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Materi Qualitative Introduction
Citation preview
QUALITATIVE METHODS
Badri Munir Sukoco, PhD
Department of Management, Airlangga University
Outlines
Introduction
Qualitative Research Design
Tips on Writing A Qualitative Paper
Introduced to Qualitative
Taken class organized by Prof. Nicholas Pazderic, PhD
http://pazderic.com/nickola-pazderic/
Introduced to Qualitative
Taken class organized by Prof. Nicholas Pazderic, PhD
http://pazderic.com/nickola-pazderic/
Proposed 3 ideas, but all rejected, either because too
quantitative or remote from social processes
Thesis: Discovery or Nightmare?
By Badri Munir Sukoco
RA7937116
The Ideal Body of Man
By Badri Munir Sukoco
RA7937116
An Empirical Look at Becoming
Vegetarian
by Badri Munir Sukoco
RA 7937116
Body Piercing as Tribal Behavior among Indonesian Migrant
Workers in Taiwan
By Badri Munir Sukoco
RA7937116
Part I - Introduction
10/23/2014 11
Introduction
Theory explains why empirical patterns are observed or expected.
Two streams of scientific inquiry: theory development and
refinement;
Dominant scientific method quantitative mainly used to test and
refine existing theory;
Qualitative method best for theoretical development, because the
richness of explanation resulted from the process;
Scientific Process
Current theory
New theory
Inductive grouping
Observable facts
Understanding insightBridge Laws
Testing
Anomaly Hypothesis
retroduction
Laws, generations
Two Big Assumptions
Assumptions of the nature of social science
Assumptions of the nature of society
10/23/2014 14
A Scheme for Analyzing Assumptions
about the Nature of Social Science (Burrell and Morgan, 1979; hal. 3)
Ontology: Nominalism vs.
Realism
Nominalism assumes that society is relative and the social
world is names, concepts and labels that make individual
structure reality
Realism assumes that the real world has hard, intangible
structures that exist irrespective of our labels. The social
world exists separate from the individuals perception of it
Epistemology: Positivism vs.
Anti-Positivism
Positivism seeks to explain and predict what happens in the
social world by searching for patterns and relationships.
Hypotheses are developed and tested
Anti-positivism rejects that observing behavior can help
people understand it. Social science cannot create true
objective knowledge of any kind
Human Nature: Voluntarism vs.
Determinism
Determinism sees man as being determined by the situation
and environment he is in
Voluntarism sees man is completely autonomous and
possessing free will
Method: Ideographic vs.
Nomothetic
Ideographic focuses on detailed observation of society
Nomothetic involves hypotheses testing and employs
methods such as surveys and other standardized research
tools
Axiological: Value Free vs. Value
Laden
Value-free contends that researchers can
conduct research without the imposition of
values
Value-laden contends this is simply impossible
Assumptions of the Nature of
Society
Two theories about society: order and conflict
1. Order or integrationist view sees society as relatively stable
and based on consensus
2. Conflict or coercion view sees society as constantly changing
and disintegrating
10/23/2014 21
Fundamental Distinctions in Underlying
Philosophies
All science is based on paradigmatic thinking (Guba and Lincoln, 1994)
Paradigms as universally recognized scientific achievements
that for a time provide model problems and solutions to a
community of practitioners(Kuhn, 1970; hal. viii)
Paradigms as commonality of perspective which binds the
work of a group of theorists together (Burrell and Morgan, 1979; hal. 23)
Four Paradigms for the Analysis
of Social Theory (Burrell and Morgan, 1979; hal. 22)
Where are we?
We are here
10/23/2014 23
Functionalism vs. Interpretivism
Items Functionalism -
Quantitative
Interpretivism -
Qualitative
Goal Theory testing and refinement Understanding of a phenomenon / create a new
theory
Data and analysis Closely replicate prior research Unique but should be reasonable and plausible
Theory Mainly use existing theory Develop new theory
Ontology Objectivity researchers as external observers
Subjectivity researchers as
internal observers
Epistemology Positivism search for regularities and causal
relationships among variables
Relativism search for best
explanation of a phenomena
Methodology Quantitative data collection and statistical analysis
Qualitative data (multi-modes
of data) and grounded theory
Additional References
Bansal, P. dan Corley, K. (2012). Whats Different about Qualitative
Research? Academy of Management Journal, 55(3): 509-513
Bansal, P. dan Corley, K. (2011). The Coming of Age for Qualitative
Research: Embracing The Diversity of Qualitative Methods. Academy of
Management Journal, 54(2): 233-237
Gephart, R. P. (2004). Qualitative Research and the Academy of
Management Journal. Academy of Management Journal, 47(4): 454-462
Pratt, M.P. (2009). For the Lack of A Boilerplate: Tips on Writing Up (And
Reviewing) Qualitative Research. Academy of Management Journal, 52(5):
856-862
Part II Qualitative
Research Design
Authored by David McHugh
Research Designs and Methods
A Research Design provides a framework for the
collection and analysis of data. Choice of research design
reflects decisions about priorities given to the dimensions
of the research process.
