Mastering Sociology Mastering James m. Henslin sociology · 2013-07-11 · Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo

Mastering sociology

MasteringSociology

James m. Henslin

mastering_sociology_v2.indd 1 12/19/12 3:02 PM

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James m. HenslinSouthern IllInoIS unIverSIty, edwardSvIlle

Mastering sociology

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MasteringSociology

James m. Henslin

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataHenslin, James M. Mastering sociology / James M. Henslin. pages cm ISBN-13: 978-0-205-20678-0 ISBN-10: 0-205-20678-61. Sociology. I. Title. HM585.H448 2013301—dc23

2012049591

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 10: 1-256-60600-6ISBN 13: 978-1-256-60600-0


To my fellow instructors of sociology, who strive for creative teaching and the development of their students’ sociological perspective.

With my sincere admiration and appreciation,


x

BrieF contents

Part Ithe sociological PersPective Chapter 1 The Sociological Perspective 1

Chapter 2 Research and Theory in Sociology 18

Chapter 3 Culture 46

Chapter 4 Socialization 77

Chapter 5 Social Structure and Social Interaction 105

Chapter 6 Deviance and Social Control 145

Part IIsocial inequality Chapter 7 Social Stratification 181

Chapter 8 Race and Ethnicity 226

Chapter 9 Sex and Gender 269

Part IIIsocial institutions Chapter 10 Politics and the Economy 305

Chapter 11 Marriage and Family 350

Chapter 12 Education and Religion 388

Part Ivsocial change Chapter 13 Population and Urbanization 425

Chapter 14 Social Change and the Environment 465


xi

contents

Chapter 1 The sociological Perspective 1

to the StUDeNt xix

to the iNStrUCtor xxi

aboUt the aUthor xxvii

unit 1.1 Seeing the Social Context 2

unit 1.2 Origins of Sociology 5 Tradition Versus Science 5 Auguste Comte and Positivism 5 Herbert Spencer and Social Darwinism 6 Karl Marx and Class Conflict 6 Emile Durkheim and Social Integration 7 Max Weber and the Protestant Ethic 7

unit 1.3 Sociology in North America: Social Reform Versus Social Analysis 10Sexism at the Time: Women in Early Sociology 10Racism at the Time: W. E. B. Du Bois 12Jane Addams and Social Reform 12Talcott Parsons and C. Wright Mills: Theory versus Reform 13The Tension Today: Basic, Applied, and Public Sociology 13

Analysis of Documents 26Experiments 27Unobtrusive Measures 28Participant Observation (Fieldwork) 28Gender in Sociological Research 28

unit 2.4 Why Research Needs Theory: A Very Brief Introduction 31

unit 2.5 Theoretical Perspectives: Symbolic Interactionism 32Applying Symbolic Interactionism 33

unit 2.6 Theoretical Perspectives: Functional Analysis 35Robert Merton and Functionalism 35Applying Functional Analysis 36

unit 2.7 Theoretical Perspectives: Conflict Theory 38Karl Marx and Conflict Theory 38Conflict Theory Today 38Feminists and Conflict Theory 38Applying Conflict Theory 39

unit 2.8 Putting the Perspectives Together: Macro and Micro 40Which Theory Is the Right One? 40Levels of Analysis: Macro and Micro 40

Pulling It All Together 42Did I Learn It? Answers 44

Chapter 3 Culture 46

unit 3.1 What Is Culture? 47

unit 3.2 Culture and Orientations to Life 49“Culture within Us”: Our Lens for Viewing Life 49Ethnocentrism and Orientations to Life 50

unit 3.3 Symbolic Culture: Language 53Language 53

Part Ithe sociological PersPective


Chapter 2 Research and Theory in sociology 18

unit 2.1 Doing Research: The Need 19

unit 2.2 Doing Research: The Model 20A Research Model 20

unit 2.3 Doing Research: The Methods 24Surveys 24Secondary Analysis 26


xii Contents

unit 3.4 Symbolic Culture: Gestures 57

unit 3.5 Symbolic Culture: Values, Norms, Sanctions, Folkways, and Mores 59Values, Norms, and Sanctions 59Folkways and Mores 60

unit 3.6 Many Cultural Worlds 61Subcultures 61Countercultures 61

unit 3.7 Values in U.S. Society 65An Overview of U.S. Values 65Value Clusters 66Values as Distorting Lenses 66“Ideal” Versus “Real” Culture 66

unit 3.8 Changing Values 67Value Contradictions 67When Values Clash 67Emerging Values 67

unit 3.9 Cultural Universals 69

unit 3.10 Technology in the Global Village 70The New Technology 70Cultural Lag and Cultural Change 70Technology and Cultural Leveling 71


The School and Peer Groups 94The Workplace 94

unit 4.6 Resocialization 95Total Institutions 96

unit 4.7 Socialization through the Life Course 97Childhood (from birth to about age 12) 97Adolescence (ages 13–17) 98Transitional Adulthood (ages 18–29) 99The Middle Years (ages 30–65) 99The Older Years (about age 65 on) 99


Chapter 4 socialization 77

unit 4.1 Extremes in Socialization 78Feral Children 78Isolated Children 78Isolated Animals 80Institutionalized Children 80

unit 4.2 Socialization into the Self and Mind 83Cooley and the Looking-Glass Self 83Mead and Role Taking 83

unit 4.3 Socialization into Emotions 86Expressing Emotions: Biology 86Expressing Emotions: “Feeling Rules” 86What We Feel 87

unit 4.4 Getting the Message: Learning Gender 88Learning the Gender Map 89Gender Messages in the Family 89Gender Messages from Peers 89Gender Messages in the Mass Media 90

unit 4.5 Agents of Socialization 92The Family 92Day Care 93

Chapter 5 social structure and social interaction 105

unit 5.1 Levels of Sociological Analysis: Macrosociology and Microsociology 106Macrosociology and Microsociology: A Brief Overview 106

