.

(iv) Teachers can organise both remediation and enrichment activities for

low and high achievers respectively more discreetly than in mono-

grade classes.

A study of 47 multi-grade teachers and head teachers in an inner city area of

London, England, reported a number of positive opportunities presented by the

multi-grade classroom (Berry and Little, 1999:11). The most commonly

mentioned was the opportunity for cognitive stretching of the younger, less able

51

and lower achieving learners, expressed variously by teachers as stretching,

modelling, moving on and developing, extending, looking up and emulating.

The second most commonly mentioned was the opportunity for the use of peer

tutoring learning strategies. While such strategies are not unique to multi-grade

classes, the strategy appears to work particularly well in the multi-grade class.

Unlike cognitive stretching, which was considered a benefit mainly for the less

able, the lower achieving and the younger learner, peer tutoring was perceived to

benefit all learners, cognitively, socially and personally. More able, higher

achieving and older learners strengthen their learning through teaching and

helping others. The less able, lower achieving and younger learners look up to

and learn from others.

A third commonly mentioned opportunity was behaviour stretching, or the

opportunity for younger learners to learn appropriate social behaviours from the

role models offered by older learners.

2.6.3. Challenges for teachers

Alongside the perceived benefits for learners must be noted the perceived

challenges posed by the multi-grade classroom for teachers. In the study of multi-

grade teachers in London these included:

(i) The multi-graded structure has the National Curriculum and the

associated expectations of curriculum coverage and

assessment/achievement targets.

(ii) The range of ability of learners in those multi-grade classes where

learners have been assigned on criteria other than ability homogeneity.

52

(iii) The pressure to prepare one group of learners within the multi-grade

class for critical public assessments.

Recent studies of teachers in developing countries highlight their generally

negative perceptions of multi-grade classes and multi-grade teaching. In a study

of teachers in the Nuwakot and Kavre districts of Nepal, most teachers with

experience of multi-grade teaching think that multi-grade teaching presents them

with more difficulties than mono-grade teaching (Suzuki 2004:21).

In the Peruvian Amazon multi-grade teachers perceive the mono-grade class as

the desirable norm and the multi-grade as the ‘second class’ necessity. Teachers

feel unprepared to work in multi-grade classrooms, judge that learners don’t get

the same as in mono-grade classrooms and report that they have insufficient

educational materials to support learning in the multi-grade classroom. The

isolated and isolating conditions of work and the poverty of the communities

served by multi-grade schools reinforce teachers’ negative attitude to the school

(Ames, 2004:91).

In Sri Lanka attitudes of multi-grade teachers to multi-grade teaching are also

generally negative. A recent piece of action research suggests that teachers’

attitudes to multi-grade teaching become more positive once they realise that

there are strategies that can be used to improve learner achievement outcomes

and lessen the teacher’s burden of intensive lesson planning for several

grades (Vithanapathirana, 2003:17).

In the Turks and Caicos Islands, teachers reserved their most negative

comments for the burden of lesson planning imposed by the multi-grade

classroom (Berry, 2001:22).

53

Earlier studies (UNESCO/APEID 1989, Birch and Lally, 1995) referred to several

other challenges faced by teachers, most of which are related to the remoteness

of the contexts in which multi-grade schools are located:

(i) The non-filling of vacancies in multi-grade schools in rural areas.

(ii) The absence of teacher accountability in remote multi-grade schools.

(iii) The inattentiveness of education officers to the needs of multi-grade

teachers and schools (UNESCO/APEID 1989: 9-11).

(iv) Lack of financial incentives for teachers to teach in remote multi-grade

schools.

(v) Inadequate provision for housing, employment for spouses and

children’s education.

(vi) Absence of promotion incentives.

(vii) Restricted opportunities for in-service training.

Given the negative attitudes held by many teachers towards teaching in multi-

grade classrooms, several conditions need to be met in order to make learning

and teaching in multi-grade settings beneficial for learners (Little, 2004:15).

The active involvement of administrators and school board members is essential

in creating support and providing ongoing professional development for multi-

grade practice. At least a full year of planning, reading, discussion and

observation of successful multi-grade programmes, prior to implementation, is

strongly recommended (Miller, 1996:136; Nye, 1993:109; Grant, 1993:98;

Gaustad, 1992:89).

54

The following, commonly noted benefits of good quality multi-grade teaching

helped compiled the questionnaires that were distributed to teachers in Namibia

to get their views on the management of multi-grade classrooms:

(i) Learners progress at their own pace.

(ii) Learners take responsibility for their own learning.

(iii) Learners have a great sense of self-confidence.

(iv) Teachers work with small groups or individuals.

(v) The educational atmosphere is conducive to academic progress and

social growth.

(vi) Multi-grade teaching emphasises building upon strengths.

(vii) Multi-grade classrooms can be seen as assets that promote quality

learning.

(viii) Competition among learners is minimised.

(ix) Learners learn to set personal learning goals.

(x) Teachers can plan instruction at the learners’ level of development.

(xi) Learners are more aware of the uniqueness of themselves and others.

(xii) Traditions and memories are built.

(xiii) Learners have several years to develop and see themselves as

progressive and successful.

55

(xiv) Learners are not labelled according to their abilities.

(xv) Younger learners raise their language skills when associated with older

learners.

2.7. CONCLUSION Many educational policymakers, planners, professional support staff and the

public at large, are unaware of the extent and the nature of the needs of multi-

grade classes. Since curriculum, educational materials, teacher preparation and

assessment systems are predicated on mono-graded schools and classes, it is

hardly surprising that many teachers hold negative attitudes towards their role in

the multi-grade class.

Policymakers need to be aware of the multi-grade reality and then develop

resource, planning, curriculum, materials, teacher preparation and assessment

strategies, in collaboration with teachers. Multi-grade teachers should not be

expected to adapt the general system to their specific multi-grade circumstance,

alone. In most education systems mono-grade teachers are not expected to

exercise such levels of adaptive professional autonomy (and indeed are often

discouraged from doing so). Why should so much more be expected from the

multi-grade teacher?

Curricula premised on a mono-graded structure need to be adapted to meet the

needs of the multi-grade classroom. This adaptation should be undertaken jointly

between teachers, guided or supported by curriculum experts working at National

level. The adapted curriculum must be endorsed and validated by the highest

authority.

56

Four curriculum adaptation strategies have been shown to be effective in multi-

grade classrooms:

(i) Multi-year curriculum spans.

In this strategy units of curriculum content are spread across 2-3

grades rather than one. All learners work through common topics and

activities (Daniel, 1988:21; Berry and Little, 2004:11)

(ii) Differentiated curricula.

In this strategy the same general topic/theme is covered with all

learners. Learners in each grade group engage in learning tasks

appropriate to his/her level of learning (Vithanapathirana, 2003:21; Son

et al., 2002:41; Son and Pridmore, 2001:81)

(iii) Quasi mono-grade.

In this strategy, the teacher teaches grade groups, in turn, as if they

were mono-graded. Learners follow the same or a different subject at

the same time. Teachers may divide their time equally between grade

groups. Or they may deliberately divide their time unequally, choosing

subjects or tasks within subjects that require different levels of teacher

contact.

(iv) Learner and materials-centred.

The fourth strategy depends more on the learner and learning materials

than on teacher input. The curriculum is translated into self-study

graded learning guides. Learners work through these at their own

speed with support from the teacher and structured assessment tasks.

Learning is constructed as involving a relationship between learner,

learning materials and teacher (Colbert, Chiappe and Arboleda,

1993:61).

57

A more radical approach to curriculum is premised on a shift in philosophies of

learning and teaching, from one that emphasises learner homogeneity and

standardisation of teacher inputs to one that acknowledges the diversity of

learners and the need for a differentiation of inputs. This approach recognises

that multi-grade teaching is, in principle, if not always in practice, a desirable

teaching strategy in all classes, all schools and all countries. Like multi-grade

classes, mono-grade classes comprise a diversity of learner abilities, interests,

backgrounds, ages and school attendance (Little, 2001:483; Croft, 2002:12).

Differentiation refers to how the same teacher organises learning for different

individuals and/or groups of learners. It can refer variously to difference of subject

taught, difference of input, difference of activities undertaken by learners and

difference of outcomes expected. While each type of differentiation can be

observed in multi-grade and many mono-grade classes, they are not generally

built into the fabric of national curricula.

This approach to curriculum does not undermine the value of whole class

teaching. Rather it teachers to develop a range of teaching approaches, from the

standardised to the differentiated and a range of support for learners, from

materials, to peer learning, group learning and self study.

The notions of diversity and differentiation challenge deep-seated cultures of

teaching and learning in which the teacher is the main arbiter of knowledge,

classroom activity is teacher-led, whole class teaching is dominant and in which

all learners (notwithstanding high rates of learner absenteeism in many systems)

are expected to progress through the curriculum at the same pace.

Deep-seated cultures of teaching and learning pose the greatest obstacle to

enduring reforms designed to meet the needs of the multi-grade classroom,

though, as Croft (2002:14) points out, differentiation based on groups may be

more acceptable in collectivist cultures than differentiation based on individuals.

58

On the other hand, there may be ways in which curriculum reform might be

undertaken to satisfy the needs of learners in multi-grade settings, even within

teacher-led pedagogies. Experimental work on the reorganisation of national

curriculum subjects built around the grading of activities in relation to core

concepts or skills and differentiated activities and outcomes across the entire

primary school curriculum is currently being undertaken in Nepal and Sri Lanka

(LATIMS, 2003:163). The general idea is the creation of curricula that meet the

needs of learners and teachers in multi-graded settings and reduce the daily

curriculum-planning burden on the teacher.

Most researchers and practitioners agree that successful strategies for multi-

grade teaching depend on adequate supplies of learning materials to support

individual and group-based learning. This enables teachers to spend time with

some groups of learners while other learners work alone, in pairs or in small

groups.

The Escuela Nueva programme, in which study guides for individual learners

were developed for each of the core curriculum subjects, is the best-known

example of this principle. But the mere existence of materials does not guarantee

quality of learning. Self-study materials must be of the highest quality and

relevance, and must be used by teachers as part of an integrated teaching

strategy, in which teachers continue to play a vital part. The availability of self-

study materials must not be viewed by the teacher as a substitute for his/her

teaching.

Conventional school textbooks are another learning resource deserving attention.

Textbooks are usually written on the assumption that lessons are teacher-led. Is

there scope for development-work on the production of school texts, written with

the self-studying learner as a main audience? Are there any lessons to be

learned from the authors of examination crammers? How do they reach their

audience – the learner – so effectively?

59

Effective multi-grade teaching involves the use of a range of organisational

strategies in the classroom. These will include the use of whole class teaching,

small group, paired and self-learning. They also include the involvement of

learners in the general management of the classroom, the school and its learning

resources (e.g. the use of monitors, the distribution of responsibilities for a range

of class and school tasks, the use of class and school decision-making bodies)

Pre-service and in-service training for teachers on the needs of the multi-grade

class is vital. In some countries (e.g. Finland) multi-grade teaching is already

embedded in teacher education curricula. In England multi-grade teachers

express the desire for in-service training and curricula support for the multi-grade

class, but generally have to rely on their training in the principles of diversity and

differentiation in coping with the demands of the multi-grade class (Berry and

Little, 2004:21).

There are many examples worldwide of ad hoc teaching training programmes to

meet the needs of the multi-grade teacher, many of them supported by

multilateral organisations

(e.g. see www.ioe.ac.uk/multigrade.). Many in-service training programmes in

multi-grade teaching adopt a cascade model of dissemination and, hence, are

subject to many of the effectiveness issues that face cascade training

programmes more generally.


components of an integrated strategy for learning and teaching in multi-grade

settings. Implementation of a single strategy is unlikely to lead to significant

improvements in the effectiveness of learning and teaching in multi-grade

settings. Surrounding these strategies is the need for national policies (for

curriculum, materials, teacher education and assessment) that recognise,

legitimate and support learners and teachers in multi-grade settings.

60

2.8. SUMMARY

The literature survey was done with a view to provide a theoretical framework on

the concept of managing the effect of multi-grade teaching on learner

performance. The concept of managing multi-grade classrooms was elucidated,

so was the need for appropriate management and teaching skills. It became clear

that the acquisition of such skills would, to a large extent, enable teachers to

manage multi-grade classrooms more effectively. By so doing they will be in a

position to create a conducive environment for learning and hence improve

learner performance.

In the next chapter the research design and methodology will be discussed.

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CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH DESIGN 3.1. INTRODUCTION Research design is the plan and structure of the investigation used to obtain

evidence to answer research questions. The design describes the procedures of

conducting the study to enable the researcher to anticipate what the appropriate

research decisions should be in order to maximise the validity of the eventual

results.

3.1.1. Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is concerned with non-statistical methods of inquiry and

analysis of social phenomena. It draws on an inductive process in which themes

and categories emerge through analysis of data collected by techniques such as

interviews and observations. Samples are usually small and are often purposely

selected. Qualitative research uses detailed descriptions from the perspective of

the research participants themselves as a means of examining specific issues

and problems under study (McRoy, 1988:4)

3.1.2. Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is characterized by the use of large samples, standardised

measures, a deductive approach, and highly structured interview instruments to

collect data for hypothesis testing (Marlow, 1993:103). Easily quantifiable

categories are typically generated before the study and statistical techniques are

62

used to analyse the data collected. Since both qualitative and quantitative

research is designed to build knowledge, they can be used as complementary

strategies.

The assumption guiding this study is that a strong case can be made by using an

approach that combines quantitative and qualitative elements. The reason for

this assumption is that it is most fruitful to use a variety of data collection methods

when investigating human behaviour and attitudes (Patton, 1990:31). By using

different methods at various points in the research process, the researcher can

build on the strength of each type of data collection and minimise the

weaknesses of any single approach. A mixed-method approach can increase

both the validity and reliability of the data.

Brief discussions to elucidate the merits of the different methods now follow.

3.2. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 3.2.1. Definition

Qualitative research is referred to as naturalistic research into everyday living.

Direct observations are made of human behaviour in everyday life (Taylor,

1975:121). The word quality usually relates to value and is associated with

research with small numbers of people, but more detailed, valuable, in-depth

information is collected.

3.2.2. Characteristics

Qualitative research attempts to understand human experiences from the

perspective of those who experience them and has the following characteristics:

63

(i) Qualitative research is admittedly subjective.

(ii) Seeks to understand, rather than explain.

(iii) Reliance on inductive logic and thus reason from concrete

experience to abstract theory.

(iv) Seeks to generate hypotheses, not test them.

(v) Data is processed as received.

(vi) The researcher is the data collection instrument.

3.2.3. Reliability and validity in qualitative research

Among the most cited criticisms of qualitative research are the presumed lack of

reliability and validity of its findings. With regard to field research, critics question

the ability of qualitative research to replicate observations (reliability) or to obtain

correct answers or correct impressions of the phenomenon under study (validity)

(Kirk & Miller, 1986: 176). Other criticisms concern the reactive effects of the

observer’s or the interviewer’s presence on the situation being studied and

selective perception or bias on the side of the researcher.

The issues of reliability and validity were addressed in this study by the addition

of structured questionnaires to approach the same topic of investigation.

3.2.4. Advantages and disadvantages of qualitative research

64

The following are a few general advantages to using qualitative research:

(i) qualitative research tends to be more flexible since there are no set

questions or answers and the researcher can change questions as

the data collection progresses;

(ii) data collection is more spontaneous and more in its natural

environment or context;

(iii) qualitative research tends to allow for more in-depth data collection.

