Mascarenhas, J.M. - Technical Literature From the Enlightenment to the Portland Cement Era Its Contribution to the Knowledge of Masonry

8/10/2019 Mascarenhas, J.M. - Technical Literature From the Enlightenment to the Portland Cement Era Its Contribution to the Knowledge of Masonry

1/15

Technicalliterature frorn the Enlightenrnent to the Portland

cernent era: Its contribution to the knowledge of rnasonry

buildings and the History of Construction

K now ledge of the construction of historical m asonry

buildings is fundamental to their study and to any

d ecis ion m ak in g in the ir co nse rv atio n an d r es tor atio n.

Masonry technology is in turn indispensable to any

d isc ussio n o f th e h is tor y o f co nstru ctio n.

A fu nd am enta l s our ce o f in fo rm atio n ab ou t m aso nry

techniques can be found in the technical literature

published during a particular golden historical

period, from the m id eighteenth century to the close of

the nineteenth century. This period is characterized by

th e co lle ctio n, th e c la ssif ica tio n an d the av ailab ility o f

centuries of knowledge about building practices in

w ritte n fo rmo In th is p er iod , th is kn ow led ge b ecame th e

object of widespread study and of scientific

elaboration, which led to the theorisation, the

standardisation, and the optim isation of traditional

methods and materials. AIso in this period, new

m odern standards of materials and processes started to

em erge and to replace traditional ones. The beginning

o f this p erio d is e sta blish ed c lea rly w ith the p ub lica tio n

of the Encyclopaedia of Diderot and d' A lembert in

1751, the first encyclopaedia which ret1ected the

m odern scientific m ethodology. T he period ends w ith

the dominance of Portland Cement and Steel at the

beginning of the twentieth century. The industry of

Portland Cem ent and Steel brought about a revolution

in the con trol , opt im is at ion and d is tr ibut ion o fbui ld ing

materials. This shift signifies also the decline of

t radi ti onal p ra ct ic es i n mason ry con st ru ct ion.

In my study of the use of the technicalliterature in

the construction of traditional masonry buildings, 1

J oao Mascarenhas Mateus

divided m y discussion into three key areas. These are:

i) the context of the publication; ii) the content of the

literature; iii) its application in conservation. In this

presentation I will summarise these two first areas

and I will begin to develop some ideas, not only about

b uild in g co nse rv atio n, b ut a lso ab ou t th e re latio nsh ip

between traditional masonry knowledge and the

h is to ry of const ruct ion.

THE CONTEXT

The enormous number of works concerning masonry

construction published during the eighteenth and

nineteenth century are the fruit of a process which

started during the Renaissance with the diffusion of

the printing press, and the creation of the first natural

science and drawing academies. The first books on

architecture emerged from the context of these

t ea ch ing ins ti tu ti on s. However , dur ing the s even te en th

century, the teaching of architecture was extended to

the first Engineer' s Corps and the military

academies, the first such academy being the Danish

Ho lste ens ke F ortif ika tio nse tat f ou nd ed in 1 68 4. B y

the end of the eighteenth century, there were m ilitary

and mining schools in every european nation, as

shown in Table l.

The establishment of the discipline of military

architecture led to the production of a specific genre

of books. Dominated first by the Italians and the

Spaniards, and later by the French and the Dutch,

Proceedings of the First International Congress on Construction History, Madrid, 20th-24th January 2003,ed. S. Huerta, Madrid: I. Juan de Herrera, SEdHC, ETSAM, A. E. Benvenuto, COAM, F. Dragados, 2003.


2/15

TABLA 1.

S CH OO LS A ND A CA DEM IES 7

Dates

Ilaly

France

Portugal

Spain

Grcat-Britain

Germany/Austria Amcricas

1700

1706

-

S o el et y R o ya l d es

1701

-

Aeademyof

1716

-

R o ya l ~ 1 il it a r)

1717

-

Genie-Akademie,

Scicnccs de Montpellier Fortificatan of Elvas and School o f Mathematic;, Vicnna

Almeida

Barcelona

1710

-

A e ad e my o f S e lc nc es

171O

-

C u e rp o d e I n ge n ie r os

of the Institute, Bologna de los Exrcitos, Plazas.

Puertos

y

Fronteras

(Verboom)

1713

-

EnginccringCorps.

1716

-

C or ps d es P o nt s e t

1713

-

R o ya l S p a nl sh

1716

-

C o rp s o f E n g in e e rs

1729

-

Ingenieurskorps,

Gcnoa ( Bassignani) Chausses

A e a de m y, M a d ri d

Riehards)

Pruss ia Walrawe)

1734

-

M i li ta r y E n g in e er s

1740

-

eoledesArts,Par is

1730

-

Ingenieur-Corps.

1738

-

Class o the Ten;o

Corps.