THE MACROSOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 108

unit 5.2 The Macrosociological Perspective: Social Structure 108The Sociological Significance of Social Structure 108

unit 5.3 The Components of Social Structure: Culture, Social Class, Groups, Social Status, and Roles 110Culture 110Social Class 111Groups 111Social Status 111Roles 113

unit 5.4 Another Component of Social Structure: Social Institutions 115What Social Institutions Are 116

unit 5.5 Comparing Functionalist and Conflict Perspectives 117The Functionalist Perspective 117The Conflict Perspective 118

unit 5.6 What Holds Society Together? 120Mechanical and Organic Solidarity 120Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft 121Changes in Social Structure 121

unit 5.7 The Microsociological Perspective: Social Interaction in Everyday Life 123The Microsociological Perspective 123Symbolic Interaction 123


Contents xiii

THROUGH THE AUTHOR’S LENS: Vienna: Social Structure and Social Interaction 124

unit 5.8 Dramaturgy: The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life 127Introducing Dramaturgy 127

unit 5.9 Ethnomethodology: Uncovering Background Assumptions 133Introducing Ethnomethodology 133

unit 5.10 The Social Construction of Reality 135Introducing the Social Construction of Reality 135

THROUGH THE AUTHOR’S LENS: When a Tornado Strikes: Social Organization Following a Natural Disaster 138

Control Theory 152Labeling Theory 153

unit 6.4 The Functionalist Perspective 155Can Deviance Really Be Functional for Society? 155Strain Theory: How Mainstream Values Produce Deviance 156Illegitimate Opportunity Structures: Social Class, Gender, and Crime 157

unit 6.5 The Conflict Perspective 161Class, Crime, and the Criminal Justice System 161The Law as an Instrument of Oppression 161

unit 6.6 Reactions to Deviance: Prisons 162Street Crime and Prisons 163Street Crime and the “Three-Strikes” Laws 164The Decline in Violent Crime 165Recidivism 165

unit 6.7 Reactions to Deviance: The Death Penalty 167The Death Penalty and Serial Killers 167Bias in the Death Penalty 168

unit 6.8 On Laws and Crime Statistics 171The Trouble with Crime Statistics 171

unit 6.9 The Medicalization of Deviance 173Neither Mental Nor Illness? 173

unit 6.10 The Need for a More Humane Approach 176A More Humane Approach 176



Chapter 6 Deviance and social Control 145

unit 6.1 What Is Deviance? 146How Norms Make Social Life Possible 147Sanctions 147

unit 6.2 Comparing Sociobiology, Psychology, and Sociology 149Explanations for Violating Norms 149

unit 6.3 The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 151Differential Association Theory 151

Chapter 7 social stratification 181

unit 7.1 Global Stratification: From Slavery to Social Class 182Slavery 182Caste 183Social Class 185Global Stratification and the Status of Females 185

unit 7.2 Three Worlds of Stratification 186The Most Industrialized Nations 187The Industrializing Nations 187The Least Industrialized Nations 187

Part IIsocial inequality

THROUGH THE AUTHOR’S LENS: The Dump People: Working and Living and Playing in the City Dump of Phnom Penh, Cambodia 188

Cutting across the Three Worlds: The New Global Superclass 190

unit 7.3 How Did the World’s Nations Become Stratified? 191Colonialism 191World System Theory 192Culture of Poverty 192Evaluating the Theories 193

unit 7.4 Why Is Social Stratification Universal? 193The Functionalist View: Motivating Qualified People 193The Conflict Perspective: Class Conflict and Scarce Resources 197


xiv Contents

unit 7.5 What Determines Social Class? 198Karl Marx: The Means of Production 199Max Weber: Property, Power, and Prestige 199

unit 7.6 Social Class in the United States 201Property 201Power 204Prestige 204Status Inconsistency 205

unit 7.7 A Social Class Model 207The Capitalist Class 207The Upper Middle Class 209The Lower Middle Class 209The Working Class 209The Working Poor 209The Underclass 209

unit 7.8 Consequences of Social Class 211Physical Health 211Mental Health 212Family Life 212Education 212Religion 213Politics 213Crime and Criminal Justice 213

unit 7.9 Social Mobility 214Three Types of Social Mobility 214Women in Studies of Social Mobility 215

unit 7.10 Poverty 216Drawing the Poverty Line 216Stereotypes of the Poor 217Race–Ethnicity and Poverty 218Suburbanization of Poverty 218Children of Poverty 218The Penalties of Poverty 219Where Is Horatio Alger? The Social Functions of a Myth 220


unit 8.3 Prejudice and Discrimination 236Learning Prejudice 237Groups Based on Prejudice 238Individual and Institutional Discrimination 238

unit 8.4 Theories of Prejudice 240Psychological Perspectives 240Sociological Perspectives 241

unit 8.5 Racial–Ethnic Relations: European Americans 245White Anglo Saxon Protestants 246

unit 8.6 Racial–Ethnic Relations: Latinos (Hispanics) 248Numbers, Origins, and Location 248

unit 8.7 Racial–Ethnic Relations: African Americans 252Rising Expectations and Civil Strife 253

unit 8.8 Racial–Ethnic Relations: Asian Americans 256A Background of Discrimination 256

unit 8.9 Racial–Ethnic Relations: Native Americans 258Diversity of Groups 259From Treaties to Genocide and Population Transfer 259

unit 8.10 Looking Toward the Future 261The Immigration Debate 262Affirmative Action 263Toward a True Multicultural Society 263