A Research Method is simply a procedure for collecting
data. Choice of research method reflects decisions about
the type of instruments or techniques to be used.
Methodological and Theory
Usage Approaches in QualitativeMethodological approaches:
1. Post-positivist: social world is patterned and that causal relationships can be discovered and tested via reliable strategies.
2. Interpretive: social world is constantly being constructed through group interactions, and thus, social reality can be understood via meaning-making activities of social actors.
3. Critical: social reality as a discourses created in shifting fields of social power shape social reality and the study
Theory usage approaches:
1. Deductive: emphasized in post-positivism, test theory or a hypotheses against data.
2. Inductive: emphasized in interpretive and critical belief system, generates theory directly out of the data.
10/23/2014 28
A Brief Introduction to Qualitative
Methods
Qualitative methods are a set of data collection and analysis techniques that can be used to provide description, build theory, and to test theory (Van Maanen, 1979) from the early 1900;
It emphasizes the process and experiential of researchers to develop an understanding of complex phenomena from the perspectives of those who are living it (Miles and Huberman, 1994);
Researchers can propose new variables and relationships to increase the understanding of complex processes;
Mainly criticized for unsystematic process (and report), because of lack of consistency on terminology and consistency
10/23/2014 29
Qualitative Methods for Data Analysis
and Collection
Qualitative methods are interpretative techniques that seek to
describe, decode, translate, and focus on meaning (not the
frequency) of phenomenon (Van Maanen, 1979).
It creates many data collection analysis methods (e.g., grounded
theory, case study, ethnography, etc), which might confusing for
unfamiliar researchers;
The questions asked usually begin with words like how, why, or what
and uses a process-oriented approach to knowledge building.
Qualitative Research Design
1. General research questions
2. Selecting relevant site(s) and subjects
3. Collection of relevant data
4. Interpretation of data
5. Conceptual and theoretical work
6. Writing up findings/conclusions
5a. Tighter specification of the
research question(s)
5b. Collection of further data
Authored by David McHugh
Research Questions
guide your literature search
guide your decisions about the kind of research design to employ
guide your decisions about what data to collect and from whom
guide your analysis of your data
guide your writing up of your data
stop you from going off in unnecessary directions and tangents
Research questions:
Formulating Research Questions
The what quesJons focus on individuals and social seKngs
describe reality in terms of what it naturally is
What is happening? What are people doing? What does it mean to
them?
The how quesJons emphasize the producJon of meaning how
meaning is constructed by those within a given setting
How are the realities of everyday life accomplished?
Data Sources
Interviews
Observation
Secondary data (internal and external)
Other relevant data (video, picture, memo, etc)
Formulating Questions for an Interview Guide
Formulate
interview
questions
Specific
research
questions
General
research
area
Interview
topics
Review/revise
Interview questions
Pilot guide
Identify novel
issues
Revise interview
questions
Finalize guide
Criteria for Successful
Interviewers I
1. Knowledgeable: thoroughly familiar with the focus of the interview; pilot interviews of the kind used in survey interviewing can be useful here.
2. Structuring: gives purpose for interview; rounds it off; asks whether interviewee has questions.
3. Clear: asks simple, easy, short questions; no jargon.
4. Gentle: lets people finish; gives them time to think; tolerates pauses.
5. Sensitive: listens attentively to what is said and how it is said; is empathetic in dealing with the interviewee.
6. Open: responds to what is important to interviewee and is flexible.
7. Steering: knows what he/she wants to find out.
Criteria for Successful
Interviewers II8. Critical: is prepared to challenge what is said, for example, dealing with
inconsistencies in interviewees' replies.