V e ni ec : 1 73 9 - (Blandeli Saxony a n d C l as s o f t h e A r ti ll e ry

E n g in e er s C o rp s , S a r di n ia

R e gi me nL R io d e J a n ei ro

(A/paim)

1739

-

Reali Seuole teoriehe 1744

-

Bureau des 1744 -Real Academia de las

1731

-

Ingenieur-Corps,

e pratiche d'ar tig lcr ia ,

Dessinatcurs d e Pars Tres Noblcs A rtes de San

Braunschwcig

Picmontc

Fernando. Madr id

1742

-

Military Engineers 1747

-

e ol e d es P o nt s e t

1747

-


3/15

1800

1 8 03 ~ S ch o ol of 1 80 3 ~ A ca d m le d e s

1 8m ~ Ro ya l ~ av ala nd

1 8 0 2 ~ E sc u el ad e

c . 1 8 00 ~ T it le 0 1 E n g in cc r

1 8 02 ~ M il lt al Y A c ad c l1 1 Y o f

E n g in e er i ng , P a v ia

B e a ux - Ar ts , P a ri s

C o m me r cc A c ad c m y,

Ingenieros de C aminos, al the University of

V,. 'cstPoiot

Opono Canales

y

Puer tos . Madr id

Edinburgh

1 8 1 0~ 1 8 12 ~ A ca d e mi c

1 8 0 7 ~ P o ly te c hn i c

1 8 0 4 ~ U n iv e rs it y o l Oh i o.

S c ho o ls o ' R o m c .

A ca de m y o f O p or to

USA

,,.

Sciem:es.

A n s a n d C f a ft s.

Berln Ro de Janciro

1 81 7 ~ S ch oo lo f

1 8 1 9 ~ co i ed e s B e a u . x~

1 81 8 ~ In st il ut io n o f C iv il

1821

-

Gcv. 'erbeakadernie>i,

1 81 7 ~ Ne wY or k A ea de my

Engineering. Rome Arts. Pars

Engineers (Thomas Tel jrd)

Bcrlin

o f S c ic n ce s

1 8 29 ~ c o 1c C e n tr a l e d e s

1 8 27 ~ C ou rs eo f C iv il

1 8 2 5 ~ P o ly te c hn i c S e h o o l

1 82 0 ~ R oy ul A ca d em y a l

P o n ts e t C h a us s e s . P a r s

Enginecring at he L ondon of Karlsruhe

P a in t in g , S c u lp t ur e a n d

U n iv e rs it y C o ll c ge

C iv il A rc hi te ct ur c. R io d e

7Janeiro

1 8 3 8 ~ T e ch n ic a l S c ho o ls .

1 8 36 ~ R oy al A ea de m y a l

1 83 8 ~ S eh o olo f 1 8 27 ~ P o ly te c hn i c S e h o o l

M il an a n d V e n i ce

F in e A rt s, L is bo n a nd

E n g in e cr i ng , K i ng

's

o f M u ni eh

Oporto I

C o l eg e , L o nd o n

1 8 3 7 ~ P o ly le e h ni c

1 8 34 ~ R oy al ln st it ut e a l

A ca d em y o f O p or to , ( Pa ss os

B r it is h A r ch i te c ts . R . I. B A

M a nu el a nd S d a B a nd ei ra )

1 83 7 ~ S ch oo l0 1 t h e Army,

1 8 45 ~ E s cu e la E sp e ci a l d e

1 84 0 ~ S ch o ol of

1 8 4 0 ~ P o ly te c hn i c S e h o ol

Lisbon

B e ll a s A r te s , M a d ri d

Engineer ing, Glasgo\ \ '

01 Stut tgar t

1851

-

A d mi ss io n o f

1 8 5 2 ~ , dn d u st ri a l a n d

1 8 5 0 ~ R o ya l ln d a st ri a l

1 8 49 ~ Re n ss el ae r

e n g in ~ er s n o t p u b li c o f fi cc r s

C01111llercia l Ins t it u le of

Ins li t ute. Madr id

Poly technic Ins ti t u tc , Tmy,

alEco e Polytechniquc

L i sb o n a n d I n du s tr ia l

N ew Y or k

S ch o ol o f O p ar to F on lc s

P e re i ra d e M e lo

1 85 9 ~ Se uo la

1 8 64 ~1 8 68 ~ Ci vi l

1 85 7 ~ C en tr al S ch oo l a l

1 8 52 ~ A me ri ca n S o c ie ty o f

d ' Ap p li ca z io n e d e g li

E n g in e e rs C o rp s 0 1 ' th e

I n du s tr ia l E n g in e e rs , M a d ri d

C i vi l E n g in c er s . R e st o n,

Ingcgner i, Tur in M in is lr y o f P u bl ic W o rk s. Virginia

C o m me r ce a n d I n du s tr y

1860

-

Regio lstituto 1869

-

Portugucsc

1 8 5 6 ~ V e re i n D e ut sc h cr

J856

-

Amer ican Ins ti t u ll '

T e cn i co S u p er io r e, M i la n :

A s so c ia t io n o f C i vi l

In ge ni cu re , D us se ld or f o f A rc hi te cts , W as hi ng to n

1861 ~Col legeof Bui lders .

Enginccrs (lOr10 CrisrJstomo

Milan

d 'A b re u e S O l/ sa )

1 86 5 ~ S pe ci al S eh oo l f or

1 86 6 ~ Ro ya ll ns ti tu lc o f

1 8 6 3 ~ N a ti o na l A c a d em y

C i vi l A r ch i tc c ts , B r er a

British Architects 01'Scienccs, Washington

1 8 7 6 ~ S e ho o lf o r E n g in e e rs .