Chapter 8 Race and ethnicity 226

unit 8.1 Race: Myth and Reality 227Human Variety 227Ethnic Groups 229

unit 8.2 Minority Groups and Dominant Groups 230How Dominant Groups Treat Minority Groups 231

Chapter 9 sex and Gender 269

unit 9.1 Differences between Sex and Gender 270Sex and Gender 270

unit 9.2 Human Behavior: Biological or Social Factors? 273The Dominant Position in Sociology 273The Minority Position in Sociology 274The Vietnam Veterans Study 274

unit 9.3 How Females Became a Minority Group 276Females as a Minority Group How Did Females Become a Minority Group?

276

276


Contents xv

unit 9.4 Fighting Back: The Rise of Feminism 279Cultural Supports to Maintain Dominance 279The Struggle 280

unit 9.5 Global Inequality in the World of Work 282Sex Typing of Work around the World 283Gender and the Prestige of Work 283

THROUGH THE AUTHOR’S LENS: Work and Gender: Women at Work in India 284

unit 9.6 Gender Inequality in the American Workplace 287The Pay Gap 287The Slowly Cracking Glass Ceiling 289

unit 9.7 Sexual Harassment 290From Personal to Structural 291

unit 10.5 War and Terrorism: Implementing Political Objectives 324Why Countries Go to War 324Terrorism 325

THE ECONOMy : WORk IN THE GLObAL VILLAGE 327unit 10.6 The Transformation of Economic Systems 327

Preindustrial Societies: The Birth of Inequality 328Industrial Societies: The Birth of the Machine 328Postindustrial Societies: The Birth of the Information Age 329Biotech Societies: Is a New Type of Society Emerging? 330

unit 10.7 Principles and Criticisms of Capitalism and Socialism 331Capitalism 332Socialism 333Criticisms of Capitalism and Socialism 333

unit 10.8 Belief Systems and the Convergence of Capitalism and Socialism 335Belief Systems of Capitalism and Socialism 335The Convergence of Capitalism and Socialism 335

unit 10.9 The Globalization of Capitalism 337A New Global Structure 337Stagnant Paychecks 338

Chapter 10 Politics and the economy 305

POLITICS: ESTAbLISHING LEADERSHIP 306

unit 10.1 Power, Authority, and Violence 306Authority and Legitimate Violence 306Traditional Authority 307Rational–Legal Authority 307Charismatic Authority 308The Transfer of Authority 309

unit 10.2 Types of Government 311Monarchies: The Rise of the State 311Democracies: Citizenship as a Revolutionary Idea 311Dictatorships and Oligarchies: The Seizure of Power 312

unit 10.3 The U.S. Political System 315Political Parties and Elections 315Voting Patterns 316Lobbyists and Special-Interest Groups 318

unit 10.4 Who Rules the United States? 321The Functionalist Perspective: Pluralism 321The Conflict Perspective: The Power Elite 322Which View Is Right? 323

unit 9.8 Gender Inequality in Everyday Life and Health Care 292Gender Inequality in Everyday Life 292Gender Inequality in Health Care 293

unit 9.9 Violence against Women 294Violence against Women on a Global Level 295Violence against Women in the United States 295

unit 9.10 The Changing Face of Politics 298Cultural Supports of Gender Discrimination 298Women’s Potential Political Power 298


Part IIIsocial institutions


xvi Contents

The New Economic System and the Old Divisions of Wealth 339

THROUGH THE AUTHOR’S LENS: Small Town USA: Struggling to Survive 340

The Global Superclass 342

unit 10.10 A New World Order? 343Trends Toward Unity 343Strains in the Global System 344


unit 11.7 Current Trends 372Postponing Marriage and Childbirth 372Cohabitation 372

unit 11.8 Divorce and Remarriage 375Ways of Measuring Divorce 375Children of Divorce 376Grandchildren of Divorce 377Fathers’ Contact with Children after Divorce 377The Ex-Spouses 378Remarriage 378

unit 11.9 Two Sides of Family Life 380The Dark Side of Family Life: Spouse Battering, Child Abuse, and Incest 380The Bright Side of Family Life: Successful Marriages 381

unit 11.10 The Future of Marriage and Family 383Pulling It All Together 384Did I Learn It? Answers 386

Chapter 11 marriage and Family 350

unit 11.1 Marriage and Family in Global Perspective 351What Is a Family? 351What Is Marriage? 351Common Cultural Themes 352

unit 11.2 Marriage and Family in Theoretical Perspective 355The Functionalist Perspective: Functions and Dysfunctions 355The Conflict Perspective: Struggles between Husbands and Wives 356The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: Gender, Housework, and Child Care 356

unit 11.3 Love and Marriage 358Love and Courtship in Global Perspective 359Marriage 360

unit 11.4 Family Transitions 361Childbirth 362Child Rearing 362Staying Home Longer 364Widowhood 364

unit 11.5 Racial–Ethnic Diversity 366African American Families 366Latino Families 367Asian American Families 368Native American Families 368

unit 11.6 More Diversity 369One-Parent Families 369Couples without Children 370Blended Families 370Gay and Lesbian Families 371