9. Remembering: relates what is said to what has previously been said.
10. Interpreting: clarifies and extends meanings of interviewees' statements, but without imposing meaning on them.
11. Balanced: does not talk too much, which may make the interviewee passive, and does not talk too little, which may result in the interviewee feeling he or she is not talking along the right lines.
12. Ethically sensitive: is sensitive to the ethical dimension of interviewing, ensuring the interviewee appreciates what the research is about, its purposes, and that his or her answers will be treated confidentially.
Kinds of Question
1. Introducing questions: `Please tell me about when your interest in X
first began?'; `Have you ever . . .?'; `Why did you go to . . .?' .
2. Follow-up questions: getting the interviewee to elaborate his/her
answer, such as `Could you say some more about that?'; `What do you
mean by that . . .?'; Can you give me an example? even `Yeeees?
3. Probing questions: following up what has been said through direct
questioning.
4. Specifying questions: `What did you do then?'; `How did X react to
what you said?
5. Direct questions: `Do you find it easy to keep smiling when serving
customers?'; `Are you happy with the amount of on-the-job training
you have received?' Such questions are perhaps best left until towards
the end of the interview, in order not to influence the direction of the
interview too much.
Kinds of Question contd6. Indirect questions: `What do most people round here think of the ways
that management treats its staff?', perhaps followed up by `Is that the
way you feel too?', in order to get at the individual's own view.
7. Structuring questions: `I would now like to move on to a different topic'.
8. Silence: allow pauses to signal that you want to give the interviewee the
opportunity to reflect and amplify an answer.
9. Interpreting questions: `Do you mean that your leadership role has had to
change from one of encouraging others to a more directive one?'; `Is it
fair to say that what you are suggesting is that you don't mind being
friendly towards customers most of the time, but when they are
unpleasant or demanding you find it more difficult?'
Kvale (1996)
Role Consultant Apprentice Confidante
Characteristics Competent, knowledgeable, professional
A credible outsider who secures the trust of management Exchange of access for knowledge or information, often in the form of a written report or verbal presentation
Nave, unthreatening, personable
A younger person who can make themselves useful within the organization
Exchange of access for productive labour
Mature, attentive, trustworthy
An impartial outsider who is able to listen to peoples problems Exchange of access for psycho-social support or therapy
Examples Watson (1994a)
Holliday (1995)
Parker (2000)
Ram (1994)
Collinson (1992)
Delbridge (1998) Holliday (1995) Sharpe (1997) Crang (1994)
Dalton (1959) Parker (2000) Perlow (1997) Casey (1995) Freeman (2000)
Observation - 3 Roles for Observers
Classifications of Participant Observer Roles
Complete participant
Participant-as-observer
Observer-as-participant
Complete observer
Total participant
Researcher-participant
Total researcher
What is `Going Native'?
`Going native' refers to a plight that sometimes afflicts
ethnographers when they lose their sense of being a researcher
and become wrapped up in the world view of the people they
are studying. The prolonged immersion of ethnographers in the
lives of the people they study, coupled with the commitment to
seeing the social world through their eyes, lie behind the risk and
actuality of going native. Going native is a potential problem for
several reasons but especially because the ethnographer can lose
sight of their position as a researcher and find it difficult to
develop a social scientific angle on the collection and analysis of
data.
What is Triangulation?Triangulation:
entails using more than one method or source of data in the study of social phenomena.
is an approach that uses `multiple observers, theoretical perspectives, sources of data, and methodologies (Denzin)
has tended to emphasise multiple methods of investigation and sources of data
can operate within and across research strategies
can to refer to a process of cross-checking findings deriving from both quantitative and qualitative research (triangulation of methods)
may often allow access to different levels of reality
The Process of Induction The
Dynamic Dance
Look for Patterns in
Data
Formulate Tentative
Ideas (Hypothesis) to
Explore by Gathering
More Data
Start by Gathering
ObservationsGeneration of
Theory
Qualitative Method Sampling
Qualitative research aims to look at a process or the meanings
individuals attribute to their given social situation.
The question is not about how many women have problems with
their body image, but how women experience being overweight in
a thin culture.
Sampling methods: purposive, judgment , convenience, and
theoretical samplings
When the results are the same across individuals, it reaches
theoretical saturation and it needs to employ different individuals
for multiple perspectives to enhance understanding.