The disadvantages of qualitative research are:

(i) qualitative data collection tends to take more time;

(ii) qualitative data collection tends to cost more money.

As already mentioned in chapter one, data in this study is collected

simultaneously and involve both numeric information (on structured

questionnaires) and text information (on focus group interviews and observations)

so that the final database represents both quantitative and qualitative information.

The following qualitative methods were used to collect data:

3.2.5. Focus group interviews The focus group interview is a research method that is qualitative in nature since

the data collected will not be statistically analysed. Focus groups refer to an

interview technique where the researcher gathers together a group of people who

are similar in some way and have a specialised knowledge about the research

65

topic. Once a group of people are together, the researcher leads the group with

directed questions that focus on a specific topic and members of the group take

turns answering and discussing the questions among themselves.

The purpose of a focus group interview is to collect data from the group as they

focus on the topic. There are of course several advantages and disadvantages

associated with focus group interviews. They are:

Table 3.1: Advantages and disadvantages of Focus group interviews.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

The researcher is able to collect a lot of

information about a topic in a relatively

short period of time

One member of the group can

control others, or some members can

start arguing with others.

You have the ability to hear how group

members discuss the topic among

themselves because of group

interaction.

Since each member of the group can

hear the other members’ responses,

some members of the group could be

influenced to agree with other

members, even though they do not

believe in the answers given.

The researcher has the chance to

collect information that cannot be

recorded through non-verbal cues such

as hand gestures, facial expression

and body language.

Organisation of the group can be a

problem since it is not always easy to

get a group to meet a certain time and

place.

This research method is fairly flexible in

that the group can move from subject

to subject, at their own pace.

Since the group must cover a range of

topics in a relatively short period of

time, there is less depth of knowledge

than with other interview methods.

66

Focused group interviews were used in this study because the attitudes and

opinions of teachers, managers and parents were desired and with the hope that

some agreement on the management of multi-grade classes could be reached.

These opinions could help inform a national training programme on multi-grade

instruction.

Literature suggests five key areas that are generally the focus of concern in multi-

grade environments and should be included in any training programme. These

will be used as topics for discussions in the focus groups and cover classroom

management, instructional strategies, curriculum, instructional materials and

community involvement.

Focus group interviews were held in the following two of the five educational

regions in the sample:

3.2.5.1. Hardap Region

Focus Group Members:

• 1 Advisory Teacher

• 1 Principal

• 1 Union Member

• 5 Teachers

The group was generally negative about multi-grade teaching in the beginning.

As discussions went on, they became more positive as they realise that multi-

grade teaching can work if “you put your mind to it”. The following summarises

the discussions:

67

(i) Classroom Management

The following seat plan is commonly used:

Figure 3.1: Seat plan for a multi-grade class in the Hardap region, Namibia.

Learners work in groups of 4, sitting in such a way that all can see the

chalkboard. Arrangement should be functional with enough space to move

around. Class rules are essential. The following advantages and challenges

were listed:

Teacher Table

DoorChalkboard

Learner Table

Learner Table

Learner Table

Learner Table

Grade 2

Grade 3

Reading corner

Rug – For Story telling

68

Table 3.2: Advantages and challenges of multi-grade teaching in the Hardap Region, Namibia.

ADVANTAGES

CHALLENGES

Learners get the opportunity

demonstrate helpfulness and

leadership

Overcrowded classes without

enough furniture.

Learners develop independence

Lack of teaching and learning material

Learners stay with the same teacher

for multiple years.

Teachers need to plan carefully

(ii) Instructional Strategies

The teacher teaches one group, while the other group work on their own.

Learners are grouped according to ability levels.

OR

The teacher teaches a theme to the whole class, but assess learners at their

ability levels.

Assessment should be just another teaching strategy. The teacher design

methods of assessment that will assess how well learners can:

• Handle knowledge and information

• Perform skills they have learnt

69

• Think about feelings and attitudes

• Understand issues

• Work with other learners in groups

• Solve problems

• Think creatively

The advantage is that learners are encouraged to take responsibility for their own

learning, but there are challenges too.

These challenges include:

• The gifted learners get bored easily and need tasks that challenge

their minds.

• Teaching time is divided and non-promotion subjects suffer.

• Grade 7 learners write an external examination at the end of the

year.

• Teachers find it difficult to complete the curriculum in time.

(iii) Curriculum

The group agreed that teachers look for similarities in the curricula of the different

grades and apply theme teaching. Learners are allowed to approach the learning

content as a project instead of merely explaining it. The following is an example

of a weekly plan for a language lesson:

70

Table 3.3: Weekly plan for a language lesson in a multi-grade class.

DAY

ACTIVITY

MONDAY

- Introduce a new topic

- Display new vocabulary on flash cards.

TUESDAY

- Speaking: rotate groups for oral conversations.

- Sentence Construction

- Creative Writing

WEDNESDAY

& THURSDAY

- Reading: Group and individual activity

- Use games as teaching strategy

- Formal writing activities

FRIDAY

- Compensatory teaching and enrichment

- More structured assessment

Grammar, phonics and assessment are integrated daily. In addition, a variety of

activities are planned at the learners’ levels of development.

The advantage is that learners perform at their developmental levels. Teachers

are however challenged to be creative when planning across grade level

objectives.

71

(iv) Instructional Materials

Teachers have neither the resources, nor the expertise to develop instructional

materials for multi-grade teaching, but doing the best they can. The group

however felt the development of instructional material is the responsibility of the

Ministry of Education. The biggest challenge teachers face at the moment is to

cope with the limited resources available in schools.

(v) Community Involvement

The group was fairly negative about the involvement of the community. The

general feeling was that “we have to cope with the frustrations of multi-grade

teaching, we can’t cope with the challenges of socio-economic problems as well”.

The group is of the opinion that the following grades should not be combined with

any other grade:

Grade 1, because there is a compulsory ten-week school readiness programme

that forms part of the grade 1 curriculum.

Grade 4, because learners are taught in their mother tongue up to grade 3 and in

English from grade 4 onwards.

Grade 7, because learners write an external examination at the end of the year

and teachers are afraid that they might not have been completed the curriculum

by then.

In addition, subjects like Religious Education and Physical Education can be

taught to a larger group of learners, but teachers should try not to combine

groups for Mathematics and Science subjects.

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3.2.5.2. Karas Region Focus Group Members:

• 1 Advisory Teacher

• 1 Inspector of Education

• 1 Principal

• 1 Union Member

• 5 Teachers

The group was as negative as the group in the Hardap Region. They have a lot

more learners in multi-grade classes (see extract from statistics in chapter 2). In

addition to multi-grade, they are also challenged with multi-lingual teaching.

Table 3.4: Extract: Multi-grade teaching in Namibia: 2004 Statistics.

REGION 6

Schools In Region

M/G7 Schools

LearnersIn Region

Learners In M/G classes

Teachers In Region

Teachers In M/G Classes

Karas 41 22 12 038 3 484 348 108

Hardap 42 22 12 503 1 784 397 ±110

(Source: IECD Multi-grade Conference Document, Swakopmund, Namibia, September

2004).

Learners in Namibia are taught in their mother tongue from grades 1 – 3. The

Karas Region has smaller communities with Afrikaans and Nama speaking

learners in one class.


The following seat plan was suggested:

6 Refer to Educational Regions 7 Multi-grade Schools

73

Figure 3.2: Seat plan for a multi-grade class in the Karas region, Namibia.

Learners work in groups of 6, sitting in such a way that all can see the black

board. Arrangement should be functional with enough space to move around.

Each leaner has a shelve at the back of the room for his/her books and other

belongings. The following advantages and challenges were listed:

DoorBlack Board

Reading Corner

Teacher Table

Grade 1

Grade 2

Learners with Special Needs

Learners’ Books Shelves

74

Table 3.5: Advantages and challenges of multi-grade teaching in the Karas region, Namibia.

ADVANTAGES CHALLENGES

Learners get the opportunity

demonstrate helpfulness and

leadership

Overcrowded classes and lack of

teaching and learning material

Learners develop independence

Teachers need to plan carefully,

especially where two languages are

taught.

(ii) INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

Teaching time is divided among the different groups in the classroom. Teachers

cover small quantities of work at a time. The learners are assessed at ability

levels. Teachers identify learners with special needs and group them separately.

The advantage is that learners perform at their level of development, but teachers

are challenged with:

• Gifted learners

• Teaching time

• Grade 7 external examination

• Completion of the Curriculum

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(iii) Curriculum

Teachers work with one group while the others are busy with either self-activities

or reading.

The following is an example of a weekly plan for a teacher with three groups

(grade 2, grade 3 and the special needs group).

Table 3.6: An example of a weekly plan for a multi-grade class in the Karas Region, Namibia.

ENGLISH

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Grade 2

Introduce new topic

Display new vocabulary on flash cards.

Revise new vocabulary on flash cards.

Sentence Construction


Creative Writing

Grade 3

Introduce a new topic




Creative Writing

Creative Writing

SEN 8

Group

Introduce a new topic


Revise new vocabulary on flash cards.



Creative Writing

8 Group with Special Educational Needs

76

Assessment is integrated daily. In addition, a variety of activities are planned at

the learners’ levels of development.

The advantage is that learners perform at their developmental levels. Teachers

are however challenged to be creative when planning across grade level

objectives. Flash cards, for example, look differently for the different groups:

Figure 3.3. Flash cards for a multi-grade class

A picture for the SEN group

A word for grade 2

Letters for grade 3 to build the word.

g i r l

g

i

l

r

77


Teachers develop their own material, most of the time with waste material. The

biggest challenge teachers face at the moment is to cope with the limited

resources available in schools.


Parents are allowed to serve on the school board.

The teachers in the Karas Region describe multi-grade teaching as “a cry for

help” and not without reason. The number of learners per teacher in some

schools varies from 36 – 52. The inspector of Education recommended that

teachers play around with the timetable and focus on the needs of the learners.

Teachers however focus on the completion of the curriculum and learners

sometimes move from one grade to the next without mastering the most basic

competencies.

3.2.5.3. Conclusion

The 2003/2004 annual report of the Ministry of Basic Education, Sport and

Culture in Namibia notes that the learner-teacher ratio seems to do more harm

than good (MEC, 2004:68). The report further notes, “We increased our

economic efficiency on the one hand, but lost a considerable degree of quality on

the other”. The teachers, although very negative about multi-grade teaching,

realise that they are not effective and need training and support. Some of these

teachers have very good and workable ideas that could be explored more.

78

3.2.6. OBSERVATIONS

Observation involves watching people, events, situations or phenomena and

obtaining first hand information relating to particular aspects of such people,

events situations or phenomena (Oyedele, 2003:149). Information relating to

certain aspects of human behaviour can only be obtained in the particular

settings where such behaviours are exhibited. The major aim of observation is to

see and describe human behaviour the way it is in nature. By directly observing

operations and activities, the observer can develop a holistic perspective, i.e. an

understanding of the context within which the project operates.

ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATIONS:

Observations:

provide direct information about the behaviour of individuals and groups,

provide good opportunities for identifying unanticipated outcomes,

exist in natural settings and

allow the observer to enter into and understand the situation.

Observations are however expensive and time consuming and may affect the

participants.

In this study, the researcher observed without participating and recorded

information as it was revealed. The advantage was firsthand experience with

participants. The five key areas that were used to guide the focus group

discussions, were also used as a framework for the observations.

79

Observations were done in five different schools in one of the educational regions

in the sample and the following recorded:

3.2.6.1. School A GRADES COMBINED:

Grades 1 & 2 – 36 learners



CLASS VISITED:

Grades 3 & 4

OBSERVATIONS RECORDED


Learners are seated in groups and in such a way that they can easily look at the

blackboard without loosing direct eye contact to their peers. The teacher uses

two small black boards on stands. Both boards are too low for her and should be

lifted to a more comfortable height.

There is enough space in the classroom for the learners to move around,

although movement is not encouraged.

80


The main focus is on the activity where one group work on its own whiles the

teacher is busy with the other group. A regular transition of teacher focus from

one grade to the other all the time keeping in mind that there is a limitation on the

time learners can work independently was also observed.

Learners communicate on invitation from the teacher. No academic

independence was observed.

(iii) Curriculum

The teacher had clear formulated lesson objectives that can be tested at the end

of the lesson.

Every lesson can be measured up against the Scheme of Work and the Syllabus,

thus ensuring that the teaching progress is in line with the curriculum

requirements.


The teacher used quite stimulating teaching aids, but could not succeed in

reaching the lesson objective, because too many new elements were introduced

orally. The teacher assesses work regularly. Emphasis is on correctness of

content.


None observed.

CONCLUSION

There are a few easily changeable factors that can be focused on to improve the

quality of education. These factors include the classroom layout, lesson

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preparation and the constant attention to the expansion of learner skills, such as

communication and handwriting, asking for help and the ability to work

independently.

3.2.6.2. School B GRADES COMBINED: Grades 2 & 3 – 40 learners


CLASS VISITED: Both classes.

The two teachers plan together.

Similarities are noted.



Existing space and resources are under-utilised in both classes. Learners sit in

pairs facing the blackboard. Groups of 4-6 can be formed with a little creativity.

The arrangement of furniture in the classroom makes it very “busy” and no

provision is made for independent study areas.


The lessons observed were fairly successful because of the following:

• A clear separation between the two grades

• A joint start for both grades before separating them into two groups

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• A healthy mixture between do, write and think activities for learners

• The formulation of expected lesson outcomes for each grade

• Clear short descriptions of learner and teacher activities

• Frequent transition of the teacher from one grade to the other

(iii) Curriculum

The teachers plan together. They look for themes that can cover topics in both

grades and apply mono-grade teaching. Activities are planned differently for

different grade levels. They are few in number though, because teaching time is

reduced by at least 40%. If teaching and learning occur at this pace, learners will

have to spend two calendar years in one grade.


Learner participation is not really encouraged. They work individually and

communicate to the teacher only. Movement in the classroom is limited. There

were books and well-prepared teaching aids in both classrooms that were not

used or referred to.


None observed.

83

CONCLUSION

Many local parents have lost confidence in the school and enrolled their children

elsewhere. Learners are behind and too much time is invested in the completion

of previous work. Teachers will have to:

• Formulate lesson objectives with greater care

• Plan board work carefully

• Make sure lessons presented are in line with the scheme of work and

the syllabus

• Practise basic reading, writing and arithmetic skills a lot more.

3.2.6.3. School C GRADES COMBINED:

Grades 1 & 2 & 3 – 23 learners



CLASSES VISITED:

Grades 1, 2 and 3.

Grades 4 & 5

84



Existing space and resources are under-utilised in both classes. Learners sit in

pairs facing the blackboard. The low number of learners would make it possible

to create different stimulating activity zones in the class.


Grade groups are taught separately, thus dividing teaching time. Learners lack

basic competencies in reading and mathematics. Not much written work has

been done.

(iii) Curriculum

The teachers seemed negative and frustrated, but try to get acquainted to the

demands of multi-grade instruction. Mono-grade instruction focusing on the

syllabus of the highest grade is perceived as a way out of a multi-grade dilemma.

Learners are assessed individually, but sit in groups. The learners in grade 1 are

confused and spend most of their time drawing irrelevant objects.


The teacher uses textbooks and one blackboard for all the groups. Every time

the teacher starts with a new group, the board is cleaned. Learners struggle to

work independently. Peer teaching is not encouraged.