Chapter 12 education and Religion 388

EDUCATION: TRANSFERRING kNOWLEDGE AND SkILLS 389

unit 12.1 Education in Global Perspective 389Education in the Most Industrialized Nations: Japan 389Education in the Industrializing Nations: Russia 390Education in the Least Industrialized Nations: Egypt 391

unit 12.2 The Functionalist Perspective: Providing Social Benefits 392Teaching Knowledge and Skills 392The Transmission of Mainstream Values 392Social Integration 393Gatekeeping (Social Placement) 393Replacing Family Functions 394

unit 12.3 The Conflict Perspective: Perpetuating Social Inequality 395Stacking the Deck: Unequal Funding 395Tilting the Tests: Discrimination by IQ 395The Bottom Line: Family Background 396


Contents xviiContents xvii

unit 12.4 The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: Teacher Expectations 398The Rist Research 398How Do Teacher Expectations Work? 399

unit 12.5 Problems in U.S. Education—And Their Solutions 400Mediocrity 401Violence 403

RELIGION: ESTAbLISHING MEANING 404

unit 12.6 Religion in Global Perspective 404What Is Religion? 404

unit 12.7 The Functionalist Perspective 406Functions of Religion 406Dysfunctions of Religion 407

unit 12.8 The Conflict Perspective 408Opium of the People 408Legitimating Social Inequalities 409

unit 13.7 Models of Urban Growth 450The Concentric Zone Model 450The Sector Model 450The Multiple-Nuclei Model 450The Peripheral Model 451Critique of the Models 451

unit 13.8 City Life: From Alienation to Community 452Alienation in the City 453Community in the City 453Who Lives in the City? 454

unit 13.9 The Diffusion of Responsibility 455

unit 13.10 Urban Problems and Social Policy 456

THROUGH THE AUTHOR’S LENS: Community in the City 457

Suburbanization 458Disinvestment and Deindustrialization 458The Potential of Urban Revitalization 458


Chapter 13 Population and Urbanization 425

POPULATION IN GLObAL PERSPECTIVE 426

unit 13.1 A Planet with No Space for Enjoying Life? 426The New Malthusians 427The Anti-Malthusians 427Who Is Correct? 429

unit 13.2 Why Are People Starving? 430

unit 13.3 How Populations Grow 432Why Do the Least Industrialized Nations Have So Many Children? 433Implications of Different Rates of Growth 433

unit 13.4 The Three Demographic Variables 436Problems in Forecasting Population Growth 438

URbANIzATION 440

unit 13.5 The Development of Cities 441

THROUGH THE AUTHOR’S LENS: Medellin, Colombia: A Walk Through El Tiro 442

The Process of Urbanization 444

unit 13.6 U.S. Urban Patterns 446The United States 446The Rural Rebound 448

Chapter 14 social Change and the environment 465

unit 14.1 How Social Change Transforms Social Life 466The Four Social Revolutions 466From Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft 466The Industrial Revolution 466

unit 12.9 The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 410Religious Symbols 410Beliefs 411Rituals 411

THROUGH THE AUTHOR’S LENS: Holy Week in Spain 412

Religious Experience 414

unit 12.10 Religion in the United States 415Types of Religious Groups 415Cult (New Religion) 415Sect 416Church 416Ecclesia (State Religion) 416Characteristics of Religious Groups 417The Future of Religion 419


Part Ivsocial change


xviii Contents

unit 14.2 Global Politics: Power and Conflict 468

unit 14.3 Theories and Processes of Social Change 470Evolution from Lower to Higher 470Natural Cycles 470Conflict over Power 471

unit 14.4 Ogburn’s Theory 473

unit 14.5 Networking, Facebook, and Technology 475The Facebook of Revolution 476The Changing Face of War 477

unit 14.6 The Growth Machine Versus the Earth 479Environmental Problems and Industrialization 479

unit 14.7 The Environmental Movement 483

unit 14.8 Environmental Sociology 485The Environment and Sociology 485


epiLoGUe 490

GLoSSary 492

refereNCeS 501

CreDitS 522

NaMe iNDex 527

SUbjeCt iNDex 533


xix

to the student from the author

WELCOME TO SOCIOLOGY! I’ve loved sociology since I was in my teens, and I hope you enjoy it, too. Sociology is fascinating because it is about human behavior, and many of us find that it holds the key to understanding social life.

If you like to watch people and try to figure out why they do what they do, you will like sociology. Sociol-ogy pries open the doors of society so you can see what goes on behind them. Mastering Sociology stresses how profoundly our society and the groups to which we belong influence us. Social class, for example, sets us on a particular path in life. For some, the path leads to more education, interesting jobs, higher income, and better health, but for others it leads to dropping out of school, dead-end jobs, poverty, and even a higher risk of illness and disease. These paths are so significant that they affected your chances of making it to your first birthday, as well as of getting in trouble with the police. If you marry, they will even influence how you relate to your spouse, how many children you will have, and how you will rear them.

When I took my first course in sociology, I was “hooked.” Seeing how marvelously my life had been influenced by these larger social forces opened my eyes to a new world, one that has been fascinating to explore. I hope that you will have this experience, too.

From how people become homeless to how they become presidents, from why people commit suicide to why women are discriminated against in every society around the world—all are part of sociology. This breadth is what makes sociology so intriguing. We can place the sociological lens on broad features of society, such as social class, gender, and race–ethnicity, and then immediately turn our focus on the smaller, more intimate level. If we look at two people interacting—whether quarreling or kissing—we see how these broad features of society are being played out in their lives.