What is Theoretical Saturation?
The key idea is that you carry on sampling theoretically until a
category has been saturated with data.
`This means, until (a) no new or relevant data seem to be emerging regarding
a category, (b) the category is well developed in terms of its properties and
dimensions demonstrating variation, and (c) the relationships among
categories are well established and validated' (Strauss and Corbin 1998: 212).
In the language of grounded theory, a category operates at a
somewhat higher level of abstraction than a concept in that it may
group together several concepts that have common features
denoted by the category. Theoretical sampling refers to the
sampling, not just of people, but also of settings and events.
Authored by David McHugh
Knowing When to Stop
There is a tendency for qualitative research to lack a sense of an obvious end point
In organizational research it is likely that a deadline for data collection will be negotiated at the outset
The researcher may feel that they have simply had enough
The researcher's categories are thoroughly saturated
Disengagement has to be managed
Getting out, should be handled in such a way as to leave the door open to the possibility of future research or fieldwork
The researchers ethical commitments must not be forgotten
Qualitative Data Analysis
General strategies of qualitative data analysis: analytic induction*
grounded theory*
Basic operations in qualitative data analysis: steps, considerations, and problems associated with coding (see Ch. 21)
Other methods for qualitative data analysis: narrative analysis
cognitive mapping
repertory grid technique.
What is Analytic Induction?
Analytic induction is an approach to the analysis of
data in which the researcher seeks universal
explanations of phenomena by pursuing the
collection of data until no cases that are inconsistent
with a hypothetical explanation (deviant or negative
cases) of a phenomenon are found.
The Process of Analytic InductionRough definition of problem
Hypothetical explanation
of problem
Examination of cases
Deviant case
not confirming
hypothetical
explanation
No deviant cases
Hypothesis confirmed
Reformulate
hypothesis
Hypothetical explanation
redefined to exclude
deviant case
End of examination of cases
Data collection ceases
What is Grounded Theory?
In its most recent incarnation, grounded theory has beendefined as:
theory that was derived from data, systematically gathered andanalyzed through the research process. In this method, datacollection, analysis, and eventual theory stand in close relationshipto one another (Strauss and Corbin 1998: 12)
Thus, two central features of grounded theory are that it isconcerned with the development of theory out of data andthe approach is iterative, or recursive, as it is sometimescalled, meaning that data collection and analysis proceed intandem, repeatedly referring back to each other.
Authored by David McHugh
Tools of Grounded Theory
Theoretical sampling
Coding
Theoretical saturation
Constant comparison
Strauss and Corbins Classification of Coding in Grounded Theory
Open coding breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing and categorizing
data (Strauss and Corbin, 1990: 61)
this process yields concepts, which are later grouped and turned into categories
Axial coding data are put back together in new ways after open coding, by making
connections between categories (1990: 96)
this is done by linking codes to contexts, consequences, patterns of interaction and to causes
Selective coding selecting the core category, systematically relating it to other categories,
validating those relationships, and filling in categories that need further refinement and development (1990: 116).
a core category is the central issue or focus around which all other categories are integrated
Outcomes of Grounded Theory
Concept(s) refers to labels given to discrete phenomena; concepts are referred to as the
building blocks of theory (Strauss and Corbin 1998: 101)
Category, Categories a concept that has been elaborated so that it is regarded as representing real-
world phenomena
Properties
attributes or aspects of a category
Hypotheses
initial hunches about relationships between concepts
Theory according to Strauss and Corbin (1998: 22), a set of well-developed categories
. . . that are systematically related through statements of relationship to form a theoretical framework that explains some relevant social . . . or other phenomenon
Processes and Outcomes in Grounded Theory
Processes Outcomes
1. Research problem
2. Theoretical sampling
3. Collect data
4. Coding 4a Concepts
5. Constant comparison 5a Categories
6. Saturate categories
7. Explore relationships 7a Hypothesesbetween categories
8. Theoretical sampling
9. Collect data
10. Saturate categories
11. Test hypotheses 11a Substantive theory
12. Collection and analysis of 12a Formal theory data in
other settings
Narrative Analysis
Narratives should be viewed in terms of the functions that the narrative serves for the teller
The aim of narrative interviews is to elicit interviewees reconstructed accounts of connections between events and between events and contexts
A narrative analysis entails a seeking-out of the forms and functions of narrative
For the management researcher, narrative analysis can prove extremely helpful in: providing a springboard for understanding what Weick (1995) has termed
organizational sensemaking
understanding the internal politics of organizations
Narrative Analysis & Storytelling
Narratives are sensitive to temporal sequence
Stories reflect the tellers point of view -
organizational sensemaking (Weick 1995)
Narratives can convey a multiplicity of viewpoints
How or why stories are told is as important as
their content
Authored by David McHugh
Criteria in Social Research
Reliability are measures consistent?