None observed.

85

CONCLUSION

The teachers complained heavily about the difficulty to teach multi-grade classes

and the lack of training thereto. They concentrate on promotion subjects only and

realise they are not effective.

3.2.6.4. School D GRADES COMBINED: Grades 1,2 and 3 – 23 learners

Grades 4 and 5 – 23 learners

Grades 6 and 7 – 20 learners

CLASSES VISITED: Grades 1,2 and 3

Grades 6 and 7



Learners in both classes sit in groups, facing the blackboard. Educational

material and teaching aids are displayed on the walls. Learners are to some

extend involve in housekeeping issues.


The medium of instruction is Afrikaans, although there are Nama-speaking

learners as well. Teachers practice a variety of instructional strategies,

86

depending on the subject and topic. During a Natural Science class, all learners

in the grades 6 and 7 group were involve in the same activities. They had to

study the properties of alcohol. The class was presented in a mono-grade

format.

The following horizontal learning processes were observed:

Free, but task directed learner communication

The offering of help as well as asking for help

The sharing of educational outcomes

Self directed and self motivated learning.

For a Mathematics lesson the learners were divided in grade groups and worked

on different activities.

The learners in the grade 1, 2 and 3 group are taught in grade groups and

assessed by means of worksheets. The teacher spends about 10 minutes with

each group for a specific subject.

(iii) Curriculum

The teachers focus on promotion subjects and the completion of the curriculum

for all grade levels.

The teacher, in the form of a signature and a date, acknowledges written work of

the learners. Not much care is given to correctness and feedback.

87


Textbooks and worksheets were used for all groups. A small “resource corner”

keeps learners busy when the teacher is elsewhere. Learners are encouraged to

move around in class, but are not necessarily constructively busy.


None observed.

CONCLUSION

One of the main challenges teachers face is avoiding language interference,

while at the same time developing language skills in two languages that are both

common place in an average Namibian Society. There are lots of space and

sufficient furniture in all classrooms, although not always fully utilised.

3.2.6.5. School E

GRADES COMBINED: Grades 1 and 2

Grades 4 and 5

Grades 6 and 7

CLASSES VISITED: Grades 4 and 5

Grades 6 and 7

88



The seating arrangements in both classes are of such a nature that learners can

easily work in groups, face the blackboard and communicate facing one another.

The boards in both classes are rather small and do not provide enough writing

space. There is enough space in the classroom for the learners to move around,

although movement is not encouraged.


Lesson preparation forms are used by all teachers and signed by the principal.

Teachers spend 15 minutes with one group while the other group is busy with

their own activities. The reading skills of learners in both class groups are clearly

not up to standard. Teaching is teacher-centred with little written assessment.

The learners seldom participate actively in lessons.

(iii) Curriculum

Grade groups are taught separately, thus dividing teaching time. Teachers focus

on completing the curriculum and learners are left behind. Non-promotion

subjects are not offered at all.


In the grade 4 and 5 class, a number of language and grammar mistakes are

observed on the displays in the classroom. Some of these were damaged by

water. The grade 6 and 7 class had a very beautiful map of Africa laid out of

small quartz stones. (The teacher was responsible for the layout of the map

without involving the learners).

89


A group of people from the community were cleaning the school premises after

heavy rains as part of a community project.

CONCLUSION

The teachers in both class groups are newly appointed and never taught in a

multi-grade setting before. They are both willing to learn, but clearly not prepared

for the demands of multi-grade instruction.

3.3 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 3.3.1. Definition

Quantitative research is about prediction, generalising a sample to a larger group

of subjects, and using numbers to prove or disprove a hypothesis (Hunt, 2000:3).

Quantitative research is also about quantifying relationships between variables.

You measure variables on a sample of subjects, which can be tissues, cells,

animals, or humans. You express the relationship between variables using effect

statistics, such as correlations, relative frequencies, or differences between

means (LeBeau, 1998:78).

Quantitative designs of research tend to produce results that can be generalised.

3.3.2. Characteristics

Quantitative research uses methods adopted from the physical sciences that are

designed to ensure objectivity, generalisability and reliability. These techniques

90

cover the ways research participants are selected randomly from the study

population in an unbiased manner, the standardised questionnaire they receive

and the statistical methods used to test predetermined hypotheses regarding the

relationships between specific variables (LeBeau, 1998:81). The researcher is

considered external to the actual research, and results are expected to be

replicable no matter who conducts the research.

3.3.3. Advantages and disadvantages of quantitative research

Quantitative data collection tends to take less time, cost less money, and can be

generalised to the entire research population. Quantitative research can however

be less flexible since there are usually set questions or answers and the

researcher cannot change questions as the data collection progresses. Data

collection is less spontaneous and not in-depth.

3.3.4. Reliability And Validity In Quantitative Research

Kirk and Miller (1986:41) identify three types of reliability referred to in

quantitative research, which relate to:

the degree to which a measurement, given repeatedly, remains the same

the stability of a measurement over time; and

the similarity of measurements within a given period of time.

Charles (1988:3) adheres to the notions that consistency with which

questionnaire items are answered or individual’s scores remain relatively the

same can be determined through the test-retest method at two different times.

This attribute of the instrument is actually referred to as stability. If we are dealing

91

with a stable measure, then the results should be similar. A high degree of

stability indicates a high degree of reliability, which means the results are

repeatable.

The traditional criteria for validity find their roots in a positivist tradition, and to an

extent, positivism has been defined by a systematic theory of validity. Within the

positivist terminology, validity resided amongst, and was the result and

culmination of other empirical conceptions: universal laws, evidence, objectivity,

truth, actuality, deduction, reason, fact and mathematical data to name just a few

(Winter, 2000:4).

Joppe (2000:2) provides the following explanation of what validity is in

quantitative research:

Validity determines whether the research truly measures that

which it was intended to measure or how truthful the research

results are.

In other words, does the research instrument allow you to hit "the bull’s eye" of

your research object? Researchers generally determine validity by asking a

series of questions, and will often look for the answers in the research of others,

as been done in this study.

3.3.5. Questionnaires 3.3.5.1. Definition A questionnaire is a standardised list of questions and answers that is usually

asked of an informant and the informant is expected to choose between the

alternatives offered to him or her. Usually a questionnaire is given to a large

number of people and the data computerised and statistically analysed for

similarities and differences between respondents.

92

3.3.5.2. The structured questionnaire as an instrument of data collection

Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998:103) state that questionnaires are mainly paper-

and pencil methods of data collection. De Vaus (1996:80) posits that when using

questionnaires, it is difficult to go back to the respondents to collect additional

information that might be needed later. Therefore it is crucial to think ahead and

anticipate what information will be needed and ensure that relevant questions are

asked. In view of this, considerable attention must be given to developing clear,

unambiguous and useful questions. To do this the wording of the questions is

fundamental (De Vaus, 1996:83).

McMillan (2000:155) argues that questionnaires are used extensively because

they provide the best way of obtaining information for a wide range of research

problems, from surveys of large populations to reactions of students to different

instrumental methods. In the case of this research study a structural

questionnaire was used. It consisted of 46 closed-ended questions where the

respondents were given fixed responses to choose from.

The following graphical representation describes how the questions were to be

answered in the structural questionnaire:

Please indicate with a cross (x) the extent to which you agree or disagree

with the following statements. Keep in mind that all statements refer to

multi-grade instruction:

Combination of ages and levels exist at the same time.

Strongly Agree x Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

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The questions were constructed following the perceptions emanated from the

literature review conducted in Chapter two.

The items contained in the questionnaires were grouped together to form the five

key areas that literature suggests should be included in any training programme.

These five key areas, namely classroom management, instructional strategies,

curriculum, instructional materials and community involvement also formed the

basis of the analysis that will be discussed in chapter 4.

3.3.5.3. Population and Sample

Le Compte and Preissle (1993:60) describe population as a term commonly used

to refer to potential human respondents or participants in a study. McMillan

(2000:103) argues that many quantitative studies need to generalise results to a

well-defined larger group of individuals. This larger group, whether individuals,

objects or events, is called the population. This group is also referred to as the

target-population or universe.

According to Le Compte and Preissle (1993: 60) a sample is a subset of a larger

population. In addition, Le Compte and Preissle state that the term sampling

denotes extracting systematically from a larger group some smaller portion of that

group so as to represent adequately the larger group. The purpose of sampling is

to obtain a group of subjects who will be representative of a larger group of

individuals in the case of quantitative research (McMillan, 2000:102).

Five educational regions were randomly selected to participate in this study.

Questionnaires were distributed to 250 teachers and twenty education managers

in multi-grade schools in these five regions in Namibia.

94

In the final analysis 227 questionnaires out of 250 were returned and found

suitable for analysis. The completed questionnaires were then submitted to the

statistical consultation services of the University of Johannesburg for statistical

processing and analysis.

3.3.5.4. Advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires

The administration of a questionnaire is the most commonly used research

method in quantitative research and has the following advantages and

disadvantages:

Table 3.7: Advantages and Disadvantages of questionnaires.

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

Tend to take the least amount of time

and money.

Tend to be inflexible in questions and

answers.

Data collected can be generalised to

the entire research population.

Informants may feel forced into an

answer when the answer they want is

not available to them.

There is less of a change for

researcher bias.

Data does not always give an in-

depth understanding of the problem.

A structured questionnaire, using the literature survey as basis was compiled and

administered to teachers and managers involve in multi-grade teaching. The

respondents were given a choice of predetermined responses from which they

had to choose the answer that best describes their views on multi-grade teaching.

95

A small number of questionnaires (20) were administered to managers in

education in the five Educational Regions in the sample and the following

responses received:

3.3.5.5. Data recorded of questionnaires administered to managers in

education

SECTION A

In this section six questions were asked to get some biographical information

from the respondents.

Q1 – Indicate your gender.

70%

30%

Q2 – What is your highest educational qualification?

12

5

12

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Gr 12 Gr 12 + 1 Gr 12 + 2 Gr 12 + 3 Other

96

Q3 – How many years of teaching experience do you have?

2

18

0

5

10

15

20

-1 year 1-4 years 5-9 years 10 + years

Q4 – How many teaching experience do you have in a multi-grade classroom?

1

8

65

0

2

4

6

8

-1 year 1-4 years 5-9 years 10+ years

Q5 – Have you had any training on multi-grade instruction?

4

1

15

0

5

10

15

Yes, before1990

Yes, after 1990 No

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Q6 –Indicate your educational region. Five questionnaires were sent to each of the Karas, Hardap, Khomas and Erongo

Regions and all were received back:

From the analysis above, one can conclude the following:

(i) The majority of education managers are male.

(ii) More than 50% is qualified above the basic qualifications, but had

no training on multi-grade instruction.

(iii) The majority has more than ten years of teaching experience, but

less than five years of experience in a multi-grade classroom.

SECTION B

The five key areas for training that was used for writing up the observations and

focus group interviews, also informed the discussions around this questionnaire.

The following tables show how the questions were grouped according to the

different areas and also the responses received from the education managers to

the different questions:

20 Questionnaires are recorded as follows:

98

Table 3.8A Items associated with Classroom Management

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Questions Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly

Disagree NR Total

Count 18 1 1 20 B2. Learners work in

small groups. % 90 5 5 100 Count 20 20 B3. Learners work

individually. % 100 100 Count 16 4 20 B4. Classroom rules

and procedures are developed collaboratively between teachers.

% 80 20 100

Count 18 2 20 B5. Time is used

flexibly in accordance with learners' needs. % 90 10 100

Count 8 10 2 20 B6. Learners are

encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning. % 40 50 10 100

Count 4 13 3 20 B26. The

educational atmosphere is conducive to academic progress.

% 20 65 15 100

Count 2 14 4 20 B28. The need to

discipline is less. % 10 70 20 100

Education Managers agree that learners work either in small groups or

individually and that rules and procedures are developed collaboratively between

teachers. There was 100% disagreement on the statement that time is used

flexibly in accordance with learners’ needs and 90% disagreement on the

statement that the need to discipline is less.

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The disagreement on the last two statements make sense if you keep in mind

that teachers mostly concentrate on completing the curriculum and do not

necessarily take the learners along. Disciplinary problems mostly occur when

learners are bored. Teachers need to be creative to reduce the need to

discipline.

Table 3.8B: Items associated with Instructional Strategies.

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Questions Strongly

Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree NR Total

Count 2 12 6 20 B7. Learners receive personal attention. % 10 60 30 100

Count 14 6 20 B8. Learners are expected to develop independence.

% 70 30 100

Count 2 14 4 20 B9. Learners learn to set personal goals. % 10 70 20 100

Count 20 20 B10. Learners compete with themselves. % 100 100

Count 2 16 2 20 B11. Older learners have the opportunity to demonstrate helpfulness and leadership.

% 10 80 10 100

Count 18 2 20 B12. Learners are encouraged to move around in class. % 90 10 100

Count 1 6 10 3 20 B15. The teacher shares instructional responsibilities with the learners.

% 5 30 50 15 100

100

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES (Continue)

Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly

Disagree NR Total

Count 18 2 20 B18. The teacher has to develop a wide range of teaching strategies. % 90 10 100

Count 5 15 20 % 25 75 100

B42. Assessment is ongoing.

Count 14 3 2 1 20 B21. The teacher

teaches a theme to both groups at the same time. % 70 15 10 5 100

Count 15 5 20 B25. Learners serve as peer-teachers. % 75 25 100

Count 4 6 8 2 20 B37. Teachers consider learner differences when planning for instruction. % 20 30 40 10 100

Count 16 4 20 B38. Learners progress at their own pace. % 80 20 100

Count 3 14 2 1 20 B39. Learners are assessed on a daily basis. % 15 70 10 5 100

Count 3 10 7 20 B40. Competition is minimized in a multi-grade classroom. % 15 50 35 100

Count 1 18 1 20 B41. Learners assess themselves. % 5 90 5 100

Count 14 2 3 1 20 % 70 10 15 5 100

B20. The teacher teaches one group while the other group work on its own.

Managers agree that teachers have to develop a rage of teaching strategies,

teach a theme to the whole class, that learners are continuously assessed on a

daily basis and that older learners have the opportunity to demonstrate

helpfulness and leadership.

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They also agree that learners are not:

• receiving personal attention;

• setting personal goals;

• competing with themselves;

• assessing themselves;

• progressing at their own pace; and

• encourage to move around in class.

Teachers in multi-grade classes cannot always attend to learners individually,

mainly because of the large number of learners per group and the limited time

they have to finish their curricula. Learners should therefore be encouraged to

take responsibility for their own learning by setting personal goals, assessing

themselves and progressing at their own pace.

Assessment can be just another teaching strategy if correctly implemented as

one. Learners can be more involved in the teaching of their peers by assisting

the teacher with selected tasks in the classroom.

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Table 3.8C: Items associated with Curriculum.

CURRICULUM

Strongly

Agree Agree DisagreeStrongly Disagree

NR Total

Count 20 20 B1. Combinations of ages and levels exist at the same time. % 100 100

Count 13 7 20 B13. More planning is

needed to teach in a multi-grade classroom. % 65 35 100

Count 2 12 6 20 B16. Instruction is planned at the learners' level of development. % 10 60 30 100

Count 1 13 6 20 B17. Teachers prepare activities to expand each learner's level of understanding.

% 5 65 30 100

Count 1 12 7 20 B19. A range of materials and resources are used when teaching.