One of sociology’s many pleasures is that as you study life in groups (which can be taken as a definition of sociology), whether those groups are in some far-off part of the world or in some nearby corner of your own society, you gain new insights into who you are and how you got that way. As you see how their customs affect them, the effects of your own society on yourself become more visible.

This book, then, can be part of your intellectual journey, an adventure that can lead you to a new way of looking at your social world—and in the process, help you to better understand both society and yourself.

I wish you the very best in college—and in your career afterward. It is my sincere desire that Mastering Sociology will contribute to that success.

Jim HenslinDepartment of Sociology

Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville

P.S. I enjoy communicating with students, so feel free to comment on your experiences with this text. Because I travel a lot, it is best to reach me by e-mail: [email protected]



xxi

I am pleased that you have chosen Mastering Sociology, a new approach to teaching sociology. From the beginning to the end, this book is a learning-centered text. It is designed to teach students, not simply to present information. You will be pleased at how well your students learn from this text and how well it complements your teaching.

Let me tell you why I wrote this book and then give you an overview of how it is laid out.

I have taught intro students for decades—with an enthusiasm for sociology that stays with me and that you should see shining through in this text. I always enjoyed the intro course, as the students responded favorably to innovative teaching. And I was always experimenting, finding new ways of reaching students. As I did this, I didn’t hold back on the content, as it was my responsibility to teach sociology. I felt that if I approached teaching in this way, students would learn. And they did. And we both enjoyed the course.

But two things bothered me. First, students often asked me, “What should I learn in this chapter?” and my answer was, “Learn it all.” And, of course, when I said this, the students would leave perplexed. Mastering Sociology solves this problem. From the way I have designed this book, the students will know precisely what they are expected to learn—and they will know if they learned it.

Second, I taught at an average college, with students whose backgrounds were highly diverse. Some students were highly qualified academically, while others had difficulty with basic academics. Many of these latter students would do poorly, and I kept thinking that there must be a way to reach all students, no matter their level of preparation. But how?

Mastering Sociology solves this problem, too. Built upon solid pedagogical princi-ples, this text is an exceptionally effective teaching tool. You, of course, are the judge as you use this book in the classroom. I certainly hope that your experience matches my expectations and confirms these goals.

Today’s students are not the same as the students of previous decades. They have no less ability, but they have grown up in an instantaneous world. Their experience is that of quick snapshots of events swirling around them. Their way of thinking is built around short bursts. Instead of lamenting this orientation, this book is de-signed to capture the approach that students have to their world.

As will become apparent as you teach from this text, I have not sacrificed socio-logical content. Students will learn sociology, not just some puffery trying to pass itself off as sociology, a masquerade that most of us find quite distasteful.

You now have the “why,” the “who,” and the “what.” Let’s get an overview of the “how,” so you can see how this book works and precisely what makes it so different. I expect that you will find this text to be the most effective you have ever used. This is a bold statement, but I think this will be the result that you will have the pleasure of enjoying. Let’s see why I expect you to have such a positive teaching experience.

the Modular approachThe modular approach is not new, but combined with the personalization of sociology in this text, along with the reviews I have built into the chapters, your students will learn well.

I have broken each chapter into short, coherent units, which enhance learning by matching the students’ approach to thinking. Each unit is self-contained, so after students complete a unit, they can take a break and do something else if they prefer. Following each unit is a series of questions that are an essential part of the learning process. Sequential with the unit’s presentation, the questions do not just let students know

to the instructor from the author

unit 3.2 Culture and orientations to life 49

“Culture within us”: our Lens for Viewing Life

Anthropologist Ralph Linton (1936) once said, “The last thing a fish would ever notice would be water.” This

sounds like a strange statement, but it makes sense. It simply means that we tend to take the world we are reared in for granted. Our culture— except in unusual circumstances—remains below our radar. We take our speech, our gestures, our beliefs, and our customs for granted. We assume that they are “normal,” even “natural,” and we almost always follow them without question.

Culture’s influence on you is so profound that it touches al-most every aspect of who and what you are. You came into this life without a language; without values and morality; with no ideas about religion, war, money, love, use of space, and so on. You possessed none of these fundamental orientations that are so essential in determining the type of person you have become. Yet they now are an essential part of you, and, like the fish and the water, you take them for granted.

Sociologists call this culture within us. These learned and shared ways of believing and of doing (another definition of culture) that penetrate us at an early age become our taken-for-granted assumptions about what normal life is. Culture becomes the lens through which we perceive and evaluate what is going on around us. Seldom do we question these assumptions, for, like water to a fish, the lens through which we view life remains

largely beyond our perception.In rare instances these assump-

tions are challenged, which can be quite upsetting. As a sociologist I should be able to look at my own

culture “from the outside,” but my trip to Africa revealed how fully I had internalized my culture. My upbringing in Western culture had given me assumptions about social life that had become rooted deeply in my being—eye contact, hygiene, and the use of space. These are an essential part of the way I get through everyday life in the States. But in this part of Africa these assumptions were useless in helping me navigate everyday life. No longer could I count on people to stare tactfully, to take precautions against invisible mi-crobes, or to stand in line, one behind the other.

I found these unfamiliar behaviors unsettling, for they violated my basic expectations of “the way people ought to be.” I did not even realize how firmly I held these expectations until they were challenged in this unfamiliar setting. When my nonmaterial cul-ture failed me—when it no longer helped me to make sense out of the world—I experienced a disorientation known as culture shock. In the case of buying tickets, being several inches taller than most Moroccans let me outreach others. But I never got used to the idea that pushing ahead of others was “right.” I always felt guilty when I used my size to receive better treatment.