1 8 7 8 ~ P o ly te c hn i c S c h o ol

1 8 8 2 ~ T he Po l yt ce h n ie .

Padua

o f L i sb o n

R e g en t S t re e t. L o n do n

1 8 85 ~ S e ho o l0 1 ' th e A r m y.

1 89 0 ~ W oo lw ie h

1 8 98 ~ A m cr ic a n S o c ie t y

Lisbon

Courses 1 ' Ci vi l a n d

Poly technie (Univ.of

f o r T e st in g a n d M a te r ia l s,

M i ni n g E n g in e e ri n g

GreenlA'ich)

US

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TABLA 2.

(1700-1800)

Dates

Spain

Italy Portugal

France

Great-Britain

Germany

[700

1707-94

-

To>ca,

1693-1798

-

POllO, Pmpectiva

17I2-Bluteau,

1691-1756

-

Aviler,

Co u r. ' d 'A rch il e c tl l re :

7

C o mp en d io M a th em a ti co

piclOrum

V()C{/ JlIlario

1 69 1- 1 B 2 6, B u l et . L ' a rc h it ec t ur e p ra ti qu e :

Portu[?ue:.. Arc/iletfonico

J694-1732

-

CornciJIe. DictiOl/llare

]

711

-

G a J Ii d i B i bi e na . L 'archirefluf({

1716

-

Pomcy. lndicu o

1 7 06 -1 4 C o rd em o y,

A'ollt'eau

{mir; 1712

-

La 1725

-

Halfpcuy, T h e a r/ uf

1717-99

-

Eiselen, Dell'ar/e

cirife

universal

Hire, S ur la c on sl ru c. d es 1 '0 0 te s: 1713

-

......un..,u.., 1727-56

-

d i c uo ce re i f f/ at fo ni (DJ(I)

Parcnt, t-,\ sais.

el

LangJcy. The bui der 'sjeorvel

Phnique: 1714-Leclerc, r al le a a re o ue er ur e

1728-29

-

F ort es , O

17 6-65

-

Gautier. Traifs

des pOllt . \'

,

1721-52 1727-70

-

Salmon, The

F .n g en he ir o P o rt u gu s

- B io n. T ra it d 'a rc hi re ct ur e, 1 72 8

- C Ot ln lJ Y' s h ui /d a e s/ im at or ;

C ou rt on ne , A rc hi te ct ur e m od er ne ; 1728-jBS8

-

]

728

-

Chambers.

L a R ue , T ra it d e c ou pc d es p ie rrc s Crelopaedia: 1 73 4 - 73

-

Salmon, P a ll ad io L on d ie n si s:

1734

-

92

-

Masustcgui,

1737

-

Guarini, A rc hi te lt ur a ( iv il e: 1739

-

Oliveira,

1737-1

g58

-Bclidor. Ar eh . h wlm ul i ql l i'

1734

-

Hawksmoor, The

A rte de C ons truc cin : 1 734

1743-1824

-

Zabaglia, C a s/ e ll i e p O I1 /i :

Adretlncias (lOS

modemo.\

(F)(D)(P)(I)(E):

1737-63

-

Frelicr. L a tha . el

b ui /d er 's d ic t io nn ar y :

]

734-59

- 1 R 4

-

Montn, S ec re to s d e

[748

-

Borra, T ra ll at o. . . d e ll e

p ra t, ( ou pe p ie rr es : 1 74 2- 43 - Le

-

Morris, ,e cf Ur es 0 11

A r te s L ib e ra le s

( E) (P )

resisfenze; 1748

-

Poleni, Memorie

Scur Jacquier,Boskovic, Pa r e r e .. S .P ie tr o

I1rehilectllrc; [742-1807-

i .\ f o ri ch e .. .c l lp o la v a ti ca n o

L an gl ey a nd L an gl ey , Ancienl

Archifectllre

1738-1805

-

Briguz

y

Bru,

1751-1878

-

D i dc ro t. d 'A l em b er t,

I73g-50

-

Langley, The

E s cu el a d e A r qu it ec t ur a

fncyc1opMie: 1751-56

-

Macqucr, le me llt s d e

h u il de r' s a s ,\ .i s ta nt ; 1748-56

-

dlimie:

]

7 5 2- 5 4- L a co m b e, Dictionnare; 1753

Langley. The

-

Laugier, Essa i su r / ' (l r ch i te c tur e

(UK) (O)

LOIldol1...hricklll\'ers

1747

-

Garcia Berruguilla, 1757

-

Alberti, T ra ll a/ o d el la m is ll ra 754

-

Espie, \1 a ni er e. re n dr e M I j.