% 5 60 35 100

Count 12 8 20 B32. Teachers need to be aware of learning styles, multiple intelligences and abilities.

% 60 40 100

Count 1 1 16 2 20 B35. The conventional school curriculum addresses the needs of the multi-grade class.

% 5 5 80 10 100

Count 20 20 B36. Entrance tests are conducted to determine the educational level of each learner.

% 100 100

Count 5 14 1 20 B43. Students are assessed in multiple ways. % 25 70 5 100

103

On the aspect of curriculum there is agreement that a combination of ages and

levels exist at the same time in a multi-grade classroom. Teachers should

therefore be aware of multiple intelligences, abilities and learning styles. Since

learners are assessed in multiple ways, more planning is needed than for a

mono-grade classroom.

Managers strongly disagreed on the following statements:

(i) The conventional school curriculum addresses the needs of the

multi-grade class.

(ii) Entrance tests are conducted to determine the educational level of

each learner.

(iii) Instruction is planned at the learners’ level of development.

(iv) A range of materials and resources are used when teaching.

A combination of untrained teachers and a curriculum that does not address the

needs of a multi-grade classroom is a recipe for a disaster. Teachers need to

know how to plan across grade level objectives among other things.

104

Table 3.8D: Items associated with Instructional Materials.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Strongly


Count 1 4 11 4 20 B14. Appropriate teaching and learning materials are readily available.

% 5 20 55 20 100

Count 2 16 2 20 B30. Teachers make use of specially designed guides and instructional material.

% 10 80 10 100

Count 1 18 1 20 B31. Learning tasks aim at high standards of performance.

% 5 90 5 100

Count 20 20 B33. Practical guidebooks are essential. % 100 100

Count 1 13 6 20 B34. Teachers have access to specialized materials to support their preparation.

% 5 65 30 100

The managers agreed that practical guidebooks are essential, although teachers

do not make use of specially designed guides and instructional materials, nor

design learning tasks that aim at high standards of performance.

Instructional material is mostly in the form of grade level textbooks and designed

for the mono-grade classroom. Teachers need to be creative in developing

materials for multi-grade teaching, especially since multi-grade schools are

mostly in rural and disadvantaged areas.

105

Table 3.8E: Items associated with Community involvement.

COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT Strongly


Count 1 6 11 2 20 B44. Parents are involved in the education of their children.

% 5 30 55 10 100

Count 2 17 1 20 B45. Parental involvement is important for the success of multi-grade teaching.

% 10 85 5 100

Count 1 13 3 3 20 B46. The community is strongly involved in the support and management of this school.

% 5 65 15 15 100

There is agreement that parental involvement is important for the success of

multi-grade teaching. Although the community is involve in the support and

management of the school, parents are not involve in the education of their

children.

Teachers should be encouraged to use parents and other community members

as resources in their teaching. Some may not have educational qualifications,

but all of them do have valuable life experiences.

106

3.3.5.6. Data recorded of questionnaires administered to multi-grade teachers.

SECTION A

In this section six questions were asked to get some biographical information

from the 227 respondents who completed the questionnaires.

Table 3.9: Biographical Information

Q.1: Please indicate your gender. Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Male 100 44.1 44.2 Female 126 55.5 55.8 Valid

Total 226 99.6 100.0 Missing System 1 .4 Total 227 100.0

Q.2: What is your highest educational qualification? Frequency Percent Valid

Percent Cumulative Percent

Grade 12 37 16.3 17.0 17.0 Grade 12 and one year teacher training 50 22.0 22.9 39.9

Grade 12 and two years teacher training

35 15.4 16.1 56.0

Grade 12 and three years teacher training

73 32.2 33.5 89.4

Other 23 10.1 10.6 100.0

Valid

Total 218 96.0 100.0 Missing System 9 4.0 Total 227 100.0

107

Q.3: How many years of teaching experience do you have? Frequency Percent Valid


Less than one year 9 4.0 4.0 4.0 More than one year, but less than five years

26 11.5 11.5 15.5

More than five years, but less than ten years

71 31.3 31.4 46.9

More than 10 years 120 52.9 53.1 100.0

Valid


Q.4: How many years of teaching experience do you have in a Multi-grade classroom? Frequency Percent Valid


Less than one year 32 14.1 14.3 14.3 More than one year, but less than five years

67 29.5 30.0 44.4


77 33.9 34.5 78.9

More than 10 years 47 20.7 21.1 100.0

Valid

Total 223 98.2 100.0 Missing System 4 1.8 Total 227 100.0

108

Q.5: Have you had any training on multi-grade instruction? Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Yes, before 1990 7 3.1 3.1 Yes, after 1990 5 2.2 2.2 No 214 94.3 94.7

Valid


Q.6: Please indicate your educational region. Frequency Percent Valid


Khomas 17 7.5 7.6 7.6 Hardap 70 30.8 31.1 38.7 Karas 91 40.1 40.4 79.1 Erongo 26 11.5 11.6 90.7 Otjozondjupa 21 9.3 9.3 100.0

Valid


The majority of the respondents are female, 33.5% has a basic teacher

qualification, but 94.7% had no training on multi-grade instruction. More than half

of the respondents have more than 10 years of teaching experience, but only

21.1% in a multi-grade class.

SECTION B

109

The five key areas identified for training were used again for writing up the

responses to the questionnaires administered to 227 teachers in five different

educational regions in Namibia.

The following tables show how the questions were grouped together and also the

responses received from the teachers to the different questions:

Table 3.10A: Items associated with Classroom Management.

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT Questions Strongly


Count 59 136 24 8 227 B2. Learners work in

small groups. % 26.0% 59.9% 10.6% 3.5% 100.0%Count 10 74 75 66 2 227 B3. Learners work

individually. % 4.4% 32.6% 33.0% 29.1% .9% 100.0%Count 57 119 43 8 227 B4. Classroom rules

and procedures are developed collaboratively between teachers.

% 25.1% 52.4% 18.9% 3.5% 100.0%

Count 7 43 121 56 227 B5. Time is used

flexibly in accordance with learners' needs. % 3.1% 18.9% 53.3% 24.7% 100.0%

Count 14 43 123 47 227 B6. Learners are

encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning. % 6.2% 18.9% 54.2% 20.7% 100.0%

Count 67 75 33 50 2 227 B26. The educational

atmosphere is conducive to academic progress. % 29.5% 33.0% 14.5% 22.0% .9% 100.0%

Count 4 9 99 115 227 B28. The need to

discipline is less. % 1.8% 4.0% 43.6% 50.7% 100.0%

110

Teachers agree that learners work in small groups and that the educational

atmosphere is conducive to academic progress. There is a strong need for

discipline though.

Table 3.10B: Items associated with Instructional Strategies.

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES Questions Strongly


Count 7 22 160 38 227 B7. Learners receive personal attention.

% 3.1% 9.7% 70.5% 16.7% 100.0%

Count 48 117 53 9 227 B8. Learners are expected to develop independence.

% 21.1% 51.5% 23.3% 4.0% 100.0%

Count 9 28 107 81 2 227 B9. Learners learn to set personal goals.

% 4.0% 12.3% 47.1% 35.7% .9% 100.0%

Count 16 43 125 42 1 227 B10. Learners compete with themselves. % 7.0% 18.9% 55.1% 18.5% .4% 100.0%

Count 47 147 26 6 1 227 B11. Older learners have the opportunity to demonstrate helpfulness and leadership.

% 20.7% 64.8% 11.5% 2.6% .4% 100.0%

Count 13 25 117 71 1 227 B12. Learners are encouraged to move around in class.

% 5.7% 11.0% 51.5% 31.3% .4% 100.0%

Count 47 68 91 21 227 B15. The teacher shares instructional responsibilities with the learners.

% 20.7% 30.0% 40.1% 9.3% 100.0%

111

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES (Continue)

Questions Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly

Disagree NR Total

Count 92 91 40 3 1 227 B18. The teacher has to develop a wide range of teaching strategies.

% 40.5% 40.1% 17.6% 1.3% .4% 100.0%

Count 89 133 3 2 227 B20. The teacher teaches one group while the other group work on its own

% 39.2% 58.6% 1.3% .9% 100.0%

Count 14 41 109 62 1 227 B21. The teacher teaches a theme to both groups at the same time.

% 6.2% 18.1% 48.0% 27.3% .4% 100.0%

Count 49 104 65 8 1 227 B25. Learners serve as peer-teachers. % 21.6% 45.8% 28.6% 3.5% .4% 100.0%

Count 81 131 11 2 2 227 B37. Teachers consider learner differences when planning for instruction.

% 35.7% 57.7% 4.8% .9% .9% 100.0%

Count 7 36 152 31 1 227 B38. Learners progress at their own pace. % 3.1% 15.9% 67.0% 13.7% .4% 100.0%

Count 80 130 14 3 227 B39. Learners are assessed on a daily basis. % 35.2% 57.3% 6.2% 1.3% 100.0%

Count 64 89 69 5 227 B40. Competition is minimized in a multi-grade classroom.

% 28.2% 39.2% 30.4% 2.2% 100.0%

Count 3 18 158 47 1 227 B41. Learners assess themselves. % 1.3% 7.9% 69.6% 20.7% .4% 100.0%

Count 82 137 5 3 227 B42. Assessment is ongoing. % 36.1% 60.4% 2.2% 1.3% 100.0%

112

The learners receive no personal attention, nor do they set personal goals, but

they are expected to develop independence. Teachers teach one group at a

time, consider learner differences when planning and assess ongoing. Learners

are however not allowed to progress at their own pace.

Table 3.10C: Items associated with Curriculum.

CURRICULUM Questions Strongly


Count 91 113 14 6 3 227 B1. Combinations of ages and levels exist at the same time. % 40.1% 49.8% 6.2% 2.6% 1.3% 100.0%

Count 103 90 20 14 227 B13. More planning is needed to teach in a multi-grade classroom.

% 45.4% 39.6% 8.8% 6.2% 100.0%

Count 56 123 38 10 227 B16. Instruction is planned at the learners' level of development.

% 24.7% 54.2% 16.7% 4.4% 100.0%

Count 48 119 44 16 227 B17. Teachers prepare activities to expand each learner's level of understanding.

% 21.1% 52.4% 19.4% 7.0% 100.0%

Count 15 40 146 26 227 B19. A range of materials and resources are used when teaching.

% 6.6% 17.6% 64.3% 11.5% 100.0%

Count 94 124 8 1 227 B32. Teachers need to be aware of learning styles, multiple intelligences and abilities.

% 41.4% 54.6% 3.5% .4% 100.0%

Count 6 16 139 64 2 227 B35. The conventional school curriculum addresses the needs of the multi-grade class.

% 2.6% 7.0% 61.2% 28.2% .9% 100.0%

113

Curriculum (Continue) Strongly


Count 7 27 134 59 227 B36. Entrance tests are conducted to determine the educational level of each learner.

% 3.1% 11.9% 59.0% 26.0% 100.0%

Count 63 154 8 1 1 227 B43. Students are assessed in multiple ways. % 27.8% 67.8% 3.5% .4% .4% 100.0%

There is very strong disagreement on the statement that the conventional school

curriculum addresses he needs of the multi-grade class. Teachers however plan

according to learners’ needs, recognising that a combination of grades and levels

exist at the same time.

Table 3.10D: Items associated with Instructional Materials.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS Questions Strongly


Count 24 50 114 39 227 B14. Appropriate teaching and learning materials are readily available.

% 10.6% 22.0% 50.2% 17.2% 100.0%

Count 6 21 138 61 1 227 B30. Teachers make use of specially designed guides and instructional material.

% 2.6% 9.3% 60.8% 26.9% .4% 100.0%

Count 47 134 36 9 1 227 B31. Learning tasks aim at high standards of performance. % 20.7% 59.0% 15.9% 4.0% .4% 100.0%

Count 100 117 9 1 227 B33. Practical guidebooks are essential. % 44.1% 51.5% 4.0% .4% 100.0%

Count 10 26 130 61 227 B34. Teachers have access to specialized materials to support their preparation.

% 4.4% 11.5% 57.3% 26.9% 100.0%

114

Although teachers do not have access to specialized material to support their

preparation, learning tasks aim at high standards of performance. They do

realise that practical guidebooks are essential, but they are not readily available.

Table 3.10E: Items associated with Community Involvement.

COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT Questions Strongly


Count 78 93 40 16 227 B44. Parents are involved in the education of their children.

% 34.4% 41.0% 17.6% 7.0% 100.0%

Count 101 121 4 1 227 B45. Parental involvement is important for the success of multi-grade teaching.

% 44.5% 53.3% 1.8% .4% 100.0%

Count 66 84 60 17 227 B46. The community is strongly involved in the support and management of this school.

% 29.1% 37.0% 26.4% 7.5% 100.0%

The majority of the teachers agree that parents are involve in the education of

their children and recognise the importance of parental involvement for multi-

grade teaching.

3.4. SUMMARY

This chapter described the procedures of conducting the study, which involved

collecting both qualitative and quantitative data. All data collected are described

and will be analysed in the next chapter.

115

CHAPTER 4

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 4.1. INTRODUCTION Chapter one dealt with the background to the problem. This enabled the

researcher to categorise and classify the events that have contributed to the

problem: For children to learn effectively in multi-grade environments, teachers

need to be well trained, well resourced and hold positive attitudes towards multi-

grade teaching. In addition, parents should have input into significant

instructional and assessment decisions concerning their children.

The Literature survey in chapter two provides a theoretical framework on the

concept of the management of multi-grade classrooms and the need for

appropriate management and teaching skills. Effective multi-grade teaching

involves the use of a range of organisational strategies in the classroom.


components of an integrated strategy for teaching and learning. Surrounding

these strategies is the need for national policies (for curriculum, materials,

teacher education and assessment) that recognise, legitimate and support

learners and teachers in multi-grade settings.

Chapter three identified the tools and processes of conducting the study with

reference to previous and new developments in multi-grade teaching. The

assumption guiding the study is that a strong case can be made by using an

approach that combines qualitative and quantitative elements. By using different

methods at various points in the research process, the researcher could build on

the strength of each type of data collection and minimise the weaknesses of any

single approach.

116

This chapter is concerned mainly with creating meaning from what the researcher

has heard and observed. The aim of this chapter is to investigate the perceptions

of the teachers, managers in education and community members of selected

schools in terms of quality education in multi-grade schools. The study hopes to

investigate how quality education can be evaluated (measured) and assured in

multi-grade classes.

4.2. FRAMEWORK OF DATA ANALYSIS – QUALITATIVE AND

QUANTITATIVE DATA

Steps in the analysis of data entail description, classification, making connections

and establishing relationships.

4.2.1. Description

Description includes information about the context of an act, the intentions and

meanings that organise an action and its subsequent evolution

(Boaduo,1998:157).

Contexts are important as a means of situating an action and grasping its wider

social and historical importance. This requires detailed descriptions of the social

setting within which action occurs. The relevant social contexts may be a group,

organisation, society, or as in this study, a multi-grade environment (Dey,

1993:32; Boaduo, 1998:159).

The analysis is concerned with how actors define situations and explains the

motives that govern their actions (intentions of the actors involved).

In this study, intentions refer to the intentions of the stakeholders of multi-grade

schools (educators, learners and the community).