Culture and orientations to lifeunIt

3.2

In Sum: To avoid losing track of the ideas we are discussing, let’s pause for a moment to summarize and, in some instances, clarify the principles we have covered. 1. There is nothing “natural” about material culture.

Arabs wear gowns on the street and feel that it is natural to do so. Americans do the same with jeans.

2. There is nothing “natural” about nonmaterial culture. It is just as arbitrary to stand in line as to push and shove.

3. Culture penetrates deeply into our thinking, becoming a taken-for-granted lens through which we see the world.

4. Culture provides implicit in-structions that tell us what we ought to do and how we ought to think. It estab-lishes a fundamental basis for making our decisions.

5. We view what people do as right or wrong according to the culture we internalize. (I, for example, believed deeply

culture shock the dis-orientation that people experience when they come in contact with a fundamentally different culture and can no longer depend on their taken-for-granted assumptions about life

after you have read this unit, you should be able to

What am I SuppoSed to Learn?

1 Explain how culture is the lens through which you view life.

2 Know what culture shock, ethnocentrism, and cultural relativism are.

Explore the Concept on mysoclab

Explore the Concept on mysoclab

The Asian American Population of the United States – The Diversity of Cultures in

Watch the Video Individual Rights vs. the Common Good on mysoclab

Watch the Video Individual Rights vs. the Common Good on mysoclab

Sociology on the Job: Culture in

If you want to learn more about culture shock, as it was experienced by the Hmong when they were abruptly transported from Laotian villages to the United States,

Read the Document in mysoclabmore from the author: Culture Shock: The Arrival of the Hmong inRead the Document in mysoclab

3.2

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50 Chapter 3

To counter our tendency to use our own culture as the standard by which we judge other cultures, we can practice cultural relativism; that is, we can try to un-derstand a culture on its own terms. This means look-ing at how the elements of a culture fit together, without judging those elements as better or worse than our own way of life.

With our own culture embedded so deeply within us, however, practicing cultural relativism can be a challenge. A little while ago, I asked how you felt about bullfighting. From the perspective of U.S. culture, it is wrong to raise bulls for the purpose of stabbing them to death in front of crowds that shout “Olé!” If we use cultural relativism, however, we will view bullfighting from the perspective of the culture in which it takes place. We will look at its history, its folklore, its ideas of bravery, and its ideas of sex roles.

You may still regard bullfighting as wrong, of course, especially if your culture, which is part of you, has no history of bullfighting. We all possess culturally specific ideas about cruelty to animals, ideas that have

evolved slowly and match other elements of our culture. In the United States, for example, practices that once were common in some areas—cockfighting, dogfighting, bear–dog fighting, and so on—have been gradually eliminated.

No matter how hard we try, none of us can be entirely suc-cessful at practicing cultural relativism. Our own culture is too deeply engrained in us for this to occur. We just can’t help think-ing that our ways are superior. To see what I mean, consider the foods discussed in Making It Personal on page 52.

I think you’ll find the next attempt to apply cultural relativ-ism a bit easier. Look at the photos on the next page. As you view them, try to appreciate the cultural differences they illustrate about standards of beauty.

attaCk on CuLturaL reLatIVISmAlthough cultural relativism can help us avoid cultural smug-ness, this view has come under attack. In a provocative book, Sick Societies (1992), anthropologist Robert Edgerton sug-gests that we should develop a scale for evaluating cultures on their “quality of life,” much as we do for U.S. cities. He asks why we should consider cultures that practice female circum-cision, gang rape, or wife beating, or cultures that sell little girls into prostitution, as morally equivalent to those that do not. Cultural values that result in exploitation, he says, are in-ferior to those that enhance people’s lives.

Edgerton’s sharp questions and challenging examples bring us to a topic that comes up repeatedly in this text: the disagreements that arise among scholars as they confront contrasting views of reality. It is difficult to argue against Edgerton. I find myself nod-ding my head immediately. Yet I fear ethnocentrism—that the standards for judging a culture’s “quality of life” will reflect the culture of those who do the judg-ing. The matter is complicated, with arguments on both sides. Such questioning of assumptions keeps sociology interesting.

that it was wrong to push and shove to get ahead of others.)

6. Coming into contact with a radically different culture challenges our basic assumptions of life. (I expe-rienced culture shock when I discovered that my deeply ingrained cultural ideas about hygiene and the use of personal space no longer applied.)

7. Culture itself is universal. All people have culture, for a society cannot exist without developing shared, learned ways of dealing with the challenges of life. The specifics of those cultures, though, differ from one group of people to another.

ethnocentrism and orientations to Life

“Culture within us” brings ethnocen-trism, a tendency to judge others by the

way our own group does things. All of us learn that the ways of our own group are good and right, even superior to other ways of life. As sociologist William Sumner (1906), who developed this concept, said, “One’s own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it.” The results of ethnocentrism are both positive and negative. On the posi-tive side, it creates in-group loyalties. On the negative side, ethnocentrism leads to discrimination against peo-ple whose ways differ from ours.

ethnocentrism the use of one’s own culture as a yardstick for judging the ways of other individu-als or groups, generally leading to a negative evaluation of their values, norms, and behaviors

cultural relativism not judging a culture but try-ing to understand it on its own terms

This photo of passengers riding outside a train because the inside is packed illustrates how the norms of India differ from those of the United States.