1756-68

-

Warc, A e a mp le le

Verdadera prctica de las delle fabbriebe iocombllslibles i F) (l K )( E) (I i: 1 75 5 - Be li do r.

b o d y o f A r cl fe c fu r e: 1757

-

r es ol . d e l a G eo me tr ia

diclioll/w[rc;]56

-

rvfcnalld, L ' r r d e

T h e l I lo d e m

{'apparei/

a.\ Sistant

]

763-65

-

Rieger, ElementOs

1760-77

-

Vittone, Istrllzioni

1761-83

-

Ginet- T oi s g n er ol d u b t im en l:

1758-93

-

Pain. T h e b U ll da

d e t od a l a A rc hit ec tu ra C iv il

elementari: 1765

-

Sanviata c. Elementi

76]

-

F o u rc r oy d e R a m c co u rt . L ' a rl d u

companion: 1759-1862

-

d i a rc hi te tt ur a c iv il e

chaufurnier; 1761

-

D uh am c l d u M on ce au .

Chambers. A l real ise mi 01'[/

L'ar{ du fuilier Archilecture

1767-1856

-

Pl

Y

Camin,

1767-71

-

Gallaccin . Viscntin . 1764

-

J om hc rl . L 'a re hi te ct ur e m od ern e: 1 76 6-

E l a rq ui le cf {) p ra li co

T ra ff {/ fO s op ra g li e rr or i d eg li a rc hi te tt i

D uh am el d u r vl on ce au . A rr d u C O ll rr eu r:

7h7

-

(I)(UK)

Jars. L 'a rt d Ului l ie r .. .hr i qu e

1776-1

g05

-

Bails,

1772-80

-

Carktti.lstitl l ;)oni

]

770

-

Anon. . S el ldoa mi

1770~7I

-

R ol an d d e V ir lo ys . DIionna[rc:

]

775

-

Columban.

A

nflr hook

F J cm e nt os d e M a lc lI 1 ur ic u s.

d 'a rc hi te lt ur a c i1 'i le

( P ) ( L: K )

1771-77

-

Blande . CO/lrs: 1771

-

Gauthe),

o f o r na m e nl . \

D in 17 mi m e E SW li co

M /Jo ir e . . .m ca l1 iqw: 1772

-

Bossut.

T ra it . . .m ca l1 i1 ju e s W j ll e

1776-98

-

Terreros

y

Dando,

[773

-

L am be rt i, V ol ti me tri a: 1 77 5-

1 77 1- C ou lo mb , Essai../Iwximis..lllinimis:

1 77 3 - 84

-

liZo,

D ic ci on ar io c as fe ll an o c on Griselini, D bonario delle arte e

177) - Waltn,

Can d/ll'eilllre:

774-76 -

A/ fngsgrunde

da

{as

1 'o ce s d e c ie nc ia .\ ' e a rt es

de 'mest ia i : 1777

-

Amonini, ;1,1(/11110/('

Loriot, M m oi re s ur l /l Ie d c o/ lr er le

( F) ( GK )

l m rg u li c he n B a uk u l1 s l

d i r ar i o f l /a me nt i

(D)(E)(i)

'vJ

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7

1778-1806

-

Bolognmi, 11muralore

1777

-

E~a, Pm blem a de

1778-80

-

F au ja s d e S . F on d, R ec he rc be s s ur la

1 7 8 0 - Higg ins ,

i laliano:

1780

Prcti

Element d i

a rc hi le ll ur a c ir i

pOlcolane; 1 7 83 -9 1 - L a co m bc ,

Expe r iments . cemems.qu ick

archifettura:

1781

Lambcrti.

Staliea

Enc.-vclopdie...arts et mtiers lime

d e gl i e d if ic i

1785

-

Diez.

A rl e d e h ac er

1781-1853-Milizia,Principi

1 7 8 6- 1 85 1 - Mon g e ,T r a il le m ea l. d e s l al iq u e

1781-87-Pain, T h e h u il d e rs

1788-99

-

V o n C a nc r in .

e l e s tu c o

d'architeffura civile (1)(0);

1785

-

( F)( UK) ;

1785

-

~onroy, Teail d'lIrchileclure

g o {d e n r u le

K le in T ec hn ol og is ch e \ Ve rk

Mascheroni N I /o v e r ic e rc h e

cirile

s ul l e qu il ib ri o d el le m ir e

1788

-

RejndeSilva.

1 78 6 - Lo do li , M em mo , E/emeali

1786 93 -Sguin, Manuel d a rchi t ec rure : 1787

D ic ci on ar io d e l as N ob le s

d'architeffllra; 1787

-

Salimbeni, Degli

-

Chaptal

Obserrations..pouzzolanes

Arte.I

a rc hi e d el le v ol te

1788

-

Masi,Teor a e praliea

1 7 88 - 18 2 1

-

Q ua tr cm c re d e Q ui nc y,

d e ll a r ch i te tt u ra c i vi / e

Encvclopdie; 1788-1832

-

Q ua tr em er e d e

Quincy D i ct io l 1n a ir e h i st o ri q ue

1789

-

Ruffo, S ag gi o ra gg io na lo n el

179/

-

Portugal, S obre a

1792

95

Simonin T r ai t . .c o up e d e s pierre~'

179]

-93

-

SmealOn,

A

1791-92

-

Von

Cancr in,

o r ig i ne e d e s ss e nza d e ll a r ch i te tt ur a

u li li da de d a

(F)(E);

1793

-

Lagardette, L ' ar l d u p lo mb ie r;

n ar ra li ve o f I he b ui ld in g Einzelne Bauschr ( ft en

civile

Chymica..edijicios

1797

-

Rondelet, M m oire sur le dm e du

Pantho l

1792

-

Valzania,

1797

-

Milizia, D iz io na ri o d el le b el le

1798-1825

-

Viterbo,

1798

Gauthey Di .D CTtat ioJ1 . . dbme ..