Replication/replicability is study repeatable?
Validity are conclusions well-founded?
Qualitative Method Validity
Validity is a process whereby the researcher earns the confidence of
the reader that he or she has gotten it right.
Three criteria
1. Validity as craftmanship: perception of credibility of the researcher and research
2. Validity as communication: a dialogue among those considered legitimate knowers, who may often make competing claims to knwoledge-building.
3. Validity as pragmatic proof through action: the extent to which
research findings impact those studies and wider context
Triangulation as a Validity Tool
Triangulation is using two different methods to get at the same
research question and looking for convergence in research findings.
Includes:
is an approach that uses `multiple observers, theoretical perspectives, sources of data, and methodologies (Denzin)
has tended to emphasise multiple methods of investigation and sources of data
can to refer to a process of cross-checking findings deriving from both quantitative and qualitative research (triangulation of methods)
Three other types triangulation:
1. Theoretical triangulation: uses two different theories
2. Investigator triangulation: uses different investigators
3. Data triangulation: different data sources
Qualitative Method Reliability
Reliability refers to verifying or cross-checking observations with other divergent sources of data.
Checklist for Evaluating Reliability: - Is the researchers relationship with the group and setting fully described?
- Is all field documentation comprehensive, fully cross-referenced and annotated, and rigorously detailed?
- Were the observations and interviews documented using multiple means (written notes and recordings, for example)?
- Is interviewers training documented?
- Is construction, planning, and testing of all instruments documented?
- Are key informants fully described, including information on groups they represent and their community status?
- Are sampling techniques fully documented as being sufficient for the study?
Authored by David McHugh
Types of Validity
Measurement (or construct) validity do
measures reflect concepts?
Internal validity are causal relations between
variables real?
External validity can results be generalized
beyond the research setting?
Ecological validity are findings applicable to
natural settings?see Research in focus 2.5
Authored by David McHugh
Alternative Criteria in Qualitative
Research
See Chapter 16
Trustworthiness (Lincoln and Guba (1985) :
Credibility, parallels internal validity - i.e. how believable are the findings?
Transferability, parallels external validity - i.e. do the findings apply to other
contexts?
Dependability, parallels reliability - i.e. are the findings likely to apply at other
times?
Confirmability, parallels objectivity - i.e. has the investigator allowed his or her
values to intrude to a high degree?
Importance of a topic in its field
Contribution to the literature in that field
Relevance (Hammersley 1992) :
Part III Tips On Writing A
Qualitative Paper
Introduction
For the lack of a boilerplate, there was little direction
Because there was little direction, the author was lost
Because the author was lost (and the reviewer went along) the
contribution was missed
Because the contribution was missed, perceived impact was low
Because perceived impact was low, the paper was rejected.
A boilerplate refers to standardized language, and here also refers to an accepted template for writing up qualitative research.
Introduction
It leads to an assumption that to publish a qualitative
research, it needs a standard
Given the diversity of methodsand the range of
epistemological and ontological assumptions underlying these
methods (Morgan & Smircich, 1980) - constructing a single boilerplate is
not the right objective
In fact, Tierney (1995) argued that the creative nature of
qualitative research is one of its key strengths.
Major Problems
1. Lack of balance between theory and data
Telling about data, not showing it.
Showing too much data, and not interpreting it.
2. Making qualitative research appear quantitative.
Using deductive short hand.
Quantifying qualitative data.
Inappropriately mixing inductive and deductive strategies.
Finding Better Paths
1. Make sure your methods section includes the basics.
Discuss why this research is needed.
Are you building new theory or elaborating existing theory?
Why did you choose this context and this unit of analysis?
How did I get from my data to my findings?
2. Show datain a smart fashion.
3. Think about using organizing figures.
4. Think about telling a story.
5. Consider modeling someone whose style you like who
consistently publishes qualitative work.