Read the Document on mysoclab“Body Ritual Among the Nacirema” by Horace Miner inRead the Document on mysoclab

3.2

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xxii To the Instructor From the Author

how they are doing, but they also teach. Repeating the unit’s main points, the questions are a form of review. These questions are such an essential part of the learning process that I have written each one myself. If they were the usual add-on, I would have had the publisher get someone to write them. Writing the questions so they would accomplish this teaching/learning goal was highly time-consuming, but this form of evaluative review is essential to the goal of Mastering Sociology.

But I get ahead of myself. Let me back up and give you an overview of the book, starting with how the chapters are laid out.

getting startedThis short opening to each chapter is designed to arouse the students’ interest by showing how the coming chapter is relevant to their life.

unit headingEach unit heading is marked clearly by its unit number and title. The title indicates the topic that follows.

What am i supposed to learn?Here I spell out the unit’s learning objectives. Each learning objective is numbered and written clearly. Stu-dents will know precisely what they are to learn.

the narrativeAfter the learning objectives comes the presentation of the sociological materials. I have written the narra-tive clearly, directing it in a personal fashion to the student. Students should gain the impression that I am talking to them directly, as this is precisely what I am trying to do. If teaching/learning is to be successful, it is important to engage the students in the process, which is what the narrative does.

To attain clarity of learning objectives and to personalize the presentation of sociological concepts and research, it is not necessary to sacrifice sociological content. Although Mastering Sociology makes learning both easy and enjoyable, what the students learn in this text matches the content of standard courses. Stu-dents will be introduced to sociology’s major ideas, theories, and research. Mastering Sociology changes the form, not the content.

testing Myself: did i learn it?Following the content of each unit comes a self-test. I have written these questions both to match the learn-ing objectives and to provide a review of the unit. The questions are direct and straightforward, designed to measure learning. After studying a unit, students should have little trouble answering these questions cor-rectly. If students miss a question, they will be able to spot their weakness and go back to the unit to learn that particular material.

Everything in this text revolves around learning, including these self-test questions. As I said earlier, these questions are such an essential part of the learning process that I have written them myself. They are a way to help students attain mastery of the learning objectives.

This sequence repeats throughout each chapter: Getting Started, the unit number and title, the learning objec-tives, the sociological narrative, and the self-test.

Pulling it all togetherThe last unit of each chapter is followed by Pulling It All Together. Here I again reinforce the students’ learn-ing by reviewing the chapter’s learning goals. I have written a brief summary for each learning objective, answers that are inadequate for students to memorize, but that serve as a solid review.


To the Instructor From the Author xxiii

Five additional Features that enhance learningThese additional features are:

makinG iT PeRsonalThis is probably my favorite feature of the entire book, the one whose writing gave me the most pleasure. In this feature, I have picked up some element of the sociological presentation and have related it directly to the students’ life. To point out how directly sociology is connected to what the students are experiencing in society lets them see that sociology is not something that belongs only in the classroom. By personalizing sociology, students not only learn more but they do so in a much more enjoyable way.

You will find that Making It Personal enhances your teaching. Students will grasp sociological concepts and ideas in a new, refreshing way. This feature, which helps students see how society has impacted their lives, even their intimate orientations to life, truly helps make sociology come alive. Making It Personal can also serve as an essential tool to stimulate provocative discussions that enliven your classroom.

FRom anoTHeR sTUDenTMany students have written me over the years, pointing out how my text has helped them in one way or another. The content of Mastering Sociology is the same, so in this feature I reproduce some of these notes, always with permission of the students who wrote them. The intention of this feature is simple, to encourage students to read the text and learn sociology.

iF YoU WanT To leaRn moReThis feature points to items that I have written on particular topics. As students read these one-page pieces online, they will better see how their world is immersed in sociology. Because these short analyses are built on interesting events, you might want to incorporate some of them into your course. They feature local, national, and international events, as well as other matters of human interest. In them, I make the sociology explicit, so the student can see the connection between life events and sociology. These items are available free to students in the SocLab that Allyn and Bacon provides.

THe PHoTos anD CaPTions You can take photos for granted, as all texts have them. But in Mastering Sociology, I have chosen each photo myself and have written each caption. Each photo illustrates some particular sociological content, and the caption makes a photo’s purpose explicit.

In addition, I have designed the captions not only to inform students but also to engage them. Many cap-tions ask students to apply sociological content. Since the photos and captions are so integrated in the text, you can use them to promote discussion in your classroom.

THRoUGH THe aUTHoR’s lens In personalizing this text with the goal of making sociology come alive for students, I have developed photo essays called Through the Author’s Lens. These photo essays let your students look over my shoulder as I take them on so-ciological journeys—from a visit to people who live and work in a dump in Cambodia to people in the USA who are putting their lives together after a tornado devastated their neighborhood. Some of the photos I took challenge common assumptions. In the photo essay on India, for example, students will see women doing extremely hard labor on construction crews. This caused me to rethink gender, and might do the same for your students.

some Final remarksYou will find the pedagogy of this text sound. Its learning-centered principles are based on reinforcement. I have designed the text to help all students learn sociology, including students whose academic background is considerably less than ideal. A more advanced student who read a sample chapter said, “I wish I had had this to learn from. The units make it so clear and easy!” This was music to my ears, as I want to reach all students.


xxiv To the Instructor From the Author

I know that having your students do well is your goal in teaching. This text is designed specifically to help you reach this goal. The principle I followed as I wrote this text is: Students can learn and do well. They just need the right materials to help them achieve.

My goal is for students, after studying a unit and taking the self-test, to say, “Yes, I can do it. I learned this. I’m going to make it in college!”