117

Qualitative data is descriptive of social relationships and interchanges that unfold

in the succession of the action and events in which actors are engaged. Data

generation in itself can be conceived as an interactive process through which the

researcher struggles to elicit meaningful interpretation of social action (Dey,

1993:37). Analysis follows data generation. The results of analysis depend on

and are modified by the generation and investigation of further data.

The role of the researcher therefore becomes that of a participant in his/her own

research project, who is responsible for his/her own interpretations and action

becomes a legitimate object of subsequent analysis. Information on the

researcher’s behaviour and thinking, in the form of field notes, is a vital source of

data for analysis. The process therefore shifts attention from context and intention

to action and consequence (Creswell, 1994:145).

4.2.2. Classification

The interpretation and explanation of data are the responsibility of the researcher.

It is necessary to develop a meaningful and adequate account. The data merely

provide a basis for the analysis. The need arises for the development of a

conceptual framework through which the actions or events researched can be

rendered intelligible (Yin, 1994:125). To explain is to account for action.

Interpretation requires the development of conceptual tools (classification of data

into categories or themes) through which to comprehend the significance of social

action and how different actions interrelate. Interpretation therefore makes action

meaningful to others.

Classification involves the breaking up of data and then bringing the parts thereof

together again. The data lays the conceptual foundation for analysis.

Classification therefore becomes a familiar process of practical reasoning.

Categorising and retrieving data provide a basis for comparison. It should be

noted that classifying is guided by research objectives.

118

4.2.3. Making connections and establishing relationships

Classification helps to produce an account of analysis. In qualitative research,

concepts are the building blocks of analysis (Dey, 1993:47). Connecting concepts

is the analytic equivalent of putting mortar between the building blocks.

Associations between different variables need to be identified. Once the data is

classified, regularities, variations and singularities can be identified (Yin,

1994:102-125).

4.3. DATA ANALYSIS

The literature survey in Chapter 2 concluded that many educational policymakers,

planners, professional staff and the public at large are unaware of the extent and

the nature of the needs of multi-grade classes. Five key areas were therefore

suggested for training, namely classroom management, instructional strategies,

curriculum, instructional materials and community involvement. These also

formed the basis of focus group interviews, observations and questionnaires that

were used to collect data for this study.

In the next section, the data is analysed, using the key areas of concern as a

conceptual framework through which the observations, focus group interviews

and questionnaires can be rendered comprehensible and is organised as follows:

4.3.1. Statistical information

4.3.2. Classroom management

4.3.3. Instructional strategies

4.3.4. Curriculum

119

4.3.5. Instructional materials

4.3.6. Community involvement

4.3.7. The effect of multi-grade teaching on learner performance

4.3.8. Conclusion

4.3.1. Statistical information

Statistics presented at a national conference in August 2004 in Swakopmund,

Namibia, indicated that 31,7% of 1150 schools, more than 17 113 learners and

about 600 teachers are affected by multi-grade instruction (IECD, 2004:8).

About one third of these teachers are in the Hardap- and Karas educational

regions. This figure was convenient for sampling because the Hardap and Karas

educational regions are neighbours and time, money and effort could be saved.

The teacher-learner ratio in multi-grade classes varies from 20:1 to 68:1 and in

extreme cases up to 118:1 (IECD, 2004:21 – Oshana Region).

Questionnaires were administered to 250 and 227 received back from teachers in

multi-grade schools (about 38% of all multi-grade teachers in the country). The

following summarises the biographical information of these 227 teachers:

55,5% is female

33,5 % has obtained a basic teacher qualification (grade 12 and 3 years of

teacher training).

120

52,9% has more than ten years of teaching experience, although only

20,7% has more than 10 years of teaching experience in a multi-grade

classroom.

94,3% has had no training on multi-grade instruction.

A small group of 20 managers in education (inspectors and advisory teachers)

were also involved in the study.

Of these 20:

70% is male.

60% is qualified above the basic qualifications for teachers

90% has more than 10 years of teaching experience and 30% more than

10 years teaching experience in a multi-grade classroom.

75% had no training on multi-grade instruction. 4.3.2. Classroom Management Table 4.1 summarises discussions of the two focus groups and data gathered

from classroom observations and questionnaires.

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Table 4.1. Data from focus group discussions and observations.

Data from Focus Group Interviews (Two groups were interviewed in two of the five regions in the sample)

Data from Observations

(Observations were done in five schools

in one of the regions in the sample).

- Learners work in groups of 4 – 6. - Learners develop independence, although they work mostly in groups. - Learners get the opportunity to demonstrate helpfulness and leadership. - Classroom rules are essential and arrangements functional. - Learners do not take responsibility for their own learning. - Learners are not involved in the general management of the classroom. - Teachers find it difficult to discipline learners in overcrowded classrooms. - Teaching time is reduced.

School A: Learners work in small groups.

Movement is not encouraged, although

there is enough space to move around.

School B: Learners work in pairs. Space

and resources are under-utilised.

School C: Learners work in pairs. Space

and resources are under-utilised.

School D: Learners work in small groups.

Educational materials are displayed in the

classroom. Learners are to some extent

involved in housekeeping issues.

School E: Learners work in small groups.

Movement is not encouraged, although

there is enough space to move around.

One of the seat plans that were presented during focus group discussions

separate learners with special educational needs from the other learners in the

classroom. Inclusive education is thus non-existent. Learners in Namibia are

taught in their mother tongue in grades 1 – 3 and in English from grade four

onwards. The implication this has for multi-grade teachers is that these teachers

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have to deal with a combination of languages, in addition to a combination of

grades and levels. Teachers lack knowledge of different ways of grouping

learners and the importance of independent study areas where learners can go

when they have finished their work. The reading corners in classrooms lack the

necessary resources to do justice to it.

Both the education managers (18 out of 20 respondents) and multi-grade

teachers (195 out of 227 respondents) agreed that learners work in small groups.

In addition, the teachers strongly felt that learners do not take responsibility for

their own learning (170 out of 227 respondents). That coincides with the strong

disagreement (80%) that time is used flexibly in accordance with learners’ needs

and that the need to discipline is less (85%). Despite these fairly negative

statements about classroom management, 4 out of 20 education managers and

142 out of 227 teachers agree that the educational atmosphere is conducive to

academic progress.

4.3.3. Instructional Strategies

Teaching time is divided among the different groups in the classroom. Small

quantities of work are covered at a time and learners are assessed at ability

levels. This is confirmed by data received from teachers (222 out of 227

respondents) and managers in education (16 out of 20 respondents) who agreed

that the teacher teaches one group while the other group work on its own.

Learners are however not encouraged to progress on their own (confirmed by

data from questionnaires 100% disagreement from managers and 183 out of 227

teachers disagree that learners progress at their own pace) and little academic

independence was observed in the classrooms, as indicated in literature as a

winning approach to successful multi-grade teaching. Teachers seldom make

use of cooperative group work and learners communicate on invitation from the

teacher. There is strong agreement though that teachers need to develop a wide

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range of teaching strategies (100% from managers and 80% from teachers).

Learners receive no personal attention, nor do they set personal goals. Many

learners lack basic competencies in reading and mathematics.

The group in the Hardap region had a very strong focus on assessment. They

see assessment as a teaching strategy and clearly realise the importance of well-

designed assessment. Written assessment can however receive more attention.

It is clear that teachers consider learner differences when planning (212 out of

227 teachers and 10 out of 20 managers agreed), but they do not trust learners

with self-assessment (only 31 out of 227 teachers and 1 of 20 managers agreed

that learners assess themselves).

4.3.4. Curriculum In most schools teachers follow either the multi-year curriculum span or the

differentiated curricula strategy. In the former curriculum content is spread

across 2-3 grades rather than one, while the same general theme is covered with

all learners in the latter.

Unfortunately, the national curriculum as well as the school timetables is

produced for mono-grade classrooms. A small number, 22 out of 227 teachers

and 2 out of 20 managers agreed that the conventional school curriculum

addresses the needs of the multi-grade class. Teachers focus on completing the

curriculum and don not necessarily take the learners along. Non-promotion

subjects like physical education, and the teaching of life skills are neglected. In

some schools teachers acknowledge written work with a signature only without

given the necessary attention to correctness and feedback.

Teachers are creative when planning activities for the different grade groups.

The teachers (204 out of 227 respondents) and the managers (20 out of 20

respondents) agreed that a combination of ages and levels exist at the same

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time. Recognising that more planning is needed to teach in a multi-grade

classroom, teachers need training in how to amend the curriculum to make it

more suitable for multi-grade teaching. In addition, teachers (218 out of 227) and

all managers are of the opinion that they need to be aware of learning styles,

multiple intelligences and abilities. Entrance tests to determine the educational

level of each learner are most probably the answer to this.

4.3.5. Instructional Materials Teachers have neither the resources nor the expertise to develop instructional

materials. Teachers (153 out of 227) and managers (15 out of 20) confirmed this

by the disagreement that appropriate teaching and learning materials are readily

available. In addition to the conventional textbooks, they make use of waste

material to supplement their teaching. Learners do extra reading from

newspapers and magazines. A small number of 2 out of 20 managers and 27 out

of 227 teachers agreed that teachers make use of specially designed guides and

instructional material. Teachers are of the opinion that the development of

instructional material is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. The do

however agree that practical handbooks are essential.

4.3.6. Community Involvement

Parents are allowed to serve on the School Board. As a result, they have a say

in the general management of the school. Teachers however do not make use of

community members in their day-to-day teaching activities.

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4.3.7. The effect of multi-grade teaching on learner performance

Mason and Burns (1996:318) argue that while multi-grade classes are good for

some learners, they are potentially difficult for most, and increase teacher stress.

Multi-grade classrooms, they argue, are selectively formed and offer lower quality

instruction than mono-grade classes. Selection is likely to increase learner

achievement, while lower quality instruction is likely to reduce it. Their case is not

that teachers in such classes are inferior, but that the demanding nature of multi-

grade teaching reduces the quality of instruction.

They identify two areas in which demands are greater: increased workload (more

preparation/grouped instruction/teaching time) and more complex class

organisation (less instructional time, less individual attention, and greater

management demands).

They claim that:

“teachers are therefore faced with delivering two different curricula to

learners of twice the age range in the same amount of time – factors which

make these two structures drastically different…. The two curricula that are

part and parcel of these classes require more preparation, more grouped

instruction, and more teaching time on the part of the teachers…. Teacher

stress is exacerbated, and curriculum coverage and adaptive assistance

are diminished, with negative outcomes." Mason and Burns (1996:316)

Veenman acknowledges the increased stress on teachers in multi-grade

classrooms in his 1996 response, where he shared findings from interviews with

teachers in Holland:

"Interview data showed the teachers in the multi-grade classes to be less

satisfied with their jobs than their counterparts in mono-grade classes as a

result of the heavy teaching load and demands for classroom

management." Veenman (1996:98)

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Mason and Burns’, and Veenman’s arguments about increased stress on

teachers are not far-fetched. The table below is an extract from the analysis of

questionnaires administered to teachers in Namibia and clearly shows the

disagreement with the statement that teachers are less stressed.

Table 4.2: Extract from analysis of questionnaires administered to teachers on the degree of teacher stress.

Strongly


Count 5 10 101 111 227 B24. Teachers are less stressed. % 2.2% 4.4% 44.5% 48.9% 100.0%

The statement from Mason and Burns that multi-grade classrooms offer lower

quality instruction can be equally true. The following table, table 4.3, shows a

cross-tabulation done on two questions on the experience of teachers in multi-

grade classrooms.

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Table 4.3. Cross-tabulation on the experience of multi-grade teachers.

A3. How many years of teaching experience do you have? * A4. How many years of teaching experience do you have in a Multi-grade classroom? Cross tabulation Count

A4. How many years of teaching experience do you have in a Multi-grade classroom?

Less

than one year

More than one year, but less than five years


More than 10 years

Total

Less than one year 8 0 0 0 8

More than one year, but less than five years

10 13 3 0 26


5 35 29 1 70

A3. How many years of teaching experience do you have?

More than 10 years 9 19 45 46 119

Total 32 67 77 47 223

This table shows that 119 teachers have more than ten years of teaching

experience, but only 47 has experience of teaching in a multi-grade classroom.

Another interesting figure is the 41 teachers who went straight into teaching in a

multi-grade classroom. The next table shows data on the number of teachers

who had training on multi-grade instruction.

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Table 4.4. Extract: Data on the number of teachers who had training on multi-

grade instruction.

A5. Have you had any training on multi-grade instruction? Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Yes, before 1990 7 3.1 3.1 Yes, after 1990 5 2.2 2.2 No 214 94.3 94.7

Valid


There is a strong no – 94.3%.

If teachers have neither experience, nor training, it is most likely that the quality of

teaching will suffer. The fact that teachers do not have access to specialised

materials to support their preparation, contribute to low quality instruction (see

table 4.5 below) and hence negative effects on learner performance.

Table 4.5: Data on the availability of specialised materials for multi-grade

teachers.

Strongly


Count 10 26 130 61 227 B34. Teachers have access to specialised materials to support their preparation.

% 4.4% 11.5% 57.3% 26.9% 100.0%

Additional statements from data collected from focus group interviews and

classroom observations that support negative effects on learner performance

include:

(i) Teaching time is divided and non-promotion subjects suffer.

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(ii) Teachers find it difficult to complete the curriculum in time.

(iii) Teachers are challenged to be creative when planning across grade

level objectives.

(iv) The biggest challenge teachers face at the moment is to cope with the

limited resources available in schools.

(v) The teacher used quite stimulating teaching aids, but could not succeed in

reaching the lesson objective, because too many new elements were

introduced orally.

(vi) If teaching and learning occur at this pace, learners will have to spend two

calendar years in one grade.

(vii) Many local parents have lost confidence in the school and enrolled their

children elsewhere.

(viii) Learners are behind and too much time is invested in the completion of

previous work.

(ix) Learners lack basic competencies in reading and mathematics.

(x) Not much written work has been done.

(xi) Mono-grade instruction focusing on the syllabus of the highest grade is

perceived as a way out of a multi-grade dilemma.

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(xii) The reading skills of learners in both class groups are clearly not up to

standard.

(xiii) Teachers focus on completing the curriculum and learners are left

behind.

Recent studies of teachers in developing countries highlight their generally

negative perceptions of multi-grade classes and multi-grade teaching, as

discussed in chapter two.

Too many teachers perceive the mono-grade class as the desirable norm and the

multi-grade as the ‘second class’ necessity.

A recent piece of action research suggests that teachers’ attitudes to multi-grade

teaching become more positive once they realise that there are strategies that

can be used to improve learner achievement outcomes and lessen the teacher’s

burden of intensive lesson planning for several grades (Vithanapathirana,

2003:17). Some teachers who really try their best to be efffective confirmed this

suggestion.

(See discussions on focus group interviews in the Hardap region in chapter 3).

Teachers, however, lack the necessary training and support to be innovative and

creative with the local resources at hand. Training needs to relate to the needs of

teachers in the classrooms and the contextual constraints and resources, which

they face in their everyday work.

Table 4.6 below shows the responses of teachers on the need for training.

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Table 4.6: Data on training needs of multi-grade teachers.

Strongly


Count 121 94 8 3 1 227 B23. Teachers need ongoing professional development.

