Marc van Oostendorp Meertens Instituut & Leiden University

Types of prestige Not under control The quest for neutrality

Standard language and linguistic norms

Marc van OostendorpMeertens Instituut & Leiden University

September 17, 2007



Norms in language

I Conflicting functions of norms in language:I Mutual comprehensionI Social distinction

I On the one hand, it is considered ideal if everybody speaksthe standard, on the other hand, standard language isalmost always associated to groups with high prestige



Three issues

I Other varieties are associated to other groups, which mayhave a different prestige (toughness, friendliness)

I Next to being a social phenomenon, language also has apsychological, and even biological side: not everything isunder control

I Will it every be possible to find a ‘neutral’ standard



Standard language and mistakes

Types of prestige

Not under control

The quest for neutrality




Types of prestige

Not under control




Prestige of standard language

I Choice of standard language is often connected to issuesof prestige

I Standard language usually associated toI economically and culturally important regions (e.g.

Randstad in the Netherlands, Paris in France)I economically important groups (higher classes)I etc.



Standard language considered beautiful

Van Bezooijen 1997



Prestige of non-standard language

I However, non-standard language may be associated toother values

I which may set up their own type of prestige



Example: Correctness in the US

Ratings by people from Michigan; 1.0 is least correct, 10.0 is most correct. (Preston 2005)



Example: Pleasantness in the US

Ratings by people from the South (Alabama); 1.0 is least pleasant, 10.0 is most pleasant. (Preston 2005)



Example: Correctness and pleasantness

I Michiganders do find themselves unique for pleasantness(as they did for correctness) and they no longer find theSouth (and New York City) so deficient

I Southern raters find no difference, for example, betweenthemselves and Michigan on the scale of correctness,giving both areas (and much of the entire country) a 6.00.




Types of prestige

Not under control




Language is not under total control

1. Critical period: language acquisition seems different beforepuberty than afterwards

2. People adapt themselves in the course of their lifetime



Genie



Genie

I an American girl, found in 1970 in Temple CityI Until this time she had been forced to stay in her room for

all of her life.I Her father and mother did not speak to herI After she had been found, a linguist took care of herI Very rapidly she developed a rather large lexicon, and was

able to express herselfI But she did not learn any grammar



Genie speaking

“Father hit arm. Big wood. Genie cry. . . Not spit. Father. Hitface — spit. . . Father hit big stick. Father is angry. Father hitGenie big stick. Father take piece wood hit. Cry. Father makeme cry. Father is dead.”



From Genie to the Queen of England

I a series of studies by phonetician John HarringtonI based on Christmas broadcasts by Elisabeth, Queen of

England, between 1950s and nowI Advantage: more or less same type of speech by same

person over long period of time (50years)I Queen counts as rather conservative speaker



Changes in Elisabethan speech

Source: John Harrington et al. (2000)Standard language and linguistic norms


Conclusion

I Thus, on the one hand, in order to learn all the subtleties of(a) language, it is necessary to be emerged in it from anearly age

I On the other hand, all speakers subconsciously adapt totheir environment

I This gives us hardly a reason for being strict about norms




Types of prestige

Not under control




Towards an international standard language

I Since the 19th century, international communication hasgrown

I With this, the quest for an international standard has alsogrown

I Several options have been explored



Option I: An artificial language

I One popular idea has been to invent a new languageI Possible advantages:

I Language is ‘neutral’I Language is easy to acquire

I Possible disadvantages:I Language is ‘unnatural’I Language lacks appeal



Artificial language typology

I Two basic typesI ‘a priori’: built from scratchI ‘a posteriori’: built from existing material



A priori language: Solresol

I Developed by French musician Jean Sudre in 1827I Seven syllables: do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, tiI Words beginning with sol have meanings related to arts

and sciences, or, if they begin with solsol, sickness andmedicine (e.g., solresol ‘language’; solsolredo ‘migraine’).



Problems with a priori languages

I They look strangeI Difficult to categorize the whole worldI Words related in meaning sound too similar



A posteriori language: Esperanto

I Developed by Polish occulist Lejzer Zamenhof in 1887I Esperanto estas la internacia lingvo.I Etymology

I About 80 % of word parts derives from Romance (Latin,Italian, French);

I about 10 % Germanic (German, Yiddish: vintro, birdo, lerni)I about 10 % other (Slavic: kolbaso; made up or opaque:

edzo, kialo).



Grammar 1

I Mi estas Marc.I I am ni estas

you are vi estashe/she/it is li/si/gi estaswe are ni estasyou are vi estasthey are ili estas



Grammar 2

I sana = healthy, juna = young, bona = good

I malsana = ill, maljuna =

old, malbona = badI malsanulo = a person who is ill, junulo = a youngster,

bonulo = a good personI baki = to bake, bakejo = a bakery, lerni = to learn, lernejo =

a schoolI malsanulejo =a hospital



Grammar 2

I sana = healthy, juna = young, bona = goodI malsana = ill, maljuna =

old, malbona = bad

I malsanulo = a person who is ill, junulo = a youngster,bonulo = a good person

I baki = to bake, bakejo = a bakery, lerni = to learn, lernejo =a school

I malsanulejo =a hospital



Grammar 2

I sana = healthy, juna = young, bona = goodI malsana = ill, maljuna =

old, malbona = bad






Grammar 2

I sana = healthy, juna = young, bona = goodI malsana = ill, maljuna = old, malbona =

bad






Grammar 2

I sana = healthy, juna = young, bona = goodI malsana = ill, maljuna = old, malbona = badI malsanulo = a person who is ill, junulo =

a youngster,bonulo = a good person





Grammar 2

I sana = healthy, juna = young, bona = goodI malsana = ill, maljuna = old, malbona = badI malsanulo = a person who is ill, junulo =

a youngster,bonulo = a good person





Grammar 2

I sana = healthy, juna = young, bona = goodI malsana = ill, maljuna = old, malbona = badI malsanulo = a person who is ill, junulo = a youngster,

bonulo =

a good person





Grammar 2



a school

I malsanulejo =

a hospital



Grammar 2



a schoolI malsanulejo =

a hospital



Grammar 2



a schoolI malsanulejo =

a hospital



Grammar 2



a schoolI malsanulejo =a hospital



Problems with a posteriori languages

I They are less neutral and less simpleI They still look strangeI There is no political power behind them



Natural languages

Another option would be adopting a natural languageI LatinI English



Latin

I Advantage of adopting a ‘dead’ language: it is relativelyneutral

I Disadvantage: fairly complicated



English

I Advantages of adopting English: it is already fairlywidespread

I Disadvantage: it is not very neutral, and relativelycomplicated



Possible solution: World English

I World English: A type of English which does not use nativespeakers as the absolute norm

I This makes the language more neutral and easier to learnI Where is the norm?


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Marc van Oostendorp Meertens Instituut & Leiden University