I say this from personal experience, having come from a family in which I was the first college graduate. My mother dropped out of high school in the 11th grade, while my father didn’t even make it to high school, dropping out after the 7th grade. I know the self-doubts that students bring with them to college and the obstacles they face. I designed Mastering Sociology as a tool to help students overcome their self-doubts, a major obstacle to their success. As they learn, they will know they can succeed.

I eagerly await your reaction to using this text with your class. You can write me at the following address. I would appreciate it if you would share your experience with me. This will help me to better meet the needs of students, my continuous goal.

Jim [email protected]

I want to thank the hard-working, creative team I have had the privilege of working with at Pearson. I especially want to thank Brita Mess, who has supported this project from the manuscript stage to the printed page; Jenn Auvil, who coordinated many aspects in the book’s initial stages; Dusty Freedman, who stepped in on an unexpected basis and valiantly saw the book through its latter stages; Kate Cebic, for some photo research; and the many people behind the scenes who checked manuscript and did innumerable tasks of which I am only dimly aware. A hearty and heartfelt thanks to them all.

I also want to thank my fellow sociology instructors who were kind enough to share their reactions to the Mastering Sociology manuscript. It has been my privilege to follow many of their suggestions.


Reviewers of the First Edition xxv

reviewers of the First edition Karen Done, Coahoma Community College

Richard Ellefritz, Oklahoma State University

Sara Fisch, Scottsdale Community College

Tammie Foltz, Des Moines Area Community College

Patricia Gleich, Pensacola State College

Marta Henriksen, Central New Mexico Community College

Amy Holzgang, Cerritos College

William Kimberlin, Lorain County Community College

Michele Marion, Paradise Valley Community College

Charles Post, Borough of Manhattan Community College-CUNY

Mona Scott, Mesa Community College

Rachel Stehle, Cuyahoga Community College

Brooke Strahn-Koller, Kirkwood Community College

Connie Veldink, Everett Community College

Karl Wielgus, Anoka Ramsey Community College



xxvii

About the Author

I was born in a rented room in a little town on the bitterly cold Canadian border in Minnesota. My

mother hadn’t completed high school, and my father hadn’t even made it beyond the 7th grade.

From the rented room, we moved to a house, a converted garage that didn’t have indoor plumbing.

One of my colder memories goes back to age 11 when I froze my nose while delivering newspapers

in my little northern village. I was elated at age 16 when my parents packed up the car and moved to

sunny California, where I graduated from high school and junior college. During the summer follow-

ing high school graduation, while working as a laborer on construction projects, I took a correspon-

dence course in Greek from the University of California at Berkeley. Indiana was where I graduated

from college. I was awarded scholarships at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, where I

earned my master’s and doctorate in sociology. After winning a competitive postdoctoral fellowship

from the National Institute of Mental Health, I spent a challenging year studying how people adjust

to the suicide of a family member.

My primary interests in sociology are the sociology of everyday life, deviance, and interna-

tional relations. One of my main goals in sociology is to make sociological concepts and research

findings down to earth. Among my books are Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach (Pearson),

in its 11th edition; Down to Earth Sociology: Introductory Readings (Free Press), going into its

fifteenth edition; and Social Problems (Pearson), now in its 11th edition. I have published widely in

sociology journals, including Social Problems and American Journal of Sociology. The topics range

from the esoteric ethnomethodological locationalities to the everyday nitty-gritty of cabdrivers

shooting midnight craps in St. Louis alleys.

While a graduate student, I taught at the University of Missouri at St. Louis. After completing

my doctorate, I joined the faculty at Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville, where I am Professor

Emeritus of Sociology. I’ve always enjoyed

teaching the introductory course. What a

pleasure to see students’ faces light up

when they first glimpse the sociological

perspective and begin to see how society

has become an essential part of how they

view the world!

I enjoy reading (obviously), but also

fishing, kayaking, and a little weight lifting.

My two favorite activities are writing and

traveling. I especially enjoy visiting other

cultures, even living in them. This brings

me face to face with behaviors and ways

of thinking that challenge my perspec-

tives, begging me to explore why they

and I view the world so differently. These

cultural excursions take me beyond the Photo by Anita Henslin


xxviii About the Author

standard research and make sociological principles come alive. In the photo essays in this book, I am

able to share some of these experiences with you.

My mother once told me that I had “gypsy blood” in me. She was speaking figuratively, of

course, but I can’t seem to settle in any one spot. The “other side” keeps beckoning, and I can’t get

rid of this urge to explore it. Hitchhiking around northern Africa and Europe was one way that I have

satisfied this desire. I recently married a woman from Latvia, an Eastern European country formerly

dominated by the Soviet Union. There, I became an immigrant, certainly an eye-opening experience

for me. I later gave up the immigrant status, but while in Latvia I observed how people were strug-

gling to adjust to capitalism. I also interviewed aged political prisoners who had survived the Soviet

gulag. After this, I moved to Spain, where I was able to observe how people adjust to a deteriorat-

ing economy and their reactions to the immigration of people from contrasting cultures. (Of course,

for this I didn’t need to leave the United States.) To better round out my cultural experiences, which

I find fascinatingly enjoyable and which keep my writing down to earth, I am making plans for ex-

tended stays in India and South America. There, and wherever else my sociological odyssey may

take me, I expect to do more photo essays to reflect contrasting cultures. In the meantime, I’m back

in the States, where among other activities I am documenting our economic crisis and deteriorating

infrastructure.

I am grateful to be able to live in such exciting social, technological, and geopolitical times—and

to have access to portable broadband Internet while I pursue my sociological imagination.