% 53.3% 41.4% 3.5% 1.3% .4% 100.0%

4.3.8. Conclusion

Whilst the multi-grade teaching approach has been recognised worldwide as

potentially an important contribution to the achievement of good quality primary

education for all, most notably through the Escuela Nueva approach in Colombia

and in many other Latin American countries, it has not been accepted by most

Ministries of Education in Africa as an official strategy towards the achievement of

Education for All. The Multi-grade Programme provides the opportunity to actively

involve Ministries of Education in the provision of education in small multi-grade

schools in rural areas (Posti-Ahokas, 2006)

An important issue is to ensure that such small multi-grade schools can deliver

high quality and relevant education. They have to be seen as competitive rather

than as a poor substitute for larger school establishments. The quality of

education in remote rural schools tends to be substantively lower than in their

larger urban counterparts.

An important concern is the need to involve parents in the education of their

children, in particular in the education of their daughters. It is generally known

that few can attain a high level of enrolment and achievement without strong

parental support. The home and community must be supportive of the aims and

processes of the school.

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There is also need to develop teacher training programmes, both pre-service and

in-service, to improve the performance of classroom teachers who will teach

multi-grade classes.

All education is inevitably underpinned by educational philosophies whether

acknowledged or not. Multi-grade teaching too has particular philosophical bases,

which emerge from the literature. Multi-grade practices recognise that there is an

overlap of abilities amongst learners but also that levels of difficulty have to be

taken into account. The philosophy of teaching is therefore an important

consideration in multi-grade teaching.

The professional teacher is a key resource person in the multi-grade context. The

view that any teacher trained in mono-grade level teaching could be automatically

expected to be a multi-grade teacher is discounted. Indeed, multi-grade teaching

is of its own kind and should be recognised as such.

The next chapter will describe a brief summary of multi-grade teaching, the

findings and recommendations of the study.

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CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. SUMMARY

The multi-grade classroom is labor intensive and requires more planning,

collaboration, and professional development than the conventional graded

classroom (Cushman, 1993:26). Sufficient planning time must be available to

meet the needs of both teacher and learner. Insufficient planning, staff

development, materials, support, and assessment procedures will have an impact

on the success of the multi-grade program (Fox, 1997:17; Miller, 1996:19; Nye,

1993:12).

Despite these constraints, there are special advantages to multi-grade

classrooms. Flexible schedules can be implemented and unique programs

developed to meet learners’ individual and group interests and needs.

Combined classrooms also offer ample opportunity for learners to become

resourceful and independent learners. The multi-grade rural classroom is usually

less formal than the mono-grade urban or suburban classroom.

Because of the small class size, friendly relationships based on understanding

and respect develop naturally between the learners and the teacher.

In this setting, learners become well known by their teacher and a family

atmosphere often develops.

The following summarises key issues facing teachers, learners and the

community involved in multi-grade teaching:

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5.1.1. Classroom Management

Effective teachers make their expectations explicit through clear rules and

procedures that are consistently taught and enforced. The first few weeks of

school are used to establish these expectations. Therefore, early planning and

preparation before school starts is critical for starting the school year right. In

other words, before the learners arrive, the teacher must develop a vision of

classroom life: how students will behave and relate to one another, where they

will work, how resources will be organised, and other important classroom

considerations.

Effective teachers focus on organising furnishings and materials in order to

facilitate instruction in several general ways:

(i) learners’ seating should be easy to monitor by the teacher

and not distracting to the learners;

(ii) well-used areas of the room should be easily accessible; and

(iii) materials and equipment should be quite accessible by

learners and the teacher.

Establishing productive norms for learner behavior can make the difference

between success and failure for a classroom teacher. These norms are best set

early in the year in a variety of ways, such as teacher praise for appropriate

behavior, corrective feedback, formally presented rules, establishing procedures

that regulate behavior during classroom activities, and academic work

requirements (Emmer, 1987: 236).

Learners must learn how to behave in a wide variety of work and social

situations. If the teacher can lie out in advance the desired expectations for some

of these situations, it is more likely that learners will behave in the desired

manner.

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Uncertainty increases the level of excitement in the classroom. The technique of

direct instruction is to start each class by telling the learners exactly what will be

happening. An effective teacher will take care that the learner is not rewarded for

misbehavior by becoming the focus of attention. The teacher moves around and

monitors the activity in the classroom. Teachers should anticipate problems

before they occur.

Activities that are well planned, clearly sequenced and presented, and provide for

high levels of student success tend to produce a high degree of learner

engagement. When learners are actively learning, they are less likely to become

involved in inappropriate behavior. Effective teachers also organise the learning

environment to reduce the amount of influences that can disrupt the flow of

instruction, whether in teacher-led groups, small workgroups, or during

independent seatwork.

Depending on the availability of materials and space, the following ideas have

been useful:

• Use shelf space and divide it so that each learner has an assigned

section or cubbyhole for his or her materials.

• Make a quiet area for reading, thinking, and resting. This may be a rug

in the corner, a beanbag chair, or a cardboard house.

• Make an art or project area.

• Elect or select learners who are to be responsible for certain sections

of the room and rotate these helpers periodically.

Successful multi-grade teachers have found it critically important that learners

learn to manage their own time, make decisions, and evaluate what has been

happening to them. Learners who successfully manage their time tend to:

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• Bring only essential things to school

• Clean out cubicles, lockers, or tote boxes once a week

• Keep multi-grade papers in a binder or folder

• Use a planning schedule to help them keep track of what to do.

It is critically important to establish clear expectations for learners if your class is

to be successfully managed. Learners know what you expect in simple but direct

terms. In developing a set of guidelines for learners, you may wish to involve

them. This will help to develop learner understanding, motivation, and ownership.

However, it is essential that once a list is set up, learners are taught the rules and

then systematically monitored to determine how well they are working.

5.1.2. Instructional Strategies

Every method a teacher uses has advantages and disadvantages, and requires

some preliminary preparation. So, what else is new? Three broad categories of

instructional methods are teacher talk, learner talk, and learner-teacher

interactive talk. Often, a particular method will naturally flow into another within

the same lesson. Which instructional method is “right” for a particular lesson

depends on many things, and among them are the age and developmental levels

of the learners, what the learners already know, what they need to know to

succeed with the lesson, the subject-matter content, the objective of the lesson,

the available people, time, space, and material resources and the physical

setting.

Another, more difficult problem, is to select an instructional method that best fits

one’s particular teaching style and the lesson situation. There is no one right

137

method for teaching a particular lesson, but there are some criteria that pertain to

each that can help a teacher make the best decision possible.

Because cooperation and peer support play such a key role in multi-grade

instruction, a major emphasis is placed on group work: how to form groups, how

to structure learning experiences, and what skills are needed for successful

cooperation. It is important to keep in mind that instructional delivery and

classroom environments are extremely complex.

From our early experiences as learners, we generally remember a classroom

characterised by the teacher in front of the room, “teaching.” After the lesson, we

often completed worksheets at our individual desks while the teacher worked at

his/her desk. A test was often given sometime later to determine what we have

learned.

If we want to develop cooperative, self-directed learners, then other instructional

methods must be used as well. Teachers who expect learners to work together

and cooperate on academic tasks produce higher learner performance than

teachers who do not emphasise cooperation. Effective teachers:

• Expect students to cooperate in completing academic tasks

• Hold students accountable for their work

• Use well-thought-out reward systems for reinforcing cooperation

Teachers should emphasise academics through positive reinforcement and avoid

such negative behaviors and attitudes as criticism of learner behavior, yelling or

screaming, using sarcasm with learners, scolding learners for inappropriate

behavior, and ridiculing students to facilitate learning.

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The sequencing of activities in a lesson and the types of activities the teacher

chooses has a direct relationship to learner achievement in basic skills. Before

the lesson starts, the teacher establishes a framework for instruction that helps

learners understand how information will be presented. Effective teaching

research has identified six key teacher behaviors:

• Organising learning materials in advance

• Providing clear, explicit direction about the work to be done

• Telling learners about the materials they will use and the activities in

which they will be involved

• Conducting pretests, revealing, discussing the objective of the lesson

• Providing an overview of the lesson

• Relating new materials to what students have already learned

While the teacher instructs a group of lower-level learners in reading skills,

learners at the upper levels could be engaged in individual or group learning

activities that have been developed and written down in advance.

The types of individual learning activities depend on the needs of learners,

available resources, and the maturity of the learners.

In order to allow learners to take more responsibility for their learning, they must

be allowed to put concepts into a personally meaningful context.

Learners retain more information and have more fun learning when material is

presented in this way. Computers make these meaningful contexts possible by

providing learners with highly individualised education.

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In preparing to teach a lesson to an entire multi-grade class, careful planning and

preparation are necessary. Figure 5.1 illustrates an example of a whole class

planning form for learning about sea creatures. The teacher would follow three

general steps:

(i) Choose a concept, theme, or skill determined to be important to all

students.

(ii) Decide on an activity to introduce the concept to the whole class.

(iii) Develop appropriate activities for each instructional level and pay

special attention to:

• Subject integration (writing, reading, science, math, etc.)

• Needed resources

• References learners can use

• How each level will be introduced to their activities

• How learners will be evaluated

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FIGURE 5.1. Whole-Class Planning Form:

GENERAL PRESENTATION TOPIC/CONCEPT

Activity for Level/Group1 and 2

Activity for Level/Group 3

Activity for Level/Group 4

(adapted from Fogarty, 1979)

Alternatively, teachers can make use of ability grouping within classes, i.e.

facilitating different groups for different curriculum areas or units. There is a

multitude of ways to devise and use ability groups, depending on the teacher,

Discover and discuss various characteristics of sea creatures.

Brainstorm and group according to common features.

Color and label sea

creature book.

Read the story: A Day in the Life of Walley

Whale. Draw a picture of Walley and write

five characteristics you have learned about

whales.

Create a sea creature book by drawing each creature

discussed and writing two or more facts about each

one.

141

class, and subject area. They can range from teacher nominated to those with

large degrees of self-selection based on predetermined tasks with clearly

different levels of ability and motivation required.

Adapting the classroom-learning environment to the needs of learners is a

complex and demanding task, especially when teaching a multi-grade class

where diversity among classmates is extreme. But outside the classroom,

diversity is the normal condition that characterises life. People must learn to work

well with a wide variety of individuals in many different social settings. No single

best approach has been defined for problem solving, getting along with co-

workers, or learning something new. People learn and manage their lives in a

variety of ways.

The multi-grade classroom, with its wide range of learner levels, reflects this real-

life diversity better than any other classroom configuration. It is important that

teaching methods and grouping patterns reflect the variability of the learners

being taught and help prepare them to live in our diverse and complex world.

Therefore, it is vital, when planning for instruction, to determine the academic,

social, and cultural needs of learners and to devise plans that best meet those

needs.

5.1.3. Curriculum What has been presented thus far reflects an area of schooling often referred to

as the hidden curriculum. This includes areas such as grouping practices,

scheduling and the allocation of time, disciplinary practices, the physical

environment, school norms and values, and human relationships. These areas of

schooling are hidden because they affect learning in powerful, but often

unintended, ways. We also influence how learners learn to relate to each other

and the teacher in accomplishing tasks, a social norm that the students may well

carry with them throughout their adult lives.

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As educators, we need to become aware of the hidden curriculum and its effects

on students, and consciously modify these practices to enhance learning. The

remaining curriculum is referred to as the planned curriculum and can be divided

into two general areas: essential learning skills and enrichment.

The planned curriculum can be described as consisting of four key elements:

goals, resources, activities, and assessment. Translated into teacher terms,

curriculum can be described as a series of questions:

• What do learners need to know?

• How will I help them learn it?

• What resources will I use?

• How will I know if the learners have learned it?

Multi-grade teachers may often find themselves in the role of answering these

questions with little guidance from advisory teachers. Even in those cases where

advisory services are available, isolation and small size will often reduce the

amount of direct service. Even more confounding, curriculum goals, guides, and

texts are conventionally organized by grade level, placing the teacher in the

dilemma of how to achieve expected learning goals when the instructional

organisation may well be inappropriate.

When a teacher enters a classroom with a new group of learners, the teacher’s

most pressing concern generally revolves around determining what the learners

already know and what they may need to learn. Ideally, there should be learner

records that provide an overview of individual learner progress. These generally

include standardised achievement test results, report cards, and diagnostic

testing information for reading and mathematics programs. However, this type of

information is not often kept systematically.

143

The best way to determine what students know is through direct assessment:

• Conduct an interest survey or conduct interviews.

• Learn the types of learning learners find motivating.

• Students can also tell what textbooks, learning kits, or instructional

materials they worked with the previous year.

• Set up learning activities where you can watch how learners perform in

different subject areas and how they relate with peers. Make note of

what you learn.

Students are often an overlooked source of firsthand information.

Using grade-level placement information gathered from learner records, as well

as other information sources (such as colleagues or the community), plan lessons

for diagnostic purposes. These might include writing activities, completing a

series of mathematics problems, or individually reading to the teacher. Results

from these lessons can be used to determine learner strengths and needs.

When planning for diagnosis, it is important to set curricular priorities.

In other words, what content is essential for all learners to master, and in what

order?

5.1.4. Instructional Materials

In the multi-grade classroom, more time must be spent in organising and planning

for instruction. Extra materials and strategies must be developed so that learners

will be meaningfully engaged. This additional coordination lets the teacher meet

with small groups or individuals, while other work continues.

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Since the teacher cannot be everywhere or with each learner simultaneously, the

teacher shares instructional responsibilities with learners. A context of clear rules

and routines makes such shared responsibility productive. Learners know what

the teacher expects. They know what assignments to work on, when they are

due, how to get them graded, how to get extra help, and where to return

assignments.

Self-instruction study guides can be developed for learners in lower grades in four

basic curriculum areas (natural science, mathematics, social studies and

language). The guides adopt a method that promotes active learning, cognitive

skills, discussion, group decision-making and the development of application

skills within the local environment. The guides contain sequenced objectives and

activities. Because the learner follows the work at his/her own pace the schools

operate a system of "flexible promotion". Hence learners do not repeat grades.

They are promoted to the next grade of work when they have mastered the

present objectives and activities.

Conventional textbooks tend not to facilitate self-instruction.

Figure 5.2. and figure 5.3 are examples of language activities in self-instructional

guides.

Figure 5.2. Language activities in a Self-instructional guide

145

The pronouns “him” and “her” take the place of a “person”. The pronoun “it” takes the place of a “place” or “thing”. Write “him”, “her”, or “it” on each blank to complete the thought of each activity. ______________________________________________________

1. The Mailman put the mail in the Lovejoys’ mailbox.

Mother asked Christy to get _______________.

2. Christy brought Mother the mail.

Christy watched _____________ as she sorted it.

3. One letter was for Christy.

Sandy had written to ________________.

Figure 5.3. Language activities in a self-instructional guide.

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5.1.5. Community Involvement

First the learner respond to stimuli built into the cards by expressing what

they see, in their mother tongue.

• In Grade I, more time is spent on "readiness activities".

• Listening and speaking are given prime importance.

• Later, reading and writing are concentrated upon.

• Songs and stories are included in the learning material.

• Enactment of stories using puppetry as a medium also helps in

developing interest.

• Gradually, there is a move from the local dialect to the national

language.

147

Learning guides often explicitly require collecting knowledge and materials from

the community, which can be helpful in forging bonds. Parents collaborate in the

actual construction and maintenance of the school and furniture that facilitates

implementation of the reforms (i.e., desks that facilitate group work, shelves for

the learning corners, etc.).

There exists in small schools a sense of pride, and an attitude and sense of

personal possession and involvement on the part of learners, parents, teachers,

administrators, and community members. To a great degree, the school is the

community center in many small towns and rural areas.

The size of the school does not inhibit personal interaction; it encourages it. Small

schools typically serve a community nucleus. This invites strong support from

parents and community members as well as closer working relationships among

the school staff. In a small school it is not unusual for teachers, administrators,

and school board members to know each other well. This can lead to easy

acceptance of new ideas among friends as well as a strong sense of identification

and belonging.

5.1. FINDINGS

Finding 1

Multi-grade teaching worldwide is more common than we realise or care to

admit. Namibia is no exception with 31.7% of all primary schools affected

by multi-grade instruction.

Finding 2

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Many teachers in multi-grade environments are either untrained or trained

in the mono-grade pedagogy.

Finding 4

Curricula premised on a mono-graded structure need to be adapted to

meet the needs of the multi-grade classroom. Reorganisation and

modification of the curriculum for a multi-grade teaching context may be

considered. Teachers need to be taught how to plan across grade level

objectives.

Finding 5

Timetables must remain flexible as far as possible. This in turn, would

enable teachers to spend more time on a particular subject or practice

work depending on need. Thus, freedom to reprioritise classes should be

part of the multi-grade teaching system.

Finding 6

Effective multi-grade teaching involves the use of a range of organisational

strategies in the classroom. The promotion of approaches that increase

the level of learner independence and cooperative group work tend to be

suggested. These strategies should also include the involvement of

learners in the general management of the classroom.

Finding 7

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Pre-service and in-service training for teachers on the needs of the multi-

grade class is vital. A comprehensive package should be prepared for

multi-grade teaching that include various important aspects like time

management, arrangements for sitting, improving teaching skills,

preparation and organisation of the teaching learning materials and the

organisation of art and cultural activities, among other things.

Finding 8

Multi-grade teachers should be trained in approaches that help them to

develop relations between the school and the community, since multi-

grade teaching has much to offer communities that are not well served by

the existing mono-grade system.

Finding 9

There is a need for a national policy that recognises, legitimate and

support learners and teachers in multi-grade settings.

Finding 10

Teachers need to be well trained, well resourced and hold positive

attitudes towards multi-grade teaching in order to be successful.

5.3. Recommendations

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One of the specific objectives of this study was to make recommendations on

teacher training and preparation for the effective management of multi-grade

teaching.

There were five key areas of concern identified in chapter 2 that are generally the

focus of concern and should be included in any training programme. These five

areas, classroom management, instructional strategies, curriculum, instructional

materials and community involvement were also used to write up data collection

and interpretation. The recommendations will also be based on these key areas,

taken into consideration what was found in the literature and through data

collected in Namibian schools.

5.3.1. Recommendation 1: Classroom Management

Managing a multi-grade classroom is indeed difficult because there is more than

one grade level in the same classroom. Hence, the teacher must be skilled in

managing instruction to reduce the amount of “dead time” during which learners

are not productively engaged on task. This means that teachers must be aware

of different ways of grouping learners, the importance of independent study areas

where learners can go when they have finished their work, and approaches to

record keeping which are more flexible than those common in the mono-grade

classroom. Learners may need to be taught the value of independence and

cooperation by involving them in classroom decision-making.

Teachers in multi-grade schools need to be flexible in their management of

classrooms, to fit particular teaching situations, the physical environment and the

composition of the class.

The following figure, figure 5.4, is an example of a seat plan, which is a

combination of the seat plans suggested by the two focus groups.

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DoorShelves for learners

Writing Board

Teacher Table

Grade 3

Grade 3

Grade 3

Study Area

Table

Additional Resources

Table

Add

ition

al

Res

ourc

es

Writ

ing

Boa

rd

Grade 2

Grade 2

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The arrangement of classroom furniture and the grouping of learners depend on

the activities to be undertaken. For example in subjects like reading, language

and mathematics learners are grouped by ability across grade levels. Teachers

work with one group level while the other grade level has self-activities. In other

subjects more informal arrangements can be utilised.

Older, more disciplined, learners could be designated as monthly monitors.

Different groups of learners in the class could be assigned to the monitors who

would assist the teacher in maintaining discipline in the classroom as well as help

him/her with various other learning activities.

Teaching aids prepared by teachers and learners could be kept systematically in

a learning corner, to be used whenever required and replaced in their particular

location.

A learners' Government, i.e., capable learners elected to form the different

groups, may be assigned to look after various school and cultural activities such

as prayer/ attendance, class cleanliness and decoration, ensure availability of

drinking water, maintain teaching materials prepared by the teacher, look after

the library and games corner, and art and sport activities.

5.3.2. Recommendation 2: Instructional Strategies

Instructional strategies may best be described as the methods, techniques or

devices used to enhance teaching and to facilitate learning.

Instructional strategies are seen as a key to improving the quality of teaching and

learning in the multi-grade classroom. The promotion of approaches that

increase the level of leaner independence and cooperative group work tend to be

suggested. These involve a change in the role of the teacher from ‘giver of

information’ to ‘facilitator’. This is to ensure that time spent away from the teacher

is time spent productively.

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Three important strategies are peer instruction in which learners act as teachers

for each other, cooperative group work that involves small groups engaging in

collaborative tasks, and individualised learning programmes that involve the

learner in self-study.

Grouping is one of the strategies in multi-grade teaching that can play an

important role in the teaching-learning situation. To make teaching and learning

effective and easy the teacher may group the learners either on the basis of

classes, age, sex, or on the basis of ability. Mixed grouping is useful in the

classes for singing, dancing, art, indoor playing and other types of activities.

We must be conscious that, although each learner should be develop

intellectually, physically, emotionally, and socially, each one has different

developmental needs in these four categories. For these needs to be satisfied by

schooling, a school class can be divided into various sized groups according to

ability in those subject areas which are open to measurement techniques, such

as mathematics, reading and spelling.

Social or friendship groupings are strategies quite appropriate for subject areas

such as social studies. Within these groups, avenues occur for peer teaching or

learning.

Yet, even as we advocate the necessity for grouping, we do not underestimate

the importance of the face-to-face contact of individual learners, groups and

classes with the teacher. In multi-grade teaching two distinct organisational and

teaching strategies arise which lead to grouping.

Firstly, a class with two or three grade levels can be organised and taught as

though these grades are discrete. Within these discrete grades there should be

social or ability groupings. Of course there are occasions when the class can be

conducted as a whole, perhaps for cultural subjects, or story reading. Curricular

content and timetabling strategies are arranged by the teacher to ensure that all

students cover the curriculum requirements, obtain a fair measure of the

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teacher’s time and have ample opportunity for self-directed, independent

learning.

The second organisational strategy involves two or three grades being viewed as

one class for much of the curriculum. Thus, ability groupings in mathematics,

reading and spelling for example would be multi-aged with brighter younger

pupils being grouped according to their ability with older students. Some caution

is relevant here in that slower older students may regress if the situation

undermines their self-concept and confidence. Thus, a skilful teacher who, at

appropriate intervals, re-arranges the groups according to regular progress tests,

or completion of topics can coordinate a grouping pattern.

Grouping techniques demand that the teacher conduct whole class or group

teaching from any part of the room. Teaching aids, available equipment, text and

library books should all be used to support the teaching-learning process by

teachers who are prepared to give their time reflecting on the discharge of their

responsibilities.

5.3.3. Recommendation 3: Curriculum

National curricula are typically produced for the mono-grade classroom. Each set

of grade level material is typically placed in a separate booklet, which may

include specific content to be taught as well as guidelines on how to teach it.

Such curricula are difficult for the multi-grade teacher to use because they tend to

require plans to be written for each grade level separately. This is not only time

consuming, but may also result in ineffective instruction. Teachers need to be

taught how to plan across grade level objectives, or how to amend the curriculum

to make it more suitable for their setting. Similar observations may also apply to

the school timetable.

The key word in any discussion of an ideal model is flexibility. The curriculum has

to be very flexible given the nature of multi-grade teaching. One of the greatest

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difficulties in promoting multi-grade teaching is the inflexibility of grade-based

curriculum. The teachers are required to cover all the material for any one-year

for all the students enrolled for that year.

Teachers should adopt a model that is so flexible that prescription is kept to a

minimum. The concept of integration can address this issue.

Integration in multi-grade teaching will most often involve an integration of

learners from different grade levels and competencies. It also involves integration

of the curriculum either with subjects such as science and mathematics, or

subjects in the social sciences or a range of subjects being integrated.

Another form of integration in a desired future model is that the designers of the

curriculum should be an integrated group. The very important contribution of

curriculum experts should be integrated with the contribution of the practitioners

in and the administrators of schools (the teachers and principals). Furthermore,

parents and community representatives should form part of any truly integrated

curriculum design panel, especially where local content is required. Senior

learners might also be included.

A fourth aspect to an integrated multi-grade teaching curriculum is the way in

which it is organised. The multi-grade curriculum should consider for inclusion in

the teachers’ functions the use of learners as peer teachers and/or as monitors.

In addition, skilled community members should be considered as Para-

professional teachers (artists, writers and scientists, for example).

Although the present reality is that the curriculum, textbooks and evaluation

requirements are often fixed in a system, it is important in multi-grade teaching

that teachers approach these problems imaginatively and creatively. Imagination

and creativity are particularly important in dealing with aspects of present

curricula that are open to teacher input.

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Table 5.1 below shows how Environmental Education can be integrated and

being taught as a theme.

Table 5.1. Integration of the curriculum for Environmental Education.

Cross-Curricular Issue

Environmental Education

Environmental

Studies

Natural Environment: Impact of human behaviour on

water, plants, weather;

Caring for our environment

Language

Talking, listening to and reading stories, creative

writing about the environment

Mathematics

Data handling: Picture Graphs – consumption of water

per week

Arts

Visual art: Collage and drawing, using materials from

the environment; Music and Drama: songs and role

play about the environment

Religious & Moral

Education

Stories about the creation and environment;

Environmental values education

Subjects should not be rigidly timetabled. Rather, time should be used flexibly

according to the nature of the intended learning and the tasks involved, as well as

the learners’ absorption in what they are doing. Also, in a more integrated

thematic web approach, it is not productive to divide up time allocation between

the various subjects drawn in around the theme. The important thing is that

sufficient time is given for the learners to achieve the competencies in each

subject area, over a term or year.

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The teacher should chart out a weekly lesson plan, as it is done in two of the

regions in the study. This would enable him/ her to organise the subject matter in

the best possible way to meet the special requirements of a multi-grade class.

A teacher has to account for the amount of teaching done in every subject and at

each grade level. This requires considerable preparation and much in excess of

that of a teacher in the mono-grade teaching situation.

Depending on the quality of teachers’ workbooks and worksheets, a teacher may

be with grade one for ten minutes, and away from grade three for fifteen minutes.

Such teaching requires very sound preparation especially considering the time

spent by learners in independent study. It also requires intelligent preparation and

reporting in demonstrating that the national requirements for teaching in the

different subject areas have been met.

Syllabi need to be prepared specifically for the multi-grade teaching context or be

able to be adapted to it. The primary curriculum prescribed is the same for both

urban and rural areas. This curriculum usually consists of a list of minimum

learning competencies stated in terms of behavioral objectives, which the teacher

is expected to achieve with each grade level within a particular time limit.

Since the minimum learning competencies are normally specifically designed for

regular school situations, the multi-grade teacher finds it difficult to make the

content of his or her teaching meaningful for the learners. Most often, the

designed curriculum lacks relevance and is dysfunctional when applied to the

socio-economic needs and cultural life-styles of multi-grade learners and their

communities.

Moreover, the conceptual and skill requirements of the prescribed curriculum are

too great for the teacher to cope with, given the pressing problems and concerns

which have to be addressed in the multi-grade teaching situation.

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For these reasons there is a need to re-organise and improve the curriculum for

multi-grade teaching by way of:

(i) Improving the curriculum content by developing subject matter in a way that

makes it relevant to the social conditions of the communities and the needs

of the learners.

(ii) Involving parents, teachers and community leaders in the re-organisation

and improvement of the curriculum.

(iii) Preparing instructional plans for teachers where various activities are

proposed for use with an emphasis on problem solving, and acquiring skills

for character and community development.

(iv) Preparing supportive instructional materials that are congruent with the plan

of instruction.

(v) Analysing the minimum competency requirements so as to identify skills,

which should be taught directly, and those that may evolve from self-

instruction.

Figure 5.5 shows an example of such a framework for a re-organised curriculum.

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Figure 5.5: A Framework for Improving the Multi-grade Curriculum

PRESCRIBED CURRICULUM

REVIEW OF CURRICULUM:

Analysis of the Minimum Learning Competencies

IDENTIFICATION OF:

Common and related skills

Skills for direct and indirect teaching

Content and skill areas for integration

ADAPTATION OF THE CURRICULUM TO SUIT LOCAL CONDITIONS

PREPARATION OF APPROAPRIATE MATERIALS

TRAILING AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ADAPTED CURRICULUM

EVALUATION

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5.3.4. Recommendation 4: Instructional Materials

Instructional materials also tend to be written for the mono-grade classroom.

Consequently, they are produced as grade level textbooks and are designed to

be delivered by the teacher to the learner. More suitable materials include a self-

study element. This might be in the form of workbooks with a self-correction key,

or a small classroom library that can be accessed independently by the learners.

Teachers need to be shown how to produce such self-study materials in a cost

effective way.

Materials for the provision of multi-grade teaching in the classroom are an

essential aspect of any discussion of multi-grade teaching. On the one hand,

there is not a considerable amount of materials support for multi-grade teaching

as opposed to mono-grade teaching. On the other hand, multi-grade teaching is

often associated with schools in remote and difficult contexts dealing with rural

and other disadvantaged communities. The result is that there are few resources

available, given the poverty of the region in which this type of teaching is found.

Multi-grade teachers have, therefore, to work in a considerably negative context

in terms of materials support. It is often the case that newly appointed teachers

must develop their own curriculum materials using locally found materials.

Teaching materials development could be considerable in terms of developing

specifically multi-grade teaching materials. This would be a significant

improvement for multi-grade teaching since it would mean that specific

development could occur rather than the need to convert mono-grade teaching

materials for multi-grade teaching use. This latter strategy is problematic since

the teaching strategies used in multi-grade teaching are different from those

employed in mono-grade classrooms.

There is little money to develop and produce multi-grade teaching materials to

meet all needs. Learners, who are disadvantaged geographically, linguistically,

culturally, economically or/and socially and are involved in multi-grade teaching

usually have a different set of special problems and needs for each group.

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Different sets of multi-grade textbooks should be developed to meet the special

needs of different areas and different language, cultural and ethnic groups. But

without money little can be achieved.

Multi-grade teaching needs more materials than mono-grade teaching, but

learners involved in multi-grade teaching are much poorer and cannot afford to

buy more materials. The government is also not able to provide the materials free

of charge for them.

The provision of teaching-learning materials especially in developing countries is

constrained by limited financial resources. As such teachers are encouraged to

produce low-cost materials that are appropriate to the situation and ability of

learners in these multi-grade schools. Low-cost teaching learning materials are

materials that have the following characteristics or qualities:

(i) Teachers, learners or members of the community can make the

materials.

(ii) The materials supplied can be put to effective use by the

teachers and learners in the classroom and do not incur extra

cost

(iii) The processes in the production of the materials are simple and

inexpensive.

(iv) The production of the materials is not time consuming.

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(v) The raw materials are freely and easily available from the local

community.