Instituciones de arti

Elucidario Panlhon; 1798

-

Girard,

Teail

Arquitectura

analytique..rsistance;

1798

Prony,Rsultats..

e xp r ie nc es . P an th o n

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1394

]

o ao M asca re nh as M ateu s

these military treatises presented not only the latest

and m ost advanced defensive and offensive systems,

but also a w ealth of practical information concerning

the rules of masonry construction. These rules were

fundamental to the fast and efficient construction of

temporary and permanent military posts within war

campaigns. Table 2, which refers to the works

published in the eighteenth century, gives the sense of

the enorm ous potential for cultural exchange via this

literature at an international level with regard to

m il it ar y and c iv il a rchi te ctur e.

If

this cultural exchange of information,

concerning military architecture, was determined

mainly by geo-political goals, in the field of civil

architecture in contrast, the production of books

reflects above all the diffusion of the French

pedagogical model of the Acadm ie des Beaux-Arts

and the cole d' Architecture. This context produced

a new genre of books -text books used directly in

the courses of education in these new institutions.

W hile they were addressed to very different readers

and distinctively motivated, both civil and military

architecture books offered very much the same level

of information regarding building techniques,

tog eth er w ith the r ud im ents o f g eometry , p ersp ec tive ,

mea su ri ng and e st imat ion.

The search towards a never absolute truth which

characterised the Enlightenment, brought with it the

clarific atio n of th e d istin ctio ns b etw een th e d iffere nt

sciences: chemistry, physics, mathematics,

mechanics. This rationalist impulse inspired the

publication of new books dedicated not only to pure

sciences but eventually also to their application in

field of construction. This distinction and

classification of different scientific fields and the

d if fe rent i ns ti tU ti ona] is at ion o f the f igur es o f eng in ee r

and architect, were at the origin of an increasing

volume of new books. Those dedicated to geometry

and stereotomy, were con cerned with the theory of

stone cutting. See Tosca (1707), La Rue (1728),

Frzier (1737) and Simonin (1792). New texts

explained the chemical aspects of lim es and mortars,

others presented the latest improvements in brick

production. See Macquer (1751), Loriot (1774),

Faujas de S.Fond (1778), Higgins (1787), Cancrin

(1 78 8) an d Smea ton (17 91).

The mechanical behaviour of arches and vaults

along with the latest mathematical models were

discussed in specialised books and illustrated with

key examples. A particular issue of discussion was

the stability of important domes, such as that of S.

Pietro of the Vatican, and that of the Cathedral of

M ilan, or that of the Church of S. Genevieve (later the

Pan th eon) in Par is . P ra ct ic al a sp ec ts o f o rn amen ta ti on

were described in manuals specialising in coatings,

renderings and paintings. Besides the creation of new

classes of books, general treatises of architecture

were expanded to include a larger number of

chapters, which reflected the new categorisation and

theorisation of the minor crafts. The craft of the

fountain builder, for example, was granted an

independent chapter for the first time and applied to

the design of more rational sewerage systems.

Moreover, new technical encyclopaedias and

specialised dictionaries in Architecture and

Engineering helped the establishment of common

procedures and termino logies .

Following the scientific bases established in the

Enlightenment, the nineteenth century gradually

retlected the application and adoption of the new

poly tech nic e ng in eerin g te ac hin g sy stem, o rg an ized

around the practical and systematic application of the

pure sciences.

In

the field of the construction there

was a marked improvement in the mathematical

mode]s, based on collapse mechanisms, used in the

graphical calculation of thrusts of arches and vaults.

These models were applied not only to building s but

also to masonry bridge s w ith ever wider spans. These

publications w ith the latest achievem ents in the field

of applied m athematics to arches and vaults inform ed

also the new discipline of Resistance of (Elastic)

Materials. See Girard (1798), Navier (1821),

Redtenbacher (1852), Rankine (1858) and Curioni

(1864). Similarly, the new discipline of M aterials of

C onstruction relied upon the application of theories

of physics and chemistry to the production of

traditional materials (limes, mortars, bricks and

stone). Parallel to this development, the theories of

hydraulic hardening were emphasised, as were the

production technologies of hydraulic limes, cements

and metal li c p ro fi le s.

In

the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the

invention of the disciplines of the history of

architecture and archaeology worked gradually to

demystify the understanding of the architecture of

antiquity and the middle-ages. Schematic models

p rop os ed sin ce th e R en ais san ce in e ve ry a rch itectu ral

treatise, w ere replaced by m ore accurate and realistic


7/15

Tech nic allite ra tu re f ram th e Enlig hte nm en t to th e Por tla nd c em en t e ra

1395

ones, based on actual surveys and detailed scientific

evaluation. See, for exam ple, Q uatrem ere de Q uincy

(1788), Uggeri (1802), Hittorf (1835), Lassaulx

(1840), Choisy (1873), V ollet-Ie-D uc (1875), D urm

(1881), Ungew itter (1890) and B lm ner (1897).

At the close of what I consider to be this golden

period of the culture of traditional m asonry, at the end

of the nineteenth century, we have a picture of a

complex and complete science for this important

aspect of construction. To give a synthesis ofthe m ost

important titles on genera] treatises, courses,

stereotomy, mechanics and materials published

during the nineteenth century, I have created the

Tables 3 and 4. On each table, in order to indicate the

period in which a publication achieved its maximum

circulation and influence, the dates of the first and last

edition can be found preceding the author's name.

W hen texts were translated and published in foreign

la ng uag es, th es e lan gu ag es ar e ind ic ate d in b rac ke ts.

THE CONTENT

Once one recognises the production context of a

particular text, it is possible to better understand its

content. Technical literature must be understood

within its historical context which includes a

recognition of the intellectual and scientific

development of the periodo With an awareness of

historical complexity, the content of the technical

literature can be read, critically analysed and

translated into a contemporary terminology

sci en ti fi ca ll y a ccep ted today .

Masonry building construction can be studied

following the four main steps of a complete process:

1) the design of the architectural project and the

definition of the dimensions of each structural

element; 2) the phase of the production and

m anipulation of the m aterials (blocks and m ortars); 3)

the phase of assemblage, and 4) the phase of the

protection, the m aintenance and the reinforcem ent of

the building in order to guarantee its durability.

1) The definition of the project of a masonry

building is concerned with the establishment of

the masonry typologies planned to be used in

each s truc tu ra l e lement or zone of the bui ld ing.

These typologies relate to the methods of block

bonding (using cut stone, ashlars, coursed or

uncoursed rubble, rubble filling etc.) and

assembling them with mortar. In the case of

vaulted structures, for example, the choice of

the best designs in the plan and the sections, was

m ade in d ire ct re latio n to th e p refe rre d ty polo gy

of masonry. Each one of these typologies

corresponds to a limited number of ways of

directing mass weight from the top of the

building to its foundations. The distribution of

weight was fundamental to the definition of the

openings in the facade and to the positioning of

vertical elements such as pillars and load

bearing walls. At the same time these vertical

elements were placed to correspond to both the

arch and vault imposts and to the positioning of

the mass foundations. These main technical

aspects of the project were directly related to

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12/15

1400

J08.0 Masca renhas Mateus

o th er b etter kn own criteria, such as distribu tio n

and function of internal spaces of the building,

the project of the facade, the chosen style, the

taste, the background of the designer, the

eco nomy o f means.

The definition of the load bearing sections of

horizo ntal a nd vertical stru ctu ral elem ents w as, until

t he e ig ht ee nt h c en tu ry , o bta in ed u sin g b as ic emp ir ic al

rules. T hese rules w ere based on m asonry typologies

and the geom etry of arches and vaults, piers, colum ns

and load bearing w alls. In general these rules tended

to overestim ate the necessary dim ensions of the load

bearing sections, in com parison to how we determ ine

them today. During the eighteenth century, newly

deve lo ped algarithm s simplifying the most a dvan ced

meth ods, and were in tro duc ed in p ra ctica l ca lc ulatio n

of arches. These advanced methods were based on

typical coJIapse mechanisms far circular arches

which calculated the width of arch abutments (La

Hire, 1712; Belidor, 1729). Other methods were

developed in arder to determine the size of the

voussoirs (Couplet, 1729) or even the best figure of

vaults (Bossut, 1770). The eighteenth century

methods were improved by the introduction of a new

graphical method based on the funicular polygon of

force s used to determine the lines of pressure.

F ollow ing the first th eoretical and expe rim en ta l w ork

by authors such as Poleni (1748), Coulomb (1776),

Mascheroni (1785), Venturoli (1806) and Navier

(1826), this new method was developed by Lam and

Clayperon (1823), Gerstner (1831) and Moseley

(1833) and further refined by M ry (1840), Scheffler

(1857) and C ulm ann (1874) (see Benvehuto 1991,2:

428-37). At the end of the nineteenth century, the

calculation m ethods for m asonry structures w ere the

result of a w el balanced association of em pirical and

th eoretical m ethod s b ased o n appro xim ated static and

elastic p rin cipIes which p erm itted o ptim isa tion o f th e

resistant sections. T hese latest m ethods were m ainly

applied in bridges and important buildings. For the

common buildings much of the calculation was still

being done with the most traditional empirical

m ethods and presented in w idely circulated treatises

such as the one of Rondelet (1802) or Breymann

(1849).

1) The rules and processes relating to the

p reparation an d manipu la tion o f m ate rial s, deal

with elementary stone or ceramic blocks, lim e

m ortars and lim e concrete. T he w ork w ith stone

blocks included, according to the particular

nature of the slOne, the extraction, the first

q uarry sortin g, the cleava ge o bserva tion and th e

respect for the natural bedding plans. This was

followed by the preliminary dressing of the

surfaces, the different phases used on m illing to

obtain the desired shape, the finishing

operations, the transportation and storage. For

ceram ic block s, techn ical literatu re gav e a l the

information concerning the choice and

extraction of the clay, its manipulation and

puddling, the description of the different pug

mili types, the advantages and limitations of

each firing method in relatio n w ith th e ev o]ution

of the kiln, the use of additives and the

traditional quality control criteria. This

literature a lso evaluate a l the p rocesses used in

the preparation ofthe basic m aterial s needed for

m ortars: the different types of lim e, pozzolan,

crushed brick, ashes, gypsum, water and sand.

In particular the methods of lime burning,

slaking, practical m ethods to obtain hydraulic

mortars and the evolution of the theories of

aeria] and hydraulic limes hardening, were

clo sely ad dressed. In addition to the d escrip tio n

of the production of basic material s, all the

procedures to mix them are detailed: the

proportioning, the batching and the mixing of

co ncrete, lay in g a nd rend erin g morta rs, stucco s

and mast ic s.

2) The methods to assemble blocks and mortars

depended on the typology of the block s used.

D ifferent rules w ere used to create the m asses in

foundation, the vertical elem ents in elevation

and finally the arches and vaults. For walls and

piers every bonding method was designed to

optim ise strength and stability in relation to the

required width, guaranteeing the best

im brication of blocks and the highest adhesion

betw een blocks and m ortars. Bonding m ethods

were al so important for projecting layers or

overhanging m asonry elem ents. For arches and

vaults specific bonding methods depended on

the dimension of blocks, the geometry of the

intradors and extradors, and the particular form

of falsework structures to ay up the blocks.

These methods referred lO the laying of blocks


13/15

Technicalliterature frorn the Enlightenrnent to the Portland cernent era

1401

both on their edge and bed. R esides the question

o f b on din g, th e te ch no log y of va ult co nstru ctio n

considered many more important factors:

centering, laying and decentering techniques,

and the times required between laying and

decentering. General treatises and specialised

works gave enormous attention to the

differentiation of the methods of raising vaults,

depending on the experience of each author.

D'Espie (1754), for example, detailed the

construction of vaults using blocks laid on bed

with the aim of creating modem fire proof

buildings. Once the skeleton was executed, the

masonry skin was applied. For this phase,

special procedures and tools were developed to

g iv e di ffer en t le ve ls o f su rfa ce fin is hin g to s ton e

or brick. Another class of techniques dealt with

th e (v er tica l) fac in g (i.e. ren de rin gs , stu cco s an d

paint) and the (horizontal) revetment of

pavements. In this later case, the maximum

compaction of the foundation layers was

obtained by repeated cycles of tam ping, resting

and watering. This procedure of compaction

was considered finished when a required

reduction of the original depth had been

obtained.

3) Once the skeleton and the skin of the building

had been completed, new techniques and

detailing w ere used to protect and guarantee the

durability of the work. Although not using a

co ntempo rar y term in olo gy , trad itio nal bu ild ers

were aw are of the m ain deterioration processes

that w e know of today. In the nineteenth century

there was already an awareness of atm ospheric

polJution due to coal combustion in the big

industrial cities. In order to prevent the water

infiltration intrinsic to every deterioration

process, several methods were developed to

protect masonry from rain water infiltration

from above, the lateral incidence of the rain and

from rising damp. This masonry protection was

guaranteed by different techniques such as

capping and roofing, drainage systems, facing

a gain st e ro sio n an d sp las hing , the co nstr uc tio n

of cavity walls and ventilated periphery

chambers in the ground. All these protective

elements required maintenance which was

anticipated from the early planning stages of the

project. Besides the protection and the

maintenance of masonry building s they were,

w hen needed, also reinforced and consolidated

using many of the same techniques as used in

the original construction. Exam ples of this kind

o f in te rv en tio n inc lu de th e lo cal re co nstr uc tio n

of deteriorated structural elem ents (eg. settled

foundations, deformed piers and arches), and

the introduction of additional reinforcing

e lem ents s uc h a s tie ro ds an d c ou nte rfo rts .

This synthesis of the four key steps of traditional

m asonry building science, that 1 h ave proposed, these

being, the design, the material s production, the

assemblage and the protection, can constitute a

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Figure 2

Exarnple of a typical rnasonry reinforcernent operation

presented by Cattaneo in 1889. This systern of provisional

c onsolida tion c an be a lready fo und in the treaty of S carnoz zi

published in 1788 and frequently repeated by other authors

as Valad ie r, in

1828


14/15

1402 Joao Mascarenhas Mateus

fram ew ork within which to categorise and analyse the

content of technicalliterature.

T RA DlT IO NA L M AS ON RY B UlL DlN GS A ND T HE

HISTORY OF CONST RUCT ION

The study of the traditional construction of masonry

bu ildin g, th at is co nstruc tion be fo re sta nd ard isatio n o f

reinforced and non reinforced masonry in the

twentieth century, has been my personal pretext to

read all this technical literature in its complexity of

aims, and cultural and scientific contexts. M y study

has had a very precise and immediate practical

application, this being the use of the information in

the different phases of a contemporary process of

architectural conservation. This includes the study

and the survey of a historical building, the decision

making phase, and finally, the intervention itself

(Mateus, 2002). As a general consideration it is

important to remember that technical literature

constitutes an indispensable source of study, but it is

not the only one. M any other inputs can and should be

o btain ed th rou gh arc ha eo log y, ic on ogra ph y, ar ch iv e

research, etc. From my research on m asonry building

and its conservation, 1 have been able to outline new

fields of research, using and filtering the content of

the technical literature of the eighteenth and

nineteenth century. These fields of research can be

put at the service of the new history of the

c on stru ctio n, the a im of the p rese nt c on gress .

History of construction should consist of the study

of: 1) the material s; 2) the techniques; 3) ideological

factors; 4) economic factors; and 5) sociological

factors.

Materials: With regard to the study of materials

and the concerns of masonry construction, new

critical analysis can be undertaken from the

perspective of the study of the characteristics of local

natural resources available in a limited historical

periodo This analysis should also be related to factors

such as trade and transportation which impact upon

the circulation and availability of materials. The

availability of specific materia]s contributed also to

the local interpretation of an architectura] style. This

methodology, applied to masonry buildings, could be

rea dily ex pan de d to o th er ty pe s o f m as on ry stru ctu res

(bridges, aqueducts, mari time works, for example)

and to other material s and structures such as

structures in wood, wood and masonry, steel and

masonry. Naturally, these new aims would require the

expan sion o f the g iv en b ib li og raphy.

Techniques:

The s tud y o f tec hn iq ue s, via tec hn ica l

literature, has already be e n undertaken in the field of

structural mechanics by authors including

Timoshenko, Heyman, Benvenuto, Giuffr, and Di

Pasquale. The other field of major development has

been in the study of graphical representation m ethods

by authors including Sakarovitch and Palacios. M ore

work needs to be done in the areas of the terminology

and the evolution of the tools used in different

construction processes, and in the adaptation of

general technology to local materials and traditions.

Other fields of interest may vary from the evolution

of the techniques of ornamentation and decoration,

the wooden stereotomy, the traditional design of

wood structures, to the different patents on steel

construction during the second half of the nineteenth

century.

ldeological factors: The influence of the

ideological factors can be studied using technical

literature as an im portant source. The evolution of the

theorisation of styles, tastes and the political and

cultural intentions of the commissioners, the

designers and the builders, are well presented in the

texts and illustrations of the main treatises and essays

o n arch itec ture . Man y of th e trad ition al co nstru ction

rules and m ethods were continually adapted to obtain

a certain contemporary image of architecture. The

question of the evolution and the interpretation of the

models of antiquity and their influence on new

arc hite ctu ral sty les is b y n o m ean s ex ha us ted .

Economic fac tors : The ev olu tion o f co nstru ction

was naturally also guided by economical factors.

M odern methods of construction proposed by the

literature of this period were presented as more

economically viable in comparison with former

methods and m aterials. This economic optim isation

of processes and techniques was the key factor that

determined the decline of traditional methods of

construction in favour of concrete and steel.

Soc io logica l fac tors : Finally, construction is the

result of the integration of many different human

activities. Comm issioners, designers (architects and

engineers) and builders were always conditioned by

their own cultural background and experience in the

field. Associated with these m ain protagonists were a

huge number of professional classes of craftsmen


15/15

Techn ic a1 lite ra tu re fr om th e Enlig hte nm en t to th e Portla nd c em en t e ra

responsible for each phase of the complex process of

construction.

In

th e stu died tec hnic allitera tu re , m uch

can be discovered about the stone carvers, the

masons, the carpenters and the iron workers. The

h isto ry o f th e p ro fes sio nal a nd s ocio lo gica l c ond itio n

of al these actors who contributed anonymously to

this long path of experiments, failures and

achievements, much also form an important chapter

o f th e h is tor y o f c ons tru ct ion .

REFERENCE LIST

Ben venu to , E do ard o. 1 99 1.

An Introdu ction to th e H istory of

Structural Mechanics, Part ll- Vaulted Structures and

Elast ic Sys tems. New Yor k/B er lin -H eid elb er g: Spr in ge r,

Verlag.

1403

Carbona ra , G iovann i (di r. ). 1996-2001 . Tra tt at o d i r es tauro

architettonico.

Tor in o: Unio ne T ip og ra fic o-Ed itri ce

Torinese.

Di Pasquale, Salvatore. 1996.

L' arte del costruire: tra

Ol loscenza e scienza

Venezia: Mars il io .

G iuffre. A ntonino. 1987 .

L a Mec ca nic a n ell'A r ch ite ttu ra .

Roma: Nuova I ta li a Sci en ti fi ca .

Heyman, Jacques. 1995. The S tone Sk eleto n: S truc tural

Engineering of M asonry Architecture. Cambridge:

C ambr id ge Univ er sity P re ss .

M ateus, Joa o M ascare nhas. 200 2. T cnic as tra dic io na is d e

constru~'ao de alvenarias: a literatura tcnica de 1750 a

1900 e o seu contributo para a conservarao de edificios

histricos. Lisboa: L iv ro s Hor izon te .

Sakarovitch, JoeJ. 1997.

De la reprsentation a la

r alisation, un ex em ple tir de la stroto mie. I/ dise gno

di proge tto da lle origini al X VIII se colo.

Roma: Gangemi

Editore.

Documents

Mascarenhas, J.M. - Technical Literature From the Enlightenment to the Portland Cement Era Its Contribution to the Knowledge of Masonry