These raw materials can be:

(i) Natural resources; for example, plants (bamboo, leaves, rubber seeds,

coconut leaf stick, coconut, etc.), animal (shell, skin, bones, etc.) and

mineral (limestone, charcoal, etc.).

(ii) Industrial waste; for example, fuses, electric bulbs, used batteries, etc.

(iii) Domestic waste; for example, tin cans, milk boxes, bicycle parts, etc.

The characteristics/qualities of low-cost teaching learning materials may need to

be redefined as the situation differs from one area to another; that is according to

the social-economic situation and cultural contexts.

Because of this, the main consideration is not the low-cost factor of the materials,

but factors like ease of availability, ease of production and the like.

3.3.5. Recommendation 5: Community Involvement

Multi-grade schools are often located in remote and difficult to reach areas. They

may be far from resource centres and receive little pedagogical support. The

communities in which they are located may not see the value of education, and

may speak a different language to the “official” one of the school. For these

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reasons, it is essential that the community be involved in the life of the school.

Parents can be asked to come in to act as a resource, or the community can be

asked to support the school in other ways.

5.4. Conclusion

There is a universal problem of attracting people with appropriate backgrounds

and interests into the teaching profession. This is generally the case but is

exacerbated for multi-grade teaching schools because of the geographical and

social locations of such schools. In some countries, a financial or social incentive

is provided to attract better quality people into multi-grade schools. Viet Nam, for

example, provides additional salaries for teachers in multi-grade schools.

However, in all countries the problem exists of providing appropriate and

sufficient incentives for high quality students to want to be trained as multi-grade

teachers. The training of multi-grade teachers is complicated by the fact that not

all teacher graduates will experience such teaching. In some countries, the

percentage of teacher graduates who will experience multi-grade teaching is

relatively low. Thus, the question is raised as to the need for pre-service training

and practical experience in multi-grade teaching techniques for all student

teachers.

Existing Pre-service Training Programmes do not cater for multi-grade teaching.

Rather, student teachers are provided with the same pre-service courses as

those that are used to prepare regular teachers.

A practical component is generally found in most of teacher-training

programmes. This practical experience is considered to be a vital part of teacher

preparation. However, the provision of multi-grade teaching practical experience

is not always easy. It is the case that not all teachers will need to teach in such

situations; therefore making such practicals a compulsory component for all

student teachers is not appropriate.

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Team teaching is a useful technique in terms of a teaching strategy, particularly

for newer, inexperienced teachers beginning their careers in a school where a

more experienced teacher is available. However, the use of such a strategy

would require teachers to be trained in its use. Thus, specific in-service training

would be required to maximise the potential benefit of such a strategy for use by

experienced teachers.

Peer teaching is also a potentially useful technique for use in multi-grade schools.

Again, the benefits of the use of such a technique will only occur if appropriate

pre- and in-service training is provided to teachers. Quite specific training on the

techniques of peer teaching would be required.

There is an increasing need for multi-grade teachers to be able to assess (both

on the basis of ability and social factors) the needs of individual learners. The

requirement for Multi-grade teachers to be able to do this is probably more

important than for teachers in regular schools because of the wider range of

learners with whom multi-grade teachers need to deal.

Multi-grade teachers should be trained in approaches that help to develop

relations between the school and the community, since multi-grade teaching has

much to offer communities that are not well served by the existing mono-grade

system. It is in any case a popular alternative for improving rural education and

not without reason.

Teachers entering into a multi-grade classroom for the first time need to have an

awareness of exactly what can beneficially be gained from teaching multi-grade

classes. Similarly, a central understanding of the many hurdles that one is up

against with regards to literature and past research is critical. It is only when

teachers have this knowledge, that they have a means to overcome these

challenges and take full advantage of the benefits of multi-grade teaching.

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5.5. Suggestions For Further Research

Researchers on multi-grade teaching are unanimous on at least one point. For

children to learn effectively in multi-grade environments teachers need to be well

organised, well resourced and well trained, as well as to hold positive attitudes to

multi-grade teaching. Yet, as we have seen in previous chapters, many teachers

who find themselves teaching in a multi-grade environment are frequently under-

resourced, and are often the most undereducated and under-trained members of

a national teaching force.

Since there is a degree of overlap in the recommendations they will be

summarised and synthesised here in the form of questions, a format which may

be useful both in work with policymakers and practitioners, and in defining

developmental research work in the area of multi-grade teaching.

Although we could start with a series of questions for the teacher in the

classroom and work out from there, those initiatives which have had far reaching

and lasting effects on the multi-grade classroom appear to have received support

from district and national level authorities. Experience suggests that the multi-

grade teacher cannot, and indeed should not, be expected to solve the problems

of the multi-grade classroom alone.

Hence, the list begins with questions for the national-level policymaker.

5.5.1. National level

(i) Do the enrolment projections and costs of provision suggest that

multi-grade teaching will continue in many schools?

(ii) What are the conditions under which multi-grade teachers work?

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(iii) Do nationally prescribed pre-and in-service teacher training

programmes include content on effective teaching in multi-grade

settings?

(iv) Do they include content on effective teaching more generally eg

self-study, peer learning, planning and organisation, alternative

ways of grouping students for learning assessment skills?

(v) Is multi-grade teaching a recognised field of specialisation in

teacher training institutions?

(vi) Is there provision in nationally prescribed teacher training curricula

for the practice as well as the theory of teaching in multi-grade

settings?

(vii) Are there model schools practicing multi-grade teaching?

(viii) Have multi-grade techniques been considered for use in mono-

grade settings?

(ix) Are there material and professional incentives for teachers in multi-

grade schools in difficult locations? (eg salary supplements,

housing, training opportunities, promotion prospects)

(x) Have attempts been made to structure the content of the national

curriculum and all associated curriculum materials (eg syllabi,

teachers guides) in a way that supports multi-grade teaching (eg

integrated subject matter, i.e. teaching the same subject at different

conceptual levels; or a modular curriculum, i.e. allowing the learner

to proceed at his her own pace through learning modules)?

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(xi) Have such attempts attracted serious support from national-level

research and curriculum institutions over a period of time?

(xii) Have self-study materials been developed for extensive parts of the

curriculum?

(xiii) Could textbooks be designed to support self-study?

(xiv) Have or could adequate resources been allocated to libraries to

support self-leaning?

(xv) Is there an adequate budgetary commitment from government to

support multi-grade schools?

(xvi) Is there an understanding among national-level professionals and

administrators of the cognitive and non-cognitive benefits of multi-

grade teaching?

(xvii) Is there an effective mechanism for the regular supervision,

monitoring and evaluation of multi-grade schools?

5.5.2. Regional level

Systems of education vary in the division of roles and responsibilities between

national and regional levels of administration. Consequently many of the

questions listed above may apply equally to practitioners working at the regional

levels. The following may also apply:

(i) Are there mechanisms in place at regional level that can support the

pedagogy of multi-grade teaching?

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(ii) Are there regular and frequent newsletters developed by multi-

grade teachers for multi-grade teachers?

(iii) Are there local radio networks and/or distance learning schemes

that can support the teacher in the field?

(iv) Are guidelines developed with teachers on the timetabling of multi-

grade teaching?

(v) Are there administrative tasks which face the multi-grade teacher in

difficult areas which could be handled more effectively by local

education offices, eg arrangements for delivery of materials,

building repairs, monthly payments?

(vi) Are there ways of supporting horisontal linkages between schools

so that teachers may learn from each other?

(vii) Are there ways of stimulating horisontal linkages with local

community members to support the work of the multi-grade

teacher?

(viii) Is professional and regional level staff aware of changes at the

national level that support the multi-grade teacher? (eg through

changes in curriculum teacher training, criteria for promotion etc?)

(ix) Are there promotion and repetition policies at the regional level that

are sensitive to the organisation of multi-grade classes?

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5.5.3. Classroom level

(i) Are teachers able to discriminate between optimal ways of

organising the teaching of different subjects?

(ii) Are teachers given guidance on syllabus coverage across the day,

week, term, and school year in multi-grade settings?

(iii) Are teachers familiar with the pedagogic advantages (both cognitive

and non cognitive) of multi-grade teaching?

(iv) Are teachers able to convince parents of the advantages?

(v) Are teachers able and willing to encourage self-study and peer

learning in multi-grade settings?

(vi) Do teachers have access to effective and practical means for

assessing learning outcomes in multi-grade settings on a regular

basis?

(vii) Have teachers established classroom routines so that learning may

continue even in the absence of the teacher (eg through the use of

student monitors and access to self and group-learning activities?)

(viii) Are teachers able to request support from higher levels of authority

for problem solving in relation to multi-grade teaching?

These questions may be regarded as a checklist of use in both assessing the

present status and support for multi-grade teaching, and stimulating discussion at

different levels of the education system about improved ways of supporting the

teaching of the multi-grade teacher and the learning of the multi-grade learner. As

well providing a useful framework for dialogue between policymakers and

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practitioners, each could also usefully provide a framework for further

developmental research.

The questions pitched at the level of the teacher and the classroom is particularly

amenable to action research by teachers and teacher educators

The questions pitched at the level of the regional or national authorities are also

amenable to action research by practitioners and policymakers working at this

level. In practice however few have the time, resources, skills and interest in

conducting the type of research that has implications that go beyond their

immediate and local environment. In such situations, outside researchers can

play a useful role, especially where insiders are interested in seeing the research

conducted.

5.5.4. Conclusion

Research may usefully be seen as an extension of the process of dialogue. It is

also important to understand that not all useful research is executed quickly, nor

do all research results have immediate application. National authorities may

sometimes need evidence provided by long-term evaluation research if they are

to promote national level reform. Unfortunately, very little research has been

undertaken on cost efficiency and effectiveness connected with multi-grade

schools.

Teacher education institutions may need a critical mass of staff members who

have conducted longer term research on multi-grade teaching and associated

strategies (eg self-study, peer-learning), or who have direct experience of working

in these settings, if they are to carry conviction with student teachers about the

benefits of multi-grade teaching.

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In addition, teacher education institutions and university departments of education

are members of national and international academic and professional hierarchies

that legitimise some types of knowledge as more valuable than others. It is

symptomatic of both hierarchies that the realities facing the multi-grade teacher

worldwide barely warrant a mention in national and international education

research agenda, in priorities attached to training scholarships, in books about

the problems of education, in manuals on effective teaching, in information and

dissemination networks and in teacher education curricula.

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APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear Sir/Madam

MANAGING THE EFFECTS OF MULTIGRADE TEACHING ON LEARNER PERFORMANCE IN NAMIBIA: A questionnaire to determine what effect multigrade instruction has on learner

performance and what kind of preparation or training is needed to manage a

multigrade classroom effectively.

This questionnaire is part of a study that aims to address the above-mentioned

issues on multigrade instruction. Please take time to complete the questionnaire,

keeping the following in mind:

∆ Answer all the questions.

∆ Do not write your name on the questionnaire.

Each participant will be allocated an entity number to ensure anonymity.

The information collected will be made available to the Ministry of Education.

Thank you for your time and participation

Yours truly,

……………….

Ms F. Beukes

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Section A Instructions: Please read each question carefully and circle the response that best represents your answer:

1. Please indicate your gender.

Male 1 Female 2

2. What is your highest educational qualification? Grade 12 1 Grade 12 and one year teacher training 2 Grade 12 and two years teacher training 3 Grade 12 and three years teacher training 4 Other, please specify 5 __________________________________________________________ 3. How many years of teaching experience do you have? Less than one year 1 More than one year, but less than five years 2 More than five years, but less than ten years 3 More than 10 years 4 4. How many years of teaching experience do you have in a Multigrade classroom? Less than one year 1 More than one year, but less than five years 2 More than five years, but less than ten years 3 More than 10 years 4 5. Have you had any training on multigrade instruction? Yes, before 1990 1 Yes, after 1990 2 No 3

Example: 1. Please indicate your gender. Male 1 (If you are a male) Female 2

186

6. Please indicate your educational region. Khomas 1 Hardap 2 Karas 3 Erongo 4 Section B Instructions: Please indicate with a cross (x) the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements. Keep in mind that all statements refer to multi-grade instruction. Example: 1. Combinations of ages and levels exist at the same time.

Strongly Agree

Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

________________________________________________________________ 1. Combinations of ages and levels exist at the same time.

Strongly Agree


2. Learners work in small groups

Strongly Agree


3. Learners work individually.

Strongly Agree


4. Classroom rules and procedures are developed collaboratively between teachers.

Strongly Agree


187

5. Time is used flexibly in accordance with learners’ needs.

Strongly Agree


6. Learners are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning.

Strongly Agree


7. Learners receive personal attention.

Strongly Agree


8. Learners are expected to develop independence.

Strongly Agree


9. Learners learn to set personal goals.

Strongly Agree


10. Learners compete with themselves.

Strongly Agree


11. Older learners have the opportunity to demonstrate helpfulness and leadership.

Strongly Agree


12. Learners are encouraged to move around in class.

Strongly Agree


13. More planning is needed to teach in a multi-grade classroom.

188

Strongly Agree


14. Appropriate teaching and learning materials are readily available.

Strongly Agree


15. The teacher shares instructional responsibilities with the learners.

Strongly Agree


16. Instruction is planned at the learners’ level of development.

Strongly Agree


17. Teachers prepare activities to expand each learner’s level of understanding.

Strongly Agree


18. The teacher has to develop a wide range of teaching strategies.

Strongly Agree


19. A range of materials and resources are used when teaching.

Strongly Agree


20. The teacher teaches one group while the other group work on its own.

Strongly Agree


21. The teacher teaches a theme to both groups at the same time.

Strongly Agree


22. Teachers should be able to decide if they want to teach in a multi-grade classroom.

189

Strongly Agree


23. Teachers need ongoing professional development.

Strongly Agree


24. Teachers are less stressed.

Strongly Agree


25. Learners serve as peer-teachers.

Strongly Agree


26. The educational atmosphere is conducive to academic progress.

Strongly Agree


27. Multi-grade classes invite cooperation and other forms of pro-social behaviour.

Strongly Agree


28. The need to discipline is less.

Strongly Agree


29. Multi-grade classes can be seen as assets that promote quality learning.

Strongly Agree


30. Teachers make use of specially designed guides and instructional materials.

Strongly Agree


31. Learning tasks aim at high standards of performance

190

Strongly Agree


32. Teachers need to be aware of learning styles, multiple intelligences and abilities.

Strongly Agree


33. Practical guidebooks are essential.

Strongly Agree


34. Teachers have access to specialized materials to support their preparation.

Strongly Agree


35. The conventional school curriculum addresses the needs of the multi-grade class.

Strongly Agree


36. Entrance tests are conducted to determine the educational level of each learner.

Strongly Agree


37. Teachers consider learner differences when planning for instruction.

Strongly Agree


38. Learners progress at their own pace.

Strongly Agree


39. Learners are assessed on a daily basis.

Strongly Agree


191

40. Competition is minimized in a multi-grade classroom.

Strongly Agree


41. Learners assess themselves.

Strongly Agree


42. Assessment is ongoing.

Strongly Agree


43. Students are assessed in multiple ways.

Strongly Agree


44. Parents are involved in the education of their children.

Strongly Agree


45. Parental involvement is important for the success of multi-grade teaching.

Strongly Agree


46. The community is strongly involved in the support and management of the school.

Strongly Agree


Thank you for completing this questionnaire.

Documents

Med Florida Beukesaction